Proceedings of International Science Education Conference 2009 Science Education: Shared Issues, Common Future 24 to 26 November 2009 National Institute of Education, Singapore
Edited by Mijung KIM, SungWon HWANG, and Aik-Ling TAN
Proceedings of International Science Education Conference 2009, 24-26 November 2009, National Institute of Education, Singapore. Event jointly organized by the Ministry of Education and National Institute of Education and supported by Singapore National Commission for UNESCO. Copyright 2009 by Natural Sciences and Science Education, National Institute of Education, http://www.nsse.nie.edu.sg All rights reserved. No part of this CD may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the Natural Sciences and Science Education, National Institute of Education The Natural Sciences and Science Education, National Institute of Education is not responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this CD-Rom. ISBN 978-981-08-1056-6
Cover & Logo Designed by Timothy TAN
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Table of Contents
Preface The effects of inquiry-based computer simulation on scientific thinking and conceptual understanding among madrasah pupils Faizah ABDUL RAHMAN, Rosli ABDULLAH, Subaidah ASMIN, and Noor Isham SANIF
Page 1 2
Investigation of project based method effect on physical chemistry laboratory teaching at undergraduate chemistry students Rasol ABDULLAH MIRZAIE, Alireza ASSAREH, Javad HATAMI, Lila TABAN, Zinab NIKFARJAM, and Arezo ASFA
17
Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy concept effect on creation misconception in chemistry teachers Rasol ABDULLAH MIRZAIE, and Massomeh SHAHMOHAMMADI
31
The explicit teaching of process skills questions to improve pupils‟ answering techniques Noor Aishah ABU BAKAR, Manickam SUMATHI, Zahrah Mohamed ABBAS, and Cassandra CHOO
53
Investigating the effects of animation on learning the concept of covalent bonds in high school chemistry B. ARABSHABI, A. BADRIAN, and R. DABAGHIAN
66
Misconceptions about misconceptions Anjana Ganjoo ARORA
82
Development of two-tier diagnostic test for examination of thai high school students‟ understanding in acids and bases Romklao ARTDEJ, Thasaneeya RATANAROUTAI, and Tienthong THONGPANCHANG
103
A comparative study between Iran, Japan, England and Pakistan high school chemistry textbooks Alireza ASSAREH, Rasol Abdullah MIRZAIE, and Ashraf ANARAKI
123
Defining a creative and co-operative science and technology education course Ossi AUTIO
137
What does science look like for 3 and 4 year old children in early learning centres and how can early childhood educators take advantage of this? Elaine BLAKE and Christine HOWITT
155
iii
Pre-service teachers` environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour Mohamad Termizi bin BORHAN, and Zurida binti Hj ISMAIL
184
An investigation of practical performance and attitude and interest towards laboratory work by using an online game designed based on Kolb‟s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in chemistry (Qualitative Analysis) Shasikumaran CHANDR SEGARAN and M. LOSINY
212
A preliminary study on kindergarten children‟s abilities in science problem solving Ching-Yi CHANG, Jen-Mein KUNG, Shu-Hui LIN, and Wen-Shin CHIU
241
Learning chemistry with the game “Legends of Alkhimia”: Pedagogical and epistemic bases of Design-for-Learning and the challenges of boundary crossing Yam San CHEE, Daniel Kim Chwee TAN, Ek Ming TAN, and Ming Fong JAN
273
Integrating socio-scientific issues into science instruction: Taiwanese elementary science teachers‟ views and teaching practices Chao-Shen CHENG and Ying-Tien WU
293
TRIZ – Inventive problem solving with high school students Tyng Yong CHEW
309
An introduction to analysis of science knowledge construction in an asynchronous discussion forum Kok Pin CHIA
349
A case study approach to science knowledge construction and mis-construction in an asynchronous discussion forum Kok Pin CHIA
370
The bamboo project: A place-based early childhood science curriculum coconstructed with kindergarten teachers in northern Taiwan Tayal tribal village Shu-Chen CHIEN
449
Information of biotechnology: Taiwanese students‟ sources and trust Kuan-Chiao CHIEN, Hsin-Mei LI, and Chen-Yung LIN
472
Fundamental thermal concepts: An evaluation of Year 11 students‟ conceptual understanding in everyday contexts Hye-Eun CHU, Kim Chwee Daniel TAN, Lee Choon LOH, and David TREAGUST
497
The effectiveness of web-based problem-based learning for secondary school students Sherine Shi Yun CHUA
515
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What are students up to during problem solving? Shien CHUE and Kim Chwee Daniel TAN
554
Moving science as inquiry into the classroom: Research to practice Barbara A. CRAWFORD
575
Talk about a walkabout: pathways and potholes using ICT in science education Julie CROUGH, Jenni WEBBER, and Louise FOGG
600
Lived experiences of teachers: A reflection on interpersonal relationships Maria Antonia CRUDO-CAPILI
630
Role play as an innovative strategy to actively engage students in the learning of physics Mohun CYPARSADE, K MUHEEPUT, and S. CAROOPPUNNEN
667
Thai grade 11 students‟ conceptual understanding versus algorithmic problemsolving in quantitative chemistry Chanyah DAHSAH
693
Using MT as an alternative learning tool for deaf in learning science Nadh DITCHAROEN, Kanlaya NARUEDOMKUL, and Srisavakon DANGSAART
713
Conceptual change – Still a powerful framework for improving the practice of science instruction Reinders H. DUIT and David F. TREAGUST
725
The development of an attitude scale towards science experiments Demet EROL, Ercan AKPINAR, Bülent AYDOĞDU, and Can ÖZTÜRK
745
Information literacy is indispensable for senile resident Zhang FENG
756
Infusing environmental education elements into the junior secondary school curriculum: A school-based experience in Hong Kong Leo Sun Wai FUNG
765
Public attitudes towards science and technology in China Hongbin GAO, Wei HE, and Fujun REN
779
Investigating teaching and learning with lesson package designed using BSCS 5E instructional model Su Fen GOH, Tan Ying CHIN, Susan LeAnne SIM, and Jalela Bte ATAN
793
Inculcating environmental awareness among primary school pupils James HAN, Jamilah YACOB, and Abdul LATIFF
811
v
Spaceward bound for development of cross-curricular programs in middle school Nicolette Anne HILTON
841
Using discrepant events with questioning and argumentation to target students‟ science misconceptions Kelvin HO and Christine CHIN
848
Exploring the impact of achievement motivation on learning performance Jon-Chao HONG, Jiann-Yeou CHEN, and Ming-Hsien LI
864
The innovative approach of science and technology learning: A case of POWER TECH contest Jon-Chao HONG, Tien-Hao WU, Jiann-Yeou CHEN, and Ming-Hsien LI
882
Science argumentation in situated blended learning Jon-Chao HONG, Jiann-Yeou CHEN, and Ming-Hsien LI
901
Collaborating with „real‟ scientists and engineers to increase pre-service early childhood teachers‟ science content knowledge and confidence to teach science Christine HOWITT, Elaine BLAKE, Martina CALAIS, Yvonne CARNELLOR, Sandra FRID, Simon LEWIS, Mauro MOCERINO, Lesley PARKER, Len SPARROW, Jo WARD, and Marjan ZADNIK
931
Development of (Scientific) concepts in children‟s learning geometry: A Vygotskian, body-centered approach to literacy SungWon HWANG, Wolff-Michael ROTH, and Mijung KIM
968
Developing a research-based model for enhancing PCK of secondary science teachers Shy-Jong JANG
985
What went wrong? A case study of hypothesis-verification process in science inquiry teaching Mijung KIM, Yong Jae JOUNG, and Hye-Gyoung YOON
1024
Observation through different lens: Gifted-in art student‟s perspectives on the biological world Pi-Chu KUO and Yu-Ju HSIEH
1051
The development of the nanotechnology attitude scale for K-12 teachers Yu-Ling LAN
1069
Using video paper builder as an effective tool for achieving understanding in the learning of organic chemistry Veron Mui Keow LEE
1092
The use of wikis in teaching research Wen Pin LEOW
1103
vi
Effectiveness of the 5E learning cycle model and Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) teaching & learning strategies in the acquisition of science concepts for primary 6 students Agnes LIM, Jalene LIM, and Adrian LIM
1129
Illuminating mental representations-use of gestures in teaching and assessing understanding of college biology Yian Hoon LIM and Yew Jin LEE
1165
Writing for publication: a tool for collaborative science education Yu Min LYE
1199
Applying a hybrid learning model and cooperative learning for engaged learning in chemical education Swe Swe MIN and Raymond TSOI
1214
Toys @ work: A Nanyang primary school initiative Yasmeen MOHAMAD and Si Ming TAN
1224
Multi-modal representations of science: What affordances are offered by interactive whiteboard technology? Karen MURCIA
1250
Using interactive lecture demonstration to promote active learning in a large science class: A case study of magnetic field Pattawan NARJAIKAEW and Narumon EMARAT
1265
Understanding photosynthesis and respiration – is it a problem? Eighth graders‟ written and oral reasoning about photosynthesis and respiration Helena NÄS and Christina OTTANDER
1281
A constructivist technology-aided instruction and its influence on preservice science teachers beliefs & understanding Lorna Milly A. NAVAJA
1318
The effect of classroom demonstrations based on conceptual change instruction on students‟ understanding of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction Chai Seng NEO and Kueh Chin YAP
1346
Questioning as a learning strategy in primary science Joan S K NG-CHEONG and Christine CHIN
1387
Cooperative learning in biology: Enhancing the academic, community, and spiritual lives of second year seminarians of Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary Noel F. NOBLE
1410
Learning on basic chemistry using experimental kits Kulthida NUGULTHAM and Juwadee SHIOWATANA
1443
vii
Teachers‟ questioning techniques and their potential in heightening pupils‟ inquiry Siti Omairah OMAR, Rehanna DAWOOD, and Anne ROMAN
1459
Pedagogical practices and science learning with a focus on sustainability for pre-service primary and middle years educators: Directions and challenges Kathryn PAIGE and David LLOYD
1486
Development and application of curious note program teaching-learning model (CNP Model) for enhancing the creativity of scientifically gifted students Jongseok PARK, Yohan HWANG, Eunju PARK, and Jaeheon PARK
1512
Characteristics of images on science teaching-learning, depicted on science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus”: Focusing on the analysis of teacher-student interactions Sohye PARK and Hee K. CHAE
1541
Creativity methodologies in performing scientific experiments Hoa PHU CHI, Pham Hong QUY, and Bui Tuan ANH
1579
Creating real experiments in teaching scientific subjects Hoa PHU CHI, Pham Hong QUY, and Pham Viet THANG
1588
Using a T5 instructional design model in the large-enrolment biology classes: Method to promote cooperative learning in an undergraduate study Supaporn PORNTRAI
1601
Engaging pupils in an inquiry-based science lesson through questioning Grace QUEK
1612
Exploring pupils‟ engagement in an inquiry-based lesson through lesson study Grace QUEK, Edwin WAN, Sabrina KAUR, Elaine CAI, Junhua CHEN, Veronica CHER, Sok Kheng YEAN, and Nora TEO
1626
Use of concept cartoons as a strategy to address pupils‟ misconceptions in primary 4 science topic on matter Farah Aida RAHMAT
1642
Deepening pupils‟ understanding of wheel and axle through station-based learning Tayeb RAJIB, Puwen WU, Chao Hen FOO, Siti Nor RAFIDAH, Christine Lay Koon TAN, and Safarina SATAR
1673
Engaging Mauritian primary school pupils to develop core construct in science using PDA with a learner centered pedagogy Yashwantrao RAMMA, Kah Chye TAN, and Hyleen MARIAYE
1703
Using simulations in science: An exploration of pupil behaviour Susan RODRIGUES
1720
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Physics at the theme park: Providing the authentic real-life experiential learning tool in enhancing students‟ understanding of conceptual and contextual applications of the laws of physics Surianah ROSLI
1738
Developing and validating performance-based assessment tasks in science: A how-to guide Gouranga SAHA and Rodney L. DORAN
1768
Grade-7 students‟ views on science-technology-society Wiangchai SANGTHONG, Chatree FAIKHAMTA, and Naruemon YUTAKOM
1783
Evaluation and content analysis of physics textbook (1) by the Merrill model N. SARIKHANI, F. AHMADI, and M.R. EMAMJOMEH
1801
An analytical frame to explore scientific literacy in intended curriculum: Bangladesh perspective Md. Mahbub Alam SARKAR
1811
Interactive whiteboard technology in primary science: What are teachers‟ beliefs and concerns about the ICT in their classrooms? Rachel SHEFFIELD and Karen MURCIA
1842
Development and validation of a two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument to evaluate secondary school students‟ understanding of electrolysis concepts Ding Teng SIA, David F. TREAGUST, and A.L. CHANDRASEGARAN
1870
An inquiry approach in learning science with engaging web-based multimedia interactive resources Khang-Miant SING and Charles CHEW
1898
Introducing students to authentic inquiry investigation through odour classification experiment with an artificial olfactory system, nose simulator Niwat SRISAWASDI, Bhinyo PANIJPAN, Pintip RUENWONGSA, and Teerakiat KERDCHAROEN
1911
Implementation of paper-based T5 learning model to enhance student understanding: The case for low-achievement students in organic chemistry course Saksri SUPASORN
1936
Portfolio assessment: Its impact on the academic achievement and attitudes of non-biology majors Joy De La Pena-TALENS
1951
What is the purpose of practical work in school science? What are the possible solutions? Hoe Teck TAN
1963
ix
Informal learning during the Taiwan astronomy & earth science field trip Hoe Teck TAN
2008
Chemistry through children‟s eyes: Hands-on activities for ages 9-11 Samantha TANG and Martyn POLIAKOFF
2029
The “NanoWhat? Totally ting technology!” roadshow Samantha Li Yu TANG and Sally Ann RYMER
2041
The periodic table of videos Samantha Li Yu TANG and Martyn POLIAKOFF
2068
Using Facebook as a multi-functional online tool for collaborative and engaged learning of pre-university science subjects Kai Yun Karen TAY, May May Daphne TAN, and Xiao Juan Magdalene OHTAN
2080
Developing teacher identity, teacher confidence and classroom practice: The influence of a blended science teacher education programme Neil TAYLOR and Susan RODRIGUES
2108
Improving student science learning through modified writing-to-learn strategy Hang Chuan TENG and Jashanan KASINATHAN
2130
Teachers‟ collaborative practice in teaching and learning of science Siew Lee TENG, Fazleen MAHMUD, Sarawanan s/o KASINATHAN, Chun Ming TAN, Hui Boon TANG, Ying Zhi TEO, and Widayah OTHMAN
2149
Tutees in the footsteps of Rutherford – Discovering the atom‟s model by analogy to the solar system Jacob THIMOR and Taha MASSALHA
2172
Investigating practice teachers‟ mathematics teaching conception development Chih-Yeuan WANG
2186
Idea of „heat‟ and students‟ understanding of earth phenomena Xueli WANG, Beaumie KIM, and Mi Song KIM
2208
Promoting an integrated teaching approach to enhance student expectation in quantum physics classroom Sura WUTTIPROM
2235
Dispelling the stereotypical myths of a scientist through an integrated literature approach Francis Jude YAM and Yin Kiong HOH
2244
Knowledge advancement in environmental science through knowledge building Jennifer YEO and Yew-Jin LEE
2273
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Development of a chemistry educational card game for meaningful learning in the classroom Shyh Yuan Don YEO
2291
A study on prospective teachers’ attitudes towards Internet Yusuf YILMAZ, Abdülkadir KARADENİZ, and Ercan AKPINAR
2321
Use of concept mapping to facilitate deep learning in biology Cheng Wai YIP
2343
Writing to become a member of the science education discourse community: Bridging the gap between authors and readers Larry A. YORE and Sharyl A. YORE
2372
Science literacy for all – More than a logo or rally flag Larry YORE
2393
Fairness and professionalism: What counts in school-based assessment? Benny Hin Wai YUNG
2428
Engaging children in learning plant-based science: Two botanic garden educators’ pedagogical practices Junqing ZHAI
2458
Attitude toward 5T in “T5” design model via D4LP: A case study of selected topic in organic chemistry Karntarat WUTTISELA
2493
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PREFACE
The International Science Education Conference 2009 is hosted by the Natural Sciences and Science Education academic group, National Institute of Education from 24 to 26 November 2009. This is the second time that we are hosting this conference together with the Ministry of Education (Singapore).We are privileged to have UNESCO as the supporting organiser this year. This year’s theme is Science Education: Shared Issues, Common Future and it reflects the need for science educators and science education researchers from diverse cultures and societies to come together and discuss the current issues of science education that affect all aspects of our lives. While there are no magic formula for successful science education targeted at improving the lives of people all over the world, urgent issues like environmental education and improving scientific literacies of students are discussed by participants of this conference. Other pieces of the science education puzzle such as science curriculum development, science teacher education and professional development and assessment issues in science education are also areas that are highlighted in this conference. Participants at this conference celebrate 242 paper presentations, symposiums, posters, plenary sessions as well as workshop sessions. The five keynote speakers, Larry Yore, Reinders Duit, Fouad Abd-El-Khalick, Barbara Crawford and Benny Yung provided insightful ideas and questions for many conference participants by tackling issues in the areas of the nature of science, conceptual development, science inquiry, science literacy and assessment. Readers will also enjoy 107 full papers that have been submitted in this conference proceeding. This conference would not be possible without your participation and support. We would like to thank you for your participation and also all those involved in the organisation of this conference. We hope that you have had a fruitful and memorable conference and a delightful stay in Singapore.
Mijung KIM, SungWon HWANG & Aik-Ling TAN Singapore 2009
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking and Conceptual Understanding among Madrasah Pupils
Faizah Abdul Rahman, Rosli Abdullah, Subaidah Asmin & Noor Isham Sanif
Department of Mathematics & Science Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah, Singapore 579711
[email protected],
[email protected],
[email protected],
[email protected]
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Abstract The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of inquiry-based computer simulation (IBCS) and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL) on (a) scientific reasoning and (b) conceptual understanding among primary 6 pupils in Madrasah Al-Irsyad AlIslamiah. A quasi-experimental method was applied in the study. The sample consisted of twenty-four 12 year olds were all randomly selected and assigned to treatment (IBCS & HACL). The results showed that pupils in the IBCS+HACL group significantly outperformed their counterparts in the HACL group in scientific thinking and conceptual understanding. The findings of this study suggest that the inquiry-based computer simulation with heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning method is effective in enhancing scientific reasoning and conceptual understanding for pupils of all reasoning abilities, and for maximum effectiveness, cooperative learning groups should be composed of pupils of heterogeneous abilities.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking and Conceptual Understanding among Madrasah Pupils
Introduction Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation (IBCS) represents a major break-through in process of scientific exploration, and this technology has the potential to fundamentally change the way pupils generate scientific thinking. Inquiry-based learning is not about memorizing facts - it is about formulation questions and finding appropriate resolutions to questions and issues. Inquiry can be a complex undertaking and it therefore requires dedicated instructional design and support to facilitate that pupils experience the excitement of solving a task or problem on their own. Carefully designed inquiry learning environments can assist pupils in the process of transforming information and data into useful knowledge. The purpose of inquiry-based learning is therefore to engage the pupils in active learning, ideally based on their own questions. Learning activities are organized in a cyclic way, independently of the subject. Each question leads to the creation of new ideas and other questions.
Computer simulation is defined as having the following two key features: (1) There is a computer model of a real or theoretical system that contains information on how the system behaves. (2) Experimentation can take place, i.e. changing the input to the model affects the output.
As a numerical model of a system, presented for a learner to manipulate and explore, simulations can provide a rich learning experience for the pupil. They can be a powerful resource for teaching: providing access to environments which may otherwise be too
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
dangerous, or impractical due to size or time constraints; and facilitating visualisation of dynamic or complex behaviour. Simulations can be considered a variant of cognitive tools, i.e. they allow pupils to test hypothesis and more generally "what-if" scenarios. In addition, they can enable learners to ground cognitive understanding of their action in a situation. (Thomas and Milligan, 2004; Laurillard, 1993). In that respect simulations are compatible with a constructivist view of education. The use of simulations needs to be pedagogically scaffolded. Research shows that the educational benefits of simulations are not automatically gained and that care must be taken in many aspects of simulation design and presentation. It is not sufficient to provide learners with simulations and expect them to engage with the subject matter and build their own understanding by exploring, devising and testing hypotheses. (Thomas and Milligan, 2004: 2). The principal caveat of simulations is that pupils rather engage with the interface than with the underlying model (Davis, 2002). This is also called video gaming effect. Various methods can be used, e.g.:
the simulation itself can provide feedback and guidance in the form of hints
Human experts (teachers, coaches, guides), peers or electronic help can provide assistance using the system.
Simulation activities can be strongly scaffolded, e.g. by providing built-in mechanisms for hypothesis formulation (e.g. as in guided discovery learning simulation)
Simulation activities can be coached by humans
The paper concludes that Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation methodologies can be very useful for many aspects of learning, mainly those dealing with experience and ideas sharing,
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
such as scientific and critical thinking. With T-Value (one tailed) = 1.746 and P(x > t) = 2.328, the probabilistic study indicates that there may be a difference in sample behavioral means at Alpha level of 0.05. This serves to reject the null hypothesis and thus concludes that there is evidence that the Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation served to influence the pupils learning behaviour. Objectives
Pupils adopt a scientific approach and make their own discoveries; they generate knowledge by activating and restructuring knowledge schemata (Mayer, 2004). This paper briefly explains how we explored the possibility of using Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation to facilitate these scientific thinking processes. Next, it attempts to compare children’s scientific thinking outcomes with and without Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation.
Instrumentation This project involved a group of 24 pupils from primary six of Madrasah Al-Irsyad AlIslamiah. This activity took place in the madrasah’s science laboratory. Initially, these pupils were given a specific task of tabulating (refer to annex 1) and drawing the graph of length of a pendulum of a metal bob, whose mass ranged from 100g to 500g, against the time taken to make one complete swing (period). However they were also given strings of different lengths and were told that they were free to conduct other experiments related to the period of a pendulum. The pupils were given all the necessary apparatus to conduct their experiment or experiments. The pupils first drew the graph of length of the pendulum (in cm) against period (in seconds). They were also given blank tables which would allow them to tabulate other measurements which may involve other variables. They were given 1 hour to discuss by writing down all questions they have in their mind. They were also asked to write hypothesis, conduct the experiment, make deduction and conclusion about the whole experiment. We call
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
this first method as heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL). These pupils were also given survey questions to answer.
On the next day, these same set of pupils were introduced to Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation (IBCS) of the same experiment. In this scientific simulation, the pupils were free to change different variables like the weight of the bob, the starting angle of the pendulum, and the length of the pendulum. After using IBCS, these pupils went through the normal HACL method. They were given 1 hour to discuss by writing down questions they have in their mind. They were also asked to write hypothesis, conduct the experiment, make deduction and conclusion about the whole experiment. We call this second method InquiryBased Computer Simulation (IBCS) plus heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL). These pupils were given survey questions to answer.
We performed a t-Test. The null hypothesis is that the mean difference between the two observations (pretest mean: behavioral indicator mean without IBCS & posttest mean: behavioral indicator with IBCS is zero. It suggests that there is no difference between the two types of learning environment. The alternative hypothesis is that the mean difference between the two observations is not zero. It suggests a difference in learning outcome provided by activities with and without IBCS environments.
The test statistic is t with degrees of freedom equals 16. If the p-value associated with t is low (< 0.05), there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis. Thus we would have evidence that there is a difference in means across the paired observations. This stands to show that there could have been mark and positive changes in the behaviour and the outcome of the pupils during the project. Besides this statistical study, we also used other observation and survey methods to identify behavioral changes taking place with my pupils.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Observations Each pupil was assigned an indicator of 0 to 5 for every response they made. A ‘0’ represents no response from the observed child while a ‘5’ denotes that the child responded more than what was expected of him (refer to Table 2a).
Table 2a: Indicator Values Indicator
0
1
2
Characteristic
No response at all
No response most of the time
No response some of the time
3 Respond most of the time
4
5
Respond all the time
Respond beyond expectation
Table 2b: Comparative Behavioral of IBCS + HACL versus HACL group (refer to annex 2) Behavioral Observations Scientific Thinking & Conceptual Understanding
HACL Group (X1 )
IBCS + HACL Group (X2 )
Using Empirical evidence
75
105
Practicing logical reasoning
47
93
Self-questioning
72
101
Holding tentative conclusions
46
85
Willingness to change one's beliefs
26
81
Willingness to test hypothesis
98
104
Effective use of diagram
92
100
Generation of alternative scientific outcomes
23
75
Generation of predictions
46
71
Planning systematic investigation
46
51
Making scientific interpretations
21
33
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Generating scientific inference
26
32
Seek to formulate scientific law
17
35
Willing to accept different perspective
15
25
Wondering about things and asking questions
45
52
Scientific reasoning based on data
24
42
TOTAL
719
1085
MEAN
44.94
67.81
Standard Deviation
26.53
28.98
16
16
Number of items
From the information gathered from Table 2b, we can calculate the following details:
where
Degree of freedom = 16.0 T Value (one tailed) = 1.746 P(x > t) = 2.3283 This Probability indicates that there may be a difference in sample means at Alpha level of 0.05. We, therefore, reject the null hypothesis and thus conclude that there is evidence that the inquiry-based computer simulation and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning served to influence our pupils’ scientific thinking in Science.
Critical thinking process within our young learners involves reflective process (Miller & Miller 1992). Reflection is an important element in the construction of meaning (Piaget,
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
1980). The inquiry-based computer simulation and collaborative environment facilitates the process of reflection among these young learners. Heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning discussions sparked our pupils to question their scientific learning.
In this project, pupils were involved in scientific thinking. This scientific thinking involves the following process: • Wondering about things. • Asking questions. • Making predictions (telling what might happen). • Looking, listening, touching, smelling, and tasting to get information. • Organizing information and talking about it. • Comparing things by talking about how they are alike and different. • Using words to explain why something happened. Table 3: Pupils’ Responses to the Given Statements Percentage of response(n=24) Item
Statements (in abridged form)
True
False
Not sure
1
A inquiry-based computer simulation is rich with illustrations to make us better understand different variable and its relationship.
91.7 (22)
8.3 (2)
0 (0)
2
I believe inquiry-based computer simulation is a useful practice in every other science activity.
83.3 (20)
4.2 (1)
12.5 (3)
3
We are able to understand a science concept after we run through an inquiry-based computer simulation.
75 (18)
16.7 (4)
8.3 (2)
4
inquiry-based computer simulation gives us a chance to generate questions
95.8 (23)
0 (0)
4.2 (1)
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
5
Although we argued and disagreed with one another, yet we see this as opportunity for us to learn.
75 (18)
20.8 (5)
4.2 (1)
6
We were able to settle our differences in believe and ideas.
62.5 (15)
20.8 (5)
16.7 (4)
From a survey (refer to Table 3), we can deduce that about 91.7 % of the pupils viewed the inquiry-based computer simulation as vast resource for experiential learning. They were able to enhance their understanding of their scientific concepts through discussion of ideas. 75% of them made co-ownership and shared decision-making as the norm for their practice. About 95.8% of these pupils found that inquiry-based computer simulation could facilitate dialogue, inquiry and reflection as their method for learning and research. Discussions with them indicated they preferred learning through inquiry-based computer simulation.
Conclusion An inquiry-based computer simulation (IBCS) and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL) creates opportunity for pupils to systemically construct meaning in scientific concept. It is evidence that this systemic thinking offers children to view learning in the following perspectives:
whole rather than parts
relationships rather than individuals, or separated objects
process rather than structure
networks rather than hierarchy
dynamic balance rather than constant growth
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
interdependence rather than independence
cooperation rather than competition
partnership rather than domination.
The use of an inquiry-based computer simulation (IBCS) and heterogeneous-ability cooperative learning (HACL) worked very well. It has helped children to view, evaluate and self-reflect their work in different perspectives. References
Azmitia, M. 1988. Peer interaction and problem solving: When are two heads better than one? Child Development 59:87--96. Baker, M. J. 1991. The influence of dialogue processes on the generation of pupils' collaborative explanations for simple physical phenomena. In Proceedings of the International Conference on the Learning Sciences. Illinois, USA August 1991. Cumming, G., and Self, J. 1989. Learner modelling in collaborative intelligent educational systems. In P.Goodyear., ed., Teaching Knowledge and Intelligent Tutoring. Ablex. Davies, C., H., J. (2002). "Student engagement with simulations." Computers and Education 39: 271-282. Doise, W. 1990. The development of individual competencies through social interaction. Children helping Children. J.Wiley and Sons. 43--64. Harasim, L. 1993. Collaborating in cyberspace: Using computer conferences as a group learning environment. Interactive Learning Environments, 3,2, 119-130. Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking University Education: a framework for effective use of educational technology, Routledge.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three strikes rule against pure discovery? The case for guided methods of instruction. Am. Psych. 59 (14). Miller, J.H. & Miller, S.A. 1992. Cognitive Development. Prentice Hall Humanities/Social Sciences. Papert, S. 1994. The Children's Machine: Rethinking School in the Age of the Computer. Reprint edition. Basic Books. Piaget, J. 1980. The constructivist approach: recent studies in genetic epistemology. Chicago. London: Univ. of Chicago Press. Thomas, R.C. and Milligan, C.D. (2004). Putting Teachers in the Loop: Tools for Creating and Customising Simulations. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Designing and Developing for the Disciplines Special Issue), 2004 (15). Webb, N. 1985. Learning to cooperate, cooperating to learn. New York: Plenum Publishing.
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Annex 1 Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah Tabulation and Graph Plotting
Name :
____________________
Class :
__________________
Tabulation of Leangth of Pendulum (cm) versus Period of Pendulum Swing (sec)
Test
Length of pendulum (cm)
1
50 cm
2
100 cm
3
150 cm
4
200 cm
5
250 cm
Pendulum period (seconds)
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The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Annex 2 Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah Survey 1 on Scientific Thinking Name
:
_______________________
Class
:
________________________
Indicator Characteristic
0 No response at all
1 No response most of the time
2
3
4
No response some of the time
Respond most of the time
5
Respond all the time
Respond beyond expectation
Please tick your response Behavioral Observations Scientific Thinking & Conceptual Understanding
0
1.
We use empirical evidence
2.
We know how to practice logical reasoning
3.
Our group is very self-questioning during our discussion
4.
We hold tentative conclusions
5.
We are willingness to change one's beliefs
6.
We are willing to test hypothesis
7.
We know how to use diagram effectively
8.
We know how to generate of alternative scientific outcomes
9.
We are able to generate predictions
10. We are able to plan systematic investigation 11. We make scientific interpretations 12. We are able to generating scientific inference 13. We seek to formulate scientific law 14. We are willing to accept different perspective 15. We wonder about things and asking questions 16. We are able to generate scientific reasoning based on data
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1
2
3
4
5
The Effects of Inquiry-Based Computer Simulation on Scientific Thinking
Annex 3 Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah Survey 2 on Scientific Thinking Name
:
_______________________
Class
:
________________________
Please tick appropriately Your response Item
Statements
True
1
A inquiry-based computer simulation is rich with illustrations to make us better understand different variable and its relationship.
2
I believe inquiry-based computer simulation is a useful practice in every other science activity.
3
We are able to understand a science concept after we run through an inquiry-based computer simulation.
4
inquiry-based computer simulation gives us a chance to generate questions
5
Although we argued and disagreed with one another, yet we see this as opportunity for us to learn.
6
We were able to settle our differences in believe and ideas.
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False
Not sure
Running head: Investigation of Project Based Method Effect on Physical Chem…
Investigation of Project Based Method Effect on Physical Chemistry Laboratory Teaching at Undergraduate Chemistry Students
2
Rasol Abdullah Mirzaie1, Alireza Assareh , Javad Hatami 3, Lila Taban4, Zinab Nikfarjam4, Arezo Asfa5
1- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University ,P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 2- Department of education, Faculty of humanity Science, Shahid Rajaee teacher training University - P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 3- Faculty of education, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran 4- Master of science in chemistry education student, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 5-science and mathematics education research group, research institution for curriculum development and education innovation, ministry of education, IRAN
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Abstract As a considering constructivism theory for teaching and learning process, the project based method have been used in undergraduate physical chemistry laboratory courses.. The heat of solution experiment was selected in this research. In this study, expository and project based instructional methods have been applied in physical chemistry laboratory. After doing experiment, the attitudinal test was used in two groups. The study assessed how students in each instructional method, made conclusions about using heat of solution in context such as meal. The research's results have been shown that project based instructional method intend to fostering attitude and reinforcement abilities and skills of students to applying chemistry content in context projects.
Key words: chemical education, attitude change, laboratory work, project based method
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Investigation of Project Based Method Effect on Physical Chemistry Laboratory Teaching at Undergraduate Chemistry Students
Introduction Project-Based Learning (PBL) definition
Educational researchers maintain that, although Project-Based Learning (PBL) is a constructivist teaching–learning strategy with significant educational potential, teachers need support to successfully implement this strategy in their classrooms (Marx, 1997; Thomas, 2000). Project-based learning is a comprehensive approach to classroom teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of authentic problems. PBL has been defined as a teaching–learning approach that guides students to learn the concepts of selected disciplines while using inquiry skills to develop research or design products (Blumenfeld, 1991; Thomas, 2000). This educational approach has been recognized for many years throughout the world; from elementary schools to universities (Knoll, 1997).The Project Based Education concept is based on what interests and motivates the student. Because the instructor cannot customize lesson plans for each student, he must implement student responsibility. It becomes the student's responsibility to develop and research projects and develop a plan of action. The instructor acts as a coach or facilitator. Instructors take an interest in students' projects instead of students having to take an interest in topics handed down by administrators. We engage in project-based learning for at least two reasons: (1) project-based learning holds theory assumptions of students and taps into their internal motivations to find meaningful learning; and, (2) project-based learning helps equip students with the knowledge,
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skills, and dispositions needed to make a positive and significant difference to be salt and light. The purpose of utilizing project-based learning is to help the students to receive the instructional objectives and servant leader dispositions from intense experiences that require students to "drink from a fire hose" (Stritzke, 2008). In project based learning approaches, students define the purpose for creating the end product and identify their audience. They research their topic, design their product, and create a plan for project management. Students then begin the project, resolve problems and issues that arise and finish their product. Students may use or present the product they have created, and, ideally, they are given time to reflect on and evaluate their work (Blumenfeld, 1991). Subjective knowledge includes selfawareness, social awareness, and character building. For instance, project based learning facilitates inclusion: it helps us learn about each other. It motivates us to work with others of different ethnic, age, or experience-related backgrounds (Ramirez, 2008). Objective knowledge includes knowledge of servant leadership and the leadership journey as well as knowledge of relevant concepts, models, and processes (that is, technical competence in a given field). Skills include those of learning, thinking, communicating as well as skills for rapid learning (gaining and applying new knowledge), narrowing one's focus to dig deeply, framing key issues, seeing issues from multiple perspectives (to foster team-based learning from a global perspective), and anticipating the future. In addition, project-based learning enhances our task-related and people-related skills—such as teamwork-related skills (Atkinson, 2001). Servant leadership dispositions include being other-focused, open minded, purpose-driven, and internally-motivated (also to foster team-based learning from a global perspective). Finally, project-based learning provides teachable moments in the moment (Ramirez, 2008).
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How Did PBL Develop? PBL first appeared in the late Renaissance in the architecture schools of Italy (1590– 1765). The approach, which initially focused on the technological aspects of building machines, eventually incorporated scientific knowledge and became prominent as part of the syllabus of engineering schools in the United States (1765– 1880; see Pannabecker 1995; Westerink n.d.). From 1880 to 1915, projects were integrated into public schools in America as part of the manual training movement. About that time, John Dewey and his group advocated projects as a means of learning by doing based on student self-interest and a constructivist approach. In1918, Dewey’s student Kilpatrick (1918) defined ‘‘The Project Method,’’ which became popular in the progressive era. In parallel, the use of projects in education blossomed in Europe (Greoire and Laferriere, 1998) and Russia. Between the 40’s and 60’s, there were two variations of this approach in Israel (Round, 1995). During the 60’s and 70’s, the project approach lost popularity in the United States (Blumenfeld, 1991); but, since 1980, the approach has gained in popularity. Within the last two decades, a great deal of experience and knowledge about PBL has been reported (e.g., Knoll, 1997; Koschmann, 2001; Krajcik and Blumenfeld, 2006; Krajcik, 1994; Mergendoller and Thomas n.d.; Thomas et al. 1999; Rosenfeld and Fallik, 2002; Ruopp , 1993; Thomas, 2000; Tinker, 1997).
Throughout its history, learning through project work has been based on different educational models. Today, different variations of PBL exist. For example, one version of PBL, called PBS (project-based science), includes five basic components:
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(a) Driving questions, (b) investigations, (c) artifacts, (d) collaboration, and (e) technological tools (Krajcik, 1994). Based on an extensive review of the existing literature, the basic criteria for PBL appear to be the following (Thomas, 2000): Centrality: PBL projects are central, not peripheral to the curriculum; Driving question: PBL projects are focused on questions or problems that ‘‘drive’’ students to encounter (and struggle with) the central concepts and principles of a discipline; Constructive investigations: the central activities of the project must involve the construction of knowledge on the part of students; autonomy: projects are student driven to some significant degree; and realism: projects are realistic or authentic, not school-like projects. The PBL approach is well known for its benefits for students. Many studies have shown that students engaged in PBL perform better on achievement tests than do students in the control groups. The study employed a questionnaire, which had two parts: open-ended and close-ended answers.
Three types of projects:
Class Motivated - In this case, the instructor initiates the project and sets the goal. Competition type projects are effective. Some students may need to be taught the art of project development before they are assigned to smaller groups.
Team Motivated - A team of 2 to 5 members agree on a common interest project. With teams, the opportunity to share knowledge has a powerful influence on team members. It motivates others to find ways to contribute information or skills. When things go wrong,
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strong team members can support and encourage the weaker ones. Support from associates is a powerful force. Peer pressure motivates all to excel.
Self-Motivated - Some students are independent, strong-willed and have a natural talent with projects. They might do best on their own.
Projects make it possible to offer a wide verity of subjects, determined by the interest of the students. It becomes the students' responsibility to develop the project with available resources, not the instructor.
With a wide verity of learning environments, a student has greater opportunity to find a project that is in harmony with his natural talent. All teenagers want to learn, be creative and productive, but they need opportunity.
Project Special Education has developed programs in these areas. The programs can help you because they are:
1. Content rich - so you'll be able to give students all the key information that they need to pass basic competency tests. 2. Reinforcement-oriented with extra exercises - so you can help students retain the information that they need to succeed. 3. Exciting to read - so you can keep student interest high throughout the course. 4. Well-Structured and formatted - so the students can easily work 5. Clearly written - so you can teach the course confidently even if you don't have a background about that subject.
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Methodology For comparing the attitude and knowledge between project based and traditional education method in physical chemistry lab (1) at the university of Shahid Rajaei's students a short instructional course was established. In this period 60 students were invited and randomly divided into 2 group, control and experimental (PBL) groups. All of them had passed the physical chemistry lab 1 unit. In this study have been applied pre- test, presentation, behavior and lab process assessment, post- test, lab portfolio. Pre-test had 7 question with multiple choice, close-ended and open- ended responses those were related to (regarding) experiment. We tried questions included behavioral objective in cognitive domain that based on bloom's taxonomy. The number of question was more than 6 because 2 of them were related to knowledge level. At first a pre-test was taken of students individually for assessing student's pre knowledge. In the next stage we divided student in groups whit 3 member and gave them teacher note, that was included some information about experiment. Our purpose was they infer whit some mind challenges and can get their ideas. Because our other purpose was skill learning and method was project based definition, so in notation 2 we attend to say some information about solubility, math equations, securities, materials, experiment temp. The experiment goal was determination the substance solubility in water; account the heat of solution and its relevance to cheating in the food. We divided students 10 groups in 2 sections. Every group had 3 members. Some of them in working whit oven or thermostat had problem so the other group members helped each other.
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At the beginning they have entered into lab amazing; because despite past sections they had no recipe for their new experiment and should develop their stages regard to some explanations (teacher note) themselves. The laboratory technician was assessed students skills in working whit lab instruments and securities using the list of oral evaluation. Some body had difficulties in making saturated solutions, other was argued in their solution temperature and consequently their reasoning and discussion skills were invigorated. The groups had set their works one of them was weighing materials, other was provided instruments and another member documented all of observations through the experiment; so with help each other were made solution and temperature equilibrium. Through this experiment if instructor was observed a group is in incorrect way she jus was warned them but did not show right way, the students should thought, had an idea to receive and discovering the right one. In addition she will alert the groups to safety information. At the end of time they got precipitates into oven until dry. They performed this experiment in 3 various temperatures. After 24 hours they exit precipitates from oven and weigh them by digital balance.Then they design solubility diagram by solubility KNO3 or PbNO3 in 30, 40 , 50 in their lab portfolio.
Next week we had taken a post test from them, which were pre test questions! To seeing their knowledge increase, and are there any meaningful difference between 2 tests or not?
Data Analysis The analysis of the results was based on a comparison between the PBL and the control groups regarding attitude test and post- test. Therefore we specify 4 grade for each question,
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except question 1 and 2 that both of them had 2 grades. Both data groups were analyzed quantitatively by the SPSS software. When we compare results from 2 groups , we found that students in PBL group had better sense during lab work and got higher degrees in attitude test (91.51/115) than traditional group(49.03/115). In the questionnaire we reported the grades of students by using a Likerttype scale. According t test results, the difference between two groups was significant. Table1.comparison of the attitude degrees between PBL and control group Group Statistics taraditional based attitude
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
traditional method
29
49.0345
6.43918
1.19573
project based method
31
91.5161
11.72425
2.10574
Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of
t-test for Equality of Means
Variances
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
F attitude
Equal variances assumed 3.947 Equal variances not
Sig.
t
df
.052 23.533 58
Sig. (2-
Mean
Std. Error
tailed)
Difference
Difference
Lower
Upper
.000
44.16667
1.87683 40.40978 47.92355
23.533 55.036 .000
44.16667
1.87683 40.40547 47.92786
assumed
For knowledge after one week a post-test was taken of students in (PBL) group individually. Post-test was similar to pre-test. This test was taken of traditional group. Our results showed PBL group responded to questions better than traditional group. Even results of post-test PBL were better than pre-test especially in open ended questions like 4 and 5 questions.
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When we compare results from 2 groups , we found that students in PBL group had better sense during lab work and got higher degrees in assessment test (19.07/24) than traditional group(12.31/24). According t test results, the difference between two groups was significant.
Table2.comparison of the assessment degrees between PBL and control group Group Statistics taraditional based assessment
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
traditional method
31
12.3145
2.28123
.40972
project based method
31
19.0726
2.48596
.44649
Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
F assessment
Equal variances
.000
Sig. .993
t
df
Sig. (2-
Mean
Std. Error
tailed)
Difference
Difference
Lower
Upper
-11.152
60
.000
-6.75806
.60599
-7.97023
-5.54590
-11.152
59.562
.000
-6.75806
.60599
-7.97041
-5.54572
assumed Equal variances not assumed
Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to determine the effectiveness of project method on physical chemistry laboratory learnig on undergraduate chemistry students. Amount of time of this project spent 110 minute that just 20 min more than traditional method. At first students looked at teacher note paper surprised. They faced with unknown
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situation that was very different of previous sections of physical chemistry lab (1). They confused because they should perform experiment without any recipe. They infer whit some mind challenges. After 10 min every group made decision to thinking. They took essential equipment and tried to get new idea for this problem. Qualitative results of oral evaluation list of students skill in lab working, presented some body had difficulties in application of lab instruments. For example, some of them didn’t know how to use thermostat or how to recognize saturated and supper saturated solution. Some body used flame substitution thermostat or hot water bathroom for temperature equilibrium.
Some themes emerged while observing students. They are helped together. They exactly listened to co-working talking and tried to modify their ideas, if it possible, about choice of procedure. Indeed, they made competitive and safe environment with other groups. In addition, speaking, listening and practical skills were undergirded. They found inner team motivation. Most of groups could guess right procedure and design before determinate time for this project. After 24 hours every groups exited precipitations from oven (a drier device in lab). Then they plotted 2 diagrams based on obtained data in their portfolio: 1) Solubility diagram in three experimental. 2) Heat of solution for solute such as ammonium chloride or potassium nitrate. All of groups could find relation between temperature and solubility and heat of solution. We and students satisfied this method. Students said: ―We feel same as small scientists without any recipe and we can explore every thing in real world. It was new interesting experience for us ―. They enjoyed and encouraged to do another experiment with project method in future.
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In according to research results in attitude test and knowledge assessment, meaningful difference was between traditional and project method. Project method had benefits for students such as: learning by doing, self-confidence, satisfaction, interest and experience, motivation, be active, curiosity, learning with pleasure, discovery learning and so on.
References Ak. Chakra varty (1996). Investigatory projects in chemistry (translation by: Ali reza Azimi).madreseh publication.Iran. Atkinson, Jean (2001), Developing Teams through Project-based Learning, Hampshire, England: Gower. Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26, 369–398. Buck Institute for Education (2008), see: http://www.bie.org/index.php/site/PBL/pbl_handbook_introduction/#histor Fallik, Orna .,Eylon ,Bat-Sheva., Rosenfeld, Sherman. (2008). Motivating Teachers to Enact Free-Choice Project-Based Learning in Science and Technology (PBLSAT): Effects of a Professional Development Model. J Sci Teacher Educ, 19:565–591. Helle, Laura., Tynjala,Paivi ., Olkinuora,Erkki. (2006). Project-based learning in postsecondary education – theory, practice and rubber sling shots. Institute for Educational Research, University of Jyva¨skyla¨ Finland; Department of Education, University of Turku, 20014 Turun Yliopisto, Finland . Higher Education , 51: 287–314 .
Knoll,M.(1997).The project method:Its vocational education origin and international development.Journal of Industrial Teacher Education,34(3),59 -80. Krajcik,J.S., & Blumenfeld,P.C.(2006). Project- based science. In R.K.Sawyer (Ed),The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences.New York, Cambridge. Marx, R. W., Blumenfeld, P. C., Krajcik, J.S., & Soloway, E. (1997). Enacting project-based science: Challenges for practice and policy. Elementary School Journal, 97, 341-35. Ramirez, Michael (2008), notes from interview. Thomas, J. W. (2001) A reviews of research on Project-Based-Learning. Available online at: http://www.autodesk.com/foundation/pbl/research
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Thomas,J.W.(2000). A review of research on project- based learning. Autodesk Foundation PBL. http:// www. Bie.org / index . php / site / resource / item 27 / . Thomas,J.W., Megendoller , J., & Michalson, A.(1999).Project – based learning : A handbook for middle and high school teacher . Novato, CA : Buck Institute for Education.
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Running head: Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy…….
Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy concept effect on creation misconception in chemistry teachers
Rasol Abdullah Mirzaie1, Massomeh Shahmohammadi2
1- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN
2- Master student chemistry education, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN
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Abstract Due to importance of concept of entropy in issues of thermodynamics, this concept is studied in educational courses of chemistry in universities in the world and high school level in some countries. Entropy in high school is introduced simply as a promoting factor of chemical reaction or more simply as criterion of structure disorder. In the Hoffman's taxonomy, we can consider macroscopic, microscopic, symbolic and human levels in chemistry education. In this study, relation between macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy in creation of misconception was studied. Science teachers are supposed to have adequate knowledge and understanding about the subject matter they teach. Unfortunately, research findings provide evidence that science teachers have various misconceptions in their knowledge of the subject matter. As a result, in this research chemistry teachers were chosen as a statistical society. After evaluating results, our findings showed the chemistry teachers have various misconceptions in entropy concept. This effect reveals the more when the teachers pay attention to one aspect of Hoffman's taxonomy. In other words, the only macroscopic aspects attention, prevent to attention to other aspects. This intend to misconception in completely understanding one concept.
Key words: entropy, disorder, misconception and Hoffman's taxonomy.
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Study of macroscopic and microscopic aspects of entropy concept effect on creation misconception in chemistry teachers
Introduction
Diverse forces shape the teaching and learning of chemistry at the beginning of the 21st Century. These include fundamental changes in the contours of chemistry as defined by new interfaces and research areas; changes in our understanding of how students learn, and how that applies to chemistry education; the wide-spread implementation of computer and information technologies to visualize complex scientific phenomena; and external forces, such as global concerns about energy and water resources and the environment, and the level of chemical literacy and public understanding of science. In responding to those forces, new dimensions to learning chemistry must be emphasized. Tetrahedral chemistry education is a new metaphor that emphasizes these dimensions, stressing the importance both of the human learner and the web of human connections for chemical reactions and processes.
Figure 1. Tetrahedral chemistry education: A new emphasis on the human element
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Students live and operate in the macroscopic world of matter. Unfortunately, they do not perceive chemistry as related to their surroundings. Moreover, they do not easily follow shifts between the macroscopic and microscopic levels (Johnstone, 1991; Gabel, 1996; Tsaparlis, 1997; Robinson, 2003). Chemical concepts are very abstract and students find it difficult to explain chemical phenomena by using these concepts.
Chemical structure and bonding is a topic in which understanding is developed through diverse models, which, in turn, are built upon a range of physical principles; students are expected to interpret a disparate range of symbolic representations standing for chemical bonds (Taber & Coll, 2002). According to Johnstone (1991), matter can be represented on three levels, as represented in Figure 1. Frequently these are referred to as the macroscopic (physical phenomena), microscopic (particles), and the symbolic levels (chemical language and mathematical models).
Gabel (1996) claimed that often teachers unwittingly move from one level to another in their teaching. In that way, they do not help students integrate the levels, and each level can be interpreted in more than one way. Thus students become confused rather easily. More recently, Robinson (2003) has suggested that students must first thoroughly understand how to convert a symbol into the meaningful information it represents. Only then will they be able to cope with the quantitative computation.
According to Bodner and Domin (1998), it is very important to distinguish between internal representation, which is the information stored in the brain, and external representation, which is the physical manifestation of this information. Individuals with very different internal representations might write similar external representations. The instructor writes symbols, which represent a physical reality. Very often, students write letters, numbers, and lines, which have no physical meaning to them. In order to understand the structure of
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matter, the students need to be familiar with the multiplicity of terms, with the meaning of scientific models, as well as the difference between the macroscopic and the sub-microscopic worlds.
Gabel (1993) worked with high-school students to determine whether their understanding of chemistry could be enhanced by emphasizing the particulate nature of matter in relation to the macroscopic and symbolic levels of representation. Molecular-level representations were a major feature in the instruction, in the form of overhead transparencies, work-sheets and circle cut-outs. Results showed that treatment classes performed better on all three levels of representation – sub-microscopic , macroscopic and symbolic, compared with the control group. This transfer of knowledge indicates the importance of directly teaching molecular level occurrences and suggests that emphasis on the molecular level improves students’ conceptual understanding of equations and laboratory work.
Interestingly, teachers themselves may have misconceptions regarding scientific concepts and models. Some teachers conceive scientific models in mechanical terms and believe that models are true pictures of non-observable phenomena and ideas (Gilbert, 1991). Models are not “right answers”; they are scientists’ and teachers’ attempts to represent difficult and abstract phenomena in everyday terms for the benefit of their students. Chemistry teachers seem to focus their practice on the content of specific models, rather than on the nature of models and modeling (Van Driel, 1998). In order to teach chemistry in the way that we have advocated, teachers need to have a clear and comprehensive view of the nature of a model in general, how their students construct their own mental models, how the expressed models can be constructively used in class, how to introduce scientific consensus models in their classes, and how to develop good teaching models and to conduct modeling activities effectively in their classes (Gilbert, 1997).
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It is apparent that the assessment of teachers’ misconceptions is not only meaningful but also important. It enables us to better understand the possible origins and sources of students’ difficulties and misconceptions. In addition, pre-service and in-service science teacher training institutions may use the information to ensure that science teachers are equipped with appropriate knowledge of the
subject matter before they enter the teaching profession. Science teachers play an important role in curricular reform. In the current reform that integrates all science subjects as one, science teachers have to teach subjects in which they were not well trained. Therefore, science teachers’ readiness is particularly critical to the success of the reform (Ching-Yang Chou).
Due to importance of concept of entropy in issues of thermodynamics, this concept is studied in educational courses of chemistry in universities in the world and high school level in some countries. Entropy in high school is introduced simply as a promoting factor of chemical reaction or more simply as criterion of structure disorder.
If information of chemistry teachers about thermodynamic analysis is not enough, this case will have effect on their teaching methods and their educational content will be limited to this simple concept and they can not prevent from misunderstanding in students by mentioning suitable examples. Furthermore, the findings show that “visual disorder” and “entropy” were considered as synonymous. This may be because of the fact that the meaning of the word “disorder”, as used in the context of chemical thermodynamics, is inconsistent with its everyday meaning and misleading. Textbook writers and teachers commonly use “disorder” without defining it and the meaning varies among users. Whatever is meant by “disorder” should be clearly
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stated, defined, and consistently used throughout by the users. )Johnstone and Macdonald, 1977), )Carsona and Watson, 2002(
In Iran, concept of entropy is studied in third year course of high school. Although entropy has fundamental and important concept in thermodynamics and progress of chemical reactions, in our country, this concept is considered in simplistic form and limited to particle disorder. Then, with regard to changes of entropy in reactions and its signal, spontaneity of the reaction is studied. In our course book, entropy is studied in processes such as temperature change, expansion of gases in vacuum, dissolution of material in water and change of gaseous moles during performance of a chemical process. In spite of multilateral study of this concept in high school, chemistry teachers study entropy changes in the form of high molecular mobility , facility in mobility and increase in molecular collisions and generally disorder and ways in which molecules are placed in space and are arranged relative to each other and uncertainty in a structure are not studied.
With regard to approach to entropy and macroscopic index look of the textbook to this concept, this research tries to answer this question that whether this kind of introduction is effective on attitude of the teachers and they look at the word entropy thermodynamically or macroscopic approach has effect on attitude of the teachers and they consider it as equivalent to disorder, molecular collision and or particles distribution or they can establish relationship between macroscopic and microscopic levels in description of this phenomenon?
Reaserch methodology: This reaserch is not experimental and survey and has been done in descriptive – analytic method. In this research, a questionnaire including 3 items was presented to the chemistry teachers. Data analysis has been done in descriptive-analytic form with use of
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frequency, percentage of frequency and the related diagrams. For facility of data analysis and decrease of statistical errors, SPSS 16 software was used.
Population
Population in this reaserch was chemistry teachers of Tehran City in academic year 2007-2008 and the questionnaire was distributed among 120 chemistry teachers of different education districts in Tehran City. Population includes 97 female chemistry teachers and 23 male chemistry teachers. Among them, 100 teachers had bachelor's degree and 19 teachers had master's degree and one teacher had PhD degree.
Result
In the first question, the statistical population teachers were asked to determine the best expression or expressions for defining entropy among the given choices.
Question 1: what are the expressions which describe entropy correctly?
a) Entropy is disorder of the system. b) Entropy is a criterion of uncertainty in a system. c) Entropy is another form of energy like enthalpy and internal energy. d) Entropy is a criterion of the lost work which is converted to the heat. e) Entropy is a criterion of inaccessible energy in a system of thermodynamic package.
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The following is a list of definitions of entropy from a collection of textbooks.
a direct measure of the randomness of a system.( Chang, Raymond (1998))
A measure of energy dispersal at a specific temperature ( Atkins and Julio De Paula ,
2006)
An index of the tendency of a system towards spontaneous change( Haynie and
Donald, 2001).
A measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work; also a measure of
disorder; the higher the entropy the greater the disorder.
A parameter representing the state of disorder of a system at the atomic, ionic, or
molecular level (Barnes & Noble 2004).
A measure of disorder in the universe or of the availability of the energy in a system to
do work ( Gribbin, 2000).
With regard to the above definitions, choices C and D are incorrect and the remaining choices can give a correct meaning of entropy. In textbook, concept of entropy has been emphasized. This question lacks descriptive part. In study on the given answers to question of entropy definition, most of the teachers have selected choice A. If we obtain total relative frequency of those who have selected choice A, we will observe that more than 90% of teachers know disorder as one of the concepts of entropy. Results show that male and female teachers prefer disorder concept of entropy. 71% selection by the female teachers and 73.5% selection of male teachers show this case. With regard to the above percentage, disorder meaning of entropy has been considered among the male teachers.
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With regard to results, 60.1 % of the teachers independently and totally 90.4 % know entropy as system disorder. On the other hand, the most acceptable definition for the teachers is concept of entropy disorder. Even those who have selected two or three choices as correct answer have selected choice A. study shows that only 7.3% of the teachers have not selected choice A. in fact, most of the teachers consider change of disorder as criterion for entropy change. Another note is that 14.6% of the teachers have selected incorrect choices C and D independently or with other choices. On the other hand, these persons have incorrect concept of entropy in their mind. Results show that totally only 19.5% of the participants who selected choices B and C are familiar with thermodynamic concept of entropy.
Figure2. Relative Population of male and female teachers in answering to question 1
Purpose of the second question is to generalize concept of entropy to ordinary life positions. The teachers were asked to write two examples about entropy increase and two examples for entropy decrease. It is necessary to note that some of the teachers have given only one example about entropy decrease and increase for each part. The mentioned examples can be classified in the following groups:
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A- Entropy decrease
1) 125 cases have written the scientific examples mentioned in textbook. 2) They have mentioned 56 examples which refer to disorder in macro matters. 3) 50 persons have used environmental phenomenon in the field of phase change (state). 4) They have used 12 examples relating to change of system volume. 5) 7 cases have referred to a kind of limitation in distribution or replacement of the particles. 6) 27 cases have not answered this part. 7) 10 persons have referred to different cases.
B- Entropy increase
1) 146 cases have written the scientific examples mentioned in textbook. 2) They have mentioned 78 examples which refer to disorder in macro matters. 3) 63 cases have used environmental phenomena and routine life. 4) 3 cases have referred to a kind of limitation in distribution or replacement of the particles. 5) 20 cases have not answered this part. 6) 14 persons have referred to different cases.
Although in textbook, expression of particles distribution routes have been referred, the number of the written examples has been 10 from the recent point of view. Attention to the examples mentioned by teachers indicate strong macroscopic attitude among them.
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Entropy decrease
Entropy increase
Ordering tools in one place
Disorder
of
play
tools
in
children's
room(house) The students standing in line after the break
Exit of the students from classroom during break
Ordering the classroom(while teacher enters Disorder of books in the library after use the classroom or teaches) Arranging the books in library
dropping the beads on the stairs and mixing them
Gathering around the dining table
Watching that the desirable team score a goal in football
Lowering commotion of the children in Increase of noise in party winter
The examples mentioned by the teachers get help from macro matters in the field of the number of particles arrangement ways and there is no example which refers to particles arrangement or distribution ways, for example: wearing clothes in work place due to limited color selection deposition of hedge mustard in water accommodating the children in classroom or fixed place putting pea out of a large container to a smaller container so that it can be filled completely
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30 person classroom in comparison to 10-person classroom (the way the students sit on the benches) deposition of soil in water and soil mixing sedimentation of suspending starch in water
In another question, generalization of entropy concept to the number of particles arrangement ways was studied.
Question 3- in what arrangement of the following numbers set the replacement process has higher entropy?
a) 111111 b) 100000 c) 110000 d) 111000 e) 111100
Study on the question shows that in choice D, ratio 50 to 50 of the figures zero and one creates the maximum variety of figures arrangement and as a result, the maximum entropy. Results of the teachers' answers show that totally 53.4% of the answer is correct and 46.6% of this answer is incorrect or has not given any answer. As seen in figure, the maximum selection is 53.4% and relates to choice D. this case is seen both in male and female teachers. Although teachers have not studied entropy in other questions in terms of system particles arrangement ways, in this question, they have recognized the ways of numbers arrangement well. In fact, their macroscopic attitude to entropy is stronger than their microscopic attitude is. Comparison of frequency percentage of selection of choice D based
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on gender of the teachers shows that female chemistry teachers have been more successful in recognition of numbers arrangement ways.
Figure3. Relative Population of male and female teachers in answering to question 3
Discussion:
Discussion of entropy in third year chemistry book of high school has started with introduction of natural instantaneous reactions. For this purpose, some natural processes which accompany with decreasing of energy level are studied and have introduced negative sign of reaction enthalpy change (∆H) as one of the instantaneous reactions factors. Then by mentioning endothermic examples of which enthalpy change is positive, they attract attention of the learners to the second factor. The mentioned examples for description of entropy concept are as follows:
Melting zero degree ice in ordinary condition: the book attracts attention of the reader to order and disorder of the particles in ice and steam immediately after giving an example
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(by referring to figure (figure 4)). Te first note which any person receives is a factor called disorder and order.
Figure 4. studies different states of water and entropy change in textbook.
Gas distribution in larger space: in this example, the number of possible ways for distribution of particles in new space has been introduced as the main reason for disorder in role of the dependent factor.
Figure 5. Textbook analysis about gas volume increase
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Dissolution of ammonium nitrate in water: in this case, order of nitrate ammonium crystal lattice before dissolution in water has been referred and particle disorder increase in the obtained solution has been considered as progressing factor of this process.
Effect of temperature on entropy:In explanation of effects of temperature change, particles disorder in higher temperature has been referred due to increase in molecular motion.
Figure 6. introduction of all kinds of irregular movements and effect of temperature on entropy
The number of gas mole in the system: This part has been given under title of "think" and in the form of a figure for analysis reaction of gas N2O4. With regard to presuppositions about the previous examples which have expressly referred to disorder, the learners looking at the figure notice disorder and entropy except for type of the molecules.
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Figure 7. The relationship between the number of gas mole and entropy in textbook
Textbook has concluded that the progressing factor in such instantaneous processes is entropy and has introduced it as "a criterion for system disorder". In this book, in order to establish relationship between microscopic and macroscopic levels, different pictures were used but the used terms and words promoted macroscopic attitude which is barrier to correct interpretation of entropy in microscopic level.
In statistical study of the choices selected in question 1, it is found that most teachers considered word disorder as equivalent to entropy and are less familiar with other thermodynamic definitions of this concept. In fact, they use the concepts mentioned in textbook for description of entropy. Low percentage of the teachers is familiar with entropy concept in terms of inaccessible energy, while the textbook referring to Gibbs free energy has introduced its equation and relation with entropy and mentioned Gibbs free energy as accessible energy for performing work. But this interpretation is hardly found in independent selections of teachers or its selection accompanied with other choices. In this part, teachers couldn't have established necessary relationship between macroscopic and microscopic levels in interpretation of this concept due to macroscopic dominant attitude which has been used in description of entropy. They get help from disorder and chaos in macro matters in justification of micro particles behavior and don’t pay attention to the exchanged energy
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between system and environment and manner of distribution and destination of this energy in microscopic level.
The studies done by Sozbilir confirm the mentioned result. He found that most chemistry students defined entropy as disorder and equivalent to visual disorder. Finding shows that major problem of bachelor's students who participated in this study is their understanding of "disorder". Almost all answers have defined entropy from the visual point of view which refers to chaos and disorder, randomness, collision of the particles or their mixture. This finding can be observed in Ribiero as well. In this study, students consider entropy as disorder factor. A study done among the high school students in Scotland showed that generally entropy was interpreted as rate of disorder. Similar findings by Ribiero et al and Selepe and Bradley show that the students have learned to use symbols without understating the concepts. Thermodynamic definitions are presented only in mathematical relations. For example, definition of Gibbs free energy in relation G = H-TS allows the student to ignore intrinsic concept of this expression while using it in calculation.
In spite of mentioning the factor of "the number of particles distribution ways", study shows that most of the teachers have not paid attention to this expression in study on entropy concept. Perhaps, use of disorder word caused the reader to consider disorder factor more important. On the other hand, facilitation of teaching or its imaging in macro particles led the teachers to emphasize more on this factor for promoting understanding level of the learners. In fact the teachers select the most tangible and simplest expression for transferring their meaning so that they feel good about teaching and learning process. In this case, disorder is the best choice.
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High number of entropy increases in macro matters. In fact, they have attributed the word "entropy" to disorder and confusion and they can not select a class relating to physical or chemical changes in molecular level among the environmental events.
A classroom-based study (Tomanek, D. 1994) conducted in a secondary environmental science class that explored the idea of entropy in the study of basic ecology revealed many incorrect ideas developed by secondary students. In addition, the study suggests that students could develop scientifically acceptable ideas if they are taught concisely.
Since textbook has used word "disorder" for description of all examples and changes, therefore, it has directed mind of the teachers to common application of this term. Although the examples mentioned by the teachers are not incorrect, our teachers face two problems in examples of entropy increase and decrease. One is that they are dependent on textbook and another problem is that they have misunderstood application of word" disorder" in molecular dimensions and physical and chemical processes and consider it as noise and chaos and apply this characteristic to large matters of which displacement doesn't change energy of molecules and particles.
The teachers can recognize mathematically the numbers arrangement ways and concept of variety of figures is clear to them and they define displacement in one figure as a new position. But relationship between mathematics and chemistry is not clear for them, that is, they don’t relate partial change in molecular motion, addition of the number of particles, increase in system volume to variety of particles and definition of new positions for them. Perhaps because they see numbers and they are tangible for them and it is easy for them to work with figures, they can define different arrangements. In question 3, it is evident that macroscopic attitude is stronger.
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This research shows that macroscopic attitude of textbook has effect on attitude of the teachers in study on a concept and covers attention to microscopic aspects of a process which makes the attitude of person far from scientific concept and emphasizes on nonscientific applications. Education for scientific literacy and training the citizens compatible with environmental changes are of the purposes of science education in each society. coercive expansion of science and population growth in today's world clarifies necessity of correct understanding of chemical theories. In most of chemistry texts, quality and quantity remarks are used for description of observable matter behavior. Introduction of macroscopic specifications (observable), microscopic specifications (particle nature) and symbolic specifications (the number of particles involved in the process) is effective on learning. Unimportance of each one of the above three aspects in chemistry teaching can lead to essential misconceptions. Each can not show behavior of the particle solely and each has facilitating role in learning and leads to meaningful transfer of the concept to learner. Concurrent attention to these levels in chemistry teaching causes strong relationship between students and scientific meanings of theories.
Resources
Atkins, Peter; Julio De Paula (2006). Physical Chemistry, 8th edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-870072-5.
Barnes & Noble's Essential Dictionary of Science ( 2004).
Behdad,S.
second
law
of
thermodynamic
thermodynimics-law/index.htm
Page 50
,
http://edu.tebyan.net/physics/second-
Chang, Raymond (1998). Chemistry, 6th Ed.. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-1152210. Ching-Yang Chou (2002). Science Teachers’ Understanding of Concepts in Chemistry, Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. ROC(D) Vol. 12, No. 2, 2002. pp. 73-78. E.M.Carsona and J.R.Watson (2002). Undergraduate students’ understandings of entropy and Gibbs freeEnergy, U.Chem.Ed., 6 , www.Rsc.Org/Pdf/Uchemed /Papers/2002/P2_Carson
Gabel, D. (1996). The complexity of chemistry: Research for teaching in the 21st century. Paper presented at the 14th International Conference on Chemical Education. Brisbane, Australia.
Gribbin's Encyclopedia of Particle Physics (2000).
Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-79165-0.
Johnstone, A. H. (1991). Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem.Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7, 75-83.
Johnstone, A. H. (1991). Thinking about thinking. International Newsletter of Chemical Education No. 36, 7–10.
Johnstone, A. H.; MacDonald, J. J.; Webb, G. (1977). Physics Educ., 12, 248–251 Levynahum,T et al.(2004).Can Final Examinations Amplify , Students’Misconceptions in Chemistry.Chemistry Education:Research and Practice-2004,vol.5,No.3,pp.301-325.
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Mustafa Sözbilir (2007).A Study of Turkish Chemistry Undergraduates’Understandings of Entropy,
Journal
of
Chemical
Education
•
Vol.
84
No.
7
July,
www.entropysite.com/TurkishJCE7-07.pdf
Peter Mahaffythe (2004). Future Shape Of Chemistry Educationresearch And Practice , Vol. 5, No. 3, Pp. 229-245. Read, J. R. (2004). Children’s Misconceptions and Conceptual Change in Science Education. Available from http://acell.chem.usyd.edu.au/Conceptual-Change.cfm
Robinson, W. (2003). Chemistry problem-solving: Symbol, macro, micro, and process aspects.Journal of Chemical Education, 80, 978-982.
Robinson, W. R. (1998). An alternative framework for chemical bonding. Journal of Chemical Education, 75, 1074-1075. Selepe, C., Bradley, J. (1997). Student-Teacher’s Conceptual Difficulties In Chemical Thermodynamics, pp 316–321.
Tomanek, D. (1994). Cases Of Content: Studying Content As A Part Of A Curriculum Process. Science Education, 78(1), 73-82.
Page 52
Explicit Teaching
Explicit Teaching of Process Skills Questions
The Explicit Teaching of Process Skills Questions to Improve Pupils’ Answering Techniques
Noor Aishah Abu Bakara, Manickam Sumathib, Zahrah Mohamed Abbasb, Cassandra Chooc a
MacPherson Primary School. bPark View Primary School. cSt Hilda’s Primary School.
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Explicit Teaching
Abstract It is a common concern amongst Science teachers that our pupils lack the techniques in answering some process skills questions. This action research attempts to evaluate the effectiveness of the use of explicit teaching of answering process skills questions to improve pupils’ answering techniques. Three schools in the E5 & E6 clusters collaborated on this project with a total of 119 Primary 5 pupil-participants from four classes of three different ability groups. Two process skills, namely inference (explanation) and communication (interpretation of graphs), were selected for this project. The intervention crafted included careful selection of open-ended questions based on Primary 3 and 4 topics for the pre-post test and the weekly worksheets for explicit teaching. As much as possible, standardised teaching of the features of answers was ensured. It was then followed by modelling of answers done through scaffolding by teachers first and then independent work by pupils over a period of 6 weeks. The pre-post scores were used as data. A paired sample t-test analysis was done to compare the means of the pre and post test scores as followed: i) combined schools and ii) according to pupils’ ability group. The results of the analysis showed that there is a significant statistical difference between the means of the pre and post test scores (t = 14.40, p<0.0001) as well as a positive correlation (r = 0.889) for all pupils. In their own ability groups, the differences between the means were also statistically significant. This indicated that the pupils showed improvement after the application of the intervention. It also suggested that explicit teaching of process skill questions is effective in improving pupils’ answering techniques. It is recommended that explicit teaching of specific process skill questions should be infused into the curriculum at different levels to equip pupils with the correct answering techniques.
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Explicit Teaching
The Explicit Teaching of Process Skills Questions to Improve Pupils’ Answering Techniques Introduction High-stakes examinations such as PSLE Science assess pupils’ science proficiency with respect to the aims of the Primary Science Education (CPDD, 2008). A key part of the assessment objective is the application of knowledge and process skills. Science process skills are analytical and empirical procedures used in scientific practical work and in everyday life and are fundamental in any science curriculum.
The construction of
explanations including identifying evidence, interpreting question, and evaluating claims (Driver, Newton, & Osborne, 2000) is a basic practice in Science. In our usual classroom teaching, process skills are taught on a topical basis; teachers only embark on the process skills after teaching a certain topic. Within a single topic, many different process skills are involved making understanding of some process skills superficial. Our study aims to focus on two types of process skills; inferring and communicating. Inferring refers to explaining phenomena by determining how or why the events occur and the conditions and their resulting consequences. (Nagel, 1961). Communicating is the skill of transmitting and receiving information presented in various forms – verbal, pictorial, tabular or graphical (Science Syllabus,CPDD,2008). Open-ended questions on these two processes are usually presented as experiments, observations or results in tabulations and graphs. Through teachers’ observation and professional sharing, it was observed that pupils have greater difficulty in answering questions pertaining to these two higher order process skills.
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Explicit Teaching
When pupils engage in inferences, they are unable to articulate and justify their claims accurately (Sadler,2004). To help them overcome these challenges, pupils need to be explicitly taught about scientific explanation. (Osborne, Erduran, & Simon, 2004). The objective of our study is to help pupils construct scientific explanations about phenomena in which they rationalize their claims using appropriate evidence and scientific principles. According to Ellis (Ellis.2005), explicit teaching is “highly organized and structured, teacherdirected, and task oriented”; the process by which the teacher communicates information to pupils is linear and systematic. In our study during explicit teaching, scaffolding was used to provide a temporary supporting structure (Katherine L. McNeil et al, 2006) to promote learning and application of scientific concepts. To facilitate pupils’ use and understanding, we have to make scientific strategies explicit to the pupils (Herrenkohl, Palincsar, DeWater, & Kawasaki, 1999). Revealing the framework to our pupils can facilitate the construction of their explanation (Reiser et al., 2001). Prompting their thoughts can also result in students articulating about how and why something occurs (Chinn & Brown, 2000). We hope that by providing pupils with our explanation framework, we would encourage a deeper thinking and promote pupils’ translation of their thinking into written text. The ability to create explanation does not come naturally to most pupils. Instead it is acquired through practice (Osborne et al., 2004). Hence pupils need to be explicitly taught about scientific explanation to be successful in answering process skills questions. We adapted the Instructional Model for Scientific Explanation (McNeil et.al, 2006) in our study as creating explanations is an upheaval task for our pupils. The instructional model comprises of three components; a claim, evidence and reasoning. Based on Mc Neil et.al, 2006, claim is an assertion or conclusion that answers the original question, evidence is scientific data that supports the claim and reasoning is a justification that shows why the data count as evidence to support the claim. Page 56
Explicit Teaching
In explaining scientific claims, pupils are required to gather, select, and use data as supporting evidence. Pupils often rely on their daily personal experiences to draw conclusions instead of using scientific evidence (Hogan & Maglienti, 2001). Sometimes pupils use inappropriate data from an investigation. When faced with more data than what is needed, pupils often have a difficult time deciding on the appropriate data to use (McNeill & Krajcik, in press). Reasoning is the logic for why the evidence supports the claim, which can often include scientific principles. Research has shown that during classroom teaching, discussions are usually dominated by claims, with little reasoning to support their claims (Jiménez-Aleixandre, Rodríguez, & Duschl, 2000). With the same explanation instructional model, pupils become better at writing explanations without disregarding the importance of content knowledge. This generic framework can be used across different science content areas and contexts. It helps pupils achieve a basic understanding of the processes and practices of science which enables them to better understand how knowledge claims are created and supported (Osborne, Collins, Ratcliffe, Millar,&Duschl, 2003).
Materials and Methods In this study, the Primary 5 pupil participants were from four different classes in three different schools. There were a total of 119 pupils; 40 high ability (St Hilda’s Primary), 63 middle ability (MacPherson Primary and Park View Primary) and 16 low ability (Park View Primary). Before embarking on this study, a Gantt Chart was drawn to check on the timeline and progress of our study. This study was conducted over nine weeks. Although four different teachers carried out this study, we tried to the best of our abilities to ensure the standardization of the procedures.
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Explicit Teaching
In order to find out if there is a difference between their scores after the intervention had been introduced, the team had decided on using a pre and post- test as a quantitative approach. The same questions were used in both the pre and post test. This provided a platform to check for their improvement in their performance after the intervention. Narrowing to just two process skills, namely inference (explaining) and communication (graphs), we crafted questions for the pre and post tests. The questions were selected and modified from past-year PSLE questions, school examination papers and assessment books. As the pupils from the three schools started with different themes for the Primary 5 topics, we decided to use common topics from the Primary 3 and Primary 4 syllabuses as part of our study. Ten open ended questions were selected and compiled as part of the pre and post test The answer key was crafted with varied possible pupils’ answers in mind and marks were awarded accordingly. The research started with the 3 schools conducting the pre-test during Week 10 in Term 1. After the pre-test, pupils’ responses were marked according to the answer key. Answer key was updated with other possible answers which arose from the pupils’ answer script. In week 1, there was the teaching of the CER model– Claim, Evidence and Reasoning to pupils using some specific examples. This CER model aims at standardizing the teaching of creating explanation. The questions for the weekly intervention (lesson) were selected and modified from school examination papers, past year PSLE questions and assessment books. This intervention was carried out on a weekly basis. One science period (30 minutes) was allocated to conduct this intervention per week. Out of the six weeks of the study, three weeks were dedicated to the process skill of inference (explaining) and the other remaining three weeks for the process skill of communication (graphs). Pupils were explicitly taught the technique of answering the two chosen type of process skills questions. Page 58
Explicit Teaching
Each weekly worksheet comprised two questions. The intervention (lesson) started with us explicitly teaching the technique of answering inference questions using CER model to our pupils for only the first question in the worksheet. The pupils are left to answer the second question independently after which the teachers will discuss the answer with the pupils. The communication (graph) questions included some explaining questions hence it was only introduced in the last three weeks. In the last three weeks, the skill of interpreting graphs was taught explicitly with some overlapping questions on inference (explaining). This went on for six weeks to complete all the six worksheets in term 2. In week 10, the post test was conducted, data was collected and analyzed.
Results The objective of this study was to determine if there is an improvement in pupils’ post test score after the intervention was introduced. Hence a paired T-Test was conducted in order to see if there is a statistical significant difference between the pre and post test results. Table A. presents a summary of the results. Based on the table, it was observed that there is an improvement in their post-test result as compared to their pre-test result when the means of the pre and post test were compared. The paired T-Test was done to confirm the statistical significance of the means. The T-values shown in the table indicates that there is a high statistical significance in the difference of the means (Combined Group T-value = 14.40). The T-value also indicates that there is a correlation between the pre and post test. This was tested using the correlation test in Table B.
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Explicit Teaching
Table A. Descriptive statistics for the pre and post test Pre-test Group
Post-test
N
Mean
SD
N
Mean
SD
T-value
41
18.28
2.66
41
22.83
2.10
10.97
62
9.14
3.64
62
12.22
4.35
16
4.84
2.63
16
10.13
3.34
8.39
119
11.71
5.91
119
15.59
6.40
14.40
High Ability (St Hilda’s Pri.) Middle Ability (MacPherson
&
8.05
Park View Pri.) Low Ability (Park View Pri.) Combined Ability Groups
Table B. presents the correlation coefficient values. The table indicates that there was a strong positive correlation between the pre and post test scores; before and after intervention was introduced. The Combined Group shows a strong positive correlation (r = 0.89) between the pre and post test score.
Table B. Correlation Coefficient Values Group High Ability (St Hilda’s Pri.) Middle Ability
r 0.40 0.73
(MacPherson & Park View Pri.) Low Ability
0.67
(Park View Pri.) Combined Ability
0.89
Groups
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Explicit Teaching
Discussion The change in the PSLE science questions since 2004 gives greater emphasis to critical thinking skills and the ability to apply concepts (SingTeach Issue 16 Jan-Feb 2009). The use of explicit teaching further enhanced the learning of Science where pupils were able to apply the principles and concepts taught. Teaching them the techniques is like giving them a set of procedures to accomplish a specific activity or task, in this case answering open-ended questions. According to Nancy Grasmick, Maryland's state superintendent of schools (Bushweller, K. (1997), there is nothing wrong if one is teaching according to the test objectives if mirroring good teaching will enhance learning. Pupils need to sharpen their testtaking skills (Bushweller, K. (1997) and they need to be explicitly taught about scientific explanation to be successful in this practice (Osborne, Erduran, & Simon, 2004). After the application of the intervention, it was observed that pupils were able to give better explanations and interpret and analyze graphs well. Based on the content knowledge they had acquired, they were able to apply the correct techniques in answering the questions. The guided practices from the selected exam-format questions further sharpened these skills. Being equipped with the skills encouraged greater student understanding. Through our classroom’s observation, it was observed that pupils have an increased level of confidence in answering process skills questions after the application of the intervention. As “effective teaching mirrors effective learning” (Marzano, 1992, p.1), teachers who provided scaffolding through modelling and guided practices played the role of effective facilitators of learning. With the improvement of pupils’ ability to answer the open-ended questions with less difficulty, the teachers also gained a sense of achievement and satisfaction. Assessment is an integral and vital part of teaching and learning (Boo Hong Kwen, 2007). Improvement in pupils’ performances serves to reaffirm the effectiveness of the school’s instructional programme. Page 61
Explicit Teaching
One recommendation would be to extend this strategy of explicit teaching of process skills questions to all the other levels from Primary Three to Six with the inclusion of all the science process skills; Observing, Comparing, Classifying, Using apparatus and equipment, Communicating, Formulating hypothesis, Predicting, Analysing, Generating possibilities and Evaluating (Science Syllabus CPDD, 2008).
The freed up curriculum time, known as the time-tabled time (Science Syllabus CPDD, 2008) can be used to create a repertoire of resources of process skills questions. This wealth of resources will provide a strong support for explicit teaching of process skill questions within the limited curriculum time.
Efforts should initially be directed at teaching explicitly the selected basic skills for example observing, comparing, classifying and using apparatus and equipment to the pupils of the lower block (Primary Three and Four) and then be directed to focus on the more complex skills; Communicating, Formulating hypothesis, Predicting, Analysing, Generating possibilities and Evaluating for the pupils of the upper block (Primary Five & Six) in a progressive manner. This recommendation is to be infused into the curriculum on a weekly basis.
From this study, it not only benefits the students but it also opens up many opportunities for teachers to work together It has emerged from this study that there is a significant statistical difference between the means of the pre and post test scores (t = 14.40, p<0.0001) as well as a positive correlation (r = 0.889) for the Combined Group. This indicated that the pupils showed improvement after the application of the intervention and suggested that explicit teaching of process skill questions is effective in improving pupils’ answering techniques.
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References Ellis, A. (2005). Research on educational innovations. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education, Inc. Chin, C. (2008). Teacher questioning in science classrooms: What approaches stimulate productive thinking? In: Lee, Y.-J., & Tan, A. L. (Eds.), Science education at the nexus of theory and practice (pp. 203-217). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Lee, Y.-J., & Tan, A. L. (Eds.). (2008). Science education at the nexus of theory and practice. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Tan, A. L., & Towndrow, P. A. (2006). Towards a SPA-infused pedagogy: Giving students a voice through digital video editing and critique. SingTeach, 3. Retrieved October 10, 2006 from http://singteach.nie.edu.sg/index.php/Singteach/ideas/towards_a_spa_ infused_pedagogy Chinn, C., & Brown, D. E. (2000). Learning in science: A comparison of deep and surface approaches. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 109–138. Driver, R., Newton, P., & Osborne, J. (2000). Establishing the norms of scientific argumentation in classrooms. Science Education, 84, 287–312. Herrenkohl, L. R., Palincsar, A. S., DeWater, L. S., & Kawasaki, K. (1999). Developing scientific communities in classrooms:Asociocognitive approach. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8, 451–493. Hogan, K., & Maglienti, M. (2001). Comparing the epistemological underpinnings of students and scientists’ reasoning about conclusions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38, 663–687. Jiménez-Aleixandre, M. P., Rodríguez, A. B., & Duschl, R. A. (2000). “Doing the lesson” or “doing science”: Argument in high school genetics. Science Education, 84, 757–792.
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Nagel, E. (1961). The structure of science: Problems in the logic of science education. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, Inc. Osborne, J., Collins, S., Ratcliffe, M., Millar, R., & Duschl, R. (2003). What “ideas-aboutscience” should be taught in school science? A Delphi study of the expert community. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40, 692–720. Osborne, J., Erduran, S.,&Simon, S. (2004). Enhancing the quality of argumentation in school science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 994–1020. Reiser, B., Tabak, I., Sandoval,W., Smith, B., Steinmuller, F., & Leone, A. (2001). BGuILE: Strategic and conceptual scaffolds for scientific inquiry in biology classrooms. In S. M. Carver & D. Klahr (Eds.), Cognition and instruction: Twenty-five years of progress (pp. 263–305). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Sadler, T. D. (2004). Informal reasoning regarding socioscientific issues: A critical review of research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 513–536. Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. van Eemeren, F. H., Grootendorst, R., Henkemans, F. S., Blair, J. A., Johnson, R. H., Krabbe, E. C.W., et al. (1996). Fundamentals of argumentation theory: A handbook of historical backgrounds and contemporary developments. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Yap Kueh Chin, Toh Kok Aun & Goh Ngoh Khang. (2002). Teaching Science, Readings and Resources for the Primary School Teacher. Prentices Hall. Marzano, J. R. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Alexandria, Virginia: association for Supervision and Curriculim Development. Bushweller, K. (1997). Teaching to the test. The American School Board Journal, September, 20-25. SingTeach, Issue 16 Jan/Feb 2009 from http://singteach.nie.edu.sg/issue-16janfeb-2009-.html Page 64
Explicit Teaching
Mc Neill K.L. a; David J. Lizotte a; Joseph Krajcik a; Ronald W. Marx b. (2006). Supporting Students' Construction of Scientific Explanations by Fading Scaffolds in Instructional Materials. a Center for Highly Interactive Classrooms, Curricula, and Computing, School of Education, University of Michigan. b College of Education, University of Arizona.
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Investigating the effects of animation on learning the concept of Covalent Bonds In high school chemistry B. Arabshahi*1, A. Badrian2 and R. Dabaghian1 1 1
Department of Chemistry, University of Shahid Rajaee, Tehran, Iran Research Institution for Curriculum Development & Educational Innovations, Tehran, Iran
*Author(s) for correspondence E-mail:
[email protected]
ABSTRACT Considering the huge progress of IT and communication, it is obvious that modern technology can play an important role in chemistry learning. This study has been carried out in order to investigate the effects of computer animation on learning of Covalent bond in high school chemistry. Further, the academic success of high school students and the opinions of students related to teaching with the animation were studied. This research was conducted by the participation of 52 students from two classes of 2nd in high school in the city of Babol during the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic years. One of the classes, in which animation technique was used, was determined as the “animation group” and, the other class, in which the traditional teacher-centered instruction was dominant, as the “control group”. Our measurement instruments included (Science and Technology) and the opinion scale. Our research design was a pre-post-test experimental control design. The findings indicate that students taught by computer supported animations were better than those in the traditional teaching group. In addition, data gathered through student’s opinion scale suggest that students liked computer animations more than the traditional method.
Keyword: Covalent bond, Animation Technique, science and Technology, chemistry education
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Introduction
Science helps us to know better the world and the universe we live in, to from a stronger and healthy social atmosphere, and to understand and evaluate the circumstances taking place around us. Sciences as physics, chemistry and biology are taught as separate courses in high schools and in the schools which are equivalent to high schools. The most important common feature of these courses is those depends on concrete objects and are experimental (Dasdemir; Doymus; Simsek & Karacop, 2008). Chemistry course, as in other science courses, contains some hardships related to abstract situation and the process of turning those abstract situations into concrete. Three levels are preferred to understand the subject better in chemistry. These are macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic levels (Johnstone, 1993; Gabel, 1998). Experimental studies have shown that students have difficulty in understanding chemistry in microscopic level when compared to macroscopic and symbolic levels but they could better understand in micro level with the use of audiovisual materials
(Dasdemir; Doymus; Simsek & Karacop, 2008). These traditional teaching strategies are ineffective to help students with a complete understanding of the abstract concepts to build correct conceptions, to alleviate alternative conceptions, and to promote conceptual change. Students at all levels have alternative conceptions related to different chemistry conceptions. Alternative conceptions are the students’ ideas that are at variance with scientifically accepted knowledge and they influence how students learn new scientific knowledge. Alternative conceptions are logical, sensible, and valuable from students’ point of view and pervasive, stable, and resistant to change by
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traditional teaching strategies. There have been numerous studies examining students’ alternative conceptions related to different science concepts. It is reported that students in all levels do not learn science concepts with traditional teaching methods as expected. Meaningful learning of concepts involves realigning, reorganizing or replacing students’ prior conceptions to accommodate new ideas) Ozmen, Demircioglu, Demircioglu, 2009). Modern information and communication technologies can help facilitate knowledge construction in the classroom (Williams, Linn, Ammon, & Gearhart, 2004). The literature notes that computer-assisted instruction is one such area recently lauded for its capacity to improve the teaching of difficult and abstract science concepts and to simulate dangerous experiments and to stimulate interest in science learning. Computer animations have been also used in science education to promote meaningful learning.
Animation is a Latin word that means to revive. Animation is an alive, stripped and detailed form of computer. Because of their dynamic characteristics, animations indicate the change in figures or colors, emergence and extinction of some situations in realization process of the events. These changes may be either graphic, picture or caricature. Computer animations work as the rapid change of the picture on the computer screen (Dasdemir; Doymus; Simsek and Karacop, 2008). According to Mayer and Moreno (2002) an animation has three characteristics. It is a picture, it shows apparent motion, and it is simulated
(Vermaat; Kramers-pals & Schank, 2004).
Animations are supposed to be superior to static graphics, especially when learning concerns a chain of events in dynamic systems. Animations do not only depict objects, they also provide information concerning object changes and their position over time
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(Koning; Tabbers; Rikers & Pass, 2009). Decoration, gaining attention, motivation, extra information and clarification of complex knowledge or complex phenomena as potential roles of animation. Gaining attention is an important function, in which there must be overlap with the content of the accompanying text. If there is no overlap, the animation can distract from the instruction (Vermaat; Kramers-pals & Schank, 2004). Computer animations are widely used in teaching of science concepts for decades because of thei r capability to animate molecular-level chemical processes. In addition, computer models permit students to link their microscopic explanations of chemical phenomena with their macroscopic observations and when students can visualize microscopic processes in chemistry, they have better understanding of chemical knowledge (Ebenezer, 2001). Studies in the literature have stated that students who receive instruction including animations, simulations and/or visualizations of microscopic process at the molecular level have better understanding about the particulate phenomena and are better able to answer conceptual questions about particulate phenomena (Ardac & Akaygun, 2004; Kelly & Jones, 2007; Kelly, Phelps, & Sanger, 2004; Sanger & Greenbowe, 2000; Talib, Matthews, & Secombe, 2005; Tasker & Dalton, 2006; Velazquez-Marcano et al., 2004). Russell etal. (1997), state that if computer animations are used in conjunction with chemistry demonstrations students are better able to make connections among macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic levels of representations. Sanger and Greenbowe (1997), state that visualizations help students overcome the learning barrier to visualize and understand how complex dynamic chemical processes occur. Large (1996) argues that animations add to written information, but cannot replace it. Motion is
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the special quality of animations and therefore animations can promote learning of dynamic processes Since chemical processes at the molecular level are dynamic, impossible to see, and typically quite hard to imagine animation could be a powerful tool in chemistry education. Atoms, molecules and ions are not static, but vibrate, move, collide and interact with each other. These dynamic processes are better represented in an animation than in static pictures (Vermaat; Kramers-pals & Schank, 2004). Dasdemir and co-workers in 2008, are experts that they made investigations about the effects of animation technique on teaching of Acids and Bases and student’s improvement in this topic. They announced that animation technique in teaching had positive effects on
increase in the students’ academic achievement and the retention the knowledge gained in the class, and thus led the mastery learning of students and also enhancing the motivation, joyful, easily understandable, and contributory to developing cognitive skills. Demircioglu and co-workers in 2009, have made investigations about the effects of conceptual change texts accompanied with animations on overcoming students’ alternative conceptions. They proved that this method not only considers the students’ alternative conceptions, and also helps students to see microscopic world via computer animations.
Purpose of the inquiry Covalent bonds are one of the most important parts of chemistry which is confusing for students. It is important for students to understand “why or how” the covalent bonds occur. Investigation conclusions a bout covalent bond shows that the students can not learn covalent bond by traditional method as expected. This truth has oriented
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researchers toward alternative teaching methods. One of the new methods is computer animation. Students have many difficulties in understanding of microscopic world and traditional teaching is not sufficient in acquiring students’ better understanding. Tasker and Dalton (2006), explained that animation can show the dynamic, interactive, and particulate nature of chemistry in contrast to textbook illustrations. Animations are useful to show the microscopic world. In this investigation, we study the general effective technological information and computer animation in learning of covalent bonds in high school chemistry. There are 2 questions: 1. Does education with computer animations indicate a meaningful increase in learning of covalent bond conception of students compared to traditional teaching method? 2. What are the opinions of the students on the teaching with computer animations in covalent bond conception? 3. Does IQ of students increase effect animation method in learning covalent bond conception?
3-Method 3-1- Research design The select groups in our research design were randomly. To unify two groups, Raven intelligence test was taken and from result collection 2 groups equivalent. These two groups, one was animation group and the other was control group. We took pretest and posttest from each group and then we evaluated dependent variable after exposure
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to the independent variable. Pre-test (basic test) is the previous knowledge and the contents related to the covalent bonding that in order to unifying scientific level of students was held. In addition, we specified the student’s opinion scale for student about animation method in animation group.
3-2- Sample This investigation was done in Babol, in Iran with 52 students in grade 2 high school in 2008-2009 academic year. 26 students were determined as the “animation group” and the other group was 26 students that they had to learn chemistry by traditional method was dominant, as the “control group”. In the animation and control groups, the instruction
was performed following the course materials prepared by the researcher from the text book, and with the same content in two different teaching methods. 3-3- Instruments In this research, there were dependent variables (learning increase) and (students of animation group ideas) and independent variable was teaching method. There were improvement test for each group which consisted of (True-False questions, multiple choice questions, fill in the blank questions and explaining questions) at the knowledge and comprehension levels aiming to measure all
attainments from the given topics. Ten chemistry teachers examined the instrument for content validity. The reliability of the instrument based on Cronbach’s alpha was 0.73. Also, Raven standard IQ test was performed for both groups.
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3-4- The teaching process To doing this the study, the covalent bond was taught between 2 groups (animation and control groups) by chemistry teacher. In this process, Raven test for unifying 2 groups was done and 2 groups equivalent. After that, we specified the educational texts and according to each matter, we specify lesson plan suitable teaching technique. For evaluation of pre-knowledge of students, covalent bond was tested. In control group which that was traditional method, the lesson explanation, examples, pictures, questions were questioned by teacher and 70-80 percent of class time was filled by teacher. The topics and questions were written on board and teacher tried to ask questions from students. During the presentation, some questions were directed to
the students; and, according to the answers taken the teacher continued to teach or make some repetitions. In addition, some questions were given to the students to be answered at home; and it was told to them to prepare for the next lesson. In this method most of the students were not active and were not involved in learning and they just listened to the teacher and sometimes raised their hand to answer questions. In animation group, students used computer animations and Power Points of topics
of lessons. In this study 11 animations were used. Some of these animations were prepared from communication assistance and educational information of education and training ministry, Rahnama Co. and internet (web). Animations were in Power Points
and presented to the students. For example:
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In this animation, are shown electron layers, electrons valance and shared electrons in single covalent bond (Fig.1). In animation Fig.2, all of above topics in one polar
covalent bonding were showed.
Fig1. Single covalent bond in molecule Cl2
Fig2. Polar covalent bond in molecule HCl
Fig.3 was presented double bonding with electron configuration, distribution electrons and valance electrons and bonding electrons. Formation of triple covalent bond, valance electrons and bonding electrons were presented (Fig.4).
Fig3. Double covalent bond in molecule O2 Fig4. Triple covalent bond in molecule N2
In this Figure, bonding electrons are in polar covalent bonding (molecule HF) with
electron cloud and the distribution of positive and negative partial charge (Fig.5). Changes energy while the formation or breaking of covalent bonds was attractive
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presented (Fig.6). In Fig.7, there is a molecule with multiple atoms (water, as a famous compound for students) and show distribution of electron cloud and shape of molecule beautifully.
Fig5. Polar covalent bond in molecule HF
Fig6. Covalent bond energy
Fig7. Polar covalent bond in molecule HF
In this study, we showed the advance of science and technology, ICT and animations about covalent bond and we tried to make stimulus in students. Computer animations within video projector and written explanation in Power Points were presented by teacher (one from researchers). The parts of topic which fully were not understood by students, repeated them by animations. students were active and eager in class. Sanger,
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Phelps, and Fienhold (2000) suggest that the ease to replay the animations allows students to focus their attention on different aspects of the animation each time it is viewed. Therefore, students allowed replaying animations again and again, because some of them are short, lasting a few seconds. After teaching, we took exam as post-test for 2 groups. In addition, student opinion scale was given to animation group apart from the control group. 4- The analysis and discussion In this research, Raven intelligence test for unifying 2 groups was done. Then the analysis result of t-test of data pre-test and post-test to both groups and opinion scale of student group animation were given in Table 1-3. Table1 is about pre-test of 2 group a that shows statistically no differences between the mean scores of animation and control groups at the significance level of 0.05 (t(50)= 0.189; p= 0.850). These results show that students both groups are similar in the same education situation and teaching methods. Table1. Independent t-Test Analysis Results of Pre-test both groups Way Animation Control b Significant at p<0.05 a Scale Score=20
N 26 26
Mean a 9.0481 9.1731
SD 2.49 2.27
t
P
0.189
0.850 b
On the other hand, when result of data of post-test in table2 was studied, there are significant differences (t(50)= 4.176; p= 0.000) between the mean scores of animation and control groups at the significance level of 0.05 (Table 2). Table2. Independent t-Test Analysis Results of Post-test both groups Way Animation Control b Significant at p<0.05 a Scale Score=20
N 26 26
Mean a 15.11 12.00
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SD 2.10 3.17
t
P
4.176
0.000 b
According to this result, the meaningful effect of animation technique is possible on increasing in learning. This finding is consistent with other the literature. Furthermore, the fact that the use of this technique has positive influence on increasing in learning was supported by the data obtained from the student opinion scale as well (Table 3). We investigate from opinions students about animation method and its effect on chemistry learning. The results and evaluations collected from student opinions on this question were given in Table 3. As presented in table, it can be inferred that students’ opinions are 85.4% according to point 4 and 5. It was also determined that the mean scores for all opinions were higher than the mid-point 3. The finding obtained from table 3 show that students found instruction through animation technique as Motivation, Comprehensive and complete, Innovative, Facilitate learning, raising morale probes, Increase understanding, Beneficial and useful, enjoyable, Happy and Alliteration and Increase learning. The findings related to this question reached in this study parallel those of other previous studies. So it might be stated that the animation method was accepted by the students. Table3. The students’ opinions about Animation method
Nu. 1 2
How much do you agree with learning Covalent Bond by animation method? You most choose one of matter. Opinion Distribution Very well Well Medium Little Very little 5 4 3 2 1 Motivation Frequency 12 12 2 0 0 percentage 46.2 46.2 7.7 0.0 0.0 Comprehensive and Frequency 12 9 3 2 0 complete percentage 46.2 34.6 11.5 7.7 0.0
3
Innovative
4
Facilitate learning
Frequency Percentage Frequency percentage
14 53.8 12 46.2
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10 38.5 7 26.9
2 7.7 6 23.1
0 0.0 1 3.8
0 0.0 0 0.0
Mean 4.38 4.19
4.46 4.15
5
Raising morale probes
6
Increase understanding
7
Beneficial and useful
8
enjoyable
9
joyful
10
Increase learning
Frequency percentage Frequency percentage Frequency percentage Frequency percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency percentage
9 34.6 16 61.5 11 42.3 17 65.4 16 61.5 15 57.7
10 38.5 8 30.8 10 38.5 7 26.9 6 23.1 9 34.6
6 23.1 0 0.0 5 19.2 2 7.7 3 11.5 2 7.7
1 3.8 2 7.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 3.8 0 0.0
0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
4.03 4.46 4.23 4.58 4.42 4.50
According to Table 4, With a sample of 27% (N=7) of high and low intelligence scores and compared the posttest scores of groups from animation group and base on t-test results indicated that no significant difference and the IQ levels is not effective in learning with animation method and In other words, this method for all students with different IQ is useful.
Table4. Independent t-Test Analysis Results of Post-test based on IQ IQ N up 7 Down 7 b Significant at p<0.05 a Scale Score=20
Mean Post-test a 15.75 14.53
SD 1.85 1.87
t
P
1.22
0.245 b
5- Conclusion and recommendation From the findings of this study, we conclude that the teaching by animation is more effective that traditional method and it has more positive effects on learning and comprehension. The traditional method focus on symbolic and macroscopic levels and neglects microscopic level, because students cannot see the nature and movement of atoms and molecules and animations helps students to learn chemical bond and microscopic imagination in covalent bond.
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If teachers use animations, they can prevent the microscopic levels problems. By this way, we will have meaningful learning. This study shows the usage of computer animations
help to the visualizations of the complex and difficult processes by a scientific and correct way. In addition to these, that the teaching of science through computer animations has the advantages such as enhancing the motivation, joyful, easily understandable, and contributory to developing cognitive skills. The positive conclusion this study is similar to the conclusion of large (1996), Russell et al. (1997), Sanger and Greenbowe (1997), Dasdemir, Doymus, Karacop(2008), Demircioglu, Ozmen, Demircioglu,(2009). According to the conclusion and students of opinions, the following recommendations
were listed. 1. Some studies could be on computer animations in class teaching and laboratory in levels preliminary and advanced.
2. Computer animations should be used in complex topics and microscopic levels when there are no effective materials to be used.
3. Teaching and training organization should consider the animations accompany text book.
4- Teacher’s point of view must be changed to animations and they must consider this method for making motivation and joyful in students.
References Ardac, D., & Akaygan, S. (2004). Effectiveness of multimedia-based instruction that emphasizes molecular representations on students, understanding of chemical change. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(4),317-337.
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Dasdemir, I., Doymus, K., Simsek, U. & Karacop, A, (2008). The effects of Animation Technique on Teaching of Acids and Bases Topics, Journal of Turkish Science Education, 5(2). Ebenezer, J. V. (2001). A Hypermedia Environment to Explore and Negotiate Students Conceptions: Animation if The Solution Process of Table Salt. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 10(1),73-91 Gabel, D. (1998). The Complexity of Chemistry and Implications for Teaching, in B.J. Fraster & K.G. Tobin (Eds.), International Handbook of Science Education Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Iskander, W. & Curtis, S. (2005). Use of Colour and Interactive Animation in Learning 3d Vektor. The Journal of Computer in Matematics and Science Teaching, 24(2), 149-156 Johnstone, A. H. (1993). The Development of Chemistry Teaching. Journal of Chemical Education, 70(4), 701-705. Kelly, R. M., Phelps, A. J., & Sanger, M. J. (2004). The effects of a computer animation on students, conceptual understanding of a can-crushing demonstration at the macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic levels. The Chemical Educator, 9,184-189. Kelly, R. M., & Jones. L. L. (2007). Exploring how different features of animations of sodium chloride dissolution affect students, explanations. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 413-429. Koning, B., Tabbers, H., Rikers, R. & Paas, F. (2009). Attention guidance in learning from a complex animation: Seeing is understanding?, Learning and Instruction, 1-12 Large, A. (1996). Computer Animation in an Instructional Environment. Library & Information Science Research, 18, 3-23 Ozmen, H., Demircioglu, H. & Demircioglu, G., (2009). The effects of conceptual change texts accompanied with animations on overcoming 11th grade students’ alternative conceptions of chemical bonding, Computers & Education, 52 (p 681-695). Rieber, L. P., Boyce, M. J., & Assad, C. (1990). The Effects of Computer Animation on Adult Learning and Retrieval Tasks. Journal of Computer- Based Instruction, 17(2), 46-52. Russell, J. W., Kozma, R.B., Jones, T., Wykoff, J., Marx, N., & Davis, J. (1997). Use of simultaneous-synchronized macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations to enhance the teaching and learning of chemical concepts. Journal of Chemical Education,74, 330-334. Sanger, M. J., Phelps, A. J., & Fienhold, J. (2000). Using a computer animation to improve students, conceptual understanding of a can-crushing demonstration. . Journal of Chemical Education,77, 1517-1520. Sanger, M.J., & Greenbowe, T.J. (2000). Addressing student misconceptions concerning electron flow in electrolyte solutions whit instruction including computer animations and conceptual change. International Journal of Science Education, 22, 521-537. Talib, O., Matthews, R., & Secombe, M. (2005). Computer-animated instruction and students, conceptual change in electrochemistry: Preliminary qualitative analysis. International Education Journal, 5(5), 29-42. Tasker, R., & Dalton, R. (2006). Research into practice. Visualization of the molecular world using animations. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 7(2), 141-159.
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Velazquez-Marcano, A., Williamson, V. M., Ashkenazi, G., Tasker, R., & Williamson, K. C. (2004). The use of video demonstrations and particulate animations in general chemistry. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13(3), 315-323. Vermaat, H., Kramers-pals, H. & Schank, P., (2004). The use of Animation in Chemical Education. In proceedings of the International Convention of the Association for Education Communications and Technology (pp. 430-441).Anaheim, CA. Williams, M., Linn, M. C., Ammon, P., & Gearhart, M. (2004). Learning to teach inquiry science in a technology-based environment: A case study. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 13(2), 189-206.
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Misconceptions @ Misconceptions
Misconceptions about Misconceptions
Anjana Ganjoo Arora
Illinois (IL) Professional Development (PD) Provider #: 0901289400382
[email protected] 920 Anthonio Ct., Indian Creek, IL 60061, USA
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Misconceptions @ Misconceptions
Abstract This two-phase interpretive study analyzes the responses of forty-three 3-8 grade teachers’, enrolled in a summer-workshop, to a set of two multi-step open-ended pre-assessment questions followed by an in-depth analysis of these teachers’ reasoning behind their conceptions about plant respiration. Only five teachers were able to provide a reasonable explanation for the concept of plant respiration, the remaining exhibited the much reported misconception that “photosynthesis is plant respiration”. Even those teachers who had a reasonable grasp of the concept of respiration were unable to apply it to plants. Almost all the studies on misconceptions related to the concept of respiration either focus on sources of these misconceptions or diagnosing misconceptions or test ways to eradicate these misconceptions. None focus on the crucial missing link misconception-holders’ comprehension of their own misconceptions, which was the focus of this study. Most teachers expected that they would have misconception or incomplete comprehension and were reluctant to analyze their own concepts. However, the few who analyzed their own as well as others’ comprehension were able to formulate a useful list of statements and questions to enable themselves and others to better comprehend the concepts associated with respiration in general and plant respiration in particular. The most intriguing point was that it was NOT what was in their resources but what was MISSING from these resources and these teachers’ unquestioning faith in these resources that formed the basis of their misconceptions. This study has implications for conceptual development in learning, assessing and teaching science.
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Misconceptions @ Misconceptions
Misconceptions about Misconceptions Introduction Every semester when I ask my students (K-8 teachers or teacher-education majors or nonscience general education majors) the question: “Do plants breathe or respire” the answer is overwhelmingly either “NO” or that plants “breathe/respire carbon-di-oxide”. The persistence of this misconception in my students, even after providing targeted instruction, often makes me wonder about our comprehension of this and other concepts and how we gain these correct and incorrect concepts. This paper presents an interpretational study of my experiences with learning and teaching the concept of plant respiration. This is a two-phase study; the first phase is an analysis of responses to a set of two multi-step open-ended pre-assessment questions administered to forty-three K-8 teachers who participated in a two-week life-science Math Science Partnership (MSP) workshop. The second phase explores the possible sources of these teachers’ conceptions, correct or otherwise through a focus group discussion and analysis of resources. Conceptual Framework Misconceptions: exhibited by students and their teachers as well as prospective teachers; in approved texts related to photosynthesis and respiration; in questions in reputed assessments are well documented in literature (Canal, 1999; Downing, 1931; Krall, R. et al, 2009; Kose & Usak,2006; Kwen, 2005; Seymour & Longdon, 1991; Songer & Mintzes, 1994; Wandresee, 1983) . Sanders (1993) further established teachers’ inability to diagnose these misconceptions or errors in students’ work. Respiration Concept Test based on two-tier questionnaire for photosynthesis & respiration, forced-choice questions and assessment-task to diagnose learners’ conceptions about respiration prior to instruction have been developed, tested, and administered (Haslam & Treagust, 1987). Diagnosing learners’ prior-knowledge about plant respiration using concept maps, relationship maps and interviews Page 84
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are also reported (Capa et. al, 2001; Kose, 2006; Soyibo, 1995). Propositional Generation Tasks (PGT) have been used to diagnose and categorize learners correct and incorrect responses and their reasoning related to the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration. The relationship between Science Process Skills, Logical Thinking and ability to think about respiration as a concept has led to successful use of conceptual-change texts to enhance conceptual understanding of respiration (Yenilmez & Tekkaya, 2006). At least one study reports the difficulty in fostering understanding even after targeted instruction and all studies that claim conceptual change in the learners do NOT claim this for all the learners/respondents/participants of their study (Anderson et. al. 1990). There are other studies that question the design of these “concept-tests/inventories” as well as the results obtained from such tests in absence of eliciting students’ reasoning (Griffard & Wandersee, 2001). Also, such tests, even if valuable, are time-consuming and not practical in day-to-day instruction and eliciting students’ reason is even more challenging. However, the results of such studies are enlightening and should become an integral part of science curriculum, instruction and assessment design and implementation. Learners’ comprehension of variation between respiration and photosynthesis in light of teachers’ instruction to 712 year olds reveals that competent teachers able to identify and comprehend critical aspects of respiration can enable learners do the same (Vikstrom, 2008). The question is how to enable ALL K-8 teachers to identify and comprehend critical aspects of respiration? In spite of numerous reported studies that identify misconceptions and the positive impact of conceptual-change texts and instruction there is little evidence of such instruction in the K-8 classrooms or any emphasis on learning students’ prior-conceptions let alone their rationale for these concepts. There is a need for science teacher educators and professional development providers to utilize the misconception research in a manner that models possible transferability to the K-12 setting. This
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requires engaging teachers in analyzing their own conceptions in a manner that is possible to implement in a K-12 classrooms. This study was designed with this purpose in mind. Research Design Forty-three teachers had been selected by their districts, identified as “districts-in-need”, to participate in a MSP life-science workshop in the summer of 2007 on the campus of a liberal-arts college in North Eastern United States. I was one of the five workshop planners and instructors assisting the grant PIs to conduct the workshop. At the beginning of the workshop these teachers were administered a set of Multiple Choice and Constructed Response life-science questions selected from the NAEP released items (http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrlsx/default.aspx) and four open-ended diagnostic-items based on the most common misconceptions in biology (Pfundt & Duit, 2000, Weblink to Previous Ideas; Private Universe Project in Science). This paper, however, focuses on just the concept of plant-respiration in the context of a presentation that I delivered to these teachers on the importance of pre-conceptions in learning and teaching science. I decided to focus on the global concept of what is respiration followed by enabling teachers to think about their responses, thus, the study is more of an instructional/learning process than a conventional research study on diagnosing and/or rectifying misconceptions. The concept of respiration was purposefully selected as this is the key concept that is either missing from or incorrectly stated in many instructional resources on plantprocesses and well documented in the research literature as explained earlier. On purpose a very simple and open-ended questionnaire was designed and implemented for two reasons: 1) to model the ease of designing and conducting pre-assessments and 2) to know what these teachers will express regarding the reasons and sources of their conceptions about respiration without any distractors. The ultimate aim was to model a very simple and doable way of diagnosing and comprehending the rational behind these concepts and enable the teachers to do the same with their students. Based on
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this rationale the unit-plan that these teachers were required to develop to complete the MSP lifescience workshop required the inclusion of content-knowledge and misconceptions research based instructional design along with forward and backward design (Understanding by Design_ http://www.ubdexchange.org/). The practical research questions were: 1. What is these teachers’ conceptual understanding of respiration in general and plant respiration in particular? 2. What might be these teachers’ explanation for their correct and/or incorrect concepts? 3. What might be, according to these teachers, the sources of their correct and/or incorrect concepts?
Pre-assessment Data Collection Data was collected in two phases. In phase-I a questionnaire composed of six open-ended diagnostic-assessment questions was administered to forty-three 3-8 teachers to comprehend teachers’ prior-knowledge to design instruction targeted at their correct and/or incorrect/incomplete comprehension of plant respiration. In the second phase, the results of the phase-I analysis were shared with 6 of the forty-three teachers who were randomly selected to participate in a focused group discussion. Again, the purpose was to model that it is possible to not only enable teachers to think about their thinking but gauge their thinking using a small selected sample.
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Data Analysis The data was analyzed in two phases. In the first phase I analyzed the data entirely by myself and in the second phase I shared the process and the results with the teachers in a debriefing session to generate a frame-work for how they might apply this in their own classroom.
Due to the nature of the workshop and time-constraints I was unable to include all the teachers in the phase-I data-analysis process. Only six of the 43 teachers volunteered to participate in a focus group session to analyze the phase-I data and share their thoughts in the phase-II debriefing session. All The teachers were however, provided instruction on this process and were required to read the research on misconceptions associated with a concept, design a few questions, administer those to their students and then analyze the data and design instruction accordingly. Again, due to the nature of the workshop and time-constraints, these teachers were provide instruction on plant processes prior to the phase-II debriefing session and some had even begun to design their plant-unit plans as their fall teaching sessions were about to resume. On one hand, this limits the scope of this study but on the other hand augments some of the assertions as will become clear in the implication section of this paper. Phase-I Analysis I read the answers multiple times and then sorted the answers for each question into groups or categories. In case of the “YES/NO” answers, I of course, categorized them into just two groups, YES or NO. The categorized answers were recorded in word files and each category was provided an invovo code, that is, terms used by the participants to answer the questions were selected as the codes for the categories ®. Table-1 is the abridged version of the preliminary analysis followed by some of the apparent interpretations
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Table-1 depicts the preliminary analysis, that is, the different types of answers and the number of teachers who provided those answers QUESTIONS A N S W E R S
Q#1 What is the definition of breathing?
14 defined breathing as exchange of gases or air some mentioned lungs or gills. One mentioned leaves and stomata 13 mentioned exchange or intake of oxygen with no mention of the gas that is released/given-off 15 defined breathing as intake/inhaling of oxygen and giving-off/exhaling carbon-dioxide 1mentioned what the above 15 had and included that this process “helps break down glucose C6H12O6 to give us energy and release CO2”
Q#2 Do plants breathe? Circle one YES NO ALL answered 38 Stated YES
1 had selected YES but crossed it off and selected NO
4 Stated NO
Q#3 If you circled “YES” then explain how do they breathe?
Q#4 What is the definition of respiration?
Q#5 Do plants respire? Circle one YES NO
Q#6 If you circled “YES” then explain how do they respire?
4 stated that breathing used oxygen and produced carbon-di-oxide. One of these four mentioned that this oxygen came from photosynthesis
7 provided no answer; 2 irrelevant answers 14 did not mention type of gas; 6 mentioned oxygen as the gas that is used in respiration and one mentioned respiration is getting rid of carbon-di-oxide; 7 clearly stated that respiration is taking-in of oxygen and giving off of carbon-di-oxide with 3/7 further explaining the process as breaking down of sugars/glucose to provide energy and release CO2 and 1/7 mentioned that this happens at the cellular level 1 stated that respiration is same as breathing and they had correctly stated (in Q#1) that breathing is inhaling O2 and exhaling CO2 1 mentioned it has “something to do with breathing” 5 referred to respiration in terms of “rate” 1/5 mentioned, “rate of intake and out-take of oxygen” with 4/5 not mentioning any air/gas
4 No answer
19 provided no or unclear or irrelevant answers
The 14 who had not mentioned the name of any gas in their definition of breathing, the 13 who mentioned oxygen and the 12 of the 16 who defined breathing as intake/inhaling of oxygen and givingoff/exhaling carbon-dioxide stated the exact opposite as an explanation for how plants breathe. One mentioned plants take in some thing _ but the rest clearly stated that plants take in/breathe Carbon-di-oxide and give off oxygen during respiration
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5 Selected NO 34 Selected YES
6 Exchange of gases (with no mention of the type of gas) 5 Intake of O2 and release of CO2 13 Intake of CO2 and release of O2 with 4/13 specifically mentioning that photosynthesis is the respiration of plants
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Phase-I Interpretations 1.
All 43 teachers partially answered, “what is breathing” as exchange of gases identifying none or one or both of the involved gases with only one teacher providing an almost complete definition that breathing takes-in oxygen which “helps break down glucose C6H12O6 to give us energy and release CO2”. This and other teachers did not mention the other by product of breathing, water.
2.
38/43 stated that plants do breathe and 5 selected that plants do NOT breathe with three stating that plants breathe differently. One teacher regards both breathing and respiration as same, explaining that “I consider “breathing” as a common/nonscientific word for “respiration”.
3.
In response to the immediate next question, “if you circled “YES” then explain how do they breathe?”, only 4 re-stated what they had stated in response to, “what is breathing” the rest (38) stated the opposite, that is plants breathe by taking in carbondi-oxide and giving-off oxygen.
4.
Answers to respiration had many more varied responses with just one stating that respiration happens at cellular level. 24 responses were blank or unclear and 11 mentioned respiration as in-take of oxygen or “getting rid” of carbon-di-oxide with 3 teachers further explaining the process as breaking down of sugars/glucose to provide energy. Five referred to respiration as a rate.
5.
Out of the 34 who stated that plants respire 5 stated that during respiration they (plants) take in oxygen and give-off carbon-di-oxide. That is, one more than the number of teachers who had stated the same for breathing.
6.
13 teachers stated the opposite, that is, plants respire by taking in carbon-di-oxide and giving-off oxygen. These 13 teachers were among the 38 who had stated the same for plant “breathing”. The remaining 25 answers for how plants respire (if they respire) were blank or irrelevant or unclear or did not mention the type of gas.
Phase-II Data Collection & Analysis Six of the 43 teachers participated in a focus group discussion to respond to the phaseI analysis to recognize these teachers’ explanation for their correct and/or incorrect concepts and the possible sources of these concepts. As mentioned earlier, these teachers had already
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been instructed on curriculum design and analysis with emphasis on content-knowledge and most-common misconceptions research. They were required to compile an annotated bibliography on misconceptions related to any life-science topic. As part of the workshop, they were also studying seeds and seed growth and conducting simple activities on comprehending structure of plant parts and the processes associated with these parts. Also, after the Phase-I diagnostic-assessment but prior to this focus-group discussion the teachers had been specifically instructed via a power-point presentation, on plant processes and two of the selected six teachers had even begun to design their unit plans which happened to be on the topic of plants, one at the kindergarten and other at the 4th grade level. The focus-group discussion was initiated with the same six questions that were asked in phase-I and their collective responses. The six selected teachers were asked to comment in response to these questions and the collective responses. The following are all of their statements rearranged in an order to further the analysis process: 1. I do teach the carbon-cycle but (have) never taught photosynthesis followed by respiration. 2. All living organisms need oxygen_ except may be anaerobic microbes 3. Breathing and respiration are the same concepts_ just two different terms _ one dayto-day and the other is scientific 4. The products of breathing are produced during cellular respiration inside the cells of an organism so breathing is respiration_ also, the gas we inhale is produced during photosynthesis in plants 5. I have never taught respiration_ not even human respiration_ our curriculum does not include respiration 6. Plants need air_ my students are too young to learn the names of gases 7. Plants make oxygen _ I drill that into my students_ 8. Plants make oxygen_ Why do they (plants) need oxygen? 9. Plants use some of the oxygen they make 10. I always thought that photosynthesis is plant respiration 11. Don’t plants respire carbon-di-oxide? 12. Plants do the opposite _ is what I was always taught 13. This is what we were taught_ and this is what I teach. 14. Isn’t it harmful to have plants in the bedroom_ don’t plants conduct respiration only at night and release carbon-di-oxide at night_ which is harmful for us?
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On reading their comments I realized that even though these teachers had been instructed through direct instruction as well as through simulated activities about plant respiration something was missing. The irony was that they had done well on the annotated bibliographies they had designed and had identified all the misconceptions that are reported in research literature related to plant processes. When asked, why do they think that plants respire and yet don’t think that plants need oxygen just the way we do? The following were their comments 1.
Photosynthesis is emphasized to such an extent that (plant) respiration is either ignored or taught separately
2.
We are taught all kinds of cycles and chemistry but not the overall stuff
3.
My curriculum or the textbook does not require me to teach respiration
4.
Where and when does plant respiration happen? (on hearing this comment I realized that this was NOT mentioned in any of the instruction we (the workshop providers) had provided to these teachers)
5.
Plants NEED air is all that we teach at the K-3 level.
On perusing through the curriculum and textbooks used at the K-8 level in their schools we found the following: K-3 did not use a textbook and the resources used did not mention respiration. The only mention was that plants need air with no mention for what purpose. All stated that plants make food_ but none stated that plants make food from air and water. None stated that plants need air to “breath” just the way we do. Some resources mentioned that plants make air for us.
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Upper grade (4-8) resources did mention the two gases needed by plants as well as the role of plants in water cycle. However, the fact that plants need carbon-di-oxide to make food and produce oxygen was explained while the fact that this very oxygen is used by plants was NOT explained.
No resource explained that respiration was a continuous (on-going _ round-the-clock) process for all aerobic organisms and occurs in all the cells of that organism
On further analysis of multiple articles on plants in various NSTA journals and other sources, I arrived at the following conclusions: 1.
There were plethora of articles on photosynthesis with most ignore respiration_ even articles that focused on leaves as collectors of energy from the sun ignored to mention that it is cellular respiration that makes the energy stored in the “food” available for all life forms, including the plants themselves.
2.
K-8 textbooks and reputed websites (selected by workshop providers, including myself) included statements such as, “plants do NOT breathe like us, they….(e.g., Great Plant Escape)
3.
Plants do the opposite was a common statement
4.
K-8 textbooks did not mention respiration in the same section as photosynthesis (Plant Processes) and in the section where respiration was explained did NOT specifically mention that plants need/use the oxygen they produce in photosynthesis
5.
Traditional labs used in the workshop and commonly used in teaching respiration in high-school and college classrooms at the most revealed that plants use a gas (CO2) and produce (O2) whereas animals use this O2 and produce CO2. Page 93
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6.
There were some that provided a comprehensive overview with role-play as the best possible way to visualize this concept.
The following is an anecdote that happened after one of the focus-group teachers’ submitted her 4th grade unit-plan on plant processes and life cycle. She had written the best annotated bibliography on misconceptions about plant processes, including the most common misconception that photosynthesis is plant respiration. However, she had neglected to include plant respiration in any of the unit plan lessons. When asked the reason for this omission, her response was, “it is NOT in my school curriculum and I looked up it is NOT in the State Standards.” IMPLICATIONS Definitions do NOT change depending upon the time of the day It is understandable that teachers who think of breathing/respiration as just an exchange of gases (and not the intake/out-take of specific gases) have the misconception that plant respiration is photosynthesis. However, why were the teachers who had identified the correct reactants and products of breathing/respiration unable to apply this definition to plant respiration? Based on the literature review on the misconceptions associated with photosynthesis and plant respiration, I was expecting to see some of the same misconceptions but that even those teachers who had the correct concept of breathing/respiration were unable to apply it to plant respiration, was astounding. The most astonishing finding was that even some of the teachers who had described respiration in detail as “break-down of glucose” were NOT able to make the connection. However, ONLY those teachers who provided the explanation that included breakdown of food for respiration were the ones who made the connection between their definition and plant-respiration.
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It is clear that there is a lag between being able to state a definition and understanding the concept of “definition”. Perhaps the insistence in many resources that “plants do the opposite” or emphasis on photosynthesis while ignoring respiration supersedes the meaning associated with the term “definition”. It is essential to define what is meant by a definition. During a presentation to a group of science-educators where I shared the results of my study as well as what was reported in the research literature (that is, most teachers stated that during respiration, plants do the opposite, that is, take in carbon-di-oxide), a participant stated that, “it depends on the time of the day”. This person too had written (and articulated) a complete and correct definition of respiration_ yet thought that the definition just changes in case of plants depending upon the time-of-the-day. It seems that photosynthesis is getting in the way of respiration. Breathing is Respiration is Cellular Respiration The very fact that the teachers were asked exactly the same questions about “breathing” and “respiration” may have reinforced their belief that the two terms are different. The distinction between these two terms is often seen in upper grade biology instruction with the good intentioned desire to emphasize the distinction between the “physical act of breathing” and the “chemical process of respiration”. However, the use of “breathing” and “respiration” as distinct terms is problematic as both in their day-to-day meaning as well as scientifically these two terms mean intake of oxygen and release of carbon-di-oxide. The carbon-di-oxide that is released during breathing or respiration would not exist, if it were not for the chemical reaction at the cellular level. Above all, it is important to emphasize, contrary to what textbooks as well as research on misconceptions states, that breathing and respiration should be used as synonyms and in each case the physical exchange (including the mechanics of breathing and respiration) as well as the chemical process (including the release of energy that was formed during photosynthesis) be Page 95
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emphasized. It is NOT the confusion between these two terms that leads to incomplete and incorrect understanding of respiration but the incomplete comprehension of breathing as the mechanical or physical process of “exchange of gases” without questioning how the products of breathing were formed from the oxygen that was take-in during breathing. These teachers too, obviously, had received this kind of instruction through variety of sources, including the textbooks they use to instruct their students and had never questioned this assertion. The results of this pre-assessment have forced me to re-think my own instruction which has always distinguished between “breathing” and “cellular respiration”. In the article “Respiration – that’s breathing isn’t it”, Seymou & Longdon (1991) state the role of vocabulary and the confusion presented by using multiple terms, such as, “internal and external respiration, tissue respiration”…I would like to extend their logic to their paper_ why state that breathing and respiration are different when they in fact are the same_ the products of breathing cannot be formed without the chemical reaction that happens in each and every living cell…this paper cites Brass (1984) as quoted below “Barrass (1984) suggested that misconceptions may arise in children's minds because of the way in which teachers and authors of textbooks present information. In particular, he criticizes the use of imprecise language in teaching. He gives examples of terms such as 'internal respiration', 'external respiration', and 'tissue respiration' which are widely used. Barrass claims these terms are misleading, implying that respiration can occur outside of cells. He argues that one reason for pupils' confusion about the nature of respiration is that they interpret the term in its everyday usage rather than according to its strict scientific definition. This study provides evidence that this may indeed be the case. One possible solution to this problem would be for teachers to explain at the start of the topic that the term 'respiration' is used in a very broad sense in everyday language but that in scientific contexts it has a more restricted meaning. Once the precise and scientific use of the term has been Page 96
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defined, pupils (and teachers) should be discouraged from using the term in its broader context.”
The same logic needs to be applied to breathing_ but only after recognizing that “breathing” is NOT just a mechanical/physical act_ it is accompanied by chemical reactions. Rather than discouraging students/teachers from stating that plants breath just the way animals do_ I suggest we encourage/require that students/teachers state that plants breathe just the way animals do and that every living cell (other than anaerobic cells) needs oxygen all the time, that is, breathes all the time.
It is NOT in the curriculum Why did the teachers repeat the same error in spite of explicit instruction and even after having read misconceptions research specific to “plant photosynthesis and respiration” and having written an annotated bibliography highlighting these misconceptions? In both cases the stated reason was “external guidelines”, even though in one case these guidelines had been modified during workshop instruction. Both these teachers are advanced learners as was evident not only from their annotated bibliographies but their ability to read and summarize primary content research. This anecdotal evidence, stresses that even the most advanced learners amongst us are unable to “think” beyond the external-guidelines. Why did these teachers NOT value the literature-reviews they had not only conducted but communicated to others? Why did they value external guidelines above and beyond their own work? Telling but NOT Modeling The problem is NOT that most of the teachers who participated in this workshop had incomplete or incorrect conceptions_ we all do (including myself and the people who are reading this article)_the problem is that these teachers, the workshop providers (including Page 97
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myself), the culture within their schools and the K-college education system did NOT emphasize learners’ prior knowledge let alone comprehending that PK to design instruction. The external evaluators allowed us, the workshop providers, to include diagnostic assessment questions in the overall workshop pre-post assessment but dismissed them as questions useful just for diagnostic purposes but lacking reliability and validity. The emphasis was entirely on using NAEP questions as pre & post assessment and lecture based instruction accompanied by hand-on and field experience geared at gaining conceptual understanding. The irony is that UBD was used as the curriculum frame-work design and curriculum analysis was emphasized and touted to the teachers but we the workshop-providers did NOT follow that format. Science Teacher Educators as well as Scientists who instruct future teachers (or any student) MUST be trained in conceptual-change instruction based on students’ priorknowledge. There is no question that 3-8 teachers who teach science should have a good grasp of some basic science concepts such as, respiration. The results of this study have forced me to re-think how my own instruction and how that instruction is an anti-thesis of how science is done. The very basic tenet of science is to question and yet we do NOT teach that in our schools or workshops or in any science instructional format. I hope the readers of this paper will question what is included in this paper.
References Amir, R. & Tamir, P. (1994). In-depth analysis of misconceptions as a basis for developing research-based remedial instruction: the case of photosynthesis. The American Biology Teacher, 56(2), 94-100.
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Anderson, C.W.; Sheldon, T. H. & Dubay, J. (1990). The effects of instruction on college nonmajors' conceptions of respiration and photosynthesis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27 (8), 761-776.
Cañal, P. (1999). Photosynthesis and 'inverse respiration' in plants: an inevitable misconception? International Journal of Science Education, 21(4), 363-371. Downing, E. R. (1931). Pupil errors in photosynthesis and the respiration of plants. Science Education, 15 (3), 146-148.
Griffard, P. B., and Wandersee, J. H. (2001). The Two-Tier Instrument on Photosynthesis: What Does It Diagnose? International Journal of Science Education, 23(10), 1039– 1052. Haslam, F., and Treagust, D.F. (1987). Diagnosing Secondary Students’ Misconceptions of Photosynthesis and Respiration in Plants Using A Two-Tier Multiple Choice Instrument. Journal of Biological Education, 21(3), 203–211. Hewson, M.G. & Hewson, P. W. (1983). Effect of instruction using students’ priorknowledge and conceptual change strategies on science learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 731-743. Köse, S., and Uşak, M. (2006). Determination of Prospective Science Teachers’ Misconceptions: Photosynthesis and Respiration in Plants. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 1(1), 25–52.
Köse, S., Ayas, A., and Uşak, M. (2006). The Effect of Conceptual Change Texts Instructions on Overcoming Prospective Science Teachers’ Misconceptions of Photosynthesis and Respiration in Plants. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 1(1), 78–103.
Krall, R., Lott, K., & Wymer, C. (2009). Inservice Elementary and Middle School Teachers' Conceptions of Photosynthesis and Respiration. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20(1), 41-55.
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Kwen, B. H. (2005). Teachers’ Misconceptions of Biological Science Concepts as Revealed in Science Examination Papers. Paper presented at AARE 2005 International Education Research Conference. National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University Singapore. http://www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/v8_issue1/boohk/boohk3.htm accessed August 15, 2009.
Lin, C. & Hu, R. (2003). Students’ understanding of energy flow and matter cycling in the context of the food chain, photosynthesis and respiration. International Journal of Science Education, 25(12), 1529-1544.
Novak, J. D., and Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning How to Learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pfundt, H., and Duit, R. (2000). Bibliography: Students’ alternative frameworks and science education. Kiel, Germany: University of Kiel Institute for Science Education. http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/aktuell/stcse/stcse.html Accessed July 2001_ click to download an exhaustive bibliography on prior-conceptions and a link to an online searchable data-base on previous-ideas (pre-conceptions)_ http://ideasprevias.cinstrum.unam.mx:2048/ Private Universe Project in Science (Workshop 2 Video_Biology ) (http://www.learner.org/resources/series29.html) accessed fall 2000.
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Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., and Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a Scientific Conception: Towards a Theory of Conceptual Change. Science Education,
66(2), 211–217. Sanders, M. (1993). Erroneous ideas about respiration: The teacher factor. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(8), 919-934. Schuck, R. F. (1971) Effects of Set Induction Upon Pupil Achievement Retention and Assessment of Effective Teaching in Units on Respiration and Circulation in the BSCS Curricula. Science Education, 55 (3), 403-415. Seymour, J. & Longdon, B. (1991). Respiration – that’s breathing isn’t it? Journal of Biological Education, 25(3), 177-183. Songer, C.J. & Mintzes, J.J. (1994). Understanding cellular respiration: an analysis of conceptual change in college biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(6), 621-637.
Vikstrom, A. (2008). What is intended, what is realized, and what is Learned? Teaching and Learning Biology in the Primary School Classroom. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 19(3), 211-233. Wandersee, J. H. (1983). Students’ misconceptions about photosynthesis: A cross age study. In H. Helm & J. D. Novak (Editors), Proceedings of the International Seminar on Misconceptions in Science and Mathematics (pp. 441-463). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Wandersee, J. H., Mintzes, J.J. & Novak, J. D. (1994). Research on alternative conceptions in science. In G.L. Gabel (Ed), Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning (177-210). A Project of the National Science Teachers Association. NY: Macmillan Publishing Company. Yip, D. (1998a). A reliable and versatile design for investigations of gaseous exchange. Australian Science Teachers Journal, 44(2), 35-42.
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Yip, D. (1998b). Identification of misconceptions in novice biology teachers and remedial strategies for improving biology learning International Journal of Science Education, 20(4), 461-477. Capa, Y., Yildirim, A., & Ozden, M. (2001). An Analysis of Students' Misconceptions Concerning Photosynthesis and Respiration in Plants. Interviews to diagnose miscons @ respiration Soyibo, K. (1995). Using Concept Maps to Analyze Textbook Presentations of Respiration. American Biology Teacher, 57(6), 344-51. Yenilmez, A., & Tekkaya, C. (2006). Enhancing Students' Understanding of Photosynthesis and Respiration in Plant through Conceptual Change Approach. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 15(1), 81-87. NAEP Question tools_ http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrlsx/default.aspx _ this site was used to compile a list of multiple choice and constructed-responsequestions based on the science questions administered to 4, 8 & 12 graders in United States in 2000 & 2005
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DEVELOPMENT OF TWO-TIER DIAGNOSTIC TEST
DEVELOPMENT OF TWO-TIER DIAGNOSTIC TEST FOR EXAMINATION OF THAI HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING IN ACIDS AND BASES
Romklao Artdeja, Thasaneeya Ratanaroutaia, and Tienthong Thongpanchangb
a
b
Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
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Abstract The purpose of the present study is to examine Grade 11 Thai students’ understanding in acids and bases using a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test. This Acid-Base Diagnostic Test (ABDT) consisted of 18 test items, covering nine conceptual areas in acid-base chemistry including electrolytic and non-electrolytic solutions, acid and base solutions, acidbase theory, conjugate acid-base pairs, dissociation of strong acids or bases, dissociation of weak bases, dissociation of weak acids, dissociation of water, and the concentration change of H3O+ and OH- in water. The test was administered to 43 Grade 11 students in a public high school in Thailand during the first semester of the 2008 academic year before they studied acids and bases in class. The results from this pilot study showed that the Cronbach alpha reliability for the ABDT was acceptable. The test difficulty indices ranged from 0.20 to 0.35 and the discrimination indices ranged from 0.20-0.70. The data gained from the test will enable the researcher to realize the difficulties in learning acids and bases and can then develop a teaching strategy to facilitate students’ understanding. Keywords: acids and bases, a two-tier diagnostic test, high school students
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DEVELOPMENT OF TWO-TIER DIAGNOSTIC TEST FOR EXAMINATION OF THAI HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING IN ACIDS AND BASES Introduction Research on students’ conceptions have consistently pointed out that students come to the classroom with their ideas or beliefs about natural and scientific phenomena (Palmer, 1999; Özmen, 2008). In the learning process, students modify their existing knowledge either by adding new information or reorganizing what they have already known (Appleton, 1997). If prior knowledge is an alternative conception, the students will experience difficulties in learning (Krishnan & Howe, 1994; Robinson, 1998). Alternative conceptions refer to ideas which are different or inconsistent with the accepted scientific viewpoints. This term has been variously labels as misconceptions, preconceptions, preconceived notions, private concepts, misleading, alternative frameworks, children’s science, intuitive beliefs, and spontaneous knowledge (Nakhleh, 1992; Nicoll, 2001; Odom & Barrow, 1995; Özmen, 2008). Alternative conceptions can be derived from personal experience or previous science instruction (Teichert & Stacy, 2002) and can be found in all areas of science at all levels (Nakhleh, 1992). Concept on acids and bases especially, acids, bases, pH, acid-base models, etc. are among the chemical concepts that many high school students possess alternative conceptions (Demerouti, Kousathana, Tsaparlis, 2004a, 2004b; Demircioğlu, Ayas, Demircioğlu, 2005; Kousathana, Demerouti, Tsaparlis; 2005; Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1993; Özmen, Demircioğlu, & Coll, 2009;Ross & Munby, 1991; Sheppard, 2006). These alternative conceptions strongly interfere with students’ ability to learn subsequent contents (Acar & Tarhan, 2007; Pinarbaşi, Canpolat, Bayrakçeken, & Geban, 2006) in advanced chemistry. For this reason, science educators have increasingly paid attention to overcome students’ alternative conceptions in acids and bases. Page 105
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According to Gilbert and Boulter (1998) and Teichert and Stacy (2002), an aim of science education community is to develop more effective ways for helping students form indepth understanding. The first step to attain this aim is to address alternative conceptions that students hold, prior to instruction (Piquette & Heikkinen, 2005). Voska and Heikkinen (2000) indicate that students’ alternative conceptions could be revealed if the multiple choice tests were carefully designed in a way that distracters represented both answer and reasoning that students might exhibit alternative conceptions. One of the most effective tests that have been extensively used to identify students’ alternative conceptions in several subject matters is a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test (Treagust, 1986). Its usefulness has been well described in literature. Krishnan and Howe (1994) document that this test is ready to be used in classroom in order to diagnose students’ conceptual understanding. The result obtained from using this test not only helps teachers analyze students’ ideas but also helps students acquire a better understanding (Yenilmez & Tekkaya, 2006). Peterson and Treagust (1989) note that using diagnostic test is not as time consuming as interviews. Analysis of the literature in Thai science education contexts shows that research on students’ alternative conceptions in acids and bases were inadequate. The past research studies tend to concern about the students’ achievements rather than the students’ understanding. Moreover, the use of two-tier multiple choice diagnostic tests to identify high school students’ understanding of acids and bases are not widespread in Thai science education (Daitkrut 1990; Inboonna 1998; Suksawang 2006). As a result, the present study focuses on the development of a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test to investigate Thai students’ understanding of acids and bases. Research objective and question This study aims to develop a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test for examining students’ understanding of acids and bases. The following research question is formulated: Is Page 106
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a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test able to examine Grade 11 Thai students’ understanding of acids and bases? Literature Review Research on learning of acids and bases Previous research in science education shows that students have problems in learning acids and bases. The first problem involves textbooks. For example, in the topic of acid-base definition, there are models that commonly appeared in chemistry textbooks; are the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis models. Drechsler and Schmidt (2005) indicate that textbooks do not clearly distinguish the difference between the Arrhenius and the BrønstedLowry models. Furió-Más, Calatayud, Guisasola, and Furió-Gómez (2005) state that textbooks do not mention the limitations of the Arrhenius models and do not explain why a new model is introduced and differs from the previous one. Likewise, Demerouti et al. (2004a) and Drechsler and Schmidt (2005) note that chemistry textbooks present the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry models as the hybrid model. Students tend to use the hybrid model to explain acids and bases without a clear understanding (Kousathana et al., 2005). Another example that may cause student learning difficult is the ignorance to refer some key information. Demerouti et al. (2004a) indicate that students hold alternative conceptions with the effect of temperature on ionic equilibria, because textbooks present information without referring to the condition. Another main problem in learning acids and bases directly involves students’ perception. As mentioned earlier, acid-base topics require an integrated understanding of many areas of introductory chemistry, including the particulate nature of matters, the nature and composition of solutions, ionic and covalent bonding, symbols, formula and equations, and equilibria (Sheppard, 2006). For example, Demerouti et al. (2004a) note that students are unable to use the principle of equilibria to explain the concept of acids and bases, for Page 107
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example, the equilibria of polyprotic acids and the calculation of equilibrium of acids and bases. In addition, Ross and Munby (1991) and Nakhleh (1994) report that upper secondary students cannot completely explain acids and bases, because they have difficulties in understanding acids and bases as ions. Likewise, concepts within the same topic are interconnected. If students have no understanding the fundamental concepts, they hardly understand advanced concepts. For example, Schmidt (1991, 1995) indicates that students may have difficulties in understanding conjugated acid-base pairs, therefore they students struggle to understand the concept of neutralization. Given above, the determination of students’ alternative conception is necessary for teachers to be concerned for assisting students in developing scientific concepts and for seeking ways of remediation. Research on the development of two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test In 1989, Tamir propose a multiple choice test that provides an opportunity for students to respond along with justification of their choice by giving a reason. This test is an effective way of assessing student conceptual understanding rather than a traditional multiple choice test (Treagust & Chandrasegaran, 2007). Tamir’s idea has been pursued with great interest in science education community and has expanded into the development of two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test for identifying students’ alternative conceptions (Treagust, 1988). The procedures of the development of a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test have been differently classified in many phases depending on researchers. Odom and Barrow (1995) and Tan, Goh, Chia, and Treagust (2002) divide the procedures into three phases; (a) defining the content boundaries of the test, (b) obtaining information about students’ alternative conceptions, and (c) developing the instrument. Whereas Krishnan and Howe (1994) categorize the procedures into four phases; (a) defining the content, (b) defining Page 108
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learning objectives, (c) research on students' misconceptions in science concepts, and (d) developing the test items. Voska and Heikkinen (2000), on the other hand, separate the procedures into five phases; (a) examining related literature, (b) identifying propositional knowledge statements, (c) validating the content, (d) developing test items, and (e) designing a specification grid. Although procedures in each phase are diverse, the composition of a two-tier multiple choice test diagnostic test encompasses two major parts. The first tier is a content question having two to four choices. The second tier is a set of possible reasons for the answer given to the first part. The second tier, therefore, consists of the correct answer together with alternative conceptions. These procedures are employed as a framework for the development of a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test in this study. Methodology Participants Participants in the present study were 43 Grade 11 Thai students who studied at a public high school in Bangkok (16 males and 27 females) in the science and mathematics program. Their ages ranged from 16 to 17 years. Developing Acid-Base Diagnostic Test (ABDT) Three main steps for developing the test items of the ABDT were outlined by Odom and Barrow (1995) and Treagust (1986), including (a) identification of propositional knowledge to define content areas, (b) examination of the relevant literature concerning students’ alternative conceptions, and (c) development of two-tier multiple choice items. The procedures for developing the ABDT were fully described in sequence. In the first step, the propositional knowledge statements were listed as shown in Figure 1. The statements were chosen from the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST) chemistry textbook which is a principle textbook for Page 109
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teaching and learning in Thai curriculum. The statements were also used to define a boundary content of acids and bases. The content areas under investigation included nine concepts: electrolytic and non-electrolytic solutions, acid and base solutions, acid-base theory, conjugate acid-base pairs, dissociation of strong acids and strong bases, dissociation of weak acids, dissociation of weak bases, dissociation of water, and the concentration changes of hydronium ion (H3O+) and hydroxide ion (OH-) in water (IPST, 2003). The further step involved the reviews of common students’ alternative conceptions regarding acids and bases in literature. Reported alternative conceptions were integrated with the distracters of the test items. The final step involved the development of the ABDT. The test consisted of 18 items and constructed in Thai language. The first tier of the test item, which was in a multiple choice format with four choices, involved a content question. The second tier was in the same format as the first part, but it was a justification question consisting of five choices which required students to give a reason to support their answer in the first part. The content validity of the ABDT was established by a chemistry lecturer, a high school chemistry teacher, and an expert in chemistry curriculum. This step was carried out to ensure that each test item was appropriately constructed and the answers were approved. The ABDT was finally revised and then piloted with Grade 11 Thai high school students.
Figure 1. A list of propositional knowledge statements to define content areas An electrolyte can dissociate when it dissolves in water and its solution can conduct electricity. A non-electrolyte dissolves in water without producing ions to yield a solution which does not conduct electricity. A solution of acid contains H3O+.
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Compounds that do not contain OH- can also be basic. A Brønsted-Lowry acid can donate a proton. A Brønsted-Lowry base can accept a proton. A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor. A Lewis base is an electron pair donor. A conjugate acid-base pair is a pair of two compounds that interconvert between each other by gaining or losing a proton. Strong acids completely dissociate to yield a lot of ions in the solution. The acid strength is related to its ionization in water. Weak acids partially dissociate and some molecules of weak acids still remain in the solution. The acid dissociation constant indicates the ability of the acid dissociation. Ka can calculate from the formula; Ka= [H+][A-]/[HA]. The greater the value of Ka, the greater the amount of dissociation. Weak bases partially dissociate and some molecules of weak bases remain in the solution. Kb indicates the extent of dissociation of the base. Kb can calculate from the formula; Kb= [A+][OH-]/[AOH]. The larger Kb, the greater dissociation. Water undergoes autoionization; one water molecule can donate a proton to another water molecule to form H3O+ and OH-. Kw can be calculated from the formula; Kw= [H+][OH-]. The dissociation of water (Kw) depends on the temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater the degree of dissociation. The addition of a strong acid or base into water affected the concentration of H3O+ and OH-.
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The test items of the ABDT used in this pilot study were briefly discussed as follows. Item 1 and 2 measured students’ understanding of electrolytic and non-electrolytic solutions. Students were required to classify the differences between electrolytic and nonelectrolytic solutions. Item 3 and 4 involved the concept of acid and base solutions. Students had to understand the chemical properties of acid and base solutions. Item 5 and 6 tested students’ understanding regarding acid-base theory (e.g. BrønstedLowry and Lewis theory). Students needed to understand the definition of acids and bases in each theory and be able to identify them. Item 7 and 8 assessed students’ understanding of conjugate acid-base pairs. Students identified and explained what conjugate acid-base pairs are. To answer both items correctly, students had to understand the Brønsted-Lowry model. Item 9 and 10 investigated students’ understanding of strong acids or bases and factors that influence the strength of acids. Item 11 and 12 involved the dissociation of weak acids. Item 12, in particular, emphatically addressed the calculation of the acid dissociation constant (Ka). Item 13 and 14 tested students’ understanding of the dissociation of weak bases and the calculation of the base dissociation constant (Kb). Item 15 and 16 related to the concept of the dissociation of water. This concept assessed students’ understanding of the self-ionization of water. The calculation of Kw was also required for Item 16. Item 17 and 18 measured students’ understanding concerning the change of H3O+ and OH- concentration when a strong acid or base is added in water.
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Data collections The ABDT was administered in the chemistry class in the first semester of the 2008 academic year before participants studied the concept of acids and bases. Participants were informed about this study two weeks before the test administration. The test was completed within approximately 35-45 minutes during a regular class period. Data analysis Descriptive techniques including frequencies, mean scores, and standard deviations, were employed. Instrument reliability was determined by calculating the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient. The calculation of the reliability used the windows version of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 15. To calculate this, zero represents to either incorrect answer or reason and one represents to correct answer for both tiers (Wang, 2004).
The difficulty and discrimination indices were also computed for
students’ responses in each item. Results and Discussion In order to calculate the statistics of the ABDT, students’ responses to the test were analyzed. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the ABDT. Students’ scores ranged from zero to ten. It is possible that those students who scored zero had no understanding of acids and bases. Moreover, students might lack motivation since this examination was not taken into account, as their quiz scores, and did not affect any learning activities in the classroom. Thus, it might result in students’ attention in examination and their scores. Based on data shown in Table 1, in overall picture, a large proportion of students had rather low scores (mean = 3.27, see Table 1).
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Table 1 The characteristics of the ABDT Characteristics
Results
Minimum/Maximum score
0/10
Mean
3.72
Standard deviation
2.39
Cronbach alpha reliability
0.54
Number of difficulty indices (range)
0.05-0.35
0.00 -0.10
4 items
0.11-0.20
5 items
0.21-0.30
6 items
0.31-0.40
3 items -0.20-0.70
Number of discrimination indices (range) < 0.10
1 item
0.11-0.20
6 items
0.21-0.30
2 items
0.31-0.40
5 items
0.41-0.50
3 items
> 0.50
1 item
The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the test was 0.54, which was acceptable based on the criterion quoted by Nunally (1978). However, a greater value of reliability is required. The ABDT should be administered to a large number of participants to increase the reliability (Salkind, 2006).
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The difficulty indices from this study ranged from 0.05-0.35. The level of difficulty index can be classified as follows. Items with difficulty indices of 0.90, 0.50, and 0.10 were easy, average, and difficult respectively (Anastasi, 1982). Although the ABDT did not provide a wide range of difficulty indices, all items could be considered as having satisfactory difficulty indices based on the criteria reported by Othman, Treagust, and Chandrasegaran (2008), except Item 11, 13, 14, and 15 which were lower than the threshold. These items needed to be revised before the further administration. According to Othman et al. (2008), an item with a difficulty index between 0.4 and 0.6, categorized as moderate difficulty. The discrimination indices ranged from -0.20-0.70. A discrimination index, which is greater than 0.2, is considered acceptable (Odom & Barrow, 1995). There were four items (Item 5, 6, 10, and 13) with the unacceptable discrimination indices; Item 13 was out of range in both the difficulty and discrimination indices. These items should be revised by changing the questions or altering the distracters before using the ABDT in a further study. Additionally, in the full study, the test should be conducted together with interviews to ensure that data will provide a wide range of students’ understanding. Interview questions will be constructed based on the concepts identified in the ABDT in order to validate the test and the questions in the open-ended format which requires students to give their reasoning. Furthermore, the data from both sources will provide the researcher with more information to understand students’ prior knowledge of acids and bases. Conclusions The present study developed the ABDT to examine students’ understanding of the concepts of acids and bases. The findings from this pilot study suggest that the test was, indeed, able to examine students’ understanding. However, the empirical data from this study show that some characteristics of the test items were lower than the threshold value (e.g. Page 115
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difficulty and discrimination index). The results will also be used to revise the test for the further version. The data from the final version of the test is valuable for seeking concepts that students find difficult and designing teaching strategies for facilitating students’ understanding of acids and bases. Furthermore, the findings present here provide information concerning the development of the two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test. This will also enable chemistry teachers to prepare a test that can use to diagnose alternative conceptions in other concepts (Krishnan & Howe, 1994). Limitations of the Study The entire participants in this pilot study were only 43 students. Conducting a further research work with a large number of participants should enable the researcher to gain more information concerning the characteristic of test, for example reliability. The limitations arisen from this preliminary investigation offer useful data to the researcher for the test improvement. Implications for Teaching and Learning Evidence from this study provides several implications for teaching and learning. The use of a two-tier multiple choice diagnostic test at the beginning of the class can help chemistry teachers to understand the nature of their students, and thus it is very beneficial for chemistry teachers to plan teaching and learning process to enhance students’ understanding. In other words, it is an alternative way to encourage teachers’ awareness of students’ alternative conceptions which contributes to the improvement of their teaching (Yenilmez & Tekkaya, 2006). This also decreases students’ learning difficulties, since the results from the development of appropriate materials promote students’ understanding in learning scientific concepts. Additionally, this instrument can be easily used to diagnose student conceptions prior to and after classroom instruction.
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Acknowledgements Financial support for this research work was provided by the Office of the Higher Education Commission, Ministry of Education, and the Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University. References Acar, B., & Tarhan, L. (2007). Effect of cooperative learning strategies on students’ understanding of concepts in electrochemistry. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5(3), 349-373. Anastasi, A. 1982. Psychological Testing (5th ed.). New York: Macmillan. Appleton, K. (1997). Analysis and description of students' learning during science classes using a constructivist-based model. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(3), 303-318. Daitkrut, B. (1990). The effect of the chemistry remedial instructional package on achievement in acid-base equilibrium learning. Unpublished masters' thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. Demerouti, M., Kousathana, M., & Tsaparlis, G. (2004a). Acid-base equilibria, part I: Upper secondary students’ misconceptions and difficulties. The Chemical Educator, 9(2), 122-131. Demerouti, M., Kousathana, M., & Tsaparlis, G. (2004b). Acid-base equilibria, part II: Effect of
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Running head: A Comparative Study…. high school Chemistry textbooks
A Comparative Study between Iran, Japan, England and Pakistan high school Chemistry textbooks
Alireza Assareh1, Rasol abdullah mirzaie2, Ashraf anaraki2
1- Department of education, Faculty of humanity Science, Shahid Rajaee teacher training University - P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN 2- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shahid Rajaee teacher training University P.O. Box 167855-163 – Tehran-IRAN
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Abstract: Textbooks are used as an instructional tool in teaching and learning environment. The varieties of structure were observed in various countries. A comparative study was carried on for the evaluation of chemistry textbooks. For this purpose, the high school chemistry textbooks in four countries (Iran, Japan, England and Pakistan) are studied. The high school chemistry curriculum must be formulated based on the needs of the nation as well as global scientific requirements and the focus must be directed towards thoughtful learning and optimizing learning. Core chemistry must be designed to enable students to be literate in science, innovative and applying scientific knowledge in decision-making and problem solving in daily life. The elective contents must prepare students to be more scientifically inclined to pursue the study of science at post-secondary level. In this research the content of chemistry textbooks in four countries are surveyed by considering similarity and differences in given syllabus.
Keywords: chemistry education, Comparative study, chemistry textbook and high school.
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A Comparative Study between Iran, Japan, England and Pakistan high school Chemistry textbooks Introduction This article mainly explores and compares current Iran ,Japan, England and Pakistan Chemistry education from the aspect of chemistry textbooks' content by considering similarity and differences in given syllabus. The existing strengths and weaknesses of chemistry textbooks in these nations are also discussed in this article. .Some findings and conclusions in this article may therefore need to be validated and supplemented by further research. What is mentioned in this section is the introduction of chemistry education in each of the countries: In Iran: Research Center and curriculum established in1971, by employing expert groups of teachers and researchers. After many studies in curriculum resources and reviewing creative inventions and projects during the Sputnik, finally detailed lesson of chemistry was planned. In 1975 the chemistry books II, III designed. Important change resulting in secondary education system including the transformation of regular system into a single semester system happened, in 1991-1992. In the winter of 1999, Department of Chemistry and The Office of Planning in the ministry of education, designed and developed the chemistry curriculum guide of secondary school, and at the time published its issue at the last of winter (khalkhali, 2007). In Japan: The seeds of chemical education were planted following contact with Europeans in 1543. In 1837 Yo-an Udagawa (1798-1840), who was from the third generation of a wellknown academic family, started writing his chemistry book, "Seimi Kaiso ", the first Japanese book which literally meant "Introduction to Chemistry". This book was based on the Dutch
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translation of "Epitome of Chemistry" written by William Henry (1775-1836), an English chemist. The objective of science education in lower secondary schools is to develop the student's ability and attitude toward a scientific way of thinking and increasing their interest in learning about natural phenomenon. In these levels chemistry is not taught separately, but as a part of an integrated science curriculum, Rika. The course of study in elementary and lower secondary schools was revised in 1989 and is currently being implemented. According to the new "Course of Study", Science Curriculum in Upper Secondary Schools was presented as a Chemistry IA, IB, and II (Chemical Education in Japan Version 2. Chapter 2, 1995). In UK: Advanced Subsidiary courses have been introduced from September 2000 for the award of the first qualification in August 2001. The Advanced Level examination is in two parts:1) Advanced Subsidiary (AS) – 50% of the total award;2) a second examination, called A2 – 50% of the total award. Most Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level courses will be modular. The AS will comprise three teaching and learning modules and the A2 will comprise a further three teaching and learning modules. Each teaching and learning module will normally be assessed through an associated assessment unit. With the two-part design of Advanced Level courses, centers may devise an assessment schedule to meet their own and candidates’ needs. This GCE (General Certificate of Education) Chemistry specification builds on the knowledge, understanding and skills set out in the National Curriculum Key Stage 4 program of study for Double Science. It assumes that candidates following AS/Advanced level courses have achieved Grade C or better in GCSE Double Award Science. However, a qualification in GCSE Science is not a requirement and it is anticipated that candidates from different educational backgrounds
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with an equivalent level of prior learning in Chemistry will find this specification accessible (Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations, 2003).
In Pakistan: Chemistry is introduced as an independent discipline beginning in class IX. Prior to this, some of its basic elements are incorporated in the component of science taught at the lower stages. The Curriculum in vogue at Class IX to X has been framed in continuity of the scope and content of the science Curriculum for Class-I through VIII and consists of 3 broad areas:1)Structural theory of Chemistry,2) Elements and their Compounds and3) Introduction to other branches of Chemistry. The Curriculum in Chemistry for the new proposed single-science stream at the Higher Secondary level follows the general approach employed hitherto. It has been further improved and rationalized. Emphasis has been laid on problem solving and further building up the concepts governing chemical changes (Zafar and Zaidi, unknown). The following tables show Text books syllabus in desired countries.
Table 1: syllabus in Iran (Iranian chemistry curriculum, 1999) Iran chemistry I
chemistry II
chemistry III
pre university chemistry
Chapter 1 - Liquid water at the same frequency of rare
section1: Atomic Structure
section1: chemical reactions and Stoichiometry
section1: Chemical Kinetics
section2: periodicity Chapter 2 - Following to the clean air
section2: Thermodynamics
section3:ionic compounds
chapter 3 – consumption again, the only way to continue
section4: Covalent compounds
chapter 4 - black gold, to the end savings
section5: carbon and organic compounds
section3: Solutions
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section2: chemical equilibrium section3: Acids and bases section4: Electrochemistry
Table 2: syllabus in Japan (Chemical Education in Japan Version 2. Chapter 3, 1995) Japan science curriculum in lower secondary schools Content of a textbook of science (Rika) Chapter 1 Things around Ourselves Chapter 2 State Change and Heat Chapter 3 Light and Sound
science curriculum in upper secondary schools Content of a textbook of science
Chemistry IA
Chemistry IB
Chapter1: Substances Chapter1: Structure in the natural world and state of and their changes substances
Chapter1: Rates of reaction and equilibrium
Chapter2:Chemistry in daily life
Chapter2: Polymers
Chapter3: materials
Chapter2: Properties of substances
Familiar Chapter3: Changes of substances
Chapter 4 Force and Pressure Chapter 5 Chemical Change of Matter Chapter 6 Structure of Matter
Chemistry II
Chapter4: Manufacturing of familiar materials Chapter5: Application of chemistry and human life
Chapter 7 Property of Electric Current Chapter 8 Actions Done by Electric Current Chapter 9 Chemical Change and Ions Chapter 10 Motion and Energy Chapter 11 Progress of Science
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Chapter3: Project study
Table 3: syllabus in UK (AQA GCE AS Chemistry syllabus-specification 2420 ,2008; AQA GCE A2 A Level Chemistry syllabus-specification 2421, 2008) UK Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 CHEM4 Unit 5 Unit 6 CHEM6 CHEM1 CHEM2 Investigative Kinetics, CHEM5 Investigative and Foundation Chemistry and practical Equilibria and Energetics, Practical Skills Chemistry in Action skills in AS Organic Redox and in A2 Chemistry chemistry Chemistry Inorganic Practical Skills Chemistry Assessment 1. Atomic 1. AS Inorganic 1. Kinetics 1.Thermod A2 Inorganic Structure Energetics Chemistry: ynamics Chemistry: (GCE (GCE AQA AQA A2 A level 2. Equilibria AS 1. Amount of 2. Kinetics 2.Periodici Chemistry) Chemistry) Substance ty 3. Acids and A2 Physical 3. Bases Chemistry: (GCE 1. Bonding Equilibria r AS Physical 3. Redox Chemistry: AQA A2 A level eversible 4.Nomenclatur Equilibria (GCE AQA Chemistry) 1. Periodicity reactionse, Isomerism equilibrium AS in Organic 4 Chemistry) Chemistry .Transition AS Organic 1.Introductio Chemistry: (GCE Metals n to Organic 4. Redox AS Organic AQA A2 A level Reactions Chemistry 5. Compounds Chemistry: Chemistry) containing 5. (GCE AQA 5. Group carbonyl group Reactions 1.6 Alkanes AS 7(17) The of Chemistry) Halogens Inorganic 6. Aromatic Compound Chemistry s in 6.Group 2 Aqueous The 7. Amines Solution Alkaline Earth Metals 8. Amino Acids 7. The Extraction 9. Polymers of Metals 10. Organic 8. Synthesis and Haloalkanes Analysis 9. Alkenes
11. Structure Determination
10. Alcohols 11. Analytical Techniques
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Table 4: syllabus in Pakistan (National Curriculum for chemistry Grades IX – X, 2006; National Curriculum for chemistry Grades XI–XII, 2006) Pakistan IX-X CONTENTS XI CONTENTS XII CONTENTS Chapter 1 chemistry
fundamentals of
Chapter 2
structure of atoms
Chapter 3 periodic table and periodicity of properties Chapter 4 molecules
structure of
Chapter 1 Stoichiometry Chapter 2 Structure
Chapter 13 Elements
s- and p - Block
Atomic Chapter 14 d and f - Block Elements: Transition Elements
Chapter 3 Theories of Covalent Bonding and Shapes of molecules Introduction
Chapter 15 Organic Compounds Chapter 16 Hydrocarbons
Chapter 5 matter
physical states of
Chapter 6
solutions
Chapter 7
electrochemistry
Chapter 8
chemical reactivity
Chapter 9
chemical equilibrium
Chapter 10
acids, bases, salts
Chapter 11
organic chemistry
Chapter 12
hydrocarbons
Chapter 13
biochemistry
Chapter 14 environmental chemistry I: the atmosphere Chapter 15 environmental chemistry II: water Chapter 16
chemical industries
Chapter 4 States of Matter I: Gases Chapter 5 States of Matter II: Liquids Chapter 6 States of Matter III: Solids Chapter 7 Chemical Equilibrium Chapter 8 and Salts
Acids, Bases
Chapter 9 Kinetics
Chemical
Chapter 17 Alkyl Halides and Amines Chapter 18 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers Chapter 19 Carbonyl Compounds 1: Aldehydes and Ketones Chapter 20 Carbonyl Compounds 2: Carboxylic Acids and Functional Derivatives Chapter 21 Biochemistry
Chapter 10 Solutions and Colloids
Chapter 22 Industrial Chemistry
Chapter 11 Thermo chemistry Chapter 12 Electrochemistry Introduction
Chapter 23 Environmental Chemistry
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Chapter 24 Analytical Chemistry
Similarity and Points differences of syllabus in desired countries are shown in table 5&6. Table 5: Similarity syllabus in Iran, UK, Japan and Pakistan syllabus Iran UK Japan Liquid water at the same frequency of rare √ √ Following to the clean air √ √ consumption again, the only way to continue √ √ black gold, to the end savings √ √ Atomic Structure √ √ √
Pakistan √ √ √ √ √
periodicity
√
√
√
√
ionic compounds
√
√
√
√
Covalent compounds
√
√
√
√
carbon and organic compound
√
√
√
√
chemical reactions and Stoichiometry
√
√
√
√
Thermodynamics
√
√
√
√
Solutions
√
√
√
√
Chemical Kinetics
√
√
√
√
chemical equilibrium
√
√
√
√
Acids and bases
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Electrochemistry
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Table 6: Points differences of syllabus in Iran, UK, Japan and Pakistan Iran consumption again, the only way to continue
UK 1. The Extraction of Metals for example:
Japan Progress of Science
Pakistan biochemistry
aluminum, chromium, copper (and purification), iron, sodium, titanium and zinc, method details and equations, and method related to reactivity of metal and environmental issues.
Chemistry in the Daily Life Food Chemistry Chemistry of Clothing Dyes and Detergents
chemical industries
Manufacturing of Chemical Substances around Us Things from Air Things from Minerals Things from Petroleum
green chemistry
2.Mechanism: Halogenoalkanes 3.Analytical Techniques 4.Practical Skills Assessment 5. Chemistry in Action Investigative and practical skills in AS chemistry Practical Skills Assessment
Application of Chemistry and Human Life Progress of Chemistry and Its Role Preservation of Our Environment Project study Inquiring activities concerning specific chemical phenomena Study of examples of historical experiments in chemistry
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state of matter industrial chemistry
analytical chemistry learning outcomes: understanding skills society, technology , science
Conclusion After evaluation syllabus in desired chemistry text books, following items can be discussed. Also, the Strengths and weakness’ points of syllabus are considered.
In Pakistan, content of the book is very rich and incorporation laboratory and practical activities also can be much helpful in understanding the chemical concepts.
Japan with the main emphasis on environmental Chemistry and familiar material
which are found around students has special attention on the relationship between chemistry and society. On the other word, the designing of chemistry curriculum is based on project- oriented and historical aspects of contents.
The chemistry books of Japan in addition to have widespread look on
environment, chemistry and the living.
Also, the chemistry of organisms’ body is
discussed in Biochemistry section.
Chemistry books content in England focus on the practical skills which can be
used in different topics of chemistry. These skills are assessed in learning process of the chemistry classes.
A first Chemistry high school course in Iran includes four independent sections.
Each of the sections is designed for students with class discussions, daily events and
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issues and to engage their interest to learning chemistry. Content of each chapter of these book attentions to communication among chemistry concepts, human, technology and environment and it includes helpful concepts that can be understood by the wide range of students.
In England chemistry text book, the attention to environmental and social
viewpoints in syllabus is very less.
In Iranian chemistry text books the attention to organic chemistry, practical and
laboratory activities is less than the other countries.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to Iranian research institution for curriculum development and education innovation, for financial aids.
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References: AQA GCE AS Chemistry syllabus-specification 2420 (2008). .www.docbrown.info/page19/AQAchemistryAs
AQA GCE A2 A Level Chemistry syllabus-specification 2421(2008). .www.docbrown.info/page19/AQAchemistryA2. Chemical Education in Japan Version 2. Chapter 1: Historical Background. Published by Chemical Society of Japan . Revised in September 1995. www.t.soka.ac.jp/chem/CEJ2/
Chemical Education in Japan Version 2. Chapter 3: CURRENT STATUS OF THE INDIVIDUAL STAGES IN CHEMICAL EDUCATION. Published by Chemical Society of Japan . Revised in September (1995). www.t.soka.ac.jp/chem/CEJ2/
Iranian chemistry curriculum (1999). http:// chemistry-dept.talif.sch.ir/moradi/abcd.pdf
khalkhali. M. (2007). study of chemistry curriculum in IRAN , research report research institution for curriculum development and education innovation, ministry of education of IRAN
National Curriculum for chemistry Grades IX – X (2006). government of Pakistan ministry of education Islamabad.
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National Curriculum for Chemistry Grades XI–XII (2006). government of Pakistan ministry of education Islamabad. Oxford ,Cambridge and RSA Examinations , Third Edition , OCR 2003 , OCR Advanced Subsidiary GCE and OCR Advanced GCE in chemistry .Qualification Accreditation numbers : Advanced Subsidiary GCE :100/0596/1.Adnanced GCE :100/0424/5 www.york.ac.uk/org/seg/salters/chemistry
Zafar H. Zaidi, Chemical Education in Asia-Pacific,Chemical education in pakistan, HEJ Reserch Institute of Chemistry,University of Karach, Karachi, Pakistan ,M. A. Rahman University Grants Commission, Islamabad, Pakistan, www.t.soka.ac.jp/chem/CEAP/Pakistan.html
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE
Defining a creative and co-operative science and technology education course
Ossi Autio
University of Helsinki
[email protected] PL 8 (Siltavuorenpenger 10) 00014 University of Helsinki Finland
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE
Abstract The development of technology has been especially fast in the last twenty years. Changes in the economy, nature, production and society together with increasing scientific and technological knowledge have made it necessary to transform school teaching in the field of science and technology education. Numerous models for curriculum changes, as well as new pedagogical strategies, are available nowadays, both in literature and school textbooks. However, in spite of some good efforts, the legacy of behaviorist methodologies appears to continue to assert itself as the dominant orthodoxy in education still today.
This paper describes a special science and technology education course that promotes co-operative and creative problem-solving in primary school teacher education. The purpose of the course was to study creativity through analysing a special method for problem-solving and to create new pedagogical approaches in a learning environment, designed to promote active, co-operative, and problem-centred learning in technology education. Furthermore, we tried to evaluate a process, that includes several phases, from recognizing a problem to testing and evaluating it, and in which a small group of students together solve a problem in a science and technology education context.
According to our results it is obvious that creative problem solving, which includes decision making in several phases, forces students to engage in tasks that activate high-order thinking skills, social skills, and problem-solving skills, among others.
Keywords: science, technology, creativity, creative problem solving
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE
Defining a creative and co-operative science and technology education course
Introduction In this project the most important skill that we tried to develop in our students was the ability to engage in, creative problem solving in co-operative groups. This skill had to be developed for later use in the classroom and for other school subjects as well. Creative problem-solving seems to be central to an investigative and active approach to learning, in contrast to “textbook technology” as well as reproductive, teacher dominated work (Sellwood, 1991, pp.4-6). But in spite of several development projects in technology education there still appears to be too much passive learning. Students do routine practical work, but their relationship with the real world is artificial. During their technology classes, students reproduce artefacts according to given models, without any creativity (Weston 1990, p.34). Learning is therefore focused on production skills, with the aim of teaching students how to replicate demonstrated skills (Williams & Williams 1997, p.92). These kinds of approaches do not prepare students to meet the challenges of modern society and working life, where problem-solving as well as generating alternatives and choosing appropriate ones are significant skills. Maybe that is why many public and private institutions claim that there is a growing need for employees who are able to solve a range of problems (Grabinger 1996, p.665). Several intellectual capabilities and flexible and adaptable skills are required in modern working life. These generic skills apply to all sectors of working life. The specific skills, which are related to specific jobs, are quickly becoming obsolete, and they will have to be updated through the process of lifelong learning.
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE Based on Taousanidis and Antoniadou´s (2003, p.68) ideas capabilities needed in working life can be grouped as:
Problem solving capabilities:
Co-operative capabilities:
1. Ability to plan and organize
1. Ability to work with others (teamwork)
2.Ability to collect and analyse data
2. Ability to communicate effectively
3. Ability to solve problems
3. Willingness to take on responsibilities
4. Critical thinking
4. Self management 5. Learning how to learn Creative and Co-operative Problem Solving
Numerous models for curriculum changes in science and technology education, as well as for introducing creative problem-solving processes, are available nowadays, both in technology education literature and school textbooks (Johnsey, 1995). Nevertheless, there still appears to be an overemphasis on passive learning and the old traditions of craft learning (Kimbell, 1997, p.229). Moreover, some renewed curriculum models easily lead to a situation in which the construction phase immediately follows the planning phase, without enough time for conceptualisation, ideation, and the evaluation of ideas (e.g. Elmer & Davies, 2000; Alamäki, 2000). An especially important aspect of science and technology education and teacher education is providing the opportunity to get away from routine activities and lowlevel thinking, so that students can find fresh new ideas and approaches, for example, by utilizing group dynamics or special creative methods (e.g., Smith, 1998, pp.107– 133). Different ways to emphasize creative problem solving in small groups have been suggested (e.g., Grabinger, 1996, p.665; Dooley, 1997; Hill, 1999). A common feature of these approaches is to place students in the midst of a realistic, ill-defined,
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE complex, and meaningful problem, with no obvious or correct solution. Students work in teams, collaborate and act as professionals, confronting problems as they occur with no absolute boundaries. Although they get insufficient information, the students must settle on the best possible solution by a given date. This type of multi-staged process is characteristic of effective and creative problem solving. According to Fischer (1990, p.39) these stages may include: 1. Formulating the problem 2. Recognition of facts related to the problem 3. Goal setting – ideation or generating alternatives 4. The evaluation of ideas 5. Choosing the solution 6. Testing and evaluating When problem-solving is creative, the ideas or products produced during the problem-solving process are both original and appropriate (Fisher, 1990, pp.29–31). For these purposes, various idea-generation techniques or ideation models are valuable (Smith, 1998). The number of alternative solutions is important, because the best way to come up with good ideas is to have plenty of choice (Parker, 1991). Consequently, the outcome of creative problem-solving activities depends largely on the creative processes and ideation techniques that have been learned and applied. Furthermore, there are factors of attitude (interest, motivation, and confidence), cognitive ability (knowledge, memory, and thinking-skill), and experience (familiarity with content, context, and strategies) that influence problemsolving processes (Fisher, 1990, p.112). For example, non-judgmental positive feedback and the acceptance of all ideas, even absurd or impractical ones, are important in all creative group processes for generating significant alternatives
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE (Higgins, 1994, p.119). There should be room for free ideation sessions. Evaluative critiques should only take place afterwards. According to Strzalecki (2000, pp.242-247) we can identify certain factors related to the personal abilities and different styles of problem solving in the problem solving process. These elements can be presented in the following figure (figure 1.).
Cognitive system -Flexibility of cognitive processes -Fluency -Originality -Visualization of the solution
Axiological system -Autonomous motivation -Self-realization
Personality system -Stength of ego -Nonconformism -Tolerance of cognitive inconsistencies
Styles of Problem Solving
Problem solving process
1. Active and systems approach to problems 2. Responsibility 3. Transgression 4. Objectivism 5. Analogy seeking 6. Ideal thinking 7. Modular thinking 8. Intuitive thinking 9. Independent thinking 10. Conservatism 11. Rationalism 12. Active approach to problems 13. Reductive thinking 14. Openness 15. Systems approach 16. Flexibility 17. Persistence
Identifying the problem Identifying the facts and the goals Presenting the opinions Presenting the ideas Evaluating the ideas Choosing the solutions Testing and evaluating
Figure 1. Simplified model of the elements in creative problem solving process. Cooperation of the personal factors and styles of solving problems.
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE The creative and co-operative science and technology education course The plan of the creative and co-operative science and technology education course was based on the assumption that co-operative and creative problem solving would be valuable for developing a premium science and technology education study module for primary school teacher education. The purpose of the study was to discover students´ creativity by perceiving the creative process, and to find out to what extent they learn creative skills, especially those that involve generating alternative ideas and the self-evaluation of these alternatives. Another goal of the course was to introduce our student teachers to methods they can use to help pupils to work co-operatively when they solve problems and make decisions during a science and technology education course in their own schools. In practice, our student teachers were to compose, plan and create autonomously something new – an innovative technological product. It could be a functioning apparatus or a toy, a system or a process related to such themes as levers, crankshafts, gearwheels or moving and flying objects. To help our students to become familiar with problem solving and decisionmaking processes, ideation techniques, and the evaluation of ideas, we included in the ideation process a practical problem-solving model and the Overall Mapping of a Problem Situation (OMPS) method. At the beginning of the course, the students attended two hours of lectures and demonstrations about creative problem-solving. The sessions covered different idea generation techniques, such as brainstorming and analogous thinking. In addition, the students became familiar with the theme through WWW pages (Lavonen & Meisalo, 2001) that presented problem-solving models and several idea-generating techniques,
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE such as the OMPS (cf., Sellwood, 1991, p.5). Different (e.g., creative, social and personal) abilities and skills needed in creative problem solving, as well as ways to establish a creative and open atmosphere, were discussed. After the above-mentioned sessions, a four-hour workshop was organized in which the students worked in small groups. In these workshops, students became familiar with the OMPS method by using it to plan a bridge or tower to be constructed out of newspapers. During the planning phase of the project (four to eight hours), the groups of 3-4 students worked in 24 collaborative teams according to the basic principles of the OMPS method, and generated a map of the creative process (Figure 2). The Problem: How to design a moving vehicle Facts: - Time limit - Electricity - Mechanics - Toy
Opinions: - Beautiful - Simple enough - Do we have enough skills? - Recycling materials
Goals: - Useful - Moving vehicle - Modern - Must finish in time
Visions: - Artistic - Best seller - Creative
Approach A: Flying
Approach B: A car
Approach C: A Ship
Approach D: Stories
Idea A1: Airplane + Traditional + Interesting + Many options
Idea B1: Police car + Easy to make + Kids like it + Interesting
Idea C1: Titanic + Easy + Traditional + Motivating story
Idea D1: Time machine + Historical perspective + Exciting + Innovative
? Does it fly?
? How to put something unusual
? How to put something unusual
? How to manage in time
Idea A2: Helicopter + Not so usual + Innovative + Interesting + Exciting
Idea B2: Ambulance + Lights fit well with the idea + Interesting + Exciting
Idea C2: Wing wheel + Innovative + Mechanics fit well + Interesting
Idea D2: UFO + Innovative + Lights fit well + Futuristic perspective
? How to get lights blinking
? How to manage in time
? Mechanics
Idea B3: Fire truck + Exciting
Idea C3: Submarine + Exciting + Periscope
Idea D3: Cows flying + Innovative + Not traditional
? Does it really work?
? How to keep in the air
? Is it flying Idea A3: Air balloon + Can really fly + Learn physics
Figure 2. An example of a planning process expressed by a map constructed during the creative phase. In this phase, the primary school student teachers utilized the method of Overall Mapping of a Problem Situation, OMPS.
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE In the process: 1. the students had to first find, formulate and specify the problem, and recognize the facts (agreed by the team) and opinions related to the problem. 2. Next, the teams set the problem or team assignments in a cogent phrase, such as: How can an interesting electric toy be constructed? 3. In addition, the students had to set the goals and visions (ideal performance). 4. Then, the students had to create suitable approaches for solving the problem, and to generate problemsolving alternatives. 5. Every alternative idea was subsequently backed-up by presenting at least three reasons for its adoption. Non-judgmental positive feedback and the acceptance of all ideas, even absurd or impractical ones, were held as important rules during all group processes that generated creative alternatives (Higgins, 1994, p.119). After generating dozens of ideas, students chose the most appropriate solution by comparing the positive feedback and constructive questions that related to each idea. Typically, the final solution was a combination of several original ideas. During the ideation phase, the students were encouraged to follow the creative rules, and to utilize idea generation techniques while working in cooperative groups. After selecting the final ideas, students then planned how they would construct the structure or perform the process. After generating alternatives, evaluating them, and designing and planning the project, the students created something new in their design solution process, utilizing paperboard, wood, metal, and/or plastic, and the appropriate tools. The teams spent approximately 12 hours in the workshop, and worked according to their previously agreed plans. The intention was that the students would be creative in their teams, and would modify their preliminary plans during the practical work period. Finally, each team presented their innovations to the other groups, and evaluated both the
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE innovations and the entire process, first by themselves and then with the others. The construction and evaluating phases are not included in this paper.
Figure 3. An example of an innovative technological product: motorized mini roller board.
Implementation of the Study Of the 118 participating students, 80% were female, and were on average 24 years old. According to the collected background information, 77% of the students had little or no previous knowledge or experience regarding the contents and methods of technology education. Less than 10% of them, however, disagreed with statements indicating high motivation and responsibility in their work, as well as success in planning and collaboration during the course. Only about 15% of the participating students thought that the course was of little significance to the primary school teaching profession, or that the course offers little that is applicable to their profession. It can be concluded, therefore, that the students’ attitudes to the project were largely positive and that they agreed with the project goals. To evaluate the creative problem-solving processes, a questionnaire consisting of 23 items was utilized, thereby yielding self-evaluative data concerning the students'
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE success as regards the conceptualisation and evaluation of ideas, as well as on their success with creative problem-solving. Of the 118 students who participated in the project, 85 students answered the questionnaire. More specific results extracted from the questionnaire can be found in an article published earlier (Lavonen, Autio & Meisalo, 2000). Furthermore, three different groups of three to four members were selected to be video taped. The videotapes were later analysed focusing on the steps in the creative problem-solving process and styles of problem solving process (figure 1). This paper concentrates on these results. Empirical study Although all our students had to fill in a questionnaire consisting of 23 items, the video recordings were used, in this paper, a main data collecting method. The recordings were carried out in the middle of the project, when students worked in groups of three to four persons. The recordings were made beginning from the idea generating process and continuing until the students had chosen the alternative to generate further in the practical workshop. Each recording approximately lasted for one hour. Consequently, we recorded a total of 3 hours and 18 minutes of the students´ activities. The videos include all kinds of student activities related to the idea generating process, and the students´ discussions can be clearly heard on the tapes. After the recordings, the researcher viewed the videotapes twice and discussed the preliminary findings with colleagues. After that, he transliterated all verbal and non-verbal events on the videos. He played and replayed the videos at least four times to find out the specific meaning of all episodes, and transcribed all natural talk between the students. These notes comprised about 40 standard pages.
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE In analysing the data, the categories used were derived from our theoretical background, as well as concluded by induction from the video notes. The main and subcategories, their definitions, and typical examples taken directly from the categories are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptions of the categories of tasks in problem-solving activities and examples of students´ typical behaviour in different categories. Code Description of the category
Example
+ ++ o -
positive verbal or nonverbal feedback very positive feedback neutral feedback negative feedback
That is ok. That is very good. I do not know about that. I do not like that idea.
1 1.2. 1.4. 1.5.
Identifying the problem facts related to the problem ideation of the problem evaluation of the problem
What is our problem in this project? It must be a toy. A toy with some mechanics and electricity. Is it just a toy or something else?
2 2.3. 2.4. 2.5.
Identifying the facts and the goals opinions related to the goals ideation of the goals evaluation of the goals
We must finish this in 10 hours. It must be nice and sweet. Is one of our goals that we really learn something Is aesthetics really so important?
3 3.5. 3.8.
Presenting the opinions evaluation of the opinions development of the opinions
These are just our own opinions not facts Do we really have to use the toy We must built something that is useful
4 4.2. 4.3. 4.5. 4.8.
Presenting the idea facts related to the idea opinions related to the idea evaluation of the idea development of the idea
Can we build a car? There must be lights on it. Yes, but it must be simple enough. It is easy to put electricity and mechanics on it. We can build a racing car.
5 5.3.
Evaluation opinions related to the evaluation
Is this really a good idea? First we must have plenty of ideas.
6 6.3. 6.5.
Choosing the alternatives opinions related to the alternatives evaluation related to the alternatives
I like the idea of a racing car. It is a good idea if we can make it simple enough. There are many positive things on this idea.
7
Experimentation
Not included
8
Implementation
Not included
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE After defining the categories all videotaped activities were analysed. Altogether, there were 570 spoken episodes during one 60-minute videotaped period, with, on average, a duration of 6,3 seconds. In addition, 242 episodes of verbal or non-verbal feedback were registered. Most of the feedback given to other students was positive (160 episodes / 67%). Neutral feedback was given in 76 episodes (31%) and negative feedback only in 6 episodes (2%). So the idea of non-judgmental positive feedback and the acceptance of all ideas, even absurd or impractical ones, were fulfilled and there seemed to be room for free ideation. In the next phase we tried to find out what kind of problem solving styles were used in each step of the problem solving process. In this paper we concentrated to six main categories of the process and selected from Strzaleckis´ (2000, p.252) factors 12 main styles of solving problems. The frequencies of each category defined in the previous chapter are presented in Table 2. Most of the facts and the goals were discussed during the first 20 minutes. Also, in first 20-minute period the problem was identified and most of the opinions were presented. Students´ used many different problem solving styles, but most of the styles were quite conservative in this phase. Most popular were rationalism, conservatism and active approach to problem. The real idea-generating process started in the first 20 minutes, but it accelerated all the time throughout the 60-minute period. Most of the ideas (58 episodes /59%) were presented in the second 20-minute period, 14 episodes (14%) occurred in the first period, and 26 episodes (27%) in the last 20-minute period. In this phase the problem solving styles were much more open flexible.
Most popular were
independent thinking, openness, flexibility and intuitive thinking.
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE
Only 26 occasions (13%) of evaluation of the ideas occurred in the first 20 minutes, while 70 occasions (37%) appeared in the second and as many as 95 occasions (50%) in the last 20-minute period. It seems that, if we want to get plenty of ideas, the idea-generating process must last at least 30 minutes. If the idea-generating process is shorter, the ideas and styles of problem solving are usually quite traditional and do not full fill the concept of a real innovative process. Table 2. The frequencies of problem solving styles in each step of the problem solving process. Categories are based on the description presented in figure 1 and table 1. Styles of Solving Problems
Identifying
Identifying
Presenting
Presenting
Evaluation o
Choosing the
(amount of episodes)
the problem
the facts
the opinions
the idea
the idea
alternatives
Frequencies
Frequencies
Frequencies
Frequencies
Frequencies
Frequencies
1. Active and systems
3
6
5
10
2
2. Responsibility (42)
2
5
2
6
27
3. Transgression (12)
2
3
5
2
4. Objectivism (44)
1
15
25
approach to problems (26)
3
5. Analogy seeking (19)
19
6. Modular thinking (21)
3
7. Intuitive thinking (83)
2
7
9
4
75
4
8. Conservatism (41)
6
8
12
9
6
9. Rationalism (73)
7
5
10
36
14
1
6
34
2
5
52
5
1
1
6
85
12
31
49
325
140
10. Reductive thinking (42) 11. Openness (63) 12. Flexibility (104)
Total (570)
21
4
Discussion This project allows us to conclude that creativity cannot be taught directly, but it could be learned effectively through a co-operative creative problem solving process. Page 150
CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE At least the students felt and the data confirms, that they had learned to give positive feedback regarding other students’ ideas, and to recognize the advantages of those ideas, and even to develop them further. Present findings also suggest that the students worked co-operatively. The students shared their cognitive resources, talked, recognized facts, planned, and evaluated with the aim of solving problems and producing a single outcome through dialogue and action. It is obvious that a formal method, in which each idea must be backed up by the presentation of at least three reasons for its adoption, is necessary for success in the beginning. Such evaluation creates a non-judgmental positive atmosphere for creativity, and it helps to behave positively. Also, it could be effectively argued that the Overall Mapping of a Problem Situation (OMPS) method helps students understand the nature of creative processes, and particularly that there are different phases involved in each of these processes. Moreover, it seems that co-operative and creative learning approaches are also suitable for school classrooms. Therefore it is obvious that students should be introduced to creative problem solving in general, and to practical problem-solving in particular, among the other pedagogical approaches. In summary, this project indicates that creative problem-solving approaches may be efficiently used to improve teacher training. From the point of view of similar future projects, it is important to observe that students´ should receive more introductions to creative problem solving in general. In addition more efficient guidance in generating alternatives is also needed before the project. Although the students attended two hours of lectures and demonstrations about creative problem-solving, and they became familiar with the theme through WWW pages, learning was not too active when the lectures were given using
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE traditional methods. As the students were directly taught very little, they did not have enough planning and ideation skills. Actually, though manuals and handbooks were available all the time, the difficulty was that students did not have much time to learn new knowledge during the active process. Although uncertainty and tolerance of cognitive inconsistencies are some of the main elements in creative work (Strzalecki 2000, p.244), better guidance in creative problem-solving methods should be taken into consideration, because many students became anxious when no formula existed, or no direct guidance was given in how they should work. It is easy to talk about creative problem solving in general, but organizing cooperative problem-solving situations and learning activities is not as easy as it seems, and it is even more difficult to measure this process with reliable methods. It will be interesting to see how our findings can be put into practice. We are continuing our efforts in several related projects. References Alamäki, A. (2000). Current Trends in Technology Education in Finland. Journal of technology studies, 24(1). Dooley, C. (1997). Problem-centred learning experiences: Exploring past, present and future perspectives. Roeper Review, 19(4), 192–196. Elmer, R. & Davies, T. (2000). Modelling and Creativity in Design and Technology Education. In J. Gilbert & C. Boulter (Eds.), Developing Models in Science Education (pp. 137–156). Dodrecht: Kluwer. Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching Children to Think. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Ltd. Grabinger, R. S. (1996). Rich Environments for Active Learning. In R. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE Technology. A Project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) (pp. 665–691). London: Prentice Hall International. Higgins, J. M. (1994). Creative Problem Solving Techniques: The Handbook of New Ideas for Business. Winter Park FL: New Management Publishing Company, Inc. Hill, J. R. (1999). Teaching Technology: Implementing a Problem-centered, Activitybased Approach. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31(3), 261–280. Johnsey, R. (1995). The Design Process: Does it exist? A critical review of published models for the design process in England and Wales. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 5, 199–217. Kimbell, R. (1997). Assessing Technology: International Trends in Curriculum and Assessment. Buckingham: Open University. Lavonen, J., Autio, O. & Meisalo, V. (2000). Creativity in Design and Technology Education: A Case Study in the Education of Primary School Teachers. In: Theuerkauf, W. & Craube, G. (Ed.) Technology Education Consequences and coming challenges as engendered by a global perspective. Proceedings of the International Conference of Scholars on Technology Education ICTE 2000 Braunschweig 24.-27. September 2000. Lavonen, J. M. & Meisalo, V. P. (2001). Luovan ongelmanratkaisun työtavat [Models of teaching in creative problem solving]. Retrieved 02.10.2002 from http://www.malux.edu.helsinki.fi/kirjasto/lor/. Parker, G. M. (1991). Team Players and Teamwork: the Competitive Business Strategy. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass.
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CREATIVE SCIENCE COURSE Sellwood, P. A. (1991). The Investigative Learning Process. Journal of Design & Technology Teaching 24(1), 4–12. Smith, G. (1998). Idea Generation Techniques: A Formulary of Active Ingredients. Journal of Creative Behaviour 32(2), 107–133. Strzalecki, A. (2000). Creativity and Design. General Model and Its Verification. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 64, 241-260. Taousanidis, N. & Antoniadou, M. (2003). Greek higher education and the world of work, new challenges in the 21st century. In: Papadourakis, G. (Ed.) Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on New Horizons in Industry and Education. Technological Educational Institute of Crete. Weston, R.F. (1990). Defining Design and Technology. Journal of Design & Technology Teaching. 23(2), 31-34. Williams, A., & Williams, J. (1997). Problem Based Learning: An Appropriate Methodology for Technology Education. Research in Science & Technological Education, 15(1), 91–103.
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What does science look like for 3 and 4 year old children in early learning centres and how can early childhood educators take advantage of this?
Elaine Blake and Christine Howitt
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia
[email protected] [email protected]
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Abstract Although much has been written about improving primary school science and scientific skills for children, not a lot has been done to find out what science actually looks like for 3 and 4 year old children. There is a common belief among many adults that science concept learning is something to be addressed in the later years of schooling. Thus early childhood educators tend not to emphasise science teaching and learning. Science, however, is a discipline upon which all curriculum learning can begin as young children are innately curious about their world. As a means of capturing the understanding of science, individual children from three very different early learning centres have been observed to develop case studies about experiences of scientific discovery. Observations and conversations with children are presented and interpreted as a means of gaining insights into young children‟s scientific understanding. The results from this research highlight a need for early childhood educators to provide dedicated time, resources and space to enhance logical thinking and science learning in early learning centres.
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What does science look like for 3 and 4 year old children in early learning centres and how can early childhood educators take advantage of this? Introduction Curiosity and trying to make sense of the world around them is something children do from the moment they are born. Due to this immense curiosity, and their thirst for knowledge, young children are natural scientists (Howitt, Morris & Colvill, 2007). Meaning they make is never static but constantly changing according to their curiosity, experiences and the sociocultural system in which children are engaged. Once curiosity is aroused it then becomes possible to commence the building blocks required for conceptual information, scientific understanding and hopefully a desire to continue scientific studies. Various researchers have commented on the lack of classroom-based research to investigate young children‟s thinking of scientific concepts (Fleer, 2006; Fleer & Robbins, 2003; Venville et al, 2003). Johnston (2007, p. 1) commented that “young children‟s emergent science is very much misunderstood yet it is a vital foundation for later scientific development”. She defined emergent science as the informal development of learning specific skills such as observation. Emerging observation skills, however, call on a child‟s prior experience and is enhanced through using the senses associated with touch, smell, sight, sound and taste. Becoming skilled in observation leads to other scientific skills such as classification, explanation and prediction. With limited research into emergent science skills, it is generally unknown how very young children process their scientific curiosity into knowledge. The development of observation is also influenced by children‟s daily experiences and the context in which learn. Using an integrated curriculum, and insightful questioning, educators can present opportunities for children to transform their ideas and
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rethink what they know by placing a different perspective on an investigation. New possibilities can be created and exciting connections made between people and the learning environment when alternative methods of exploring an idea are presented. Children, according to O‟Sullivan-Smyser, (1996, p. 20) are wise about their own learning as they “seem to know instinctively how to acquire information at a level that is useful to them”. A major premise to this is an educators‟ belief that from birth a child is biologically predisposed to relating to and learning from others (Milikan, 2003). Therefore, in developing scientific concepts children often need assistance to advance complex thoughts and understand why things are the way they are and why things work the way they do. Young children also require a battery of experiences that allow them freely explore a concept and to move their understandings to more refined knowledge, with the assistance of others. What children pay attention to is determined by the environment provided, freedom to explore, and what adults or significant others in their company point out to them (Fleer, 2007). Steps to encourage and develop scientific thinking should therefore be undertaken by significant others such as teachers, carers and parents who have a social and cultural awareness of a child‟s background and prior learning experiences. This paper reports on the outcomes of a project that provides a window into teaching and learning practices that develop science for 3 and 4 year old children. The first part of this paper introduces a socio-cultural context for learning and the concept of the zone of proximal development as a theoretical framework for this research. The second part of this paper presents the project design and the findings are presented. A socio-cultural context for learning Generally, learning environments are made up of social-cultural factors that assist learning and development. These factors represent the personal, environmental, interpersonal
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and contextual influences on a person (Robbins, 2005). Children integrate their experiences and curiosity, with the guidance of others, to build new understandings about their world and its workings. Adults who pay attention to how the child‟s involvement changes and transforms as s/he participates in experiences (Robbins, 2005) assist learning and conceptual understanding within a social-cultural context. A social-cultural context recognizes prior learning and provides connections and social interaction between individual cognitive thoughts and actions and those of a group (Venville, 2003; Robbins, 2005; Fleer & Robbins 2003; Rogoff, 1995). The relationship between cognitive and emotional areas of development contributes to and benefits the socio-cultural perspective where social practices rather than individual actions are central to the structure of cognition. The ability to think logically and sequentially to solve problems in a safe and encouraging environment are essential skills which are honed through engagement with others and opportunities to practice them. “Thinking is embedded in socio-cultural contexts, and reflects local practices, beliefs, values and goals” (Robbins, 2006, p. 27). When teachers are aware of a child‟s prior learning and include new experiences in the learning environment that could extend their knowledge, an opportunity is provided to make connections between the old and the new and advance intellect. A child‟s interpersonal and contextual influences on intellectual learning are clarified and developed when individual thoughts are positively influenced by others in their environment (Robbins 2006). However, cognitive development is not just thinking. It includes a wide range of mental behaviours such as remembering, concentrating, perceiving, reasoning and problem solving (Szarkowicz, 2006). Moving a child‟s conceptual understanding to a new level occurs when they are actively engaged and feel confident with new information.
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The zone of proximal development The space between the known and the capability of adding new knowledge is described by Vygotsky (1978) as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Fleer (2006) describes this space as „hypothetical‟ and elaborates that it is the distance between a child‟s actual developmental level and their potential level of development. Motivation and social influences by others can assist a child to realise potential. Milikan (2003) concurs that the value and influences of social interaction and feedback from interpersonal and intrapersonal connections will advance a child‟s potential development with the help of adults. Mulaguzzi (1998), however, urges caution with a model where adult intervention is relied upon to develop a child‟s potential learning. He feels it could result in a return to traditional teaching where words and answers are provided rather than a supportive environment where play, listening and respect for a child‟s wonder is acknowledged. Robbins (2005, p. 152) supports Mulaguzzi‟s concern and warns about the dangers of “preconceived ideas of what children know and can do”. The aim of teaching, according to Piaget (Mulaguzzi, 1998), is to provide conditions for learning that requires adults to understand that children are producers, not just consumers, of knowledge and culture. Rinaldi (2003) insists that time and understanding are also essential ingredients for successful learning and adds that adults should only guide a child‟s learning and ensure enough time is provided to listen to and model effective skills. Rinaldi considers respectful listening skills legitimates another‟s point of view and can assist a child‟s understanding of new concepts. Millikan (2003) and Robbins (2005) agree that a social-cultural context affects the role of the learner and the educator, when children‟s own questions and theories are thoughtfully considered and negotiated with others. This then supports new learning, consolidates what is known and prepares the child for new
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experiences. Involvement in investigative events or activities, that move a child from known experiences to new experiences, in an environment where adults assist the advancement of cognitive development rather than just providing answers, has the makings of a rich learning environment. Early learning centres An early learning centre (ELC) is any place where adults and young children exchange knowledge and definie their surroundings. Simply having educators provide answers and/or stimulating environments that may invoke wonder and participation is insufficient and does not actively engage children in learning. In a socio-cultural setting where the environment and community are attuned to children‟s needs, adults can provide a semi-structured environment enabling children to communicate, participate and make meaning of their surroundings (Fleer & Robbins, 2003). Therefore, young children require an ELC where the context is conducive to investigation through play and an adult to assist their constructive thinking so that new concepts can be expanded and built upon. In this research ELCs refer to those institutions that have been set up for younger children to develop educational skills in a nurtured and caring environment. ELCs can be attached to a school or housed in a free standing building, operating independently of other institutions. ELCs were previously known as Kindergarten to Year 3 or Early Childhood Education centres. An ELC is a relatively new term in Western Australia and represents a place where children aged 3 to 8 years attend. In Australia, attendance at school is not compulsory until the year a child turns five. In recent years a younger population, called prekindergarten (children turning 3 years of age) have joined the established ELC group. Parents contribute fees to the institution so their child(ren) may attend a centre that caters for pre-kindergarten.
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An ELC can also be a playgroup. Playgroups are usually led by parents and set up as a community entity and supported by local governments. Playgroups are informal groups where children are accompanied by an adult (usually a parent or guardian) to meet weekly in a relaxed environment. Playgroups tend to be established in every suburb or town where there are children under school age. Playgroups serve to connect families within a community. Parents bring children, from birth to five years of age, to playgroups to develop their social skills, to play, forge friendships, and to provide support for themselves. The following research questions will be addressed in this paper. 1. How do young children move their scientific curiosity from wonder to participating and reporting? 2. What opportunities are provided to develop a positive attitude towards learning science for 3 and 4 year old children? Methodology The overall purpose of this qualitative research was to gain knowledge of how three and four year old children move their scientific curiosity from wonder to participation and reporting. In order to gain this information a flexible and patient method of inquiry was required to accommodate the unpredictable nature that children of this age can present. To achieve this method and generate an understanding of how science is developed and represented in ELCs, an interpretative research approach has been taken. The significance of an interpretative approach to gain this information is that it encompasses both the social and cultural learning environment that would provide a greater understanding for the purpose of this research.
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Grounded theory research design A grounded theory design has been used in this research as data gathered and analysed was grounded in the reality of fully operational ELCs. Grounded theory is a systematic process of data collection within a natural setting where data is collected, categories or emerging themes are identified, connections are made between the categories, and a theory is formed that explains a process or interaction of events (Creswell, 2005). Grounded theory is an appropriate design for this research as it allows the development of a theory about what science might look like in an ELC. Grounded theory also allows a pragmatic approach to be taken when addressing the appropriate requirements considered necessary when young children are the focus of data collection. Settings - Early Learning Centres Three diverse ELCs were the settings for this research. An overview of each ELC can be found in Table 1. Each ELC had three and four year old children who engaged in daily activities, some of which related directly to scientific investigations. Different physical and institutional teaching and learning contexts were presented for children in each centre. Two of the three centres (ELC1 and ELC2) are pre-kindergarten centres. These pre-kindergarten centres are attached to larger schools that are supported by a Christian religious sector. The third centre (ELC3) is a local government non-sector community playgroup that is run by parents. Parents of children in ELC1 and ELC2 contribute fees to the schools so their child(ren) may attend each of these pre-kindergartens. At ELC3 parents contribute to a managed fund that covers the costs of day-to-day running of the centre.
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Table 1. An overview of the three early learning centres
Description
ELC1
ELC2
Institution
Independent PK- Yr Catholic PK-Yr 6 12 School Primary School
Local Government Community Playgroup
Days children attended
4 x ½ days per week
4 x ½ days per week
1 x 2 hours per week
Population
> 1000
~ 250
~ 19
Group observed and ages
Pre-kindergarten 20 x 3 & 4 yr old
Pre-kindergarten 15 x 3 & 4 yr old
Play-group from 3 months to 4 year olds
Educators
Teacher plus one education assistant
Teacher plus one education assistant
Parents
Training and Experience of teacher and Education Assistant (EA)
Primary trained with ECE units 15 years ECE EA: qualified
Primary trained, some ECE units limited ECE experience EA: qualified
Fully Parent assisted program
Gender
Boys and girls
Boys and girls
Boys and girls
Specific science offered
Daily
None obvious
Incidental learning
Parent involvement in class
Minimal – could choose to participate on rostered help. Fathers and mothers involved.
Invited to start day with child and help him/her settle. Mothers and grandmothers attended. Roster being developed.
Total involvement by mothers.
Data collection
Final term 2008
First term 2009
Third term 2008
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No specific training or experience discussed by researcher
Science in early learning centres
Educators In each pre-kindergarten (ELC1 and ELC2) a qualified teacher was assisted by a trained education assistant (EA). EAs attend to the children‟s emotional and social needs, as well as assisting the teacher, preparing lessons and arranging the classroom. In the playgroup (ELC3), parents helped each other in the physical set up of the learning area and took sole responsibility for their own child‟s welfare. Teachers were interviewed separately to find whether or not they thought science an important part of the ELC curriculum and to find their levels of confidence and experience in teaching science concepts to 3 and 4 year old children. Parents were engaged in casual conversations in all three learning centres. The teacher in ELC1 was trained to teach primary school and her 15 years teaching experience lies within early childhood education, mainly in kindergarten and pre-primary classrooms. She thoroughly enjoys teaching young children and has a rich background teaching in Australia and overseas. Science is her favourite subject as she finds it easy to integrate other curriculum areas into science activities and investigations. While spending three years teaching in USA, she rigorously sought professional development to assist the teaching of science to early learners. Currently she feels restricted by political pressure to „push-down‟ the curriculum which she believes would restrict children‟s time for discovery learning. The teacher in ELC2 was also trained to teach primary school. In her 12 years teaching experience she has taught in a number of different year levels, five of which were in Year 1 and pre-primary classrooms. This teacher had been a science teacher for other primary year levels but didn‟t feel confident in this role. She recalls only having learnt how to teach science to upper primary students at university. She did not specifically seek professional
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development to teach science in early childhood as she did not consider science to be an important part of the pre-kindergarten curriculum. Being a playgroup, there was no main teacher in ELC3. A parent, who was trained as an English as a Second Language teacher, participated in an interview and conducted a conversation with other parents regarding their thoughts about learning science concepts in an ELC. The collaborative view was that as science was a part of “nearly everything we do. It should be a part of what the kids do in kindergarten and every other year at school”. One parent who contributed said that she didn‟t see the relevance in the current research as “these children are too young to do science”. She thought science could be “dangerous and was really a high school subject”. It became clear to the researcher that considering whether or not science was an important part of an ELC was something that had not been previously discussed by any of the centre‟s communities. Data collection Being thoroughly familiar with the detail of the context in which data would be collected was an essential starting point. Each ELC was visited once a week and over the period of one school term during the centre‟s morning session. ELC1 was visited 7 times, while ELCs 2 and 3 were visited 6 times each. Visits were designed to collect data through conversations with children, parents and teachers; recorded and casual interviews with teachers; collection of work samples from children; and the researcher‟s journaling to record observations of children engaged in scientific activities within their ELC. A four stage approach was used by the researcher at each ELC; pre-research, initial visit, subsequent visits, post-data collection. In the pre-research stage, initial contact was made with each ELC to determine their willingness to participate. Once the centres agreed to
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participate, approval was sought and gained from the Principal of each of the three centres. In the initial visit stage, the researcher discussed details and implications of the research with classroom teachers and parents. After discussion with teachers, children were identified who were considered appropriate for observation, and parents were approached for permission. Booklets containing ethical implications, information on the research and consent forms, for both teachers and parents, were delivered to each ELC. In subsequent visits, the researcher become familiar with the context of the ELC, and started to unobtrusively observe the interrelationships between children and adults, other children, available resources, and the physical and socio-cultural environment exposed to them during their time in the ELC. So that all children in the centre became familiar with the researcher‟s presence, she became an active participant by being engaging in activities and, where appropriate, assisting the teacher. This strategy strengthened the relationship within the centre and with children. These visits ensured adequate time was available to obtain detailed observations and conversations with children and teachers. Where permitted, photographs and children‟s drawings were taken. Post-data collection involved a return visit to the ELC to share photographs and initial findings. Construction of vignettes Based upon the data collected at each ELC, short vignettes were written to capture the science learning available to the young children. Each vignette incorporates sufficient detail to provide authenticity, and captures the action and interaction of the children with their environment in a vivid and life-like manner. Additional media, including construction, drawings, design and painting were used to support the observation and conversation within each vignette, and to assist in the interpretation of the vignettes.
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Findings Detailed vignettes have been constructed and analysed to provide a snapshot of what science looks like for 3 and 4 year old children in the three ELCs. Although rich data and many stories were collected, only three vignettes are presented to illustrate the variety of science teaching and learning opportunities. Those vignettes chosen provide a view of what science actually looked like in the participating centres. Each vignette demonstrates a different aspect of scientific inquiry: individual pursuit, a group experience and a collision of ideas and potential. These three vignettes have been placed under three headings: Skater boy, Flying corn and The nature of things. Under these headings there is a general introduction to provide a context for the vignette, the actual vignette, and the interpretation of each vignette. Skater boy Introduction This vignette was taken from the community play group (ELC3) and features a three and a half year old boy who will be called Skater Boy (SB). SB has attended this playgroup for 3 hours per week with his mother and sister for more than two years. He is confident in the setting, knows all the other parents and children who attend, and is familiar with the routines and resources. As children arrive at the playgroup they chose an activity, set up by parents, or ask for specific resources if they are not already on display. All children play freely and direct their own experiences. Vignette 1 SB announced to no-one in particular that he was going to make a skate board. He noticed the researcher (E) was close by and mentioned, without direct contact, his plan to make a skate board. He collected two wooden cylindrical and one rectangular 3D wooden
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building block from the block box and placed the cylinders under the rectangle. “These are rollers”, he said out loud. He tested his design and found the original prototype unsuccessful. He went back to the block collection, found another cylinder and added it to his skate board (see Figure 1). “There‟s three now,” SB said to himself. The new model was tested but again the result was not acceptable (see Figure 2) so he retrieved more wooden cylinders to act as rollers.
Figure1. SB modifies the prototype
Figure 2. Testing the new model
For each new design SB patiently added just one more cylinder, counted them (see Figure 3), then tested his skateboard by standing on it. With each trial, the cylinders rolled out from under the rectangle. SB then moved his testing to include holding onto a bookcase for stability (see Figure 4). During construction he continually chatted away to himself counting cylinders, planning his next move, testing, thinking out loud and trying to gain balance.
Figure 3. Counting extra rollers
Figure 4. Using support during a test
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SB never displayed any frustration with the unsuccessful trials but did engage E in his conversation from time to time: SB:
It‟s not working.
E:
Why isn‟t it working?
SB:
It needs more rollers.
SB:
Look there‟s five of „em.
Finally SB announced, “There‟s no room left. It‟d better work.” Carefully SB stood on the rectangle covering the five cylinders, again hanging onto the bookcase, and discovered that his skate board felt more stable. His smile indicated he was happy with the result. He then let go of the book case, bent his knees and balanced momentarily. In a celebratory salute he held his arms aloft before he felt the skate board start to topple and had to jump off. SB:
Did you see? Did you see it? It worked. Good!
SB disassembled his skate board, threw the pieces back in the block box and disappeared into another room without further comment. Interpretation SB told the story of his skate board without prompting, and communicated using egocentric speech or „self-talk‟ during the activity. His curiosity had been aroused after, as he explained to E, after watching older boys playing with skate boards in a car park. Within his unstructured play space SB was able to test his curiosity by designing and making his own skate board. Beginning with self interest, SB constructed a plan in his mind, talked his thoughts through, gathered components, tested his ideas, and redesigned them until he was satisfied. Because self interest was being served, SB demonstrated creativity, confidence, concentration, sustained interest and determination. SB had unwittingly used a „designmake-appraise‟ scheme of technology development that saw him redesign his skate board
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until he was satisfied. SB‟s individual approach satisfied his needs at this stage of his development. Had intervention been provided, he may not have achieved his goal. This unsolicited engineering activity demonstrated clear thought processes and provided unintentional learning brought about by his curiosity. SB was confident that a cylinder would roll but never articulated the name of the shape. Although he didn‟t use the word „balance‟ in his dialogue it was clear he understood the scientific concept. He demonstrated integrated and consolidation of prior learning as he included the mathematical concept of one to one correspondence, verbally counting and adding-on. The process of scientific investigation, along with concepts relating to the Science Learning Area of Energy and Change were in his play. Complex higher order thinking was also clearly demonstrated. Socially, SB worked alone. When other children came close, he shielded his work and made it clear (in a non-threatening way) this was his territory. Later in the morning, SB was noticed building a ramp. When asked about his ramp, he said it had to be the right size because he was going to ride his skate board down it “real fast”. SB was transferring his own learning. Flying corn Introduction A small room within ELC1 had been prepared for this corn-popping experience. All furnishings had been removed and in the centre of the room an electric fry pan had been placed in the middle of a circular carpet of paper. Children were assembled as they arrived at school in another area and told about the science investigation they were about to perform. Curiosity was running high as the eager children were given instruction to sit around the edge
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of the paper and not to touch the cord. The EA was sitting with the pan to ensure children kept a safe distance. Vignette 2 Once the group was settled, they were asked about their experiences with pop corn. The teacher initiated questions such as: “Who has eaten popped corn?” “How was it cooked?” “When and where did you eat it?” Responses governed by each child‟s experience included: “It cooks in the microwave, in a bag.” “It stinks.”
“You put butter on to make it
taste nice.” “No, you put salt on it.” “You eat it when you watch a DVD.” “It‟s white.” “If you buy it, it‟s got colours.” “It‟s only white.” “You buy it in a bucket at the movies.” After a prolonged question and answer time, the children were informed that they were going to pop their own corn and then have the opportunity to eat it. For safety reasons, the children were also told that they must remain seated in their place. Each child was given a piece of corn in its seed state and asked to use their five senses to describe the corn seed with the person sitting beside them. They were told that they could keep this corn seed. Selected children reported their findings to the group regarding the look, smell, sound, feel and taste of the seed. The teacher prompted and insisted on „full sentence answers‟, modeled possible responses and congratulated participation. When the oil in the electric fry-pan was heated, the teacher placed corn seeds into the pan and the corn started popping all over the place! Shrieks of joy and laughter filled the room. Exclamations included: “It‟s flying.” “It‟s shooting.” “It‟s going up high.” “Look! It‟s on the shelf.” “Look! It‟s landed on me.” “It‟s everywhere.” Continuous excited chatter and wide eyed amazement from the children, as the corn popped around the room, made this activity a joy to observe.
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The children were then asked to collect one wayward piece of popped corn each that had landed near them and to use their five senses again to describe the corn with the person sitting next to them. While this happened, the teacher and EA safely removed the pan and paper from the floor. The EA cooked more corn in the kitchen, placed it into small paper bags and then into each child‟s locker to take home. Once the children were reseated in their circle, they were asked for a comparison between the uncooked and cooked corn, to start a discussion on how the corn had changed. Comparisons included: hard to soft; no smell to good smell; hard to squishy; brown to white; and small to big. Again, responses had to be elaborated and questions from the teacher prompted more descriptive and expansive language. For example, if a child stated, “It smells different”, the teacher would ask “What did it smell like before it popped and how is it different now?” Other comparisons from the children included “The corn was hard before it was cooked and now it is soft” and “The corn changed from brown to white”. One child reasoned that “they were all the same”, referring to all seeds were small and brown before cooking, while all the corn was white and bigger after cooking. Using this idea as a motivation, the teacher challenged the group to find some proof that they were not all the same. This produced sporadic discussion which was mostly off-task, as the children‟s interest began to wane. The teacher persisted with many “What else?” questions. One child pointed out that his popped corn had a sharp piece on it and the un-popped corn didn‟t. Others compared theirs to this suggestion and found that some popped corn had a sharp point while others didn‟t. There was now obvious reluctance to expand responses and some refusing to respond at all. Realising the children had lost interest, the teacher finished the activity and dispersed the children. The children were free to play independently. There was no further follow-up with the popping corn activity until just before „home time‟.
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Before leaving for home the children participated in a „sharing circle‟. Here, the children were asked to recall what they had done over the day. The only details about popping corn that the children remembered were the smell, the pieces that “flew up high”, and they had some popcorn to take home. The science concept of „change‟ had been largely forgotten as other play activities had overtaken the experience. Information about the day‟s activities, including the popping of corn, was written on a notice page and placed in the window for parents to read while they waited to pick up their children. Interpretation The children thoroughly enjoyed watching change take place as the corn popped. They soon grew listless however when they were not practically engaged and had to sit in a group longer than their concentration span and interest allowed. Most children were able to report change when questioned during the activity, yet had difficulty recalling change and other details of the experience during the sharing circle at the end of that day‟s session. Treated as a one-off science activity, little learning has occurred as a consequence of the popping corn activity. However, many strategies could have been used to capitalise on the initial excitement and wonder of the children, some of which are described below. With assistance from the EA, small groups of children could have cooked their own take-home serve of popcorn. This more intimate experience with the EA could allow the children to talk through their experience, providing an opportunity to ask more questions and consolidate the experience. A free-play learning centre could have been established where children could expand their experience with corn. This centre could include a container of corn seeds to play with, plunge hands into, measure, spoon, pour or count. Implements to inspire play, such as containers, a balance and a ladle, along with an assortment of pens, pencils and paper could have been added for more learning opportunities. The provision of materials to encourage
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different representation of the corn popping experience could have been provided. Such ideas include role playing popping corn, dancing to popping music, fine-line drawing of the corn before and after it was cooked, or drawing the sequence of the corn popping and having an adult annotate the drawing. Use of digital media would provide the children with an opportunity to visually revisit the experience. As photographs were taken for the parent newsletter and the child‟s portfolio, these could have been copied and used to make small book for children to revisit the experience. This range of ideas and activities would have provided the children with a more in-depth personal experience of popping corn, provided more child satisfaction, and subsequently a stronger recall of the experience. The nature of things Introduction This third and final vignette has been selected because it provides an example that differs from those already presented. Where this vignette does not elaborate a single incident, its purpose is to provide a broader view of what science teaching and learning concepts might look like in ELCs. E was on her third visit to ELC2, where the children had only been attending for six weeks. Separation anxiety was apparent as some of the children had only recently turned three and found it difficult to be apart from their parents. Oliver (O), a boy, and Aylie (A), a girl, (pseydonyms) were the focus of the observations. Both children are three and a half years olds. Each morning they arrived with their mother and a younger sibling with time to do a puzzle or read a book together before a bell told the start of the day. O and A were confident and cooperative children who enjoyed being the centre of attention in the class.
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The ELC was set up so that during free-play the children could move about freely, thread beads, do puzzles that were placed on tables or on the floor, colour in pictures and draw on paper. A wooden train set was placed in the middle of the floor with which the children could play. This had wooden tracks and magnets at the ends of the carriages to which other carriages could be attached. A folding book case housed a selection of picture books in the reading corner. The home corner consisted of a cupboard with cups, a silver service tray holding tea, coffee, sugar and milk containers, a table and two chairs, a low rail with dress-ups on hangers, some hats and cardboard crowns on top of the hanger and a vase of feathers. Noticeably, there were no curiosity tables containing items of interest to investigate. During free play the children flittered about from table to table, while the more immature children tended to stand and watch other children play. As much as the children were encouraged to go to activities they seemed to be unsure about what to do and didn‟t spend their free time engaged in any activity in depth. Vignette 3 Having noticed the lack of a curiosity table for the children to explore objects, E asked the teacher if she could bring some natural products into class for children to investigate. It was agreed and a tray of various seed pods, leaves, bark and a bird‟s nest were brought in and set up on a table for children to freely explore. When parents arrived at school they took their children to the table with the natural products, modeled curiosity and pointed out features of the leaves and pods to their children. However, nothing was touched. Later in the morning, during the free play time, E stayed at that nature table to encourage investigation. Although children were slightly curious they were, by and large, not keen to touch or play with these natural items which they described as
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“dirty” and “not toys”. A and O were invited to join E and to use their five senses to find differences between two objects, a gum nut and a pine cone. They participated but showed little initial interest in the objects. E suggested the items be classified and asked the children to sort the seeds pods into big and small pods (see Figure 1). Once big pods were separated from small pods E asked the childern to reclassify one of these groups using the same criteria: big and small (see Figure 2).
Figure 1. O compares the size of pods
Figure 2. A reclassifies the pods
When the children were left to make their own classifications, O put all the pods with „sharp‟ edges into a group (see Figure 3), while A sorted all the pine cones from the rest (see Figure 4).
Figure 3. O sorts the pods with sharp edges
Figure 4. A sorts just the pine cones.
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Rather than take the children back to the mat for the next session, E asked the teacher if these children could remain at the table to see if they took the sorting any further. Once O and A were given the freedom to play with the natural objects they extended the classification skills and manipulated the items according to their needs. O put leaves end to end to represent the outline of a track for his „train‟ to travel along, while A imagined palm bark to be a boat and sailed it on an imaginary sea. When the mat session had finished other children began to gather around the table wanting to take objects from the table for their own games. The objects became popular and soon it was obvious there were not enough for everyone. The investigations ended abruptly as a boy grabbed a pine cone, tossed it across the room and called “hand grenade”. The teacher responded by bringing all children back to the mat where she cleverly continued a classifying activity for everyone. She had a „mystery bag‟ that contained several familiar objects that were collected from around the room. One at a time each child was called to blindly select an object from the bag and, depending on the colour of that object, the child had to place it in a group that was „red‟ or a group that was „not red‟. The teacher ensured there were enough items in the bag so that everyone had a chance to classify the object chosen. Interpretation Children in this ELC displayed shallow and immature skills of engagement as they seemed to skim the surface of activities during their free play time. They became easily distracted and required adult support to refocus. Initially the teacher explained that she did not include science activities in her planning as she was not confident to teach science to such young children. Also, she felt that science concepts were not as important to teach in prekindergarten classes as social and emotional development. Gaining basic literacy and numeracy skills were considered the most important teaching and learning areas. Other
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skills, however, were recognized as important and where they may not have been explicitly taught, they were imbedded in other areas of teaching. For example, observation was being taught while children were sorting coloured objects from the mystery bag. An opportunity to acquire the skill of observation often needs someone to encourage children to look closely and engage other senses to discover detail. The concept of classification was vicariously taught to the children and although not considered a science lesson in this instance, the children were unwittingly given an opportunity to develop the scientific skills of observation and classification. Long periods of sitting, and not being engaged physically or mentally does not match the attention span of these young children causing them to fidget and display disruptive behaviour. The immaturity of these children was obvious given they had only been at school for six weeks and still settling into a routine. There unsettled behaviour was understandable. To help them gain perseverance and concentration, guided activities that were guided by an adult and presented in small groups would have invoked curiosity, especially if they were investigating items brought from home. Such young children still require a vast amount of nurturing and time for uninterrupted play. Children who ask questions about why things are and how they work are exercising their curiosity and they often need the help of others to help to satisfy that curiosity. According to Fleer (2009), if children are to gain the most of a playful context for learning they require adult mediation in order to pay attention to the scientific opportunities being offered. In a safe location and with guidance, young children can hone a plethora of skills including how to observe closely, imitate, test actions and respond to reactions. As they participate in productive activities they can interact with a variety of materials, develop persistence, creativity, and move their curiosity to an understanding while creating social relationships. Such activities, through play situations, can
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assist young children to problem solve, make their own choices, and discover their individual strengths. Conclusion The three vignettes have presented a window into three ELCs, providing a snap-shot of what science looks like for 3 and 4 year old children. These vignettes highlight that there is no one way to deliver science to such young children. While the approach taken at each ELC has its merits, there is much that could be added to extend the value of science teaching and learning within each centre. Children are innate explorers and researchers, and require facilitation to encourage these characteristics. Children are constantly trying to make sense of their everyday experiences and satisfy their curiosity. Play is an excellent medium for them to achieve this. Often a messy play space or natural environment, where they can interact with their own surroundings in an unstructured manner, makes it easier for children to test their ideas, gain confidence, stretch their current knowledge, and to set their own learning agenda. For a sound platform on which harmonious and positive learning can occur, this research has found that space to move about and explore ideas, stimulating learning centres that expand learning, relevant resources, and an inviting social and cultural context are essential ingredients. Where opportunities through guided play are provided, children can elaborate an experience, extend their knowledge and develop scientific concepts that will capitalize their learning. Of course, an interested adult as an active participant in the child‟s learning environment is essential to offer guidance, stimulating talk, and to model how to think things through in a logical sequence. Over regulated demands and practical constraints can impede a positive attitude to learning. The greatest challenge for early childhood educators is to convince others that play
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is an integral part of a child‟s life, even after school has started. Rigorous efforts must be made by educators to reinforce the value of guided play for the sound development of scientific skills and concept development in ELCs. This can be enhanced by thoroughly developing use of the five senses in observation. For the future, more research is required to discover an even broader picture of what good science looks like in ELCs. Questions need to be asked regarding the preparation of pre-service early childhood teachers, the attitudes and competence of early childhood teachers to teaching scientific concepts, the value of an integrated curriculum, and importantly, whether or not scientific concepts are in fact being included in early childhood classrooms. Teachers who actively listen to a child‟s interpretation of how things work, provide interactive investigations, and reflect on engaged learning, will develop a greater understanding of a child‟s thought processes and be provided with rich information to plan further relevant science teaching and learning experiences. Acknowledgements The children, teachers and parents associated with the three early learning centres engaged in this research are sincerely thanked for their willing participation and thoughtful responses to assist the researcher gather data. References Creswell, J.W. (2005.) Educational research. New Jersey: Pearson Education Curtis, D., & Carter, M. (2008). Learning together with young children: A curriculum framework for reflective teacher. St Paul: Redleaf Press. Fleer, M. (2006). In Appleton, K. (Ed.). Elementary science teacher education: International perspectives on contemporary issues and practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Fleer, M. (Ed). (2007). Children’s thinking in science – what does the research tell us? Watson: Early Childhood Australia Fleer, M., & Robbins, J. (2003). “Hit and run research” with “hit and miss” results in early childhood science education. In Research in Science Education 33: 405-431. Fleer, M., Edwards, S., Hammer, M., Kennedy, A., Ridgeway, A., Robbins, J., et al. (2006). Early childhood learning communities: Sociocultuiral research in practice. Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education Australia. Howitt, C., Morris, M., & Colvill, M. (2007). In Dawson, G. & Venville, G. (Eds.), The art of teaching primary Science. (pp. 233-247). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. Johnston, J. (2007, July). How does the skill of observation develop in young children? Paper presented to the 2007 World Conference on Science and Technology Education (ICASE 2007), July 8-12, 2007. Perth, Western Australia. Merriam, S.B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Millikin, J. (2003).Reflections: Reggio Emilia Principles within Australian Contexts. Castle Hill: Pademelon Press. Mulaguzzi, L., (1998). History, ideas and basic philosophy: an interview with Lella Gandidni. In Edwards. C., Gandidni, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). The hundred languages of children: Advanced reflections. London: ABLEX Publishing. O‟Sullivan Smyser, S. (1996). Professional’s guide: early childhood education. Sydeny: Hawker Brownlow Education. Punch, K.F. (2009). Introduction to research methods in education. London: Sage Publications.
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Rinaldi, C. (2005). In dialogue with Reggio Emilia: Listening, researching and learning. London: Routledge Falmer. Robbins, J. (2005). Brown paper packages: a socio-cultural perspective on young children‟s ideas in science. Research in Science Education, 53, 151-172. Robbins, J. (2008, July). The mediation of children’s thinking about natural phenomena through conversations and drawings. Paper presented at the thirty-ninth annual conference of the Australasian Science Education Research Association, Brisbane Queensland. Szarkowicz, D. (2006). Observations and reflections in childhood. South Melbourne: Thomson Social Science Press. Venville, G., Adey, P., Larkin, S., Robertson, A., & Fulham, H., (2003) Fostering thinking through science in the early years of schooling. International Journal of science education, 25 (11), 1313-1331. Wright, S. (2007). Young children‟s meaning-making through drawing and „telling‟: Analogies to filmic textural features. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 32, 3749. Retrieved January 5, 2008, from http://www.earlychildhoodaustralia.org.au/ajec_index_abstracts/young_childrens_me aning_making_through_drawing_and_telling.html
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PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS` ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
Mohamad Termizi bin Borhan (
[email protected]) Zurida binti Hj Ismail (
[email protected])
Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Pendidikan (School of Education) Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Contact No: 012-9156343
Abstract The lack of awareness among the general public about the environment has been a topic of international concern and was reported in the 1972 United Nations Conference in Stockholm. In 1977, a United Nations conference held in Tbilisi, Georgia resulted in the Tbilisi Declaration which affirmed the international commitment to international environmental education. This commitment to create awareness about environment in the general population was renewed in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and is manifested in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 stresses on the following: Education, including formal education, public awareness and training, should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behavior consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. Both formal and non-formal education
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is indispensable to changing people attitude so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable development concerns. This paper will present the findings from a survey that was aimed at assessing the pre-service teachers‟ knowledge about the cause, effect and solution for climate change, their attitudes towards the environment, and their readiness to participate in various pro-environmental behaviors. A total of 173 preservice teachers enrolled in a chemistry teaching methods course participated in this study. The pre-service teachers were in their third year of the teacher education program. Data were collected through questionnaires containing true-false items to measure factual knowledge about climate change and Likert-type items designed to assess the degree of environmental concern and readiness in pro-environmental behaviors. In general, the findings showed that the student teachers have an average understanding of the climate change phenomena. However, they are concerned about the environment and most indicate readiness and have actually practiced pro-environmental behaviours.
1.0 Introduction Climate change, one of the world-wide dimensions of environmental problems has received national and international concern. In the recent UN General Assembly, President Obama said that the treat from climate change is serious, urgent and growing (Huffington Post, 2009). As the general public has become increasingly aware of the environmental problems facing the world today,
the so-called „green issues‟ have
become important political matters as well as discussion topics in the mainstream conferences. The problem is caused by human being alone, and the most effective solution to the environmental problems would be to enlighten society on the subject of
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environment along with the legal arrangements. As John F. Kennedy once observed that “Our problems are man-made, therefore they may be solved by man”.
Education is undeniably considered to be of the most utmost importance for the development of the country, provided that the status of education significantly affects its social, cultural and economic development. Through formal education, ways of thinking and behaviour of the students are cultivated apart from acquisition of the knowledge and dexterities, attitudes, perceptions (Skanavis et al., 2004). Environmental Education (EE) is considered as an essential component of the education for future citizens in order for them to be able to confront and deal with the upcoming environmental issues. Environmental Education (EE) is one of the tools that help to achieve sustainable development. EE is also an instrument to enable the participation and learning of various age groups based on a two-way communication, both formal and non-formal. Through the process of EE, individuals obtain an understanding of the concepts of and knowledge about the environment. They also acquire experience, values, skills and the knowledge necessary to form judgments to participate in decision-making and to take appropriate action in addressing environmental issues and problems.
EE was first defined in the Tbilisi Declaration which affirmed the international commitment to international environmental education. This commitment to create awareness about the environment in the general population and changes in the human behaviour must be made in order for individuals and social groups to be actively involved, at all levels in working towards resolution of environmental problems
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(UNESCO-UNEP, 1978). EE was re-oriented and renewed to the direction of sustainable development in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and is manifested in Chapter 36 of Agenda 21. Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 stresses on the following: Education, including formal education, public awareness and training, should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behavior consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. The publication of the Agenda 21 Report strengthens the effort and is regarded as a blue print for countries to pursue sustainable development. It is a plan to achieve a sustainable society in this environmentally and economically inequitable world. With rapid population increase and economic growth in many countries, the environment is becoming more vulnerable and natural resources are depleted faster to meet the basic needs.
Malaysia, as with most countries in the region, has reacted to integrate EE in the curriculum. The Education Planning Committee of Ministry of Education made the decision to integrate and infuse EE throughout the New Primary School Curriculum (NPSC) and Integrated Curriculum for Secondary Schools (ICSS) in 1991 (Thiagarajan and Norshidawati, 2005). In line with the recommendations of Agenda 21 also, Malaysia‟s National Policy has outlined Green Strategies which emphasize on Education and Awareness (Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment (MOSTE), 2002). EE in Malaysia is geared towards addressing environmental challenges such as littering, water pollution, air pollution and the degradation of biodiversity (Susan, Tagi &
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Periasamy, 2005). The school curriculum is focused on educating the society to be more sensitive and concerned about environmental issues, to be knowledgeable, skilled and committed to act individually or collectively to address environmental issues has been instituted. At the tertiary level, various environmental science and environment-related courses are offered at degree level. After years of research, several local universities have built up their expertise in the environment-related fields (Arba`at et al., 2009).
Against this background, teachers which have always been regarded as the agent for social changes, play a very important role to environmentally educate their student. To this end, they have to be equipped with good environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. As rapid advances are made in environmental science, it is essential for educators to have up-to-date, relevant teaching material that present basic concepts in ways that could stimulate student interest. The implementation of EE definitely depends initially on the attitudes or the receptivity of teachers to this innovation (Skanavis et al., 2004). Furthermore, Volk (1982) notes that it is important that teachers not only support the goals of EE theoretically but they feel a personal responsibility to implement EE in their classrooms.
Studies have shown that teachers are not well-prepared to integrate EE into their classrooms and that inadequate teacher training is the predominant reason teachers are not teaching EE (Gabriel, 1996). Studies of trainee teachers` ideas about global environmental issues have suggested that teachers might be less than well prepared in this respect (Boyes et al., 1995). If teachers do not have sufficient knowledge, dexterities or
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the desire to implement EE in the program, it is improbable that environmentally literate students will graduate from school. In order for students to have sound knowledge and good values towards environment, the knowledge base of the teachers themselves is of great importance as good subject knowledge is essential for best teaching (Summers, 1994). Many support the notion that educators need to have deeper and wider knowledge than their students, for much reason: i.e. to be able to “diagnose” the students` learning difficulties, to correspond flexibly in their needs and to answer unanticipated questions (Summers et al., 2001). Misinformation and low levels of understanding amongst student teachers as well as practicing teachers suggest that misconceptions are being perpetuated within their classrooms (Hooper, 1988).
As Hart (1997) points out, the time has come to finally investigate what EE means in the minds of teachers and in their school practices. This knowledge is essential to academics researching in the fields of EE, as well as anyone involved in the design of educational policy for the promotion of EE. This knowledge also can assist teachers themselves in critically reflecting on the conceptual and theoretical underpinnings of their teaching practice, and in this way, help them understand and formulate their own personal “theory” of EE (Robottom, 1993).
It is fundamental to know how much the pre-service teachers already know, how they feel and what they are doing regarding environmental matters (Chin Ivy et al., 1998). As Sharifah Norhaidah (2006) asserts, pre-service teachers need to be equipped with the knowledge of action strategies, to understand the intricacy of problem involved
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and more importantly to be sensitized to the root causes of unsustainable future as upon graduating, they are suppose to infuse environmental education or sustainability education into the Malaysian Secondary Curriculum. In order to deal with these growing issues, a survey was conducted to assess the pre-service teachers` environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviors.
2.0 Methodology
The study involved 173 pre-service teachers enrolled in a chemistry teaching methods course. The students were in their third year of the teacher education program. Data were collected using questionnaires. The questionnaire consisted of three parts: environmental knowledge, attitudes and pro-environmental behaviour. The time required to complete the survey was approximately 30 to 45 minutes.
2.1 Environmental Knowledge
Environmental knowledge refers to the knowledge and understanding of facts, concepts and generalizations related to the environmental concerns (Chin Ivy et al., 1998). It is defined as the information that enables someone to study and reach conclusions about the physical, social and cultural conditions that affect the development of an organism. Environmental knowledge tested for causes (16 items), consequences (19 items) and cures/solutions (18 items) of climate change. Each of the section contained items expressing scientifically accepted statements and. Idiosyncratic statements are the
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ideas which oppose the scientific explanation, also known as misconception or alternative conception. The instrument was adapted from the questionnaire developed by Boyes, Chamber and Stanistreet (1993). The items used a True/False format and scoring for each item was done by allocating one point for each correct answer giving a possible range of 0 to 53 for the overall environmental knowledge score. The Cronbach coefficient alpha or internal consistency for the knowledge section was 0.789.
2.2 Environmental Concern Scale (Environmental Attitudes)
Environmental attitudes deal with the affective domain, evaluating whether the students agree or disagree, are favorable or unfavorable, with regard to aspects of the environment. It is defined as the predispositions that affect how someone perceives and interprets the physical, social, and cultural conditions that affect the development of an organism (De Chano, 2006). To measure attitudes towards the environment, the Environmental Concern Scale consisting of 11 items was used. The Environmental Concern Scale consists of two dimensions (Chan, 1996): personal sacrifice with five items (Q1, Q3, Q6, Q7, and Q11) and optimism/issue with six items (Q2, Q4, Q5, Q8, Q9, and Q10). Personal sacrifices refer to the willingness of the respondents to act to protect the environment although this action will require sacrifice of time and money. Optimism/Issue refers to the tendency of the respondents to believe that there are always solutions for environmental problems. For instance, they believe that contamination of rivers, oceans and air will soon return to normal by natures purifying processes. The questionnaire was first developed by Weigel and Weigel (1978). The items used a four-
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point Likert-type scale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. The Cronbach alpha or internal consistency for the attitude section was 0.630.
2.3 Pro-environmental Behaviour
Environmental behaviour refers to the overt and observable actions taken by a student in response to the environment. Hence, programs created to enhance environmental awareness should be designed to engage the target audience in not only increasing their environmental knowledge but their environmental skills, attitudes and behaviour as well (Grodzinska-Jurczak et al., 2003). Environmental behaviour was measured using 11 pro-environmental behaviour statements. Students were required to indicate their willingness to participate in pro-environmental behaviour. The statements were taken from two different sources: Chan (1996) and Volk and McBeth (1997). The items also utilized a four-point Likert-type scale (1= strongly agreed and 4=strongly disagreed) which is used for the codification of the answers. The behaviours were selected on the basis that (1) the students would be familiar with them and that they were within their capabilities to participate, (2) the behaviour were clearly related to the environmental issues and (3) the behaviour were different in nature and situations (Chan, 1996). The internal consistency of the behavioural intention score, as measure by the Cronbach coefficient was found to be very high (0.831). This indicates that the proenvironmental behaviour was selected from a consistent set of behavioural indicators.
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3.0 Results and Discussion
The results of the study are discussed in four parts: students` environmental knowledge, attitudes, students` willingness to participate in pro-environmental behaviour and degree of relationship between environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. The analysis and discussion on environmental knowledge are divided into three aspects: causes, consequences and cures/solutions.
Table 1 Mean and standard deviation of climate change knowledge according to component
Component
Mean
SD
Causes (16 items)
8.10
1.29
Consequences (19 items)
12.64
1.854
Cures/solution (17 items)
10.86
1.631
Overall (52 items)
31.59
3.638
Descriptive statistics related to students` correct response on the climate change are presented in Table 1 calculated based on the component of climate change knowledge as well as for overall questionnaire. The causes component shows that most of the students only manage to answer half of the component correctly. While for consequences and cures/solution components, students only demonstrate moderate ability to answer these component. The relatively low mean total knowledge score indicated that students did not
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acquire a satisfactory understanding of environmental issues, specifically in climate change. The standard deviations were relatively small. These deviations, which ranged from 1.29 to 3.638 indicated that students` environmental knowledge were relatively consistent and uniform.
3.1.1 Causes of Climate Change
The first component of the questionnaire was designed to examine the distribution of student knowledge and misconception about factors that cause climate change.
Table 2 shows the frequency count for each item of the causes of climate change. Causes of climate change dealt with factors or human activities that exacerbate climate change. Students are well informed about causes of climate change if the statements have high percentages of correct responses. Generally, most of the students know that increase in CO2 and CFC concentration in air composition, deforestation, artificial fertilizers gases, and heating and cooling system in the house are among the factors that could lead to climate change. Consequently, only a small number of students (25.8%) knew eating meat is one of the contributing causes. In a special report on health and energy in the latest version of medical journal The Lancet, experts urged people to less consume on steak and burger. It also reported that reducing global red meat consumption by 10% would cut the gases emitted by cows, sheep and goats that contribute to global warming (Berita Harian, 2007).
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There are three most prevalent misconceptions regarding causes of climate change: using of aerosol spray and refrigerators, space program that can punches hole in the atmosphere and holes in the ozone layer. They were confused between global warming and ozone depletion, as the majority though that the “hole” in the ozone layer is one of the causes of global warming (Boyes and Stanistreet, 1993; Groves and Pugh, 1999). In Papadimitriou`s (2004) research, the explanation given by students is that the ozone “hole” allows more sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and heat the earth. The ozone hole only expose the earth to higher UV radiation levels from the sun. Although also harmful to the life, the ozone hole problem differs from that of global warming. Rye et al., (1997) found that 54% of the students believe that ozone layer depletion is the predominant cause of global warming. In general, connection of ozone layer depletion with climate change seems to be common misconception held by people of all ages (Papadimitriou, 2004).
Using aerosol cans has almost no effect on climate change. In the past, aerosol spray cans contained CFCs which contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer (not the same as global warming). However, the sale of aerosol cans containing CFCs has been banned in the United States and Canada since 1979. A notable misconception is related to the view that climate change is connected with the radioactive waste and significant percentage of the students named acid rain as one of the causes of climate change. In Kilinc et al., (2008) study, radioactivity was held by more than half of the students to be a cause of global warming. The misconception concerning causes of climate change, probably have implication in effecting peoples` ideas about action taken to alleviate it. As
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Bostrom et al., (1994) have claimed, when causes are not well understood, it is clearly difficult to devise effective solutions to the problem and this may lead even concern citizen to avoid undertaking the proper action. Table 2 Percent of correct response for scientific and idiosyncratic statements of causes of climate change
Items
% (N=182)
Scientific Statement
Increase CO2 volume in air composition
100.0
Gas from artificial fertilizers
95.1
Rainforest depletion
97.8
Eat the meats
25.8
Too much CFC volume in air composition
99.5
Rotting waste
73.6
Use of heating & cooling system in house
90.7
Too much ozone near the ground
27.5
Sunrays cannot escape from the earth
77.5
Idiosyncratic Statement:
Rubbish dumped in rivers and streams
77.5
Use of aerosol spray and refrigerators
0.5
Acid in the rain
12.1
Radioactive waste from nuclear power station
2.7
Holes in the ozone layer
0.5
Space program (punches holes in the atmosphere)
0.5
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3.1.2 Consequences of Climate Change
The second component of the questionnaire was designed to examine the distribution of student knowledge and misconception about the effect of climate change. Table 3 shows the frequency counts for each item of consequences of climate change. The consequences of climate change dealt with what might be happen or already happen if the climate change got bigger. According to the results, most of the students (more than 80% of the population) were well informed about the real consequences that might or already happen with the occurrence of climate change. They were aware and know that changes in global weather pattern can lead to hotter earth, melting of ice will result in arise of sea water level and loss of habitat for polar bear and penguin and flooding. However, only 2% knew that climate change will never cause skin cancer. Kilinc et al., (2008) found that the most common misconception, held by more than three quarters of the students was that global warming will result in an increase in the prevalence of skin cancer. Perhaps this misconception is based on a deeper confusion between climate change and ozone layer depletion. Most of them were aware that ozone layer depletion will increase the incidence of skin cancer, but may think that climate change is linked to ozone layer depletion, either cause it, or being cause by it (Pekel and Ozay, 2005).
Table 3 Percent of correct response for scientific and idiosyncratic statements of consequences of climate change
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Items
Pre-test (%, N=182)
Scientific Statement:
Change in global weather pattern
100.0
Ice of the both pole will melts
98.4
Flooding occur more frequently
89.0
More deserts in the world
65.4
Earth become hotter
97.3
More pests and bugs populations
55.5
Arise sea level and coastal erosion
96.7
Loss of habitat for polar bear and penguin
96.2
Mass extinction of many animal species
87.9
Certain types of disease will spread
96.2
Some region may become prone to deadly storms
80.2
Affect global agriculture output
92.9
Idiosyncratic Statement:
More earthquake occur
26.9
Fish and other aquatic life poisoned
20.9
People will get food poisoning
31.9
Skin cancer to human
2.1
Unsafe to use tap water
19.2
More people will die of heart attack
55.5
War among countries
51.6
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3.1.3 Cures/solution of Climate Change
The third component of the questionnaire was designed to examine students‟ knowledge and misconceptions about how climate change might be ameliorated.
Table 4 Percent of correct response for scientific and idiosyncratic statements of cures/solution of climate change
Items
%, N=182
Scientific Statement:
Save electricity
88.5
Plant more trees
98.9
Do not frequently use car
97.3
Car pooling among colleagues
90.1
Initiate to use renewable energy
94.5
Having more nuclear power station
16.5
Banning of CFCs from spray cans and Styrofoam
94.5
Recycle paper, tin and plastic
97.8
Always prefer public transport
97.3
Alternative energy like wind, waves and solar
94.0
Choose to use hybrids cars
63.7
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Idiosyncratic Statement:
35.2
Reduce starvation among people
Protect rare plants and animals
5.5
Keeping beaches clean
7.7
Always prefer unleaded petrol
2.2
Prefer healthy foods
20.9
Apply sun block cream
2.2
Table 4 shows the frequency count for each item (both scientific and idiosyncratic statement) on cures/solution of climate change. Cures/solution of climate change discuss measures the student may adopt to mitigate the impact of climate change on the environment, economy, lifestyles and community. Most of the students correctly mentioned and were able to identify steps or actions that can alleviate climate change such as plant more trees, recycle the trash, less use of cars as well as more frequently use public transportations. The majority of the students also affirmed that saving the electricity could lead to reduction in climate change. This is good because this is one action that falls partly within the locus of control of students themselves. Furthermore, establishment of good habits during young years might well persist into lifetime practice (Kilinc et al., 2008). However, the advantages of nuclear power as one of the solution for climate change were appreciated by only 16.5% of the students. This may be because nuclear power has a negative environmental image, possibly due to the accidents in nuclear power stations or they associated it with nuclear warfare.
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Several notable misconceptions were revealed among the students in cures components. The majority of the group made erroneous connection between climate change and protecting rare species. Habitat degradation from the effect of climate change might endanger certain species, but this action would not alleviate climate change. It shows that students are confused between cause and effect. Most of them also thought by keeping the beaches clean, it will curb the effect of climate change. Grove and Pugh (1999) through research have found that 72% of the pre-service primary teachers believe that keeping beach clean will help to reduce the greenhouse effect. This action is generally environmentally sympathetic which has nothing to do with the solution of the problem. The most prevalent misconception, however, is about connected to unleaded petrol and sun block cream. Students were apparently confused climate change, air pollution and lead compound. Applying sun block cream might effectively to protect their skin from harmful sun rays, but it could not be the solution for climate change.
3.2 Environmental Attitudes
Table 5 summarized the frequency distribution, mean score and standard deviation for each of the eleven items of the environmental concern scale. The mean score for negatively worded items which are Q1, Q3, Q6, Q7 and Q11 were reversed so that high scores represent positive environmental attitudes.
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Table 5 Frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation of environmental attitudes Item
SA (%)
Q1
34.3
Q2
A (%)
D (%)
S D (%)
Mean
SD
58.7
5.8
1.2
3.26
.618
1.2
1.7
23.7
73.4
3.69
.564
Q3
20.2
0
69.9
9.8
3.10
.540
Q4
1.2
5.2
35.8
57.8
3.50
.653
Q5
1.7
9.3
53.5
35.5
3.23
.685
Q6
30.6
56.6
10.4
2.3
3.16
.694
Q7
64.2
34.1
.6
1.2
3.61
.566
Q8
4.6
15.0
62.4
17.9
2.94
.717
Q9
6.9
41.0
48.6
3.5
2.49
.679
Q10
8.1
52.6
35.8
3.5
2.35
.679
Q11
23.1
69.9
6.4
.6
3.16
.543
SA, strongly agree; A, agree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree
The results indicate that the respondents showed overwhelmingly positive environmental attitudes. The mean scores ranged from 2.35 to 3.69 based on a four-point scale. As future teachers, they strongly advocate the need for courses focusing on conservation of natural resources to be taught in school (Q7). The respondents also scored very strong attitudes on conservation of wild animals and natural resources (Q2 and Q7 respectively). Indeed, they strongly urged the government to tackle the pollution problems by introducing harsh measures. Two items, development of anti-pollution technology by
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local industries (Q10) and anti-pollution organizations more interested in disrupting society than they are in fighting pollution (Q9), obtain the lowest mean score.
3.3 Environmental Behaviour Frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation of environmental behaviour are reported in Table 6. The mean score for each item were reversed so that a high score represents positive environmental behaviour.
Table 6 Frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation of environmental behaviour Item
SA (%)
A (%)
D (%)
S D (%)
Mean
SD
Q1
59.5
38.7
1.7
0
3.58
.529
Q2
53.8
45.7
.6
0
3.53
.512
Q3
50.3
47.4
2.3
0
3.48
.545
Q4
53.2
44.5
2.3
0
3.51
.546
Q5
69.9
30.1
0
0
3.70
.460
Q6
39.3
55.5
5.2
0
3.34
.575
Q7
46.8
52.6
.6
0
3.46
.512
Q8
45.7
54.3
0
0
3.46
.500
Q9
39.0
58.7
1.7
.6
3.36
.550
Q10
31.8
55.5
11.0
1.7
3.17
.685
Q11
6.9
20.8
48.0
24.3
2.10
.850
SA, strongly agree; A, agree; D, disagree; SD, strongly disagree
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The mean score ranged from 2.10 to 3.70. The results indicate that students were very willing to actively participate in paper recycling (Q1), support environmental education in schools (Q5) as well as planting more trees near house premises (Q2). Most of the items show high mean scores which indicate their strong willingness to participate in proenvironmental behaviour. The low mean score was exhibited for items asking the respondents to support an increase on gasoline (petrol) prices and to use public transportation more than they do now. They are less likely to adopt the behaviour which could bring about direct, significant changes in their convenience and economic conditions (Fortner et al., 2000). In general, the score of pro-environmental behaviour indicated that students would be willing to adopt environmentally responsible behaviours.
3.4 The Environmental Knowledge-Attitude-Behaviour Relation
Correlation analysis was performed to identify possible relationships among the three variables: knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. Pearson‟s product moment correlation (r) was calculated to show the strength of the relationships among the variables investigated. From the calculation, there is no statistically significant relationship between knowledge and attitude towards the environment, attitudes and behavior and knowledge and behavior. Previous research found that a positive relationship exists between environmental knowledge and attitude toward the environment. It was suggested that knowledge may act as a mediating variable between attitudes and behavior (Arbuthnot & Lingg, 1975). Several researchers argued that an increase in knowledge about the
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environment is necessary for improving attitudes towards the environment (Arcury, 1990). The hypothesis that greater environmental knowledge is positively correlated with environmental attitudes was not supported by data from this study (Table 5).
Table 7 Interrelation between environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour
Variable
Behaviour
Attitudes
Behaviour
-
Attitudes
.063
-
Knowledge
.124
-.081
Knowledge
-
Note. All correlations are not significant
Conclusion
The results from the present study can be summarized as follows: for the knowledge component, students‟ environmental knowledge is generally at the moderate level with several notable misconceptions like assuming aerosol spray and refrigerators, space program and holes in the ozone layers are factors that exacerbate climate change, climate change will result in an increase in the prevalence of skin cancer. They believed that unleaded petrol and applying sun block cream could be the solution for climate change. Students showed positive environmental attitudes and were very willing to adopt proenvironmental behaviours such as actively participating in paper recycling, supporting
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environmental education in schools and planting more trees near house premises. However, they were less likely to adopt behaviours which could bring direct effect to their convenience and economic condition.
Consequently, the results of this study have some implications in designing curriculum on environmental education in teacher training courses to increase the knowledge, enhance attitudes and behaviours of students regarding environmental issues. The pre-service teachers need to be engaged in class discussions on environmental issues that are meaningful to them and related to their everyday lives. Students can be assigned to conduct an in-depth research on environmental issues and present the results in classroom open discussion. During the discussions, students will be exposed to a variety of ideas from other students and the exchange of ideas among them helps student to evaluate as well as correct their pre-existing conceptions. Students also can be encouraged to do extensive research on environmental issues which can also help to correct their misconceptions in some raising issues, especially environmental problems. Further research, such as qualitative and longitudinal studies, is needed to investigate deeply the enhancement of students` attitudes and behaviours, as well as the formation of true environmental knowledge.
References Arba‟at, H., Kamisah, O., and Pudin, S. (2009). The adults non-formal environmental education (EE):A scenario in Sabah, Malaysia. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1, 2306–2311.
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Arbuthnot, J., & Lingg, S (1975). A comparison of French and American environmental behaviors, knowledge, and attitudes. International Journal of Psychology, 10(4 ) 275 - 281
Arcury, T.A. (1990) Environmental attitude and environmental knowledge. Human Organization 49, 300–304.
Boyes, E., Chamber, W., & Stanisstreet, M. (1993). The greenhouse effect: Children‟s perceptions of causes, consequences and cures. International Journal of Science Education, 15, 531-552.
Boyes, E., Chambers, W. & Stanistreet, M. (1995) Trainee primary teachers` ideas about the ozone layer. Environmental Education Research, 1(2), 133-145.
Chan, K.K.W. (1996). Environmental attitudes and behaviour of secondary school students in Hong Kong. The Environmentalist. 16, 297-306.
Chin Ivy ,T. G., Eng Lee, C. E., & Guan, G. H., (1998). A survey of environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of students in Singapore. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education. 7(3).
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DeChano, L.M.(2006). A multi-country examination of the relationship between environmental knowledge and attitudes. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15(1), 15-28.
Fortner, R.W., Lee, J-Y., Corney, J.R., Romanello, S., Bonnell, J., Luthy, B. Figuerido, C., & Ntsiko, N. (2000). Public understanding of climate change: Certainty and willingness to act. Environmental Education Research, 6(2), 127-141.
Grodzinska-Jurczak, M., Bartosiewicz, A., Twardowska, A., & Ballantyne, R. (2003). Evaluating the impact of a school waste education programme upon students`, teachers` and parents` environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education 12 (2), 3033
Groves, F., and A. Pugh, 1999: Elementary pre-service teacher perceptions of the greenhouse effect. Journal of Scence in Eduational. Technology, 8, 75–85.
Hart, R.A. (1997). Children.s Participation: The theory and practice of involving young citizens in community development and environmental care. UK: Earthscan.
Hooper, J.K. (1988). Teacher cognitions of wildlife management concepts. Journal of Environmental Education, 19, 15-19.
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Huffington Post (2009). Obama UN Climate Change Speech. [online] http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/09/22/obama-un-climate-changes_n_294628.html.
Kilinc, A., Stanisstreet, M., and Boyes, E. (2008). Turkish students` ideas about global warming. International Journal of Environment and Science Education, 3(2), 8998.
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment (MOSTE). (2002). National policy on the environment. Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor: Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment.
Papadimitriou, V. (2004). Prospective primary teachers` understanding of climate change, greenhouse effects, and ozone layer depletion. Journal of science Education and Technology, 13(2), 299-307.
Pekel, F.O. and Ozay, E. (2005). Turkish high school students` perceptions of ozone layer depletion. Applied Environmental Education & Communication, 4(2), 115123.
Robottom, I. (1993). Beyond behaviourism: Making EE research educational. In R. Mrazek (Ed.), Alternative paradigms in environmental education Research,
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Monograph in Environmental education and Environmental Studies (Vol. VIII, pp. 133-143). Troy, OH: NAEEE.
Sharifah Norhaidah, S. I. (2006). Exploring environmental behaviours, attitudes and knowledge among university students: positioning the concept of sustainable development within Malaysian education. Journal of Science and Mathematics Education in S.E Asia, 29(1), 79-97.
Skanavis, C., Petreniti, V., & Giannopoulou, K. (2004). Educators and environmental education in Greece. Protection and Restoration of the Environment VII: Social, Cultural, Educational and Sustainability Issues, 7(2)
Summers, M. (1994). Science in the primary school: The problem of teachers` curriculum expertise. The Curriculum Journal, 5, 179-193.
Summers, M., Kruger, K. and Childs, A. (2001). Understanding the science of environmental issues: development of a subject knowledge guide for primary teacher education. International Journal of Science Education, 23, 33-53.
Susan, P., Tagi, K. and Periasamy, A. (2005). Environmental Education in Malaysia and Japan: A Comparative Assessment. Paper presented at the International Conferences of Education for Sustainable Future, Ahmedabad, January, 18-20.
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Thiagarajan, N., and Nor Shidawati, A.R. ( 2005). The Implementation of EE in Malaysian Schools: A NGO's Overview. Paper Presented at Best of Both Worlds International Conference on Environmental Education for Sustainable Development, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September.
UNESCO-UNEP. (1978). The Tbilisi Declaration: Final report intergovernmental conference on environmental education. Organized by UNESCO in cooperation with UNEP, Tbilisi, USSR, 14-26 October 1977, Paris, France: UNESCO ED/MD/49.
Volk, T.L. & McBeth, B. (1997) Environmental Literacy in the United States. Troy, OH: North American Association for Environmental Education.
Weigel, R. & Weigel, J. (1978) Environmental concern: the development of a measure. Environment and Behaviour, 10, 3-5.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
An Investigation of Practical Performance and Attitude and Interest towards laboratory work by using an online game designed based on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis). Mr Shasikumaran & Miss M.Losiny (ICT Dept, Kranji Secondary School)
Kranji Secondary School Contact No: 67662464 Email :
[email protected] /
[email protected]
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Abstract This study aims to use online game designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) to support upper secondary-level chemistry students‘ meaningful chemistry learning and develop science process skills which are related to the Science Practical Assessment (SPA) and O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination. To prepare for the practical examination, teachers conduct practical lessons which are meant to be investigative. But due to a lack of time to cover syllabus and preparation, the focus is still on the outcome of the reactions. Hence, when students are tested on the process skills in SPA or O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination, they have difficulty answering the questions. This eventually also leads to a lack of confidence and motivation in students during practical lessons and examinations. To improve students‘ process skills, an online game is developed. The game will be a single player and role playing game. The online game to be developed will be based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle. Kolb‘s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences. This online game aims to improve students‘ process skills which will lead to better performance in SPA assessment (for qualitative analysis) and O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination and develop students‘ interest and motivation in laboratory work. The game is made online so that students can play the game outside curriculum time. Before playing the game, students need to have prior knowledge in qualitative analysis (test for cations, anions and gases). They must also have done a practical in qualitative analysis.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster An Investigation of Practical Performance and Attitude and Interest towards laboratory work by using an online game designed based on Kolb’s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis).
Abstract This study aims to use online game designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984) to support upper secondary-level chemistry students‘ meaningful chemistry learning and develop science process skills which are related to the Science Practical Assessment (SPA) and O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination. To prepare for the practical examination, teachers conduct practical lessons which are meant to be investigative. But due to a lack of time to cover syllabus and preparation, the focus is still on the outcome of the reactions. Hence, when students are tested on the process skills in SPA or O level Science (Chemistry) practical examination, they have difficulty answering the questions. This eventually also leads to a lack of confidence and motivation in students during practical lessons and examinations. To improve students‘ process skills, an online game is developed. The game will be a single player and role playing game. The online game to be developed will be based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle. Kolb‘s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences.
This online game aims to improve students‘ process skills which will lead to better performance in SPA assessment (for qualitative analysis) and O level Science
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster (Chemistry) practical examination and develop students‘ interest and motivation in laboratory work. The game is made online so that students can play the game outside curriculum time. Before playing the game, students need to have prior knowledge in qualitative analysis (test for cations, anions and gases). They must also have done a practical in qualitative analysis.
Research Questions The following are the research questions:
a) Is there a significant difference between pre and post, practical test means, as they pertain to a learner‘s development of process skills by using an online game designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis)?
b) Does online game, designed based on Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle for a particular topic in Chemistry (Qualitative Analysis), improve students‘ attitude and interest in practical work? Background Gaming The resource is designed in the form of a game because computer games are today an important part of most children‘s leisure lives and increasingly an important part of our culture. Many of them have solved mysteries (Blues Clues, Sherlock Holmes); built and run cities (Sim City), theme parks, (Roller Coaster Tycoon), and businesses (Zillionaire,
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster CEO, Risky Business, Start-up); built civilizations from the ground up (Civilization, Age of Empires); piloted countless airplanes, helicopters, and tanks (Microsoft’s Flight Simulator, Apache, Abrams M-1); fought close hand-to-hand combat (Doom, Quake, Unreal Tournament); and conducted strategic warfare (Warcraft III, Command and Conquer)—not once or twice, but over and over and over again, for countless hours, weeks and months, until they were really good at it (Prensky, 2001). As adults, we often watch in amazement as children dedicate hours mastering a game, sharing tips and tricks with online communities (Prensky, 2002) and how they spend their holidays in LAN (local area network) gaming centres. It is clear that games engage and motivate. These games are even more accessible now with powerful home gaming systems like Microsoft‘s Xbox360 and Sony Playstation 3 that may be internet-enabled. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), these games induce the flow state ie positive subjective experience is increased, thereby enhancing motivation.
Category of Games
As games have become more complex in terms of graphics, complexity, interaction and narrative, so a variety of genres have increasingly come to dominate the market. There is, however, no standard categorisation of such games; different stakeholders in the games industry, eg game outlets, developers, academics, web review sites, use a taxonomy appropriate to their own audience. Such categorisations are discussed in Orwant (2000), who also illustrates the system employed by Herz (1997) which closely resembles that used by many in the contemporary games industry.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
The Herz system presents these major categories:
action games - these can be subcategorised into shooting games, ‗platform‘ games (so called because the players‘ characters move between on-screen platforms) and other types of games that are reaction-based
adventure games - in most adventure games, the player solves a number of logic puzzles (with no time constraints) in order to progress through some described virtual world fighting games - these involve fighting computer-controlled characters, or those controlled by other players
puzzle games - such as Tetris
role-playing games - where the human players assume the characteristics of some person or creature type, eg elf or wizard
simulations - where the player has to succeed within some simplified recreation of a place or situation eg mayor of a city, controlling financial outlay and building works
sports games
strategy games - such as commanding armies within recreations of historical battles and wars.
Even with this taxonomy, there are exclusions; a small number of games will be released every year that defy categorisation. In addition, some games fall into more than one category; for example, football manager games (where you buy, sell, select and position players) arguably fall into the categories of simulation, strategy and sports games. This
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster classification also leaves out the individual or multiplayer contrast, which is making a real difference to how games can be played
Effective Learning Design Principles
Gee (2004b) articulates a large set of effective learning design principles that effective educational games embody. Some examples are:
Learning is based on situated practice
There are lowered consequences for failure and taking risks
Learning is a form of extended engagement of self as an extension of an identity to which the player is committed
The learner can customize the game to suit his/her style of learning
The learning domain is a simplified subdomain of the real domain
Problems are ordered so the first ones to be solved in the game lead to fruitful generalizations about how to solve more complex problems later
Explicit information/instruction is given ―on demand‖ and just-in-time
Learning is interactive (probing, assessing, and reprobing the world)
There are multiple routes to solving a problem
There are intrinsic rewards within the game keyed to a player‘s level of expertise
The game operates at the outer edge of a player‘s ―regime of competence‖
Basic skills are not separated from higher-order skills
The meaning of texts and symbols is situated in what one does; it is never purely
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster verbal or textual.
Meaning/knowledge is built up through various modalities
Meaning/knowledge is distributed between the player‘s mind, objects in the environment in the game world, and other players
Knowledge is dispersed as player‘s go online to get help and discuss strategy
Players become members of affinity groups dedicated to a particular game or type of game
The game constitutes a complex designed system, and the player orients his/her learning to issues of design and the understanding of complex systems.
In seeking to introduce the use of computer games in classroom-based learning, Chee (2007) has proposed that we need to address the following issues:
What should students be trying to learn? Should teachers be trying to use games with standard curriculum subjects (e.g. English, mathematics, science, geography), non-standard curriculum subjects (e.g. music appreciation, sex education), or non-curriculum subjects (e.g. golf, handicrafts)?
How should games be used? Should students play games in the classroom or outside of the classroom? Should they play within or outside of official classroom teaching time?
Why should games be used? What exactly should drive the adoption of gamebased learning? Is it to enhance motivation for ―boring‖ subjects, to increase
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster student engagement, or something else? How should we deal with design issues, both with respect to the game itself as well as the design of the broader classroombased learning environment so that game adoption can be scaled up and sustained?
How do we help schoolteachers to assimilate and internalize suitable pedagogies for game-based learning?
How do we evaluate the effectiveness of game-based learning, and what forms of assessment can we use?
Three Characteristics of Learning in Immersive Game Environments (adapted from Chee, 2007)
Three salient characteristics of immersive game-based learning environments that fundamentally alter what it is typically like to learn in school. These three characteristics are (1) embodiment, (2) embeddedness, and (3) experience.
Embodiment An embodied view of cognition leads to different epistemological entailments with respect to knowledge. Rather than seeing knowledge as an object, something to be transmitted by teaching and acquired through learning, the embodied perspective is more consonant with participatory and collaborative modes of learning where knowledge is viewed in terms of the capacity for intelligent behavior rather than the possession of any mental ―thing‖.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
Embeddedness The criterion of successful learning is performative, driven by goal-directedness, intentionality, and strong personal agency. This mode of learning represents a significant departure from traditional modes of classroom learning that seek to impart knowledge and assess the acquisition of knowledge. In environments that support embedding, behaviors that subsume knowledge are what count, not knowledge per se. Just as we value surgeons for their ability to perform surgeries successfully based on sound knowledge-in-practice, so too learning in environments that require the demonstration of knowledge-in-action represent a more authentic, more meaningful, and more powerful mode of learning. Thus, embeddedness supports ―person-in-the-world‖ learning.
Experience Learning environments that support embodiment and embeddedness yield experience as a natural side-product. Kolb‘s (1984) experiential learning cycle (reconstructed in Figure 1) illustrates how active experimentation in the world, yielding concrete experience, leads to reflective observation and, over multiple cycles, the formation of more abstract concepts. These concepts are continually re-tested through application to the material world, leading either to confirmation of existing understanding or expectation failure (Schank, 2002). In the latter case, reflection will lead to concept modification and/or refinement as appropriate. Hence, a student‘s knowledge is always in flux and remains a constant workin-progress, open to being disproved and corrected.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
Figure 1. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle
A key strength of Kolb‘s model is that it portrays a student as an embodied, active agent embedded in a material world, constantly learning by doing, observing the outcomes of his actions, testing his hypotheses about the world, and reflecting further on his own understanding. This perspective is better aligned to developmental approaches to learning. It frames learning in terms of iterative attunement to the experienced world which may include other learners as well. Thus, the model is more authentic and more inclusive compared to cognition-as-mentation models.
Kolb’s experiential learning cycle Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American educational theorist David A. Kolb believes ―learning is the process whereby knowledge is created
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster through the transformation of experience‖ (1984, p. 38). The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages shown below. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in the sequence: Kolb‘s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for active experimentation and the choice of new experiences. The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively experiences an activity such as a lab session or field work. The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner consciously reflects back on that experience. The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed. The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a forthcoming experience.
Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The styles highlight conditions under which learners learn better. These styles are:
assimilators, who learn better when presented with sound logical theories to consider
convergers, who learn better when provided with practical applications of concepts and theories
accommodators, who learn better when provided with ―hands-on‖ experiences
divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide range of information
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Identity in Games
Gee (2003, 2005c) explains that there are three distinct identities that we need to distinguish between in the context of game play. First, there is a virtual identity that represents the character one is playing in the game, whether shown in the first person or not. Virtual characters in a role playing game will have an associated repertoire of actions that they are capable of enacting, e.g. jumping, waving, provided by the game developer. Second, a player always also possesses a real world identity, that is, the person as he or she is known in the real world. Third, there is a projective identity that represents the projection of the real world person, with his or her goals and intentions, onto the game character. This projection yields a so-called blended character constituted in part by the real world player‘s own motives and in part by the repertoire of actions that the game character is able to enact, consistent with the virtual identity. Thus, the in-game ―person‖ being enacted is always a mixture, driven on the one hand by what the gamer wishes to do and achieve and constrained on the other by what actions have been programmed as do-able by the character. The conflation between real world player and virtual persona as they jointly enact a trajectory of experience through the game space creates a strong sense of projection into the game world, a sense of being (firstperson embodiment) in the world as well as a sense of ―being there‖ (embeddedness) in the world. This tripartite interplay of identities—virtual, real world, and projective—creates a powerful context for learning because of its dual active and reflexive characteristics.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Research Method Data would be collected through attitude survey (Goh, 1997) and pupils‘ practical performance (pre & post O level practical tests).
The pre & post test (practical test and attitude survey) would enable us to answer our research question on the implication of the use of the online game to pupils‘ practical performance and attitude towards practical work.
One Secondary Four Express and one Five Normal Academic classes would be used for the testing. The topic to be taught was qualitative analysis. The dependent variable, student performance, was operationally defined as the numerical test average based upon 15 marks. The independent variable was the online game. One-tailed t-test (repeatedmeasures study) would be done. An alpha of 0.05 would be used as the marker of statistical significance. The null hypothesis was that there was no difference between pretest and posttest practical means. The alternative hypothesis was that there was a positive difference between pretest and posttest practical means. The same teacher would be teaching both the classes but there would be no random choosing of students.
Data would also be collected through interviews with students, classroom observation and attitude test. A one-tailed t-test would also be conducted using the attitude survey. The dependent variable was the attitude test which had 58 questions. The independent variable was the online game. A t-test (repeated-measures study) would be done. An alpha of 0.05 would be used as the marker of statistical significance. The null hypothesis
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster was that there was no difference between pre and post attitude scores in terms of agree and strongly agree. The alternative hypothesis was that there was a positive difference between pre and post attitude scores in terms of agree and strongly agree.
Results Practical Test Ho: μD = 0 H1: μD ≥ 0 We would set α = 0.05 This was a repeated measures study. The one tailed t-test was as follows: df= 28 The t-distribution for df = 28, α = 0.05 had boundaries of t= + 1.701. t=+4.120
The obtained value t=+4.120, was in the critical region. Hence, we rejected Ho and concluded that the online game had a positive difference on the students‘ practical results. More importantly, using the online game improved students‘ practical results.
d= 0.766 ≈ 0.8
According to cohen‘s criteria, using the online game had a large effect on students‘ practical performance. The calculations are shown in Annex A.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Attitude Test
Ho: μD = 0 H1: μD ≥ 0 We would set α = 0.05 This was a repeated measures study. The one tailed t-test was as follows: df= 57 The t-distribution for df = 57, α = 0.05 had boundaries of t = + 1.671. t=+7.43
The obtained value t=+7.43, was in the critical region. Hence, we rejected Ho and concluded that the online game had a positive difference on the students‘ attitude towards practical work. More importantly, using the online game improved students‘ attitude towards practical work..
d= 0.974 ≈ 1
According to cohen‘s criteria, using the online game had a large effect on students‘ attitude towards practical work. The calculations are shown in Annex B.
Below were some of the comments from students.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Positive Comments
The game is interesting and very animative, it helps me to learn more about anions and cations.
It makes me want to play more and try to get the gold award so that next time I do better in practical.
Very fun and interesting and very useful. Makes me want to replay.
This programme allows us to understand the experiment better. With this programme, it will be easier for me to remember the experiments.
Negative Comments
Faster loading
Animation too slow
Discussion
As a classroom teacher, it was very encouraging for us when we saw our students were actually engaged while playing the game. We were quite apprehensive before the online
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster game was rolled out. We felt the students might find the game too long and boring. But the students actually managed to complete the game in one hour. They wanted to play the game again so that they can get the gold award.
Most of the students complained that the loading of the game was too slow. This was understandable as twenty students assessed the game at the same time. They also felt that the animations‘ speed could be faster.
Generally, the secondary five normal academic students were very interested in the visual interpretation of the game while the secondary four express students asked very contentspecific questions.
The main challenge in designing this game lies in doing the storyboard for this game. The storyboard has to be amended or improved many times as understanding and using Kolb‘s experiential learning was very challenging. The concrete experience was the phenomenon that was observed from the software. The reflective observation was done using the questions that were asked after the phenomenon. The abstract conceptualisation was enabled by asking the students to represent their observation in chemical formulaes. The active experimentation was done in level 2 where they apply their knowledge in qualitative analysis in new context.
The positive findings from this research, was very encouraging and would motivate us to use more games in our lessons. But since the sample size was small (29 students), we
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster could not generalise the findings from this research to a larger population. We actually realised that students who did much better in subsequent practicals were those who played the game at least three times. They seemed to be more confident of their answers and knew what to record in their observation.
Many educational games are now developed by vendors who are not trained teachers. Hence, they attempt to craft the game form into traditional content orientated learning goals. Thus, a game may place the students inside a room and require them to correctly respond to a number of mathematical problems before which an entrance to the next room appears. This type of design would reflect poor appreciation of pedagogy and demonstrate a lack of understanding of the power of games for learning. This would also mean new technologies are not adequately harnessed to maximise the use of games for learning. Budget could also be a constraint. As in the case of the online game, flash was the software used in the design of the game. We could not totally create an immersive learning as recommended by Prof Chee (2007) due to the lack of budget. The effects were mostly visual. Nevertheless, we can still design relatively low budget games with pedagogical background and bring about positive learning outcomes as seen in this online game.
Conclusion
This research highlighted the impact of using online games to improve students‘ attitude & performance in practical work. Student attitude and performance in practical work
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster improved as they were able to understand what was going on at the microscopic level. Hence, they were able to infer their observations and also apply these process skills in a new context.
There is no single best way forward in game-based learning. But using Kolb‘s experiential cycle, for the design of the game, seems to be a promising approach. The use of other learning designs, are also possible. We believe the main aim of designing educational games to achieve the learning outcomes would be to create an immersive and fun learning environment for our students.
Acknowledgements
The work reported in this paper is funded by W5 cluster. We would like to thank W5 cluster chemistry teachers who have vetted the storyboard of the online game.
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Annex A
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster
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Kranji Secondary School Online Game Developed for W5 Cluster Annex B
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A Preliminary Study on Kindergarten Children’s Abilities in Science Problem Solving
Chang, Ching-Yi a Kung, Jen-Mein Lin, Shu-Hui Chiu, Wen-Shin
a
Corresponding Author
MAIL:
[email protected] TEL: 886-8-7628015 FAX: 886-8-7626762
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Abstract The purpose of this study was to explore the kindergarten children’s science inquisition ability. The subjects of this study were twenty six-year-old children, including ten boys and ten girls. They were randomly selected from kindergartens at Kaohsiung city and Pingtung city. Research group first designed a science inquisition ability list for data analysis, and then designed three stories with contextual problems focusing on scientific phenomena of buoyancy, inclined plane and simple pendulum. Each subject received two interviews. Data were collected through the subjects’ manipulation as well as their verbal explanation on solving the three science problems. Based on the data collected, the research group analyzed their abilities in identifying the problems, putting forward the solutions, carrying out the solutions, and determining the best solution. Furthermore, the research group detected the subjects’ integration and application abilities. The results showed that nearly all of the children could recognize the problem to be solved immediately. After the children were encouraged to try more possible solutions and were offered more time, more than 90% could put forward the solutions and carry them out, and 70% could describe the solutions in orderly and systematic ways.
Key word: young children, problem solving, scientific inquiry.
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A Preliminary Study on Kindergarten Children’s Abilities in Science Problem Solving Introduction Everyone may do something wrong and be in need of problem-solving skills sometime in his/her life (Huang and Chen, 2005). Britz (1993) proposes that the young children must learn how to solve the problem because problem-solving capability is requisite. Everything is always changing except “change” itself. So problem-solving is an essential skill to our life (Huang, 2002). However, problem-solving is very significant in the childhood, thus the researcher started to implement “The Study in Promoting Capability of Children Problem Solving with Combining DISCOVER (discovering intellectual strengths and capabilities observing varied ethnic response) and Science Inquiry” which was subsidized by National Science Council. The main targets of this study are written bellow: 1. Analyzing how the teachers teach the young children to learn problem-solving. 2. Studying the application of DISCOVER in the preschool classroom. 3. Designing the assessments when DISCOVER is used in training the capability of problem-solving. To understand the ability degree of the young children applying thinking strategies to problem-solving, the researcher designs 3 questionnaires of problem-solving scientific inquiry in the initial stage of this research.
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Literature review The most common definition of ‘problem’ is one kind of psychological states where there are not only the differences between the goal and present situation, but unable for us to obtain the solutions immediately (Newell and Simon, 1972). In the terms of psychology, Zhang (2001) proposes that ‘problem’ means that someone feels confused when he/she cannot find appropriate way to pursue something. The American psychologist, Sternberg (2003) identifies seven steps in problem-solving, each of them may be illustrated in the simple example of choosing a restaurant: A. Problem identification: In this step, the individual recognizes the existence of a problem to be solved: he recognizes that he is hungry, that it is dinnertime, and hence that he will need to take some sort of action. B. Problem definition: In this step, the individual determines the nature of the problem that confronts him. He may define the problem as that of preparing food, of finding a friend to prepare food, of ordering food to be delivered, or of choosing a restaurant. C. Resource allocation: Having defined the problem as that of choosing a restaurant, the individual determines the kind and extent of resources to devote to the choice. He may consider how much time to spend in choosing a restaurant, whether to seek suggestions from friends, and whether to consult a restaurant guide.
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D. Problem representation: In this step, the individual mentally organizes the information needed to solve the problem. He may decide that he wants a restaurant that meets certain criteria, such as close proximity, reasonable price, a certain cuisine, and good service. E. Strategy construction: Having decided what criteria to use, the individual must now decide how to combine or prioritize them. If his funds are limited, he might decide that reasonable price is a more important criterion than close proximity, a certain cuisine, or good service. F. Monitoring: In this step, the individual assesses whether the problem solving is proceeding according to his intentions. If the possible solutions produced by his criteria do not appeal to him, he may decide that the criteria or their relative importance needs to be changed. G. Evaluation: In this step, the individual evaluates whether the problem solving was successful. Having chosen a restaurant, he may decide after eating whether the meal was acceptable.
Problem identification
Evaluation
Problem definition
Monitoring
Resource allocation
Problem representation
Strategy construction
Figure 1
the Problem-solving Cycle Page 245
People always see the ability of problem-solving as common, but we should think it needs practice just like other skills. The best environment of learning how to solve the problem is in the early childhood. When you create circumstances to let the young children solve the problem in their way, they not only know the importance of thoughts but also study the new concept. Fisher (1990) proposes the ability of the children to apply them thinking to solve problems will be the key to success in life. There are more immediate gains to be had from bringing children up as problem solvers. Problem-solving activities will stimulate and develop skills of thinking and reasoning. They utilize and make relevant the child’s knowledge of facts and relationships. Getting results helps developing confidence and capability, the “I-can-think-this-out-for-myself” attitude. It can also provide opportunities for children to share ideas and to learn to work effectively with others, the “Let’s-work-this-out-together” approach. Problem solving activities not only promote knowledge, skills and attitudes, they also provide adults/teachers with opportunities to observe the way children approach problems, how they communicate and learn. There is no better way checking if a child understands a process or body of knowledge than to see if he/she can use that understanding in the solving of a problem. Feedback is gained on the way a child can apply skills and knowledge. Working on common problems can be a way to get the ferries moving between islands of experience, linking and extending the network of thinking.
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Relate to a child’s needs
Involves group work and interaction skills
Fosters skills of evaluation
Offers challenge and motivation Encourages planning and forward thinking
Involves learning to think for oneself
Gives learning relevance and purpose
Is concerned with applying knowledge and skill
Problem solving
Develops confidence and competence
Fosters language experience develops investigative skills
Provides first hand experience
Encourages observation And hypothesis creation Stimulates creative And critical thinking
Relates to all Areas of learning
Raises questions and issues
Figure 2
Function of problem-solving
To inquire and evaluate the behaviors of the young children in solving problems, we must take into account in different patterns of thinking. First Sperling, Walls, Hill, & Lee (2000) utilized seven steps to observe and assess children’ problem-solving ability. The seven steps are: (1) understanding the goal status, (2) reporting the goal status, (3) identifying the problem, (4)solving the problem, (5) providing systematic strategies to solve the problem, (6) pointing out the connection between the solving strategies and the problem,
and (7) employing the
problem-solving experience to other contexts. The process of the young children to solve problems focuses on three essential factors:
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first, problem identification, second, problem reformation identification, and the third, tactics for problem-solving identification. According to these essential factors, we could predict the behavior of the young children to solve problems. The young children are voluntary and can use methods to overcome difficulties which prohibit accomplishing the goals. However, the young children can effectively achieve destinations step by step according to relative information in the process of the young children to solve problems (Siegler, Deloache, &Eisenberg, 2003). There nowadays are not many but various ways to study how the young children to solve problems: McCusker (2001) discussed how the young children to solve problems in music on “Emerging Musical Literacy: Investigating Young Children's Music Cognition and Musical Problem-Solving through Invented Notations ” ; Dougherty & Slovin（2004）proposed that students use the diagrams to help solve word problems by focusing on the broader structure rather than seeing each problem as an entity in and of itself. The consistent use of the diagrams is related to students' experience with simultaneous presentations of physical, diagrammatic, and symbolic representations used in measure up on “Generalized Diagrams as a Tool for Young Children's Problem Solving”； Kritzer（2008） implemented qualitative study to examine the relationship between young deaf children's level of mathematics ability and opportunities available for the construction of early mathematics knowledge during a
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problem-solving task implemented by their parents. Findings indicated that the manner in which the mathematically based concepts (number/counting, quantity, time/sequence, and categorization) were incorporated into the activity was more meaningful for children who demonstrated high levels of mathematical ability. In addition, children who demonstrated high levels of mathematical abilities experienced a more purposeful use of mediation during activity implementation. However, overall use of mediated learning experience was limited for children from both ability groups on Family Mediation of Mathematically Based Concepts while Engaged in a Problem-Solving Activity with Their Young Deaf Children. As mentioned above, there is no study discussing about the young children solving science problem, so in problem this research will regard “science” as the study subject. What is science? Science is not just a collection of facts. Of course, facts are an important part of science. Science involves trial and error—trying, failing and trying again. Science doesn’t provide all the answers. It requires us to be skeptical so that our scientific “conclusions” can be modified or changed altogether as we make new discoveries. Children Have Their Own “scientific concepts”. Very young children can come up with many interesting explanations to make sense of the world around them. When asked about the shape of the earth, for example, some will explain that the earth has to be flat because, if it were round like a ball, people and things would fall off it. Presented with a globe and told that this is
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the true shape of the earth, these children may adapt their explanation by saying that the earth is hollow and that people live on flat ground inside it (Washington, 2005) . In similar viewpoint, Huang (2007) considers that the young children have no adequate experience, intelligence, and tactics before six years old. The point of science-learning is to obtain experience, such as natural, social phenomenon. As the above-mentioned, the young children will not only mature step by step and develop the ability of defining abstract phenomenon, but also establish scientific world outlook. In the end, the young children will apply “science inquiry” to common life. Scientific inquiry is the formal, educational process through which students learn to seek answers to questions they develop about the natural world: 1.Inquiry is the through the act of asking for information or conducting an official investigation. 2.Through which students learn more about the natural world and themselves (Teresa, 2008). Students have a natural fascination and wonder about the natural world in which they live. Inquiry is an ongoing process that can occur anytime and anywhere. Children are inquisitive about their world; they are constantly making observations, performing investigations, making analyses, and drawing conclusions about the phenomena of their natural world. Providing children with a context for hands-on, personal experience allows them to form mental representations of complex phenomena. Students need hands-on experiences to make brain connections and to learn; the
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senses are the medium for these experiences. As Aristotle wrote, “There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses.” Providing opportunities for children to develop and refine the use of their sensory motor skills and investigatory skills ultimately allows children’s to answer their questions about nature (Teresa, 2008). Scientific inquiry begins with the infant who is constantly exploring his/her environment. The Pre-K classroom is the place to introduce children to the formal process of scientific inquiry. The goals of this introduction to scientific inquiry for the Pre-K classroom, according to the Core Curriculum for the School District of Philadelphia, are for children to (Teresa, 2008): A.
Investigate new materials as they explore their world and environment.
B.
Ask and pose questions during group or individual times to further their understanding of the organisms and environmental phenomena of their world.
C.
Make predictions about what will happen next based on previous experience, reflections, and inquiry experiences.
D.
Develop listening skills.
E.
Communicate observations through pictures, journals, and dictation.
F.
Hone the use of the senses in the making of observation and to learn about objects, organisms and phenomena for a purpose.
G.
Use the senses for classifying, sorting, and ordering in terms of observable characteristics
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and properties. H.
Record observation and findings through a variety of methods.
I.
Begin to interpret observations through pictures, conversations, dramatizations, etc.
J.
Discuss and share findings.
K.
Describe and illustrate simple cause and effect relationships.
L.
Proposing explanations.
M. Begin to explain some of the characteristics of the natural world, materials on earth, characteristics of living things and natural processes. N.
Predict what will happen next based on previous experiences, reflection, and the planning of science experiments. The role of the teacher is to facilitate the process of learning whereby students are able
to follow a process of inquiry to construct meaning on a subject and construct the desired knowledge. The teacher prepares the environment for Inquiry learning by: A. Designing the activity. B. Preparing the materials. C. Building background knowledge as appropriate. D. Constructing open-ended, evocative questions. E. Extracting students questions on the subject.
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F. Facilitating conversation between students. G. Modeling procedure as necessary. H. Guiding student inquiry by providing support for the procedure/investigation by asking questions, answering questions, making observations, and providing information, as necessary. I. Facilitating post-inquiry discussion to help students identify similarities and conflicts in understanding, revising understandings and relating their findings to existing knowledge bases. “Early learning content standards” such as the process of problem-solving which proceed in an orderly way include: 1. Ask a testable question. 2. Design and conduct a simple investigation to explore a question. 3. Gather and communicate information from careful observations and simple investigation through a variety of methods (Jennifer, 2007). Table 1 Early learning content standards Pre-K Indicators
Kindergarten Indicators Grade 1Indicators Scientific Inquiry Standard
Grade 2 Indicators
1. Ask a testable question. Ask questions about objects, Ask “what if” questions. organisms and events in their Explore and pursue student environment during shared -generated “what if” stories conversations and questions. play . Show interest in investigating unfamiliar objects, organisms and phenomena during shared stories, conversations and play. Predict what will happen next based on previous experience. Investigate natural law acting upon objects, events, and organisms.
Ask “what happens when” questions. Explore and pursue student generated “what happens when” questions.
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Ask “how can I/we”question. Ask “how do you know” questions (not “why” question) in appropriate situation and attempt to give reasonable answers when others ask questions. Explore and pursue student generated “how” questions.
Table 1 Early learning content standards Pre-K Indicators
Kindergarten Indicators
Grade 1Indicators
Grade 2 Indicators
2. Design and conduct a simple investigation to explore a question. Use one or more of the senses Use appropriate safety Use appropriate safety Use appropriate safety to observe and learn about procedures when completing procedures when completing procedures when completing objects, organisms and scientific investigations. scientific investigations. scientific investigations. phenomena for a purpose. Use the five senses to make Use appropriate tools and Use appropriate tools and Explore objects, organisms observations about the simple equipment/ simple equipment/instrument and events using simple natural world. instrument to safely gather to safely gather scientific equipment. Use appropriate tools and scientific data. data. simple equipment Measure properties of objects /instruments to safely using tools such as rulers, gather scientific data. balances and thermometers. Make new observations when people give different descriptions for the same thing. 3. Gather and communicate information from careful observations and simple investigation through a variety of methods. Begin to make comparisons Draw pictures that correctly Work in a small group to Use evidence to develop between objects or organisms portray features of the item complete an investigation explanations of scientific based on their characteristics. being described. and then share findings with investigations. Record or represent and Recognize that numbers can others. Recognize that explanations communicate observations be used to count a collection Create individual conclusion are generated in response to and findings through a variety of things. about group findings. observations, events and of methods with assistance. Measure the lengths of Make estimates to compare phenomena. objects using non-standard familiar lengths, weights and Use whole numbers to order, methods of measurement. time intervals. count, identify, measure and Make pictographs and use Use oral, written and describe thing a experiences. them to describe observation pictorial representation to Share explanations with and draw conclusions. communicate work. others to provide opportunity Describe things as accurately to ask questions, examine as possible and compare evidence and suggest with the observations of alternative explanations. others.
The young children are curious about natural by birth. Science inquiry not only is important for the young children, but also is the foundation of constructing thinking system. The best time of life to construct scientific interests is in the childhood, so the Pre-K education can provide the young children chance to learn and practice how to solve basic questions which normally include steps bellows: 1.Understanding a social situation and confirming the question. 2. Proposing alternative solutions. 3. Evaluating the solutions. 4. Accepting and
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implementing one of the solutions. 5. Making sure the solution is successful. According 5P of DISCOVER from Multi-dimensional Intelligent Theory which is proposed by Maker (1992) , this research develops the questionnaire of problem-solving of children science inquiry. The researcher expects to have the preliminary understanding for the degree of the young children to solve the question.
Research method A. Research framework. Based on the data inquiry, the researcher designed the ‚The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability‛ at first. (App.1) The sections of the analysis are based on a simple model and are deepened and broadened step by step, which includes: Be able to recognize the problem → Be able to provide solutions based on the problem → Be able to execute the solution → Decide the best solution → Integrated application. Depends on the analysis, the researcher designed three story settings as “The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry” (get details at the end of this article).The researcher invited young children to operate the experiment personally and have a face-to-face interview with each one, therefore, in order to observe the children’s thinking and action in the problem-solving process of children science inquiry. The research framework is like picture 3 below.
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Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry
Setting 1
Setting 2
Setting 3
A. Make sure the question and describe it clearly.
A. Make sure the question and describe it clearly.
B. Provide possible solutions
B. Provide possible solutions
B. Provide possible solutions
C. Execute the solution 方案
C. Execute the solution 方案
C. Execute the solution 方案
D. Decide the best solution
D.Decide the best solution
D. Decide the best solution
E. Integrated application
E. Integrated application
E. Integrated application
A. Make sure the question and describe it clearly.
Figure 3
research framework
B. Research location and testee. The researcher chose 2 kindergartens in Kaohsiung and 2 in Ping Tong as the test location of ‚The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry‛ and picked 5 children from each kindergarten. There were total 4 kindergartens and 20 six-years-old children (half of them are boys and the others are girls) who participated in this research. The average age of the children is 73.7 months. (SD=3.74) The percentage of the parents’ occupation is as follows: white-collar worker 15%, blue-collar worker 19%, businessman 18%, officer 20%, educator 8%, service industry 15% and job seeking 5%. C. The procedure of executing research. The researcher use ‚The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry‛ in the research and let children operate the experiment personally and have face-to-face interview. One research assistant is the main tester and another is responsible for record. The child sat beside the main tester randomly, no Page 256
matter at the right side or left side. The main tester interpreted and led the child into the story setting. Then let the child operate the experiment personally and answer the question based on the questionnaire. Each child had to complete three story settings. It took about 25 minutes to fulfill the questionnaire of each setting. The average time for children to fulfill the whole questionnaire is about 75 minutes. To consider that child is not suitable to sit for such long time, the researcher separated the test time into two parts. Otherwise the researcher prepared several gifts for children to encourage them to try. The main tester will be based on the order of the questionnaire and ask children to operate the experiment personally and have orally interpretation and answer. The three story settings have the same question pattern. (a) Be able to recognize the problem: The main tester constructs the story setting first and then leads the testee into the setting. By asking ‚Is anything wrong with it? ‚Why does it become this way?‛ to observe if the testee can recognize the problem in the setting and discover anything unreasonable or different from their thought. Moreover, the researcher also wants to know if they can point out the core of the problem and clarify the problem clearly. (b) Be able to provide solutions based on the problem: Ask the child to figure out the solution of the problem. The tester provides the possible materials depends on different settings and let testee wonder which material can be used to solve the problem they discovered, otherwise, consider and estimate the possible solution and limitation. (c) Be able to execute the solution: Ask the testee to operate the experiment personally based on the materials they have chosen and change the original situation in order to solve the problem. The number of experiment times is no limitation. The tester observes if the testee can operate the experiment personally and fulfill it orderly. (d) Decide the best solution: When the testee stops operating the experiment, by asking “Among the solutions you thought of and you had done, which solutions can succeed?” “Among these solutions, which one is better?” “What reasons make the solution better than the
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others? Is there anything else?” to let him/she estimate the best solution and explain the reason. Moreover, let the testee make reasonable explanation and evaluation based on the solution. It’s no need to ask the questions of this section when these situations happened: the testee only tried one solution; only one solution succeeds; none of the solution succeeds. (e) Integrate application: The main purpose of the question in this stage is to let children integrate what they have done and discovered. By asking “What’s the function of what you have done?” “Is there any difficulty within the solution you had taken?” “Could you give some advices?” the researcher hopes the tester can point out: the connection between problems and solutions; the advices for approving solutions; the other situations for the tester to apply the problem-solving experience. D. Data analysis. Based on the question of ‚The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry‛, the outcome is judged as ‚1‛if the children answer or operate the experiment right and is judged as ‚0‛if not. As for the children’s explanation of the answer and the experiment process, we have two trained research assistants to type and check the reason of the answer and the experiment process with the record such as: video record, radio record and on-the-scene record. The researcher establishes the judgment standard. Two research assistants judge the level of the taster’s answer according to the judgment standard. The tester’s consistency of judging the answer is 99%. If there is any inconsistent item, the researcher will prejudge it based on the record.
Results I. The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry. The questionnaire contains three stories , which are” Walt’s Boat‛,‛ May’s Ball-Rolling Board”, and ” Bob Saves the Earth‛. (a) Setting1” Walt’s Boat‛
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Setting: It is designed as a legislature can not be floating on the water surface of the ship, the researcher hopes to be able to find children care after the boat can not float on the surface of the water legislation of the problem and try to use the materials to change the boat.
Materials: 2 PET bottles, 2 cartons, 2 pudding boxes, 2 Yakult bottles, 2 hoses, 2 corrugated cardboards (2L2S), 2 plastic plates (2L4S) .
(b) Setting2 “May’s Ball-Rolling Board”
Setting: It is designed as a bowl, the building blocks of a long board, as well as a ball. May wants to make a Ball-Rolling Board. She takes an iron bowl, blocks, a ball, and a long board. She wants the ball to roll into the bowl without pushing and roll by itself. Let’s see what will happen to May’s ball-rolling board. (Let go the ball on the board and observe the rolling condition with the subject)
Materials: one set of blocks, 2 thick cardboards (1 long 1 short), 2 pieces of monthly calendar paper (1 long 1 short), 2 corrugated cardboards (1 long 1 short)
(c) Setting3 ‚Bob Saves the Earth‛
Setting: Bob has to defeat the monster to save the world. This tool is invented by Bob to defeat the monster. Now, let’s try to defeat the monster and see what will happen. The researcher wants to enable children to use the material provided hands-on trial to make changes in the original furnishings, including the rope length, light and heavy objects, positioned so that children seek to overthrow the solution.
Materials: several ropes with different length, Ping-Pong ball, plastic ball, batteries, light block (triangle, square, circle), heavy block (triangle, square)
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The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving
ofChildren Science Inquiry 1: Walt’s Boat Ball-Rolling Children 2.May’s Science Inquiry
3. Bob Saves the Earth
Board
Figure 4 Design of the questionnaire of problem-solving of children science inquiry II. The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability. The study is based on “The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability” to design the settings. The analysis includes be able to recognize the problem”, “be able to provide solutions based on the problem”, “be able to execute the solution”, “decide the best solution”, and “integrated application”.20 6-year-oldchildren test the settings, it shows the results of analysis, and compares the analysis of the data. (a) Be able to recognize the problem. At first, the researcher talked a story. He asks some questions to observe children that who could recognize the problem or not. For example, he may ask “Do you feel something wrong in the story?” to help the kids to figure out something wrong in the story.
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Table2. The number and proportion of recognizing the problem. Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
A1. be able to recognize the problem
19 (95%)
19 (95%)
19 (95%)
A2. be able to confirm the problem
12 (60%)
6 (30%)
19 (95%)
From the Table2, the study shows that children can identify the core of a very high proportion of problem. The setting 2 is the most difficult from the Table2. Only 30% children could be able to confirm the problem. For children, the tilt of the scientific issues related to the most difficult at the test. 95% children can recognize the setting 1, they usually answer ”the board is too flat to move.” 95% children can recognize the setting2, they usually answer ”the coffee bottle is too heavy.” , ” the bottle is too small.” 95% children can recognize the setting3, they usually answer” the rope is too short”, “the Styrofoam balls is too light.” Although the child can identify a high proportion of problem, they confirm the key point hardly. Research has shown that the higher difficulty problem, the less the proportion of correct answers. The researchers let children use the appropriate tools and simple equipment to collect scientific information. In this process, it shows that 6-year-old children's life experiences can be utilized to cope with the simple scientific concept, they simply have some basic scientific concepts.
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(b) Be able to provide solutions based on the problem. Table3. The number and proportion of providing solutions based on the problem. Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
B1. be able to provide workable solutions based on the problem
8(40%)
8 (40%)
16 (80%)
B2. be able to confirm the problem
3 (15% )
1(5%)
3 (15%)
B3.be able to consider and estimate the usable solution and limitation
10 (50%)
7(35%)
7(35%)
He researcher asks the children to use materials and come up with a solution. The researcher asks question B1 without providing any materials. Children externalize thought through cognitive ability. Table3 shows that comes forward with a logical solution to child ratio for the setting1 is (40%), setting2 is (40%), setting3 is (80%). At setting1children have logical way to answer this question ; Setting2 shows that children in this part of the life experiences may be insufficient ; Settinging3 is able to guide children's imaginative capabilities, and ease of scientific concepts more in line with the extent of six children. The researcher asks children to provide different materials in the questionB2.Children can answer different solutions base on creativity and imagine. However, children's answers are logical answers to the proportion of small. The researcher should change the way of question is asked, or change the situation. From Table3, it is weak that children assess the materials.
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(c) Be able to execute the solution Table4. The number and proportion of executing the solution.
C1. to choose usable materials or resources based on the solution C2. to try to carry out the solution they figure out.
Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
19 (95%)
12 (60%)
19 (95%)
18 (90%)
12 (60%)
19(95%)
The researcher asks students to do the experiments in the Question C. Table4 shows that comes forward with executing solutions to children for the setting1 is (95%), setting2 is (60%), setting3 is (95%) and trying to carry out the solution for setting1 is (90%), setting2 is (60%), setting3 is (95%). If the children have at hand materials to experiment, he will be quite a logical concept and can be carried out structured problem-solving. For example, in the Setting1, most of children choose the plastic plate or surface boxes on the boat to increase load force so that ships could float on the water. In the Setting2, children often increase the height of blocks, so that the ball because the slope of the change to move to a bowl; in the Setting3 children use the longer rope with heavy blocks to defeat monsters. In the Setting 1 and Setting3, Almost all the children execute the solution, it shows that children’s science ability. (d) Decide the best solution.
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Table5. The number and proportion of deciding the best solution.
D1 to point out effectual solutions D2 be able to estimate better solutions D3 to aim at effectual solutions to put forth reasonable explanations and evaluations
Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
15 (75%) 14 (70%)
8(40%) 6 (30%)
12 (60%) 17(85%)
9(45%)
2 (10%)
12(60%)
When children finish the experiment, the researcher starts to ask children some questions to observe that children can estimate better solutions. The researcher asks children to decide the best solutions. From Table5, it shows that kids point out effectual solutions the ratio Setting1 is 75% , Setting2 is 40%, Setting3 is 60%.it shows that Setting2 is more difficult than other settings and kids may be unable to remember the experiment has just been done. Then the researcher asks children to estimate better solutions and externalize. From D2, it shows that children answer Setting3 better than others. From D3, children aim at effectual solutions to put forth reasonable explanations and evaluations, in the question, it shows that Setting 2 is more difficult then other settings. (e) Integrated application. Table6. The number and proportion of integrating application.
E1 to point out the connection between the problem and the solution. E2 to point out the difficulties during the problem-solving process. E3 to provide suggestions for improving the solution.
Setting1
Setting2
Setting3
12 (60%)
12 (60%)
19(95%)
14(70%)
11(55% )
14 (70%)
14 (70%)
12 (60%)
17(85%)
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At this step, the researcher wants to observe children could integrate the settings and discovery the key point at settings, and then provide suggestions for improving the solution. The researcher asks children to point out the connection between the problem and the solution. More than 60% of the children can point out the connection between the problem and the solution clearly at these Settings. For example, in the Setting1 children answer “Walt’s Boat is round and mind is flat.” , or “because the paste is flat , I can success.”; in the Setting2 children may answer “ I add the wood.” ; in the Setting3 they may answer “I try to change the rope.” or “ I change the weapon (the blocks).”It shows excellence creativity and imagination of 6-year-old children's scientific ability and children’s problem-solving ability.
Conclusion The researcher uses hands-on experiments to observe and research for 6-year-old children's scientific ability and children’s problem-solving ability. Through this study, teachers can analyze three settings for the following indicators: A. To recognize the problem: it shows that 6-year-old children's life experiences can be utilized to cope with the simple scientific concept. They simply have some basic scientific concepts. B. To provide solutions based on the problem: at this step, students try to seek information from other sources to assist them in understanding and explaining the settings. The
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researcher observe students to find solutions, but students provide solutions which are the lack of creativity and imagination. C. To execute the solution: at this step, students have to a logical idea to solve the problems and have material to solve the solutions. D. To decide the best solution: at this stage, children have to decide the best solutions to explain the logical and reasonable method. E. Integrated application: students integrate their conceptual and thinking. The purpose of settings is not only to reward the expression of positive attitudes, but to reward children for representing their feelings and attitudes about the science experience through oral externalizing. Pre-school children in Taiwan for the study of scientific inquiry to solve the problem is very rare .Through the study the researcher finds Pre-school children’s problem-solving ability, but the sample size is too small. The researcher looks forward to be able to expand the settings into a teaching module. In the future, the teaching module will be used general to observe and analysis children’s scientific concept and problem-solving ability.
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References Britz, J. (1993). Problem solving in early childhood classrooms. Retrieved August 16, 2009, from http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/early.htm Chen, J. P. (2002). Learning science through play. Taiwan: Scholastic Inc. Dougherty, B. J & Slovin, H. (2004). Generalized Diagrams as a Tool for Young Children's Problem Solving. Norway : International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 28th. Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching children to think. Spain: Basil Blackwell Ltd. Huang, M. Z. & Chen, W. D. (2005). The ability of problem solving. Nine year consistent curriculum. Taiwan: National Taiwan Normal University. Huang, S. Y. (2002). Learning through play: problem solving. Taiwan: Scholastic Inc. Huang, X. M. (2004). Children's problem solving in mathematics. Taiwan: The Profile of Psychological Publishing Co., Ltd. Huang, Y. S. (2007). Natual science for young children. Taiwan: Huateng Publishing Co., Ltd. Jennifer G. (2007). Early Childhood Building Blocks: Turning Curiosity into Scientific Inquiry. Retrieved July 2, 2009, from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/2846in Kritzer, K. L. (2008). Family Mediation of Mathematically Based Concepts while Engaged in
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a Problem-Solving Activity with Their Young Deaf Children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(4), 503-517 Maker, C. J. (1993). Creativity, intelligence, and problem solving: A definition and design for crosscultural research and measurement related to giftedness. Gifted Education International, 9(2), 68-77. McCusker, J.（2001）. Emerging Musical Literacy: Investigating Young Children's Music Cognition and Musical Problem-Solving through Invented Notations. Retrieved July 5, 2009, from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=E D46006 Newell, A. & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Siegler, R., Deloache,J. & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop. U.S.A.: Worth Publichers. Sperling, R. A., Walls, R. T., Hill, L. A. & Lee A. (2000). Early Relationships among Self-Regulatory Constructs: Theory of Mind and Preschool Children's Problem Solving. Child Study Journal, 30(4), 233-52. Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Problem-solving cycle. U.S.A.: Wadseorth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
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Teresa A. (2008). Developing the Process of Science Inquiry In The PreK Classroom. Retrieved August 30, 2009, from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/2846 Washington, D.C. (2005). Helping Your Child Learn Science. Retrieved October 5, 2008, from http://www.ed.gov/parents/academic/help/science/index.html Zhanng, C. XI. (2001). Modern psychology. Taiwan: Zhwng Da Ltd.
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Appendix 1 The detailed analysis of children’s problem-solving ability: □ A. be able to recognize the problem □ A1 be able to discover or detect the problem and figure out something different □
A1-1 be able to detect the differences of the setting which is different from their thought
□
A1-2 be able to detect the unreasonable thing of the setting
□ A2 be able to confirm the problem □
A2-1 be able to point out the core of the problem (or be able to connect the beginning and the ending of the problem)
□
A2-2 be able to describe the problem clearly
□ B. be able to provide solutions based on the problem □ B1 be able to provide workable solutions based on the problem □ B2 be able to choose usable materials and resources based on the problem ( be able to figure out usable solutions during the psychological process and not definitely be able to choose and use from the resources. □ B3 be able to consider and estimate the usable solution and limitation □ C. be able to execute the solution □ C1 be able to choose usable materials or resources based on the solution □ C2 be able to try to carry out the solution they figure out. □ C3 be able to proceed the steps of solution orderly □ D decide the best solution □ D1 be able to point out effectual solutions □ D2 be able to estimate better solutions □ D3 be able to aim at effectual solutions to put forth reasonable explanations and evaluations □ E integrated application □ E1 be able to point out the connection between the problem and the solution □ E2 be able to point out the difficulties during the problem-solving process □ E3 be able to provide suggestions for improving the solution □ E4 be able to apply the problem-solving experiences to the other settings
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Appendix 2
The Questionnaire of Problem-Solving of Children Science Inquiry Setting 1 Walt’s Boat Name：_______________
School：_______________
Birth：________________
Gender：_______________
Class：_______________ Test Date：_____________
Introduction: Hello! Today, we are going to have a game. You see! This boat is made by Walt himself and he wants it to float on the water (show the boat). Now, I am going to put the boat on the water. Let’s see what will happen to Walt’s boat? (Put the boat on the water and observe the change of the boat with the subject.) A. Be able to recognize the problem A1、Is there anything wrong with Walt’s boat? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) A2、Why does Walt’s boat become this way? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) B. Be able to provide solutions based on the problem B1、Think about the boat. If you can change whatever you see, is there any solution to keep the boat from falling? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) B2-1、Walt wants to ask you to help him to keep the boat from falling. He asks Candy to bring a scissor, a tape and some materials 【Open the material box and introduce all the stuff one by one: 2 PET bottles, 2 cartons, 2 pudding boxes, 2 Yakult bottles, 2 hoses, 2 corrugated cardboards (2L2S), 2 plastic plates (2L4S)】If you can change whatever you see, is there any material can be used to change the boat to keep it from falling? Is there anything else? (Now, let the subject choose the material by himself.) B2-2、Do you think of any material which is not included here? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) B3、Could you tell me the reason you didn’t choose the other materials? (Question Page 271
orderly by each material) Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) C. Be able to execute the solution These are the materials you have chosen. Now, please change Walt’s boat. C1 Observe whether the subject can complete the change or not. C2 Observe whether the subject can complete the change orderly or not. C3 Walt’s boat would fall on the water. Is there any difference or sameness between your boat and Walt’s boat on the water? (Ask the subject to put his boat on the water) (If the subject has the other solutions, this question group should be continually questioned until he answers NO.) D. Decide the best solution D1、Among the solutions you thought of and you had done, which solutions can successfully keep the boat from falling? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No. However, if the subject only has one solution, it’s no need to ask this question) D2、Among these solutions, which one is better? (If the subject only has one solution, it’s no need to ask this question) D3、What reasons make the solution better than the others? Is there anything else? (If the subject only has one solution, it’s no need to ask this question) E. Integrated application E1、What’s the function of your boat to keep it from falling like Walt’s? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) E2、Is there any difficulty within the solution you had taken? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) E3、Could you give Walt some advices to keep his boat from falling? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) E4、If your friend also wants a floating boat, in order to keep boat from falling, what will you remind him to pay attention to? Is there anything else? (Keep asking until the subject answers No) Thanks for your help. Page 272
Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Learning Chemistry with the game “Legends of Alkhimia”: Pedagogical and Epistemic Bases of Design-for-Learning and the Challenges of Boundary Crossing
Yam San Chee Daniel Kim Chwee Tan Ek Ming Tan Ming Fong Jan
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616
Email:
[email protected]
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Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Abstract Typical textbooks in Chemistry present the field as a fait accompli represented by a body of ―proven‖ facts. In the teaching and learning of Chemistry, students have little, if any, agency to engage in scientific inquiry and to construct their personal understanding of the field. An emphasis on pre-determined ―knowledge‖ and the execution of laboratory experiments designed mainly to confirm pre-determined ―findings‖ can lead students to a grave misunderstanding of the nature of science. In this paper, we report on ongoing work to design a learning environment for learning chemistry that addresses the concerns raised above. Pitched at the lower secondary school level, our game-based learning innovation, using the multiplayer game ―Legends of Alkhimia‖, is directed at helping students learn to imbibe the values and dispositions of professional chemists and also to think like them. Drawing on Bourdieu‘s construct of habitus, we seek to foster students‘ capacity for practical reason as they ‗become themselves‘ via engagement in the scientific practice of doing chemistry, rather than just learning about it. We explain how our design for learning seeks to develop epistemic reflexivity and the identity of students in relation to professional chemists, as part of an ongoing trajectory of becoming. Learning innovations invariably introduce perturbations to existing schooling practices. In bringing our learning innovation into the social milieu of the classroom, we have experienced notable challenges related to boundary crossing. In the paper, we share these challenges so that teachers and school administrators can be better prepared for the changes in mindset, values, and beliefs that enacting pedagogical innovations such as game-based learning demand.
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Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Learning Chemistry with the game “Legends of Alkhimia”: Pedagogical and Epistemic Bases of Design-for-Learning and the Challenges of Boundary Crossing Introduction Typical textbooks in Chemistry present the field as a fait accompli represented by a body of ―proven‖ facts. For example, a textbook (Heyworth, 2002) used in the lower secondary science curriculum in Singapore makes the following claims: •
―Atoms are so small that nobody has ever seen a single atom. But scientists are certain they exist.‖ (p. 26, italics added)
•
―Scientists have discovered that atoms are made up of three smaller kinds of particles — protons, neutrons and electrons.‖ (p. 32, italics added)
•
―It’s a Fact! In 1915, Ernest Rutherford fired particles containing protons at some nitrogen gas (atoms of proton number 7). Protons entered the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms and changed them into oxygen atoms (of proton number 8).‖ (sidebar entry, p. 35, italics added) The examples above are indicative of the common rhetoric of science that revolves
around assertions of fact, certainty, and scientific discovery. Students with the capacity for critical thinking would invariably wonder why scientists are so certain of the existence of atoms if no one has ever had the opportunity to seen an atom. The textbook author provides no explanation for his existence claim. Student questioning is also not invited. The second example makes use of authorial privilege to assert a claim that atoms, although never ever seen, are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. But do scientists merely discover this ―fact‖, or is the atom merely a model invented by scientists to help them explain and predict chemical phenomena and does not exist at all? The final example appeals to the textbook
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Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
writer‘s authority as subject expert to assert a factual claim concerning what Ernest Rutherford succeeded in doing. Why would a thinking student believe such a claim? How would a student even begin to conceive of firing particles containing protons into nitrogen gas? Given the extensive gaps in explanation and credibility, it is hardly surprising that students‘ mastery of chemistry ―facts‖ through memorization is associated with minimal understanding of the domain and of chemistry processes. Overall, the presentation style reflected in the textbook is dogmatic, and it does not entertain any form of interrogation or challenge by the student reader. The underlying message is clear: ―Do not question; just accept what you are told.‖ In a classroom where the teaching of chemistry is conducted in a traditional manner, teachers further reinforce the image of science as a form of proven dogma. Teachers verbalize and expound the facts. The students‘ role is to memorize and profess the ―right facts‖. If not, they risk being penalized in their chemistry assessments. Regrettably, students have little, if any, agency to engage in scientific inquiry and to construct their personal understanding of the field. An emphasis on pre-determined ―knowledge‖ coupled with the execution of laboratory experiments designed mainly to confirm pre-determined ―findings‖ can lead to students leaving school with a grave misunderstanding of the nature of science. Students will not realise that scientists actually require imagination and creativity to invent explanations and models to explain phenomenaand that scientific knowledge is tentative, subjected to change and can never be absolutely proven (Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz, 2002; Schwartz & Lederman, 2002). They will also be surprised when they find out that there is competition among rival theories and camps of scientists, that experiment data can be interpreted in more than one way depending on the theory one subscribes to, and that theories can contradict each other (Niaz, 2001). These issues are seldom brought up or discussed in class. In general, then, students are not provided with access to authentic science education (Roth, 1995). Page 276
Learning chemistry with ―Legends of Alkhimia‖
Neither are they helped to understand that engagement in the practice of doing science is the human activity that makes knowledge as a process of constructing reality (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Knorr-Cetina, 1999). In the next section of the paper, we first share our general framework for human learning that provides a basis for design-for-learning with our chemistry game. We also explicate, in particular, the pedagogical and epistemic bases of our learning design. The following section describes what it is like to play Level 1 of the game ―Legends of Alkhimia‖. At the time of writing, the game is still under development, with Level 2 being close to completion. The next part of the paper then articulates the challenges that we have faced in conversing with teachers about taking up and implementing the Alkhimia gamebased learning curriculum in their schools. Positioned in terms of boundary crossing, we explain how pedagogical innovations that demand changes in mindsets and practices face institutional and professional barriers to change. The paper concludes by summarizing a set of issues that teachers can consider in advance to facilitate the process of change. Design-for-Learning The specific design-for-learning that we have adopted in our Alkhimia learning environment is based on the general framework for human learning that is shown in Figure 1. This framework is inspired by Collen (2003) who proposed a philosophical foundation for a general methodology for human systems inquiry. In this original framework, the philsophical basis for human systems inquiry comprises three fundamental ideas from Greek philsophy: namely, ontos, logos, and praxis. Together, they yield a praxiology for human inquiry. In our design-for-learning with respect to the Alkhimia chemistry curriculum, we have found it fruitful to adopt a view of learning as a form of inquiry (Postman, 1995; Postman & Weingartner, 1969). We have appropriated Collen‘s framework into the context
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of learning as it provides us with a tractable model for considering the fundamental components of human learning. Ontos, or ontology, is the study of human being, human existence, and of what is. Logos, referring to epistemology, is the study of human knowing, what can be known, and what constitutes human knowledge. Praxis, or praxiology, is the study of action, the practices of human beings, and of what we (as humans) do. To understand human learning in its authenticity as well as complexity, it is vital that learning be studied in the context of humans in situated action, including speech acts (Austin, 1975; Bruner, 1990; Clancey, 1997; Dewey, 1938; Gergen, 1999). In adopting this position, we explicitly reject learning outcomes where students can only talk about chemistry, without the ability to engage in the practice of chemistry. The framework in Figure 1 emphasizes that human knowing is inseparable from human doing (Dewey, 1916/1980) and human being (Heidegger, 1953/1996). The components of the framework are of necessity embedded within a context of axiology, the study of human values. Knowing, doing, and being are inherently value-laden activities (Ferré, 1996, 1998; Putnam, 2002). Humans make basic value distinctions related to the processes and outcomes of learning. These distinctions guide their learning actions toward outcomes that have positive value.
Figure 1. General framework for human learning.
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Pedagogical Basis In striving for a chemistry learning environment that can support authentic, disciplinary learning, we have taken professional practice as a basic reference point for our pedagogical design. We seek to foster a form of learning that will enable students to begin to think, feel, and act like professional chemists. Our first level of theoretical reference, therefore, in designing the Alkhimia learning environment, is to the work of Bourdieu (1977, 1998) and to his theory of practice. As a social theorist, Bourdieu wrote extensively about social structures in relation to everyday human practices. A key concept in Bourdieu‘s discourse of practice is that of habitus, which expresses the way in which individuals ‗become themselves‘ through the development of attitudes and dispositions related to a professional field on one hand, and the ways in which individuals engage in everyday practices of the field on the other. The notion of habitus mirrors the concept of practical reason (also referred to as practical sense) that refers to a person‘s ability to understand and negotiate positions within the sites of cultural practice that are comparable to a sportsperson‘s ‗feel‘ for the game. It should be evident from the foregoing, that this orientation is praxiological. It is altogether situated in practice and the enaction of behaviors that signify the values associated with a practice. It seeks to help students develop the vocabulary-in-use, the discourses, and the practices of a professional community, such as a scientific community. In short, it helps students learn to be a chemist, an orientation that is ontological. There is a second level of theoretical reference for our pedagogical design. This level is that of designing for students to participate in scientific inquiry. Like authentic scientists, students are made to engage in ―world construction‖ and meaning making processes to construct their personal, and justifiable, understanding of the chemistry-related regularities that operate in the game world of ―Legends of Alkhimia‖. The scientific inquiry process involves, constructing pertinent questions for inquiry, framing candidate hypotheses that Page 279
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address the questions, engaging in empirical investigations to test the hypotheses, analyzing the data collected from the investigations, constructing an explanatory model of the experience phenomena, and evaluating the robustness of the model. Epistemic Basis The epistemic basis of learning with the Alkhimia learning environment is depicted in Figure 2, which shows our Play–Dialog–Performance (PDP) Model of game-based learning (Chee, in preparation). This model instantiates a performance epistemology, which views knowledge as constituted in action, rather than existing a priori to action, and performance as the activity that allows students to develop competence in the field they are trying to master. By engaging in game play accompanied by speech acts in the form of dialogic conversations that help to make sense of what took place in the game world, students manifest their understanding of chemistry phenomena in the game world of Alkhimia by performing (by word and deed) the actions that lead to successful in-game and out-of-game outcomes. Game play takes place in the virtual world of the game; the learning experience is embodied through the student‘s in-game avatar, embedded in the game world, and richly experiential in nature (Chee, 2007). It is necessary, however, to step out of the world of realtime game play and into a dialogic space of conversation where different ideas and viewpoints, or ―voices‖, can interact with one another (Bakhtin, 1981). From the Bakhtinian perspective of dialogicality, a voice refers to a ―speaking personality.‖ Utterances come into existence by being produced by a voice. As Clark and Holquist (1984) explain: ―An utterance, spoken or written, is always expressed from a point of view, which for Bakhtin is a process rather than a location. Utterance is an activity that enacts differences in values.‖ Dialog is thus an activity that creates a space for different student ideas and values to collide and interact with one another.
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This process is factilitated by a teacher within a broader context of structured post-gameplay activities that scaffold students‘ meaning making efforts.
Figure 2. The Play–Dialog–Performance Model of game-based learning.
As students engage in multiple levels of game play, they iterate over the Play–Dialog cycle that places them on a forward trajectory of competence-through-performance. That is, they are envisaged to develop a performative capacity to think, talk, and act increasingly like professional chemists. This trajectory of learning, projected forward into time, is depicted by images of the student that become more faint as they move upward in Figure 2. Learning in this manner operationalizes the dialectical interplay between first-person learning by doing and third-person learning by thinking/reflection that is key to Dewey‘s epistemology of learning by doing. In addition, performative learning is characterized by the gradual development of a self-identity that becomes professional practice in the domain; in this context, chemistry. This conception of learning is consistent with Thomas and Brown‘s
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(2007) call for student learning to shift away from ―learning about‖ to ―learning to be.‖ As an approach to learning that places identity development as a key focus, the development of the student‘s professional identity constitutes a trajectory of becoming (Rogers, 1961, 1980). Learning can thus be conceived as a journey of becoming a certain kind of professional person. Returning to the sociology of Bourdieu, the epistemic design outlined here is intended to encourage students to be reflexive about their learning, critically interrogating assumptions and biases that may shape the construction of their understanding. In this way, students are encouraged to practise epistmological vigilance, so that social and cultural biases in their thinking can be exposed. In summary, our design-for-learning seeks to address all three aspects of the general framework shown in Figure 1. Student learning is conceived of as knowing that arises from doing within the broader context of learning to be; that is, becoming. Learning with “Legends of Alkhimia” The game ―Legends of Alkhimia‖ was designed to serve as the technology-mediated component of a broader learning environment that instantiates the PDP Model of game-based learning. The learning environment includes not only the game but also associated curricula materials for in-class use that provide the activity structure for the dialogic component of learning. The game is conceived of as an eight-level multiplayer game that support up to four players simultaneously. It is played over a local area network, typically in a computer laboratory in school. The game has been developed to run on PCs. At the time of writing, two out of the eight levels of the game have been completed. Our in-class research use of the game is scheduled to commence in July 2010. The research intervention will take place in two schools.
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The game begins in Level 1 with a scenario where the four student players crash-land in the region of the ancient town of Alkhimia. While exploring their environs, they suddenly find themselves attacked by a group of fireball-hurling monsters that emerge from a ravine (see Figure 3.)
Figure 3. Players fending off a monster attack in Level 1 of the game.
The players try to repel the monsters with the weapons they are carrying. These weapons, a form of gun, can shoot ammunition drawn from cartridges attached to the weapons. The players find that their weapons are not very effective against the monsters. Furthermore, their weapons frequently jam, making it even more difficult to destroy the monsters. After a short but furious battle, the monsters retreat into the ravine, leaving the
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players wondering about the composition of the ammunition in their cartridges and why the ammunition was ineffective in destroying the monsters. The narrative above establishes the context for students to engage in a process of inquiry. Receiving an instruction from their master, Aurus, to return to their headquarters, the students are asked to act on their master‘s suspicion that their ammunition in their weapon cartridges was contaminated, thus causing their weapons to jam. Aurus suggests that they perform separation techniques to purify the ammuniton substance. The students proceed to their respective lab benches and perform the separation technique that each one thinks will work best. Each student then chooses what she believes is the purified substance and loads her cartridge with this substance. Unknown to the players (but known to us as the designers of the game), the original substance comprises a mixture of acid and sand. A separating funnel (shown in Figure 4) is thus not an effective apparatus for separating the original mixture as this apparatus works only for immiscible liquids. If a player uses the coarse filter paper, she will obtain two derivative substances, and she can choose to load her weapon cartridge with one of the substances. When the players encounter the monsters a second time in Level 1 of the game, they will find that they are no better off than before. If a player used the separating funnel, the mixture of sand and acid will flow straight through the funnel; hence, their experience in trying to ward off the monsters will be the same as before. If a player used the substance in the beaker that was derived from mixture separation with the coarse filter paper, she will find that her ammunition is more effective than previously, but her weapon still jams occasionally. However, if the player used the substance collected in the filter paper as her ammunition, she would find her weapon jamming even more frequently than before. In addition, she will find that her ammunition is not totally ineffective against the monster. It is only when a student uses the fine filter paper and she chooses the filtered substance in the beaker as her Page 284
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ammunition that she will experience the most success in killing the attacking monsters. Thus, the game space allows students to experiment with quite different solution paths and to put the different solutions to the test in the second battle with the monsters. In this manner, the game allows divergent solution paths; students are not all required to do the same thing at the same time. This design allows for greater personal agency in game play and in learning.
Figure 4. A player performing a chemistry sepration technique at the laboratory bench.
Assuming that students execute different methods of mixture separation and based on the fact that the associated consequences of those actions will manifest differently in the second encounter with the monsters, the question that students will invariably ask is why? For example, why was Peter able to kill the monsters when I was not able to do so?
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The cognitive dissonance generated by students‘ game play transitions into a classroom space of dialogic learning where, under the guidance of a teacher, students learn with one another to construct the answers to their pressing questions. This form of dialogic learning can take place first at the student group level, then at the whole class level. In this process, students engage in making sense of their collective game experience. They reason to establish what different ammunition effects were observed, then work to identify the causal chain of actions that led to the observed effects. This process requires systematic reasoning that parallels the cycle of scientific inquiry involving questioning, hypothesizing, testing, analyzing, modeling, and evaluating. As students continue playing ―Legends of Alkhimia,‖ the chemistry involved becomes increasingly complex. Like the apprentice scientists that the game positions them to be, they are required to develop their own classifications of the substances that they encounter in the game world. They do not experience the world as a pre-labelled and a preconfigured place. This pedagogical design inducts students into an authentic practice of science making by requiring them to construct functional and concise representations and organizations of knowledge. Drawing upon the knowledge constructions of different student groups, the teacher will be able help students to make critical evaluations about the constructions proposed by different groups. In this manner, students will begin to appreciate that the construction of scientific knowledge is a social enterprise that is based upon a set of values that esteem explanations that are simple, parsimonious, and generalizable. Students thus learn to imbibe the values, dispositions, and beliefs that undergird the practice of science making. It should be evident that learning chemistry in this manner will yield rather different outcomes compared to traditional emphases on content mastery.
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Challenges of Boundary Crossing School teachers are faced with significant challenges when they consider the adoption of modes of teaching and learning that are implied in our pedagogy of game-based learning. Because our pedagogy embeds deep epistemic change, teachers need to adopt a different mind set in approaching their role and responsibilities. Adopting this different mind set, in effect, requires crossing a boundary into a new mode of teaching practice that is based on quite different epistemic assumptions. We outline below the kinds of challenges that teachers face when contemplating adoption of a game-based learning pedagogy. The distillation of these challenges arises from the conversations that we have had with teachers working with us on this research project. It is our hope that by identifying the challenges explicitly, teachers who are not familiar with the pedagogy can be better equipped to understand the issues they are likely to have to consider to enact the pedagogy successfully. Learning outcomes and epistemology Traditional ways of teaching lower secondary school chemistry focus on students‘ mastery of content that arise from didactic teaching on the part of the teacher. We have argued that student learning outcomes associated with this mode of teaching are weak because students have no opportunity to engage in the practices of doing science and constructing meaning in science. A performance epistemology values learning outcomes that enable students to enact authentic practices related to the doing of science as part of a broader goal of learning as being and becoming. This orientation represents a fundamental change in student learning goals toward identity development and professional practice. It is based on an epistemology of learning by doing rather than learning by being told. Curriculum and assessment
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Conventional curricula goals and forms of assessment place great emphasis on students‘ mastery of subject content. Teachers are concerned that the adoption of gamebased learning should not harm traditional content mastery given the same number of teaching hours. While this outcome may be desirable from a pragmatic perspective, it is not likely to hold in practice. Student mastery is likely to correlate highly with what a pedagogy seeks to promote. Thus, teaching for content mastery will lead to student excellence in content mastery, while teaching for performative outcomes will lead to student excellence in performative outcomes. Teachers are also concerned about modes of student assessment and conforming to standard tests across a class level in school. The modes of student assessment need to be broadened to encompass more qualitative and rubric-based assessments given that outcomes are no longer evaluated purely in terms of getting the answers to standard questions right or wrong. In addition, the practice of common tests works against pedagogical innovation when the innovation replaces old learning goals with new ones. Concerns relating to student prior knowledge Many teachers voice the fear that students will not know how to play the game successfully if they are not first taught the facts of the subject domain. This challenge reflects the difficulty that teachers face in recognizing that from a learning-by-doing perspective, competence is achieved only with performance. That is, students gain performance mastery in the domain through what they do. Distilling the knowledge products of learning is merely a by product of learning by doing. The promotion of learning by doing does not take place in lieu of learning content. Rather, the latter is ancillary to the former. School logistics The structure of student learning in schools is organized in terms of discrete blocks of time that range from about 35–60 minutes. Enacting a game-based learning curriculum Page 288
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typically requires blocks of approximately 120 minutes in order for game play and dialogic interaction and reflection to take place without feeling rushed. It is necessary, therefore, for schools to make special arrangements with respect to timetabling in order for a game-based learning curriculum to be enacted. Furthermore, we have found that, in practice, the ―official‖ amount of time allocated to any portion of curriculum usually cannot be met because of the many other co-curricular activities and school events that intrude into curriculum time. Thus, a curriculum segment that is allotted, say, 10 weeks may have to be compressed to fit within the space of 8 weeks. Time needed and time available are often not aligned. Sustaining innovation Game-based learning, as a pedagogical innovation, takes place within the cultural space of schools. Schools are inherently culturally-bound spaces that are largely resistant to change. As stable systems, school practices have an inherent tendency toward self perpetuation. Given that game-based learning requires change at a deep, epistemic level, there is often no assurance that a teacher who adopts an innovation will continue with it in future. This challenge is the outcome of deep tensions and is not easily resolved because the tension is systemic in nature.
Conclusion In this paper, we have articulated our conception of how lower secondary school chemistry can be enacted with game-based learning. We have argued that traditional ways of teaching chemistry, based on information dissemination and the assertion of scientific truth claims, is weak because this mode of teaching fails to deliver performative learning outcomes on the part of students. In lieu of traditional pedagogy, we have argued, based on a general framework of human learning, that learning must address ontological, epistemological, and Page 289
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praxiological dimensions. Game-based learning, as we have constructed it, allows us to reconceive learning in a way that incorporates the processes of knowing, doing, and being, processes that we view as vital to an authentic approach to learning. We elaborated on the pedagogical and epistemic bases of our design-for-learning and explained how learning in the Alkhimia learning environment would proceed. As mentioned, game development is not yet complete at the time of writing. However, a pilot test based on Levels 1 and 2 of the game is scheduled for late October 2009. We also set out some of the known challenges to boundary crossing facing teachers contemplating the adoption of gamebased learning. The distillation of challenges arose from conversations that we have had with teachers collaborating with us on the Alkhimia research project. To conclude, we hope that this paper helps to inform teachers about the vision and opportunities for enhancing pedagogy through game-based learning. At the same time, we also hope to alert teachers to the challenges they may face in adopting this pedagogical innovation.
References Austin, J. L. (1975). How to do things with words (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. London: Penguin Books. Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice (R. Nice, Trans.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, P. (1998). Practical reason: On the theory of action. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Page 290
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Bruner, J. S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chee, Y. S. (2007). Embodiment, embeddedness, and experience: Game-based learning and the construction of identity. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 2(1), 3–30. Chee, Y. S. (in preparation). Play, dialog, and performance: The PDP model of game-based learning. Clancey, W. J. (1997). Situated cognition: On human knowledge and computer representations. New York: Cambridge University Press. Clark, K., & Holquist, M. (1984). Mikhail Bakhtin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Collen, A. (2003). Systemic change through praxis and inquiry. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Dewey, J. (1916/1980). Democracy and education (Vol. 9, John Dewey: The Middle Works, 1899–1924). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. NY: Macmillan. Ferré, F. (1996). Being and value: Toward a constructive postmodern metaphysics. NY: SUNY Press. Ferré, F. (1998). Knowing and value: Toward a constructive postmodern epistemology. NY: SUNY Press. Gergen, K. J. (1999). An invitation to social construction. London, UK: Sage. Heidegger, M. (1953/1996). Being and time: A translation of Sein und Zeit (J. Stambaugh, Trans.). New York: SUNY Press. Heyworth, R. M. (2002). Explore your world with science discovery 2. Singapore: Pearson. Knorr-Cetina. (1999). Epistemic cultures: How the sciences make knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Page 291
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Lederman, N.G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R.L., & Schwartz, R.S. (2002). Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners‘ conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497-521. Niaz, M. (2001). Understanding the nature of science as progressive transitions in heuristic principles. Science Education, 85(6), 684-690. Postman, N. (1995). The end of education: Redefing the value of school. New York: Vintage Books. Postman, N., & Weingartner, C. (1969). Teaching as a subversive activity. New York: Dell Publishing. Putnam, H. (2002). The collapse of the fact/value dichotomy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist's view of psychotherapy. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C. R. (1980). A way of being. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Roth, W. M. (1995). Authentic School Science: Knowing and Learning in Open-Inquiry Science Laboratories. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Schwartz, R.S. & Lederman, N.G. (2002). ―It‘s the nature of the beast‖: The influence of knowledge and intentions on the learning and teaching of the nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(3), 205-236. Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2007). The play of imagination: Extending the literary mind. Games and Culture, 2(2), 149–172.
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Integrating socio-scientific issues into science instruction: Taiwanese elementary science teachers’ views and teaching practices
Chao-Shen Cheng & Ying-Tien Wu
Department of Science Application and Dissemination, National Taichung University, Taiwan
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Abstract With open-ended questionnaire, this study explored 55 Taiwanese elementary science teachers' views on socio-scientific issues (SSI) and their SSI-based teaching practices. Moreover, the differences on the views and the teaching practices of the teachers with different backgrounds were also examined. Through qualitative analyses, this study revealed that the three features of socio-scientific issues that the teachers most frequently mentioned were personal relevance (65.5%), followed by the reasoning and problem-solving regarding these issues (25.5%), and controversial nature (23.6%), and most of the teachers (92.7%) had the experience of integrating SSI into their teaching practice. Moreover, the environmentrelated issues (85.5%) were the most popular issues for SSI-base instruction, and the role of the SSI issues mostly mentioned by the teachers were as a part of the teaching materials (34.5%) and as the issues for discussing (27.3%). In this study, most of the teachers believed that integrating SSI into science teaching can improve students’ science related ability (58.2%), followed by the promoting positive attitude and providing meaning learning contexts (36.4%). This study further revealed that the teachers with science-related background were more oriented to perceive the benefit of SSI-based instruction as improving learners’ ability. Besides, the female teachers in this study were more prone to view SSIbased instruction as a tool to promoting learners’ knowledge acquisition. Based on the finding of this study, the implications for teacher education and professional development were also discussed.
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Integrating socio-scientific issues into science instruction: Taiwanese elementary science teachers' views and teaching practices
Introduction With the rapid development of science and technology, students, as the citizens in democratic society, may have more and more opportunities to encounter a variety of socioscientific issues, and they and their parents may need to make some decisions or positions toward these issues. “Socio-scientific issues” (SSI) are social dilemmas with conceptual or technological associations with science. In these issues, science and society represent interdependent entities, and both the social and scientific factors play the central roles (Sadler, 2004). For science educators, achieving scientific literacy may become a well-recognized educational goal worldwide (Laugksch, 2000; Kolsto, 2001). Although the definition of scientific literacy is controversial, students’ ability to deal with socio-scientific issues thoughtfully has been recognized as one of the important components of scientific literacy (Sadler, 2004). Recently, SSI-based instruction has been highlighted by science educators. For example, Lewis and Leach (2006) have explored students’ science knowledge and the ability to engage in reasoned discussion of socio-scientific issues. Zohar and Nemet (2002) have reported the effectiveness of the integration of explicit teaching of reasoning patterns into the instruction of human genetics on genetics knowledge as well as on their argumentation quality. Undoubtedly, teachers are recognized to play a critical role in the current reforms in science education (AAAS, 1989; NRC, 1996). For the successful implementation of SSI-based instruction, teachers’ views or perspectives regarding SSI-based instruction must be crucial. Some previous studies have initially addressed the aforementioned issues. For example, Sadler et al. (2006) investigated middle and high teacher perspectives on the use of socioscientific issues and on dealing with ethics in the context of science instruction. Also, Lee and Witz (2009) have explored high school science teachers’ inspiration for teaching socioscientific issues. The two aforementioned studies have provided us some initial insights into teaches’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues. Lee and Witz (2009) have also advocated that reformers and researchers often point out science teachers’ lukewarm reactions to the reforms as a major barrier for educational changes but pay little attention to teachers’ deeper values and inspirations. It seems that more effects should be made in
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investigating teachers’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. In addition, still not many studies have addressed elementary science teachers’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. Therefore, further research is suggested to be conducted to exploring elementary science teachers’ views or perspectives regarding socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. Teachers’ professional development is one of the influential factors for the successful implementation of current science education reforms (Driel et al., 2001). Loughran (2007) has advocated that science teachers should view themselves as learners and reflect on themselves in their continuing professional development. Undoubtedly, for the successful implementation of SSI-based instruction, teachers’ professional development regarding SSIbased instruction must be crucial. Therefore, the understanding of teachers’ pre-existing views of socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction as well as their teaching practice regarding SSI-based instruction before designing and implementing professional development programs should of much importance. In sum, this study aimed to investigate a group of elementary science teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. In addition, their teaching practices regarding SSI-based instruction were also explored.
Methodology Subjects The subjects of this study were 55 Taiwanese elementary science teachers (including 27 males and 28 females) coming from the middle area of Taiwan. Their teaching experiences were from1 year to 22 years. Seventeen teachers held the degree of Master, and the others held the degree of Bachelor. Thirty-five out of fifty-five teachers majored in science-related fields. Investigating elementary science teachers’ views and teaching practices regarding SSI This study was conducted to investigate a group of elementary science teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. In addition, their teaching practices regarding SSI-based instruction were also explored. To this end, an open-ended questionnaire was developed and implemented in this study. This questionnaire was presented in Chinese when conducting this study. To help the participants understanding the term “socio-scientific issue”, the definition and examples of socio-scientific issues were mentioned in the first part
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of the questionnaire. Then, all the teachers in this study were asked to write down their responses to the following questions: 1. From your perspective, what are the significant features of socio-scientific issues? (Assessing teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues) 2. Have you ever integrated socio-scientific issues into your teaching practices? If yes, what issues have you used? How did you integrate these issues into your teaching practices? (Assessing teachers’ views on SSI-based instruction) 3. In your opinions, what is the strength of SSI-based instruction? How can students benefit from SSI-based instruction? (Assessing teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction)
Results Teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues In this study, the elementary science teachers' views regarding socio-scientific issues were investigated. The teachers’ responses were further summarized into the following five categories: involving complex problem-solving process, controversy and not easy to make personal decisions, personal relevance, relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge, and moral sensitivity. The detailed descriptions regarding these categories were as below: 1. Involving complex problem-solving process: Some teachers mentioned that dealing with socio-scientific issues often involve the process of problem-solving, reasoning or argumentation. 2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions: Some teachers mentioned that people often have different positions toward a socio-scientific issue. However, no single position regarding a socio-scientific issue is absolutely right. 3. Personal relevance: Some participants proposed that socio-scientific issues are relevant to everyone’s daily life. 4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge: Some teachers pointed out that a socio-scientific issue often involved inter-disciplinary knowledge. 5. Moral sensitivity: Some elementary teachers also mentioned the decision-making regarding a socio-scientific issue often involved moral considerations.
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Table1: Teachers' views of the features of SSI n (%) 1. Involving complex problem-solving process
14 (25.5%)
2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions
13 (23.6%)
3. Personal relevance
36 (65.5%)
4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge
9 (16.4%)
5. Moral sensitivity
3 (5.5%)
* Non-relevant answers
2 (3.6%)
The teachers’ responses were further analyzed, as shown in Table 1. Table 1 showed that the view the participants revealed in their responses was “personal relevance” (65.5%), followed by “involving complex problem-solving process” (25.5%), “controversy and not easy to make personal decisions” (23.6%), “relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge” (16.4%), and “moral sensitivity” (3%). It indicated that most teachers acknowledged that socioscientific issues were relevant to everyone. However, not many teachers noticed that the decision-making regarding a socio-scientific issue often involved moral considerations. Gender difference on the teachers’ views of socio-scientific issues was further analyzed. The results in Table 2 revealed that no significant difference on views of socio-scientific issues was found was found between the male teachers and the female teachers in this study (p>0.05). Table 2: Gender comparisons on teachers’ responses regarding views of SSI male (n＝27) 8
female (n＝28) 6
0.49
2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions
8
5
1.06
3. Personal relevance
18
18
0.03
4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge
5
4
0.18
5. Moral sensitivity
2
1
0.39
1. Involving complex problem-solving process
χ2
In this study, teachers’ views of SSI among different teaching experience groups were also compared. According to their teaching experiences, the teachers were divided into the
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following three groups: (1) 1-4 years; (2) 5-9 years; (3) more than 10 years. The results in Table 3 showed that these three groups of teachers did not reveal any significant difference on views of socio-scientific issues (p>0.05). Table 3: Teachers’ views of SSI among different teaching experience groups 1—4 5—9 years years (n＝32) (n＝17) 1. Involving complex problem-solving process 2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions 3. Personal relevance 4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge 5. Moral sensitivity
4 4 13 3 2
10 9 23 6 1
more than 10 years (n＝6) 0.05 0.00 1.32 0.03 1.90
χ2 0.23 2.73 0.33 0.18 0.39
Teachers’ views of SSI among different academic groups were also compared. Table 4 revealed that the teachers with different academic levels did not show significant difference on their views on socio-scientific issues (p>0.05). Table 4: Comparisons on teachers’ views of SSI among different academic level groups
1. Involving complex problem-solving process 2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions 3. Personal relevance 4. Relating to inter-disciplinary knowledge 5. Moral sensitivity
Master (n＝17) 4 4 13 3 2
Bachelor (n＝38) 10 9 23 6 1
χ2 0.05 0.00 1.32 0.03 1.90
Similarly, teachers’ views of SSI among different academic background groups were also compared. As shown in Table 5, the teachers with different academic background did not revealed significant difference on their views on socio-scientific issues (p>0.05).
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Table 5: Comparisons on teachers’ views of SSI among different academic background groups Science majors (n＝35) 1. Involving complex problem-solving process
11
Nonsciencemajors (n＝20) 3
2. Controversy and not easy to make personal decisions
7
6
0.71
3. Personal relevance
21
15
1.27
4. Involving inter-disciplinary knowledge
5
4
0.30
5. Moral sensitivity
2
1
0.01
χ2 1.18
Teachers’ teaching practices regarding SSI-based instructions This study also explored science teachers’ practice regarding SSI-based instruction. It was found that 51 teachers (92.7%) have integrated SSI into their teaching practices. It seems that most of the elementary teachers in this study may have the experiences of using socioscientific issues in their science teaching. The socio-scientific issues that teachers used in their science teaching were also analyzed. Table 6 shows that the issue that the teachers most frequently used was “environmental protection” (85.5%), followed by “energy” (27.3%), “medical science (biotechnology)” (25.5%), and “moral sensitivity” (3.6%). It may due to that, for the energy shortage problem, there is always a fierce debate on whether the fourth nuclear power should be built in the recent years in Taiwan. Therefore, the issue of nuclear power usage is most frequently used in teachers’ teaching practices.
Table 6: The socio-scientific issues used by the teachers n
%
A. energy
15
27.3%
B. environmental protection
47
85.5%
C. medical science (biotechnology)
14
25.5%
D. others
2
3.6%
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Moreover, the roles of socio-scientific issues in teachers’ teaching practices were also explored. Table 7 revealed teachers’ usage of SSI in their teaching practices. According to Table 7, socio-scientific issues were mostly used as “teaching materials” by the teachers in this study (34.5%), followed by “issues for discussing” (27.3%), “complementary materials” (10.9%), and “motivating students’ learning” (3.7%). Table 7: Teachers’ usage of SSI in their teaching practices n
%
1. motivating students’ learning
2
3.7%
2. issues for discussing
15
27.3%
3. teaching materials
19
34.5%
4. complementary materials
6
10.9%
Gender difference on the teachers’ usage of socio-scientific issues was further analyzed. The results in Table 2 revealed that no significant difference on their usage of socio-scientific issues was found was found between the male teachers and the female teachers in this study (p>0.05). Table 8: Gender comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices χ2
Male (n＝27) 1
female (n＝28) 1
0.00
2. issues for discussing
9
6
0.98
3. teaching materials
8
11
0.57
4. complementary materials
4
2
0.83
1. motivating students’ learning
In this study, the teachers’ usages of SSI among different teaching experience groups were also compared. The results in Table 9 showed that these three groups of teachers did not reveal any significant difference on their use of socio-scientific issues (p>0.05).
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Table 9: Comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices among different teaching experience groups 5～9years
10years
(n＝32)
(n＝17)
(n＝6)
1. motivating students’ learning
1
0
1
3.57
2. issues for discussing
7
7
1
2.47
3. teaching materials
11
8
0
4.34
4. complementary materials
5
0
1
3.02
1~4years
χ2
Moreover, the teachers’ usages of socio-scientific issue between different academic level groups were also compared. As shown in Table 10, the teachers with different academic level did not revealed significant difference on their use of socio-scientific issues in their science teaching practice (p>0.05). Table 10: Comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices among different academic level groups Master
Bachelor
(n＝17)
(n＝38)
1. motivating students’ learning
1
1
0.35
2. issues for discussing
5
10
0.06
3. teaching materials
5
14
0.29
4. complementary materials
2
4
0.02
χ2
Similarly, the teachers’ usages of socio-scientific issue between different academic background groups were also compared. As shown in Table 11, the teachers with different academic background did not revealed significant difference on their use of socio-scientific issues in their science teaching practice (p>0.05).
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Table 11: Comparisons on the teachers’ use of SSI in their teaching practices among different academic background groups Science
Non- science-
majors
majors
(n＝35)
(n＝20)
1. motivating students’ learning
0
2
3.63
2. issues for discussing
11
4
0.84
3. teaching materials
12
7
0.00
4. complementary materials
4
2
0.03
χ2
Teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction This study also investigated how the teachers perspectives regarding the benefit of integrating SSI into science curriculum for students. Table 12 revealed that the teachers’ responses were categorized into seven perspectives. Most of the teachers (58.2%) believed that integrating SSI into science teaching can increase students’ science related ability; 36.4% of them believed that SSI-based instruction can promote students’ positive attitudes toward science; similarly, 36.4% of them also highlighted that SSI-based instruction could provide meaning learning contexts for students; 14.5% of them mentioned that SSI-based science instruction helped students acquire content knowledge; 9.1% mentioned that the SSI-based instruction could motive students; 7.3% of them mentioned that SSI-based science instruction could be used to improve students’ moral sensitivity; only a few teachers (3.6%) mentioned the strength of SSI-based instruction was to service as teaching materials. Table 12: Teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction n
%
1. improving students’ ability
32
58.2%
2. promoting positive attitude
20
36.4%
3. acquiring content knowledge
8
14.5%
4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
4
7.3%
5. providing meaning learning contexts
20
36.4%
6. motivating students’ learning
5
9.1%
7. servicing as teaching materials
2
3.6%
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Gender difference on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction was further analyzed. The results in Table 13 revealed that significant difference was only found on “acquiring content knowledge”, indicating that the female teachers in this study were more oriented to perceive the strength of SSI-based instruction as helping students acquire scientific knowledge (p<0.05). Table 13: Gender comparisons on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction
1. improving students’ ability
Male (n＝27) 18
female (n＝28) 14
1.57
2. promoting positive attitude
7
13
2.50
3. acquiring content knowledge
0
8
9.03*
4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
1
3
1.00
5. providing meaning learning contexts
11
9
0.44
6. motivating students’ learning
3
2
0.26
7. servicing as teaching materials
1
1
0.00
χ2
* p<0.05
Moreover, the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction among different teaching experience groups were also compared. As shown in Table 14, the teachers with different teaching experiences did not revealed significant difference on their use of socioscientific issues in their science teaching practice (p>0.05). Table 14: Comparisons on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction among different teaching experience groups 1~4years (n＝32)
5～ 9years
10years (n＝6)
χ2
(n＝17) 1. improving students’ ability
18
12
2
2.65
2. promoting positive attitude
15
4
1
3.74
3. acquiring content knowledge
5
3
0
1.18
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4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
1
3
0
4.00
5. providing meaning learning contexts
12
6
2
0.05
6. motivating students’ learning
1
2
2
5.79
7. servicing as teaching materials
1
1
0
0.50
Moreover, the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction between different academic level groups were also compared. As shown in Table 14, the teachers with different academic level did not revealed significant difference on their views of the strength of SSIbased instruction (p>0.05). Table 14: Comparisons on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction among different academic level groups Master
Bachelor
(n＝17)
(n＝38)
1. improving students’ ability
10
22
0.00
2. promoting positive attitude
3
17
0.05
3. acquiring content knowledge
4
4
1.60
4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
1
3
0.07
5. providing meaning learning contexts
7
13
0.25
6. motivating students’ learning
2
3
0.21
7. servicing as teaching materials
0
2
0.93
χ2
Similarly, the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction between different academic background groups were also compared. As shown in Table 15, significant difference was only found on “improving students’ ability”, indicating that the teachers with science major backgrounds were more oriented to perceive the strength of SSI-based instruction as improving their science-related abilities (p<0.05).
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Table 15 Comparisons on the teachers’ views of the strength of SSI-based instruction among different academic background groups Science
Non- science-
majors
majors
(n＝35)
(n＝20)
1. improving students’ ability
24
8
4.27*
2. promoting positive attitude
10
10
2.53
3. acquiring content knowledge
5
3
0.01
4. promoting positive values and moral sensitivity
1
3
2.78
5. providing meaning learning contexts
13
7
0.03
6. motivating students’ learning
4
1
0.64
7. servicing as teaching materials
1
1
0.17
χ2
Discussion and conclusion With open-ended questionnaire, this study explored 55 Taiwanese elementary science teachers' views on socio-scientific issues (SSI) and their SSI-based teaching practices. Moreover, the differences on the views and the teaching practices of the teachers with different backgrounds were also examined. Through qualitative analyses, this study revealed that the three features of socio-scientific issues that the teachers most frequently mentioned were personal relevance (65.5%), followed by the reasoning and problem-solving regarding these issues (25.5%), and controversial nature (23.6%), and most of the teachers (92.7%) had the experience of integrating SSI into their teaching practice. Moreover, the environmentrelated issues (85.5%) were the most popular issues for SSI-base instruction, and the role of the SSI issues mostly mentioned by the teachers were as a part of the teaching materials (34.5%) and as the issues for discussing (27.3%). In this study, most teachers revealed that the purpose for their SSI-based instruction was to provide a meaning learning context (50.9%). The finding of this study can provide some possible directions for science teacher educators. As suggested by Lee and Witz (2009), more attentions should be paid to understanding teachers’ values and inspirations regarding SSI and SSI-based instruction. With the finding derived from this study, Science teacher educators can design programs to
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improve the development of teachers’ views concerning SSI and SSI instruction. Moreover, with the understanding of teachers’ teaching practices, professional development programs can be further implemented. This study is one of the initial attempts to investigate teachers’ view on socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. Further research regarding this issue is needed. Besides, the results derived from this study may also provide possible directions for further research. For example, quantitative instrument for assessing teachers’ teachers’ view on socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction can be developed in further research. With the quantitative instrument for assessing teachers’ teachers’ view on socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction, science teacher educators can obtain richer information regarding teachers’ view on socio-scientific issues and SSI-based instruction. The information can serve as an important foundation for teacher professional development.
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References American Association for the Advancement of Science (1989). Science for All Americans. New York: Oxford University Press. Kolsto, S. D. (2001). Scientific literacy for citizenship: Tools for dealing with the science dimension of controversial socioscientific issues. Science Education, 85, 291-310. Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84, 71-94. Lee, H. & Witz, K. G. (2009). Science Teachers' Inspiration for Teaching Socio-scientific Issues:Disconnection with reform efforts. International Journal of Science Education, 31, 931–960. Lewis, J. & Leach, J.(2006). Discussion of Socio-scientific Issues: The role of science knowledge. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 1267–1287. Loughran, J. J. (2007). Science teacher as learner. In S. Abell & N. Lederman (Eds). Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp. 1043-1065). NJ: LEA. National Research Council (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Sadler, T.D. (2004). Informal reasoning regarding socioscientific issues: A critical review of research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 513-536. Sadler, T.D., Amirshokoohi.A., Kazempour,M.,& Allspaw,K.M.(2006). Socioscience and Ethics in Science Classroom: Teacher Perspectives and Strategies. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 353-376. Zohar, A., & Nemet, F. (2002). Fostering students’ knowledge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 35-62.
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TRIZ
TRIZ - Inventive Problem Solving with High School Students
Chew Tyng Yong
Hwa Chong Institution
[email protected]
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TRIZ
Abstract The deliberate teaching of thinking skills in schools is important to the development of future generations of thinking and committed citizens, and the survival of Singapore whose only resource is its human resource in a knowledge-based economy. There are three approaches to the teaching of thinking skills, namely the infusion approach, the discrete approach and the middle way approach. An infusion approach involves integrating thinking skills into all curricular areas while a discrete approach involves explicit teaching of thinking skills so that students can apply them to other situations. A middle way embeds structured thinking skills into a particular curricular area while retaining discrete teaching (Burke & Williams, 2008). This study evaluates the efficacy of TRIZ tools in creative problem solving using a multiple baseline research design for a discrete approach curriculum. A total of 32 students assigned randomly to one of four groups were taught the TRIZ curriculum. Three target behaviours, namely creativeness, feasibility and number of solutions ideas were rated by five different raters based on the solution ideas generated by the students for 20 tasks. The reliability of the data was established across five different raters via the mean level of the inter-rater reliability. The findings show that TRIZ was a successful tool for creative problem solving in increasing the number and creativeness of solution ideas to a large extent but not so for feasibility. The conclusions in this research significantly enhance the present knowledge and understanding of TRIZ in creative problem solving with high school students. In particular, the implication of this research raises important issues on evaluation of efficacy of thinking tools.
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TRIZ TRIZ – Inventive Problem Solving with High School Students
This research seeks to address the teaching of TRIZ in high schools and the relative absence of empirical data pertaining to the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving. The evaluation of the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving is reported in three sections. The multiple baseline design method used in this study is described in the first section. The second section reports on the results and findings while the final section provides the summary and conclusions for this study.
From the literature reviewed and in line with the aims of the research the following research questions have been generated:
The General Research Question is:
What are the effects of TRIZ on students’ creative problem solving?
The three Specific Research Questions are:
Is TRIZ effective in increasing the creativeness of the solution ideas generated by students for the given tasks?
Is TRIZ effective in increasing the feasibility of the solution ideas generated by students for the given tasks?
Is TRIZ effective in increasing the number of solution ideas generated by students for the given tasks?
Method Participants
The school has a student population of about 2000 whose ages range from 13 years (Year 7) to 16 years (Year 10). The school is a premier boys’ secondary school located in a high socio economic suburb (as designated by postcode) of Singapore with a history of over 90 years. Its
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TRIZ students are from the top 5% of their cohort. The school has a reputation for innovation in education.
A total of 32 Secondary Two and Three students aged 13 to 15 years old participated in the research (N = 32). All the students had to indicate interest and volunteer to participate as the study was held during the school holidays. In addition, the parents or caregivers of the boys had given consent for their sons’ involvement in the study.
Research design In this present research, a pre-test/post-test experimental group design was used but this was incorporated into a multiple baseline design. The multiple baseline design involves extensive collection of data on several subjects and/or target behaviours at a time. It is usually used to study changes in a single or multiple target behaviour(s) after they are exposed to an intervention or treatment. This design is useful in showing the effects of a particular treatment or intervention in different subjects (Barlow & Hersen, 1984). In order to implement a multiple baseline design, the baseline begins at the same time for a number of subjects but the intervention is introduced at different times. Thus, there are differing lengths of baseline observation periods. This enables comparisons to be made between the phases of all those who received treatment. This design is expanded in details in the method section. The design is shown in Figure 1. The reasons for adopting this research design were two-fold. First, it would not be ethical to withhold a curriculum that might have beneficial outcomes for students in a control group if a treatment versus control group research design were used. Second, children in Singapore participate in extensive additional enrichment programmes and parents are reluctant to allow their children to participate in research studies. Thus, recruiting students to be in a control group would be extremely difficult. In the past the majority of research has been limited because of these restrictions.
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TRIZ According to Barlow, Hayes and Nelson (1986), a multiple baseline design consists of a coordinated series of simple phase changes and several series in which the phase changes occur at different points in real time and after different first phase lengths, thereby allowing specific between-series comparisons. As a result, the multiple baseline design has a distinct advantage over designs with a simple phase change. That is, in a simple phase change, it is very rare that any change in target behaviour is sudden enough or large enough, to conclude firmly that any differences seen are due to the phase change. To control for the principle weaknesses of the simple phase change, the multiple baseline design arranges the phase changes in a unique way so that specific between-series comparisons are possible.
Within the multiple baseline design, data are collected over time as a continuing series rather than as single pre-test post-test points. Thus, in addition to the reason outlined earlier (i.e., difficulty recruiting controls) this design was utilized in the present research for the following reasons: (i) the utilisation of this design is well suited to the educational situation. Specifically, there is minimal disruption to normal school operations. In this instance it was essential to ensure the curriculum being offered was both acceptable and achievable for students within the defined timeframe, which was during school holidays; and (ii) a number of practical issues such as small sample size and collecting of data in the natural setting can be readily overcome.
Furthermore, according to Kazdin (1982), and Tawney and Gast (1984), the multiple baseline design includes other additional advantages. First, it is very easy to use. Second, it can be used to establish a functional relationship between variables. Third, its experimental design addresses current ethical concerns over non-provision of treatment - a common complaint against treatment versus control group research designs. Fourth, more than one variable can be analyzed, and fifth the multiple baseline design is less demanding for the participants and the design is very flexible.
The multiple baseline design also provides the most appropriate response to Goldstein (2000), who in an influential paper asserts that although investigators themselves acknowledged many of the
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TRIZ limitations of their studies, they are still circumspect in their reporting of dubious or no treatment effects. Goldstein (2000, p. 425) cites: lack of appropriate controls; use of simple single subject AB designs without experimental demonstrations; absence of statistical evidence to determine effectiveness; and lack of data pertaining to maintenance, as problems in the field of intervention delivery. Goldstein (2000) suggests the need for “well controlled single subject design experiments with a few subjects and reliable measures that relate directly to what is being taught” (p. 424). He calls on researchers to “produce statistical data from behavioural interventions” (p. 425), otherwise “vast emotional, financial, and human resources will continue to be expanded unnecessarily and unwisely” (p. 425). Through its specific design, the present research, addresses these issues made by Goldstein.
First, a strong well controlled research design was implemented. Students were required to generate solution ideas for at least four tasks assigned to them using whatever means and methods within the allocated time (baseline). The TRIZ course (which is the intervention phase) was then taught to the four groups at staggered times (see Figure 1). Group 1 began the TRIZ course after a minimum of four data points had been gathered from the four assigned tasks. For Group 2, six data points were collected, for Group 3, eight data points and for Group 4, 10 data points. As can be seen in Figure 1, two weeks after the completion of the TRIZ course, at least six data points from each group were gathered to assess whether maintenance of target behaviour has occurred. Second, interrupted time series data were collected pertaining to each individual participant’s target behaviours (frequency counts were obtained for each participant’s three target behaviours, prior to, during, and following TRIZ intervention). Twenty data points per participant per target behaviour (x 3 target behaviours = 60 data points per participants) x 32 participants = 1920 data points altogether were generated.
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TRIZ Figure 1: Multiple baseline research design A Baseline
B TRIZ Intervention
C Maintenance
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
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TRIZ Measuring participatory behaviours Based on the literature reviewed, three types of tests were evident to evaluate creative problem solving, based on cognitive process, personal properties and creative products. The more direct and objective test is based on creative products (Simonton, 2002). In this study, the creative products were the solution ideas generated by the students for the tasks assigned to them. The three target behaviours were identified from the solution ideas that the students generated from the assigned tasks to evaluate the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving. These were: (i) the creativeness of each of the solution ideas generated by each student for each task; (ii) the feasibility of each of the solution ideas generated by each student for each task; and (iii) the number of solution ideas generated by each student to a task. These target behaviours are linked to creative problem solving (Caney, 2006; Crews & Buttler, 2006; Cropley, 2001). The solution ideas generated by each student for each task were compiled and then given to five independent raters who assigned separate scores for the creativeness for each solution idea, ranging from 1 (obvious solution ideas which one would have thought of immediately or well-known ideas) to 9 (very original, imaginative, unique solutions which one would not have thought of). Similarly, the feasibility of a solution idea was scored on a scale of 1 (totally impossible to implement) to 9 (definitely possible to implement).
The mean score for creativeness of solution ideas in a group for an assigned task was calculated by summing up the creativeness scores for all solution ideas generated by all students from that group for that assigned task and then dividing the resultant number by the total number of solution ideas. This score formed one data point for creativeness of solution ideas for that assigned task. Thus, with 20 assigned tasks there were 20 data points for creativeness of solution ideas for each group. Using a similar method, the mean score for the feasibility of the solution ideas for each assigned task in each group was derived. The raters did not have to rate the number of solution ideas. The mean number of solution ideas for each assigned task in each group was calculated by summing up all the solution ideas generated by all students in that group for that assigned task and then dividing the total number of solution ideas by the number of students in the group.
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TRIZ The tasks were emailed to students daily during baseline, TRIZ intervention and maintenance phases. For each task, students were given 15 minutes to generate as many solution ideas as possible. Each individual participant then emailed back the solution ideas to the researcher for compilation. The tasks given to the participants were based on common daily occurrences that participants could relate to either through their school work, newspaper, news, magazines or popular issues.
Baseline As can be seen in Figure 1, the number of data points for each group of participants varied for different phases due to the nature of the multiple baseline research design. These data points represented the number of assigned tasks to the participants. During the baseline phase (A), all participants were given assigned tasks. For Group 1, there were four (tasks) baseline data points, for Group 2, six (tasks) baseline data points, for Group 3, eight (tasks) baseline data points and for Group 4, 10 (tasks) baseline data points. This baseline design provided the basis for the staggered TRIZ intervention start necessary for multiple baseline designs. As previously stated, the nature of the multiple baseline design is such that there is no requirement for a control group.
TRIZ intervention Following the baseline observations, the groups of participants were then introduced to the TRIZ course, which formed the intervention or treatment phase of the research (B). As can be seen from Figure 1, each group received the same TRIZ course. During the course, the students learnt about TRIZ tools for inventive problem solving. Four (tasks) data points were collected during the course for participants in all groups.
Maintenance Two weeks following the cessation of the TRIZ intervention phase, the participants reverted to their regular classroom activities and data were collected on the three target behaviours. The purpose of this phase was to examine whether the target behaviours had been maintained over time. This comprised the maintenance phase (C). In total, for Group 1, 12 (tasks) data points were collected
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TRIZ during the maintenance phase. For Group 2, there were 10 (tasks) data points collected, for Group 3, eight (tasks) data points and for Group 4, six (tasks) data points.
Inter-rater reliability To establish the reliability of the scores given by the different raters on creativeness and feasibility for the solution ideas generated by students for all the assigned tasks, the inter-rater reliability was calculated. Kazdin (1982) cited three major reasons for assessing inter-rater reliability: (i) To ensure consistency of analysis; (ii) to minimize or circumvent individual observer biases; and (iii) to reflect the target behaviour is well defined. Therefore, prior to the ratings (but following data collection), five of the raters were briefed by the researcher on the two target behaviours – creativeness and feasibility - that they were to assess for the solution ideas generated by students for each assigned task. The level of inter-rater reliability between the five different raters was subsequently calculated using the pointby-point agreement ratio which was converted to a percentage using the following formula (Kazdin, 1982):
Inter-rater reliability (%) =
Number of Agreements x100% Number of Agreements + Number of Disagreements
Procedure Prior to the research being conducted, ethical approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Western Australia. Consent was also obtained from the principal of the school through a letter communicating the purpose, intent and benefits of the study. Once permission had been obtained from the school, an appeal for student volunteers to participate in the study was sent to the school’s Secondary Two and Three students.
In total, 32 students expressed interest and volunteered to participate in the study. These students were given an information sheet explaining the programme and a consent form which parents or
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TRIZ caregivers were to sign to give permission for their son to participate. Prior to the collection of the baseline data, the students were assigned to one of four groups, each group comprising 8 students. All student participants were informed that they had the right to decline participation or to withdraw from the study at any time without prejudice. A thorough briefing was conducted by the researcher to the student participants on the objectives, and the expectations, in terms of their behaviour, during the study. The four-group design was in accordance with the multiple baseline design and enabled a staggered introduction to the TRIZ course. Group 1 had their TRIZ course conducted from June 4, 2007 to June 8, 2007 in the mornings; Group 2 had theirs from June 4, 2007 to June 8, 2007 in the afternoons; Group 3 had theirs from June 11, 2007 to June 15, 2007 in the mornings; and Group 4 had theirs from June 11, 2007 to June 15, 2007 in the afternoons.
Before the start of the course for Group 1, one task a day was emailed to all students for them to generate as many solution ideas as possible in a given time of 15 minutes. They then emailed back to the researcher at the end of the day the solution ideas generated for the assigned task before another task was emailed to them. The researcher then compiled the solution ideas for each task, keeping account of which solution ideas come from which students and from which groups. Each of these tasks was to form one data point for the multiple baseline experimental design. As mentioned, for group 1, four tasks were assigned before the start of their TRIZ course; for Group 2, six tasks; for Group 3, eight tasks; and for Group 4, 10 tasks. This phase was the baseline phase (A) of the multiple baseline design.
During the TRIZ course, which lasted for five days, four assigned tasks were sent to the students for them to generate solution ideas for each task. As with previous tasks, students spent 15 minutes on each task individually. The students again emailed their solution ideas for the completed tasks to the researcher on a daily basis before the next task was emailed to them. This phase was the TRIZ intervention phase (B) of the multiple baseline design.
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TRIZ At the beginning of the third week after the cessation of the TRIZ course, the researcher sent more assigned tasks to the students for them to generate solution ideas to the assigned tasks to see if target behavours had been maintained. Again, only one assigned task was emailed to the students each day. As mentioned, for Group 1, 12 tasks were emailed to them over 12 days; for Group 2, 10 tasks were emailed to them over 10 days; for Group 3, eight tasks were emailed to them over eight days; and Group 4, six tasks were emailed to them over six days. This phase was the maintenance phase (C) of the multiple baseline design. All in all, each participant had completed 20 assigned tasks from phases A to B to C.
Data Analysis There were two components to the data analysis in this study. First, as recommended in data analysis of multiple baseline designs, the graphed data were visually inspected for trends in intervention effects (Kazdin, 1982). The visual analysis versus the statistical analysis of data has been debated for some time, however. Thus, second, the data for individual participants were analysed using DMITSA 2.0 (Crosbie & Sharpley, 1991) which is a statistical programme specifically developed to analyse data from interrupted time-series designs. The programme employs a matrix algebra technique that can accurately assess slope in the data with only a small number of data points and provide output data that are easy to interpret.
However, statistical evaluation as a supplement or replacement to visual inspection is not without controversy. Kazdin (1982), for example, reports that the main objections relate to the use of statistical analysis to detect small changes in performance that would likely be rejected by visual inspection and may be of no clinical importance, along with the appropriateness of the type of statistical analysis chosen. Despite these concerns, the lack of statistical evaluation of intervention studies has been cited as a major weakness of past research (Goldstein, 2000). Therefore, statistical analysis of results from this study, in conjunction with visual inspection, was considered the most thorough and appropriate approach.
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TRIZ Hypotheses From the literature reviewed and in line with the aims of this research the following hypotheses are generated:
Hypothesis 1: All four groups will demonstrate a significant increase in creativeness of their solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks (Target Behaviour 1: creativeness of solution ideas) following the learning of TRIZ.
Hypothesis 2: All four groups will demonstrate a significant increase in the feasibility of their solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks (Target Behaviour 2: feasibility of solution ideas) following the learning of TRIZ.
Hypothesis 3: All four groups will demonstrate a significant increase in the number of solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks (Target Behaviour 3: number of solution ideas) following the learning of TRIZ.
Hypothesis 4: There will be no significant reductions in the levels of performance in (i) creativeness score, (ii) feasibility scores, and (iii) number of solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks in all four groups from Phase B to Phase C (TRIZ intervention to maintenance respectively), following cessation of the TRIZ curriculum.
Results This section presents the results from the evaluation of a TRIZ curriculum specifically designed to examine the efficacy of TRIZ, which sought to increase creative problem solving in high school students. Data were obtained across three phases. Following an initial baseline phase (of different lengths due to the multiple baseline design), TRIZ was introduced and interrupted time series data were collected during the TRIZ intervention sessions (intervention phase). In addition to this, interrupted time series data were gathered on the same students when they returned to their regular
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TRIZ classroom setting. Finally, all participants were observed two weeks following cessation of the intervention to determine whether changes in target behaviours had been maintained (maintenance phase).
The results of this programme evaluation are presented in three sections. Initially, as typical in intervention research a visual inspection of the overall research design is undertaken, based on a description of the trends within each of the baseline, intervention and maintenance phases. However, as Figure 2 demonstrates, the multiple baseline design was highly complex and to present all of the data in one figure would be confusing. As can be seen in Figure 2, four groups, each of eight participants received the TRIZ course. For each group, time series data were collected on three target behaviours as shown in baseline, intervention and maintenance phases. Hence, as can be seen in Figure 2 (three target behaviours), there are three trend lines showing the mean scores for each group during the phases, representing 20 data points (a total of 80 data points for the four groups). The large amount of data collected as shown in Figure 2 for each baseline and each intervention phase would make interpretation both confusing and extremely difficult if presented together. Data are therefore presented for each of the groups on target behaviours separately. This is simplified further by separating each group data according to (i) creativeness of solution ideas generated for assigned tasks; (ii) feasibility of solution ideas generated for assigned tasks; and (iii) number of solution ideas for assigned tasks. Separate figures are also presented for each class’s level on the target behaviours. Therefore, as previously highlighted, given the complexity of the visual presentation of the multiple baseline design, four separate figures are presented for the four different groups.
Following the visual inspection of the trends, a statistical analysis using DMITSA 2.0 (Crossbie & Sharply, 1991), which is a statistical programme specially designed to analyze data from interrupted time series designs, is conducted. For some time, issues have been raised relating to the visual analysis versus the statistical analysis of behavioural data. DMITSA 2.0 addresses these issues when analyzing data from time series designs.
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TRIZ Figure 2: Multiple baseline design: Interrupted time series data
12
B: Intervention TRIZ curriculum
A: Baseline
C: Maintenance
10
Group 1
8
Number of solution ideas generated creativeness of solution ideas
6
feasibility of solution ideas 4
2
0
10 9 8
Group 2
7 6
number of solution ideas generated
5
creativeness of solution ideas feasibility of solution ideas
4 3
Frequency
2 1 0 12
10
Group 3
8
number of solution ideas generated creativeness of solution ideas feasibility of solution ideas
6
4
2
0
9 8 7
Group 4
6 number of solution ideas generated
5
creativeness of solution ideas 4
feasibility of solution ideas
3 2 1 0 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Observation
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16
17
18
19
20
TRIZ Measures Participatory behaviours The participatory behaviours measured to evaluate the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving are: (i) the creativeness of each of the solution ideas generated by each student for each task; (ii) the feasibility of each of the solution ideas generated by each student for each task; and (ii) the number of solution ideas generated by each student to each task. These target behaviours are linked to creative problem solving. The solution ideas generated by each student for each task were given to five independent raters who gave separate scores for two of the target behaviours - creativeness and feasibility - of each solution idea. The mean level of inter-rater reliability obtained across these two target behaviours for all phases is presented in Table 1 and Table 2. Since the inter-rater agreement figures of both the creativeness and feasibility are 60% and above, they are considered to be acceptable by leading authorities in the field as indicating good reliability (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986 & 1997; Gelfand & Hartmann, 1975; Hartmann, 1977; Thornton III & Mueller-Hanson, 2004). The inter-rater reliability score for the number of solutions generated was not calculated since this score was computed objectively from the actual number of solutions generated by each student (in each group for each task).
Table 1:
Inter-rater reliability mean score for creativeness score
Inter-rater Reliability Mean
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Overall
Group 1
100%
100%
76%
92%
Group 2
100%
84%
78%
87%
Group 3
100%
74%
78%
84%
Group 4
91%
76%
80%
82%
Score (Creativeness Score)
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TRIZ Table 2:
Inter-rater reliability mean score for feasibility score
Inter-rater Reliability Mean
Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Overall
Group 1
100%
100%
64%
88%
Group 2
100%
72%
65%
79%
Group 3
100%
65%
62%
76%
Group 4
89%
69%
65%
74%
Score (Feasibility Score)
Analysis of time series data trends Group 1 Visual analysis. A visual analysis of Figure 3 appears to show that although there is some variability, the trends for all three target behaviours during the baseline were relatively stable. There is some evidence of possible ascending trends for creativeness of solution ideas, feasibility of solution ideas and number of solution ideas generated, however. There appears to be an increase in each of the target behaviours, characterised by ascending trends, when intervention phase (TRIZ curriculum) was introduced. A closer visual analysis of Figure 3 seems to show that the trend for the number of solution ideas generated shows the highest increase from baseline. All three target behaviours were characterised by some stability towards the maintenance phase.
In summary, what appears evident from the visual inspection of Figure 3 is that when the intervention was introduced, the rates of each of the target behaviours increased. Similarly, the target behaviours seem to be maintained after the TRIZ intervention.
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TRIZ Figure 3: Creativeness score, feasibility score and number of solution ideas generated for assigned tasks during baseline, intervention and maintenance for Group 1
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TRIZ Statistical analysis. The statistical analysis of Group 1 trends using DMITSA 2.0, as shown in Table 3, reveals significant changes in a number of the target behaviours across baseline, intervention and maintenance phases.
Group 1 rates for creativeness of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.50, SD = .58) increased significantly (p = .0048) from baseline when TRIZ intervention was introduced (Mean = 5.00, SD = .82). However, the number of solution ideas and feasibility of solution ideas did not change significantly from baseline to TRIZ intervention phase.
From TRIZ intervention phase to maintenance phase, there was a significant increase (p = .03) in the feasibility of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.57, SD = .96), (Mean = 7.00, SD = 1.41), respectively. However, the number of solution ideas and creativeness of solution ideas did not change significantly from TRIZ intervention phase to the maintenance phase.
A comparison of the mean rates for baseline and maintenance shows a significant increase (p = .008) in the creativeness of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.50, SD = .58), (Mean = 6.08, SD = 1.51), respectively. However, the number of solution ideas and feasibility of solution ideas did not change significantly from baseline to maintenance phase.
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TRIZ Table 3:
Comparison of Group 1 target behaviours across phases during baseline, intervention and maintenance
PHASE COMPARISONS
DMITSA
F
p
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,2)
10.38
.08
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,2)
19.7
.0048**
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,2)
14.37
.06
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
.376
.696
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
3.24
.08
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
5.098
.03*
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
1.12
.36
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
8.288
.008**
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
1.749
.223
AND TARGET BEHAVIOURS
Baseline vs TRIZ
TRIZ vs Maintenance
Baseline vs Maintenance
*p<.05, **p<.01
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TRIZ Group 2 Visual analysis. A visual analysis of Figure 4 appears to show that while there was slight variability across all three target behaviours, the trends during baseline were relatively stable. There is some evidence of possible ascending trends for creativeness of solution ideas, feasibility of solution ideas and number of solution ideas generated. There appears to be increases in each of the target behaviours, as characterised by ascending trends, when the intervention (TRIZ curriculum) was introduced. A closer visual analysis of Figure 4 seems to show that trends for the number of solution ideas demonstrate the highest increase from baseline. All three target behaviours were characterised by relatively stable trends during the maintenance phase.
In summary, the findings for Group 2 appear consistent with those of the other three groups. What appears evident from the visual inspection of Figure 4 is that when the intervention was introduced, there were increases in the rates of each of the target behaviours. Similarly, the target behaviours seem to be maintained after the intervention.
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TRIZ Figure 4: Creativeness score, feasibility score and number of solution ideas generated for assigned tasks during baseline, intervention and maintenance for Group 2
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TRIZ Statistical analysis. The statistical analysis of Group 2 trends using DMITSA 2.0, as shown in Table 4 reveals significant changes in a number of the target behaviours across baseline, intervention and maintenance phases.
Group 2 baseline rates for the number of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.00, SD = .82) and creativeness of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.50, SD = .84) increased significantly (p = .008 and p = .032 respectively) from baseline to TRIZ intervention phase (Mean = 7.75, SD = .50), (Mean = 6.25, SD = .50), respectively. However, feasibility of solution ideas did not change significantly from baseline to TRIZ intervention phase. From TRIZ intervention phase to maintenance phase, there were no significant changes in any of the three target behaviours.
Comparison of the mean rates between the baseline and maintenance phases shows significant increases (p = .001) in the number of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.00, SD = .63), (Mean = 7.60, SD =.84), respectively. There was also a significant increase (p = .002) in the creativeness of solution ideas generated from baseline to maintenance (Mean = 3.50, SD = .84), (Mean = 6.00, SD = 1.63), respectively. However, for feasibility of solution ideas, no significant change was evident from baseline to maintenance phase.
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TRIZ Table 4:
Comparison of Group 2 target behaviours across phases during baseline, intervention and maintenance
PHASE COMPARISONS
DMITSA
F
p
20.4
.008**
AND TARGET BEHAVIOURS
Baseline vs TRIZ Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,4)
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,4)
9.21
.032*
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,4)
5.19
.07
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,8)
2.877
.11
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,8)
.208
.82
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,8)
2.42
.15
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
17.03
.001**
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
12.97
.002**
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
TRIZ vs Maintenance
Baseline vs Maintenance
*p<.05, **p<.01
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.362
.7
TRIZ Group 3 Visual analysis. A visual analysis of Figure 5 appears to show that although there is some variability, the trends for all three of the target behaviours during the baseline were relatively stable. There is some evidence of possible descending trends for creativeness of solution ideas, feasibility of solution ideas and number of solution ideas generated. There appears to be an increase in each of the target behaviours, characterised by ascending trends, when intervention phase (TRIZ curriculum) was introduced, but each of these became descending trends over time. A closer visual analysis of Figure 5 seems to show that the trend for the number of solution ideas demonstrates the highest increase from baseline. All three target behaviours were characterised by relatively stable trends in the maintenance phase.
In summary, the findings for Group 3 appear consistent with those of the other three groups. What appears evident from the visual inspection of Figure 5 is that when the intervention was introduced, increases in the rates of each of the target behaviours occurred. Generally speaking, ascending (although relatively erratic) trends in each of the number of solution ideas generated, creativeness of solution ideas and feasibility of solution ideas occurred when the TRIZ intervention was introduced. Visually, the frequencies of the three target behaviours appeared, to a large extent, to be maintained following cessation of the intervention.
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TRIZ Figure 5: Creativeness score, feasibility score and number of solution ideas generated for assigned tasks during baseline, intervention and maintenance for Group 3
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TRIZ Statistical analysis. The statistical analysis of Group 3 trends using DMITSA 2.0, as shown in Table 5 reveals significant changes in a number of the target behaviours across baseline, intervention and maintenance phases.
Group 3 baseline rates for the number of solution ideas generated (Mean = 3.50, SD = .93) and creativeness of solution ideas generated (Mean = 4.13, SD = .99) increased significantly (p = .001 and p = .004 respectively) from baseline to TRIZ intervention phase (Mean = 9.25, SD = .96), (Mean = 6.25, SD = 1.71), respectively. However, feasibility of solution ideas did not change significantly from baseline to TRIZ intervention phase. From the TRIZ intervention phase to the maintenance phase, there were no significant changes in any of the three target behaviours.
Comparison of the mean rates from baseline to maintenance shows significant increases across all three target behaviours. The number of solutions generated increased significantly (p = .002), (Mean = 3.50, SD = .93), (Mean = 8.25, SD = 1.04), respectively. There was also a significant increase (p = .019) in the creativeness of solution ideas generated from the baseline to maintenance (Mean = 4.13, SD = .99), (Mean = 6.13, SD = 1.46), respectively. Feasibility of solution ideas also increased significantly (p = .014) from baseline to maintenance (Mean = 4.50, SD = 1.07), (Mean = 7.25, SD = .71), respectively.
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TRIZ Table 5:
Comparison of Group 3 target behaviours across phases during baseline, intervention and maintenance
PHASE COMPARISONS
DMITSA
F
p
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,6)
24.537
.001**
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,6)
5.519
.004**
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,6)
3.528
.09
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,6)
.796
.49
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,6)
.5
.63
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,6)
1.47
.3
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
12.308
.002**
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
6.06
.019*
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
(2,10)
6.716
.014*
AND TARGET BEHAVIOURS
Baseline vs TRIZ
TRIZ vs Maintenance
Baseline vs Maintenance
*p<.05, **p<.01
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TRIZ Group 4 Visual Analysis. A visual analysis of Figure 6 appears to show that although there was some variability, the trends for all three of the target behaviours during the baseline were relatively stable. There is some evidence of possible ascending trends for creativeness of solution ideas, feasibility of solution ideas and number of solution ideas generated. There appears to be increases in each of the target behaviours, characterised by ascending trends, when intervention phase (TRIZ curriculum) was introduced. A closer visual analysis of Figure 6 seems to show that a trend for number of solution ideas shows the highest increase from baseline. All three target behaviours were characterised by relatively stable trends towards the maintenance phase.
In summary, the findings for Group 4 appear consistent with those of the other three groups. What appears evident from the visual inspection of Figure 6 is that when the intervention was introduced, increases in the rates of each of the target behaviours occurred. Generally speaking, ascending (although relatively erratic) trends in each of the number of solution ideas generated, creativeness of solution ideas and feasibility of solution ideas occurred when the TRIZ intervention was introduced. Visually, the frequencies of the three target behaviours appeared, to a large extent, to be maintained following cessation of the intervention.
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TRIZ Figure 6: Creativeness score, feasibility score and number of solution ideas generated for assigned tasks during baseline, intervention and maintenance for Group 4
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TRIZ Statistical Analysis. The statistical analysis of Group 4 trends using DMITSA 2.0, as shown in Table 6 reveals significant changes in a number of the target behaviours across baseline, intervention and maintenance phases.
Group 4 baseline rate for the number of solution ideas generated (Mean = 2.70, SD = .67) increased significantly (p = .007) to TRIZ intervention phase (Mean = 6.00, SD = .82). However, creativeness and feasibility of solution ideas did not change significantly from baseline to the TRIZ intervention phase.
From the TRIZ intervention phase to the maintenance phase, the feasibility of solution ideas increased significantly (p = .001), (Mean = 6.25, SD = 2.22), (Mean = 7.33, SD = .82), respectively. There were no significant changes in the number and creativeness of solution ideas.
Comparison of the baseline and maintenance mean rates revealed a significant increase (p = .001) in the number of solution ideas generated (Mean = 2.70, SD = .67), (Mean = 6.17, SD = .41), respectively. No significant change to the feasibility and creativeness of the solution ideas were evident, however.
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TRIZ Table 6:
Comparison of Group 4 target behaviours across phases during baseline, intervention and maintenance
PHASE COMPARISONS
DMITSA
F
p
AND TARGET BEHAVIOURS
Baseline vs TRIZ Number of Solution Ideas Generated
2,8
9.936
.007**
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
2,8
.7
.524
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
2,8
.034
.967
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
2,4
2.24
.235
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
2,4
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
2,4
18.09
.001**
Number of Solution Ideas Generated
2,10
15.882
.001**
Creativeness of Solution Ideas Generated
2,10
.37
.698
Feasibility of Solution Ideas Generated
2,10
.69
.523
TRIZ vs Maintenance
.088
.917
Baseline vs Maintenance
*p<.05, **p<.01
Outcomes of hypotheses Hypothesis 1 which stated that all four groups will demonstrate a significant increase in the creativeness of their solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks (Target Behaviour 1: creativeness of solution ideas) following the learning of TRIZ was partially supported. Specifically, Groups 1, 2 and 3 evidenced significant increases from baseline to the intervention phase. Group 4 did not make significant changes.
Hypothesis 2 which stated that all four groups will demonstrate a significant increase in the feasibility of their solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks (Target Behaviour 2: feasibility of solution ideas) following the learning of TRIZ was not supported. Specifically, groups did not evidence significant increases from the baseline to the intervention phase.
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TRIZ
Hypothesis 3 which stated that all four groups will demonstrate a significant increase in the number of solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks (Target Behaviour 3: number of solution ideas) following the learning of TRIZ was partially supported. Specifically, Groups 2, 3 and 4 all evidenced significant increases from the baseline to the intervention phase. Group 1 did not make significant changes.
Hypothesis 4 which stated that there will be no significant reductions in the levels of performance in (i) creativeness score, (ii) feasibility scores, and (iii) number of solution ideas generated for the assigned tasks in all four groups from Phase B to Phase C (intervention to maintenance respectively), following cessation of the TRIZ curriculum was supported. Specifically, groups did not evidence significant changes from the TRIZ intervention phase to the maintenance phase.
Summary and Conclusions
In this chapter, the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving was evaluated over a total period of five weeks using multiple baseline research design. Thirty-two students assigned randomly to one of four groups were taught the TRIZ curriculum. Twenty tasks were given to each participant to generate as many solution ideas for the tasks as possible. The participants were given 15 minutes for each task. The reliability of the data pertaining was established through the calculation of inter-rater reliability by five separate raters. As stated above, in most cases the hypotheses tested were only partially supported by the empirical evaluation because not all groups experienced increases in the target behaviours as a result of the introduction of the TRIZ intervention. However, as can be seen in Table 7, TRIZ was effective to a large extent when the data were examined within and across the groups separately.
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TRIZ Table 7:
Summary of statistical analysis for all four groups
PHASE COMPARISON AND
Baseline vs
TRIZ vs
Baseline vs
TARGET BEHAVIOURS
TRIZ
Maintenance
Maintenance
Number of solution ideas
No
No
No
Creativeness of solution ideas
Yes
No
Yes
Feasibility of solution ideas
No
Yes
No
Number of solution ideas
Yes
No
Yes
Creativeness of solution ideas
Yes
No
Yes
Feasibility of solution ideas
No
No
No
Number of solution ideas
Yes
No
Yes
Creativeness of solution ideas
Yes
No
Yes
Feasibility of solution ideas
No
No
Yes
Number of solution ideas
Yes
No
Yes
Creativeness of solution ideas
No
No
No
Feasibility of solution ideas
No
Yes
No
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Group 4
As can be seen in Table 7, significant increases occurred in two of the three target behaviours as follows:
For the number of solution ideas generated, TRIZ intervention was effective for three of the four groups. That is, they experienced significant increases from baseline to TRIZ intervention. As anticipated, when TRIZ was removed no reductions occurred (TRIZ to maintenance) in these three groups. Only Group 1 did not follow this pattern. In this instance, there were no significant changes across any of the phases for Group 1.
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TRIZ For creativeness of solution ideas generated, a similar pattern occurred. That is, the TRIZ intervention was again effective for three of the four groups. Specifically, three groups experienced significant increases from baseline to TRIZ intervention. As anticipated, when TRIZ was removed no reductions occurred (TRIZ to maintenance) in these three groups. Only Group 4 did not follow this pattern. In this instance, there were no significant changes across any of the phases for Group 4.
For feasibility of solution ideas generated, none of the groups experienced significant increases from baseline to TRIZ.
In conclusion, while TRIZ was partially effective in bringing about increases in the target behaviours of three of the four groups. Furthermore, the fourth hypothesis on maintenance of the TRIZ intervention was supported showing that all the target behaviours were maintained in all the four groups, indicating that students were able to understand, retain and apply their knowledge of TRIZ. This supports the conclusion that TRIZ was successful to a considerable extent in increasing creative problem solving with secondary students but not totally. This may be a result of the stringency of the evaluation itself. Previous research evaluating the effectiveness of TRIZ has tended to rely on pre-test and post-test data analysis (Belski, 2007) and this is subjected to inflation because of aberrations in mean scores (i.e., persons scores within groups can fluctuate wildly and have an effect on the overall pre and/or post mean). The present study, however, collected time-series data of the group’s target behaviours over time and is therefore more representative. Previous research has also tended to rely on the visual analysis of data, which is highly subjective and open to misinterpretation. Indeed, visual examination of the target behaviours in the present study would appear to imply total effectiveness of TRIZ. The case could be made on this basis that all hypotheses could be supported. However, the more stringent statistical analysis incorporated in a multiple baseline design here, demonstrated the true effectiveness of TRIZ. Thus, in many ways the strength of the current research (i.e., strong experimental design and statistical analysis) may be viewed as a weakness in terms of the outcomes for TRIZ. However, the closer examination of the statistical evidence demonstrates TRIZ to be successful tool in increasing the number and creativeness of the solution ideas generated to a large
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TRIZ extent since the results were positive in three of the four groups but not so for feasibility of the solution ideas generated. However, it must be acknowledged that the rating on feasibility of solution ideas by the raters is a challenging task. Solution ideas that are viewed as not feasible now by the raters due to the limitations of knowledge of the raters and current technologies may become feasible in the near future.
This study shows that the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving with secondary school students can be evaluated using multiple baseline design. The evaluation of TRIZ in creative problem solving with secondary school students revealed that it is generally an effective thinking tool in increasing the number and creativeness of solution ideas generated by secondary school students for the assigned tasks. Furthermore, these target behaviours of TRIZ intervention were maintained, indicating that students were able to understand and retain their knowledge of TRIZ, and that the curriculum was effective in conveying the concepts of TRIZ to students. It can thus be concluded that TRIZ is a useful tool for creative problem solving.
Again, students involved in this study were observed by the researcher to be very receptive towards the learning of TRIZ methodology. They were able to apply the concepts and sequence of steps in TRIZ to solve the assigned tasks.
Discussion In this study, the TRIZ curriculum developed was taught to secondary school students. The students were very receptive towards the methodology. They found they could use the TRIZ tools to solve the assigned tasks and generate creative solution ideas. The target behaviours for creative problem solving were also maintained after the TRIZ intervention. This confirms that TRIZ can be taught, understood and applied by secondary school students. The discrete approach was used in the teaching of TRIZ in this study. In the literature reviewed, the argument against discrete thinking skills programmes is that the knowledge could not be transferred or generalized to other parts of the curriculum or to out-of-school performances. However, since the activities and tasks given to students
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TRIZ in this study were from many fields and areas, it implies that the students were able to apply the thinking skills learnt during the course into different fields and areas. Thus, there was an effective transfer of knowledge from the classroom to daily issues for these students, showing that the discrete approach to teaching of TRIZ can lead to transferrable knowledge.
Implications Equipping students with thinking tools is one of the top priorities of the MOE so as to provide a competitive workforce for the country to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy. Higher-order thinking is valued greatly in Singapore and the teaching of thinking tools to its students is emphasised in schools’ curricula. In this study, TRIZ was found to be effective in the areas of idea generation and creativeness of the solution ideas generated. Thus, the MOE should consider including TRIZ as part of the current set of thinking skills taught in schools.
In this study, TRIZ was taught using the discrete approach. Students were able to learn and apply the TRIZ methodology into different examples and activities in different areas. In Singapore, the teaching of thinking skills is typically infused into subject-based curricula. The MOE might want to consider teaching thinking skills as a discrete programme during curriculum time, instead of infusing it into other curricula. The fear that students would not be able to transfer the knowledge learnt in a discrete programme was not well founded, as this study has shown. Teaching thinking skills requires teachers who are able to use these tools and teach students the thinking skills. Most teachers were not taught any thinking skills when they were students. Thus, in order for teachers to be able to teach thinking, they need to go through workshops that teach them these thinking skills and instruct them on how to teach these thinking skills effectively. This applies particularly to workshops for TRIZ. It must be highlighted that the researcher had attended a course on TRIZ and hence was able to teach TRIZ in this study. In addition, teachers must be able to think for themselves and nurture thinking in their students. For teachers to teach thinking skills to their students effectively, they themselves will have to go for in-service training on thinking skills and how to teach these thinking skills. In addition, during pre-service training, teacher trainees should be taught
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TRIZ the teaching of thinking skills explicitly. Providing network support for teachers teaching thinking skills is also crucial so that peer support, coaching and sharing between teachers can be established. Perhaps the MOE should consider setting up a thinking skills department, devoted to research in the teaching of thinking skills as well as to provide resources and materials to teachers for the teaching of thinking skills in schools.
Since this study was conducted in a premier boys’ secondary school, possible limitations to this study include generalisability to other mainstream, co-educational and premier girls’ secondary schools. Thus, further research should be extended to mainstream, co-educational and premier girls’ secondary schools. Such research could also use the multiple baseline design. Together with the findings in this study, more generalisable conclusions about the efficacy of TRIZ in creative problem solving for secondary school students could then be made. Finally, further research can also be done at upper primary school level (10 to 13 years old) to investigate if TRIZ can be taught to upper primary school students. The literature reviewed indicates that teaching students thinking skills earlier will allow them to have more time practising these skills later.
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TRIZ References Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J.M. (1986). Observing interactions: An introduction to sequential analysis. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J.M. (1997). Observing interactions: An introduction to sequential analysis. (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Barlow, D. H., Hayes, S. C., & Nelson, R. O. (1986). The scientist practitioner: Research and accountability in clinical and educational settings. New York: Pergamon Press Inc. Barlow, D., & Hersen, M. (1984). Single case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behaviour change (2nd ed.). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon. Belski, I. (2007). TRIZ course enhances thinking and problem solving skills of engineering students. In C. Gundlach, U. Lindemann & H. Ried (Eds.), Proceedings of the TRIZfuture conference November 06-08, 2007, Frankfurt-Germany (pp. 9-14). Kassel, Germany: Kassel University Press GmbH. Burke, L. A., & Williams, J. M. (2008). Developing young thinkers: An intervention aimed to enhance children's thinking skills. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 3 (2), 104 - 124. Caney, S. (2006). Steven Caney's ultimate building book. Philadelphia, Pa: Running Press Kids. Crews, K. D., & Buttler, D. K. (2006). Copyright law for librarians and educators: Creative strategies and practical solutions. Chicago: American Library Association. Cropley, A.J. (2001). Creativity in Education & Learning: A guide for teachers and educators. London: Kogan Page. Crosbie, J. & Sharply, J. (1991). DMITSA 2.0: A statistical program for analysing data from interrupted time-series. Victoria, Australia: Deakin University.
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TRIZ Gelfand, D. M., & Hartmann, D. P. (1975). Child behavior analysis and therapy. New York: Pergamon Press Goldstein, H. (2000). Commentary: Interventions to facilitate auditory, visual, and motor integration: "Show me the data". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(5), 423-425. Hartmann, D. P. (1977). Considerations in the choice of interobserver reliability methods. Journal of Applied Behavioural Analysis, 10, 103-116. Kazdin, A. (1982). Single case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. New Jersey: Oxford University Press. Simonton, D. K. (2002). Creativity. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 189-201). New York: Oxford University Press. Tawney, J. W., & Gast, D. L. (1984). Single subject research in special education. New Jersey: Merrill / Prentice Hall. Thornton III, G.C., & R. A. Mueller-Hanson. (2004). Developing organizational simulations: A guide for practitioners and students. Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
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Analysis Knowledge Construction
Running head: Analysis of Knowledge Construction in Discussion Forum
An Introduction to Analysis of Science Knowledge Construction in an Asynchronous Discussion Forum
Chia Kok Pin
National Institute of Education
[email protected]
An Introduction to Analysis of Science Knowledge Construction in an Asynchronous Discussion Forum
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Analysis Knowledge Construction
Abstract
This paper will introduce two methodologies known as Knowledge Construction – Message Mapping (KCMM) and Knowledge Construction – Message Graph (KCMG) for analyzing knowledge-construction as well as mis-construction occurring in an online asynchronous discussion forum that potentially could advance understanding of these processes. The ubiquitous adoption of online asynchronous discussion forum in the field of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) has far outpaced the understanding of how this dynamic and collaborative learning tool should best be used to promote independent and higher-order learning. The adoption of an asynchronous discussion forum provides opportunities for an in-depth analysis of students’ transcripts to understand the peer’s interaction and knowledge construction in learning. This article will introduce an instrument for tracing the communication patterns and the knowledge construction as well as mis-construction processes of students working in groups, discussing subject-related content using an innovative approach to map the messages of students’ postings. It is hoped that this approach will foster indepth understanding as well as refining a categorical system to indicate the level of attainment for knowledge attained, through the use of this proposed instrument. This will enhance educational practitioners and researchers to describe on-line interaction with a more systematic approach and adopt a measurement methodology more effectively than anecdotally.
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Analysis Knowledge Construction
An Introduction to Analysis of Science Knowledge Construction in an Asynchronous Discussion Forum
Introduction There had been extensive discussion in the field of educational research about the advantages of using technology to create a shared space among learning participants. As such, it is important to consider the dynamics of online forum discussions and how it facilitates student's cognitive and meta-cognitive development. In addition, there is a pressing need to understand how facilitators made use of discussion forum to design an electronic learning community for their students. The adoption of an asynchronous discussion forum provides opportunities for an in-depth analysis of students’ transcripts to understand the development of knowledge construction in content related subject. Asynchronous discussion forum is one of the many forms of CSCL where learners communicate with one another via an online text-based learning environment over an extended period of time. Students are supposed to engage with one another in an argumentative discourse with the goal to acquire knowledge. For instance, students in groups are assigned to jointly analyze a written problem case with the help of theoretical concepts in order to learn to apply and argue with these concepts. Students may compose complex problem analysis and post them to a discussion forum where their learning partners may read these messages and reply to the contribution with critiques, questions, refinements, etc. During this type of discourse, learners collaboratively produce a text in order to put forward their point of view. The rationale for analyzing the electronic transcripts is that in this kind of data, cognitive processes of learning are being represented to a certain degree (Weinberger & Fischer, 2006). This is
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in contrast to synchronous discussion forum where students have less time to search for information, to provide extended information and to evaluate the posted information thoroughly due to high psychological pressure to respond as fast as possible because of time constraint. On the other hand, learners are able to interact with one another via asynchronous discussion forum, at different times via text messages. Thus, these students will have more time to sort out their thought processes, reflect and search for additional information. As such, there is a need for analysis tools that review the process of knowledge development within these online asynchronous discussions. Chi (1997) pointed out that due to a multitude of reasons, there was an increasing need in educational research to collect and analyze qualitative data that were complex in nature, as opposed to quantitative data. The need for the collection of such data pointed to the trend towards studying complex activities in practice or in the context in which they occurred De Wever, Schellen, Valcke and Van Keer (2006) presented their findings that research in the field of CSCL utilized a wide variety of methodologies. Quantitative studies focus on measures, such as frequency of postings, which includes the number of threads per forum, the number of postings per thread, or the number of facilitator postings per thread. On the contrary, qualitative analysis also known as content analysis has generally been qualitative and delves into issues of critical thinking, problem solving and knowledge construction. Content analysis in CSCL has great potential in the field of educational research but minimal research exists in this field due to the massive amount of time required to perform such analysis (Hara, Bonk, & Angeli, 2008). This paper will introduce a methodology based on content analysis, which is a technique to analyze transcripts of asynchronous discussion groups in formal education settings. It
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has to be noted that although this technique is popular in the field of qualitative educational research, standards are yet to be established by academic researches and this issue is compounded by the lack of a reliable instrument. The study conducted by PenaSchaff and Nicholls (2004) revealed that students engaged in a knowledge construction process that was characterized by elaboration, clarification and interpretation produced more reflective monologues than dialogical interaction. Waters and Gasson (2007) presented a model that viewed learning as the passive transmission of knowledge from experts to novices, as didactic and inadequate. Learning is now viewed by educational reformist, as an active process of social construction, which is situated within the cultural norms of a specific community of practice. It is imperative that educators cannot simply trans-locate traditional teaching to a remote electronically mediated arena, but need to provide online environments in which reflective, interactive, and participative learning is possible. Martinez, Dimitriadis, Rubia, Gomez and Fuente (2003) stressed that studying and evaluating real experiences that promoted active and collaborative learning as a crucial field in CSCL. Major issues that remained unsolved deal with the merging of qualitative and quantitative methods and data, especially in educational settings that involved both physical and computer-supported collaboration. Fahy (2002) maintained that despite some helpful discoveries, however, overall progress in understanding the processes at work in online interaction had not been remarkable. Some researchers, in proposing changes to research methods, had noted consistent inefficiencies and inadequacies in the methodologies utilized and approaches commonly undertaken in transcript research.
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Significance of paper This paper will attempt to introduce a methodology to map the different stages of knowledge construction as well as mis-construction in asynchronous discussion forums, with emphasis on how students transact with one another in this dynamic process. The process of solving the task can be achieved with the contribution to and using one another’s perspective (Schrire, 2005). Learning institutes, whose aim is to design useful learning environments and experiences, have to be aware of how learning proceeds in an online community. In addition, there is also a need to understand the preparation of students in engaging with the unstructured and unbounded problems that they will face in their future professional workplace (Hong & Lee, 2008). This will imply that students will have more opportunities to solve open-ended, unstructured problems that are best resolved through joint knowledge building process among their peers. HmeloSilver (2003) had the view that with increasing use of online asynchronous discussion forum, educators should assess the quality of interactions and learning that took place in this e-learning environment. Documenting and understanding collaborative knowledge construction are critical for research in asynchronous discussion forum taking place in an e-learning environment. Thus, the goal of this paper is to introduce a methodology for documenting the types of knowledge that are constructed or mis-constructed, as well as its processes during the asynchronous discussion forum.
Existing methods of analyzing asynchronous discussion forum There exist a plethora of methods used by researchers in the content analysis of asynchronous discussion forum. Martinez et al. (2003) made use of a well-known shared workspace system based on web interface known as the BSCW (Basic Support
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for Co-operative Work) for asynchronous document sharing and threaded discussions. BSCW provided the capability to log every action performed on the shared workspace, providing data that were used as a source of the analysis. Other tools, like e-mail for communication and simulators for the assignments are also used during the process. Schrire (2005) analysis of discussion forum, involved performing interaction pattern mapping through examination of the explicit and implicit interaction between messages. Each message in the forum was assigned a number corresponding to the chronological sequence of posting. The threading of the forum messages was then graphically depicted, facilitating categorization of threads according to pattern of interaction, such as instructor-centered, synergistic, developing synergism or scattered. In addition, relevant threads were selected for analysis of the latent cognitive content. The purpose was to determine the levels of different aspects of cognition in each conference. Hara et al. (2008) performed analysis through the conference activity graphs on a weekly basis in order to uncover unique patterns of interaction among the students. The authors were interested to find whether interaction among the discussion forum participants were "starter-centered", "scattered interaction” or "explicit interaction”. Pena-Schaff and Nicholls (2004) used a message mapping sequence to identify the patterns of discourse, based on student’s participation in the discussion forum. A categorical system was initially applied to the data and then modified to provide more detailed categories and indicators. Examples of categories identified were statements of clarification, interpretation, conflict, assertion, judgment and reflection appeared to be most directly related to the process of knowledge construction. Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis will determine how the overall discussion is to be broken down into
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manageable items for subsequent coding according to the analysis categories. The choice for the unit of analysis will determine the accuracy of the coding and the extent to which the data will reflect the true content of the original discourse. The unit of analysis determines the granularity in looking at the transcripts of the online discussion. The choice for the unit of analysis is dependent on the context based on the research question and should be well considered, because differences in the size of this unit will have a causal effect of coding decision and comparability of outcome between different models. To get a complete and meaningful picture of the collaborative process, this granularity needs to be decided and implemented appropriately. As was discussed in De Wever et al. (2006), the choice for the unit of analysis represented advantages and disadvantages, as well as problems of subjectivity and inconsistency. In the literature review of Schellens and Valcke (2006), the unit of analysis reflected, in an exhaustive and exclusive way, a specific construct. A variety of choices were discussed: a sentence, a paragraph, a theme and the illocutionary unit (the complete message). Each choice presented advantages and disadvantages. Opting for each individual sentence or paragraph as the unit of analysis resulted in an objective and reliable choice but research experiences indicated that this unit was too small to represent individual theoretical constructs. Opting for themes as the analysis unit helped to counter the latter disadvantage but presented problems in terms of the reliable identification of each individual theme, resulting in subjectivity and inconsistency. The best choice was to opt for each complete message as an individual unit of analysis. Firstly, this results in the objective identification of all units of analysis. Second, the number of observed units is under control and is easily managed for analysis purposes. A third advantage is that the researchers work with the unit, as it has been defined by the author of the message. In
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addition, a fine-grained line-by-line coding allows the researchers to examine an entire corpus of discourse to identify important and representative cognitive and social processes that can be reported as frequency counts. Further qualitative analysis can be used to investigate larger phenomena that occur over greater units of time. The finegrained analysis model can also be represented in ways that allows some of the chronological sequencing and tool used to become salient (Hmelo, 2003). Lampert and Ervin-Tripp (1993) and Chi (1997) proposed a dynamic approach to unitization. Since there is a trade-off between the grain size and the amount of information derived from the data, the dynamic approach to unitization implies that data may be coded more than once, each time according to a different grain size, depending on the purpose and the research question that a specific “pass” through the data is related to. The same idea on dynamism in unitization, was also shared by Schellens and Valcke (2006) where entire message was split up into two or three messages when the first and second part of the message needs to be coded and categorized differently. Hara et al. (2008) also concurred that any message could conceivably contain several ideas, the base "unit" of the analysis was not a message, but a paragraph. It was assumed that each paragraph in a submission was a new idea unit since college-level students should be able to break down the messages into paragraphs. Thus, when two continuous paragraphs dealt with the same idea, they were each counted as a separate idea unit. And when one paragraph contained two ideas, it was counted as two separate units. The granularity of segmentation is highly dependent on the research questions that are supposed to be investigated. After experimenting with several types of units, it was decided that a message-level unit, corresponding to what one participant posted into the thread of the discussion forum on one occasion, was the most appropriate to attain our
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goals. Since messages were clearly demarcated in the transcript, multiple coders could reliably identify when a coding decision was required. The message as the unit was advantageous as the length and content of the message was decided upon by its authors, rather than by coders. As each complete message was chosen as the unit of analysis for the coding, the coders were obliged – in a number of cases – to split up an entire posting into two or three messages as recommended by the model of Veerman and VeldhuisDiermanse (2001). This was the case when, for example, the first part of a message was coded as level 1 understanding and the second part of message was a misconception. In a number of cases, the message clearly contained two completely different contributions (De Wever, Van Keer, Schellens, & Valcke, 2006). In addition, a complete message provided coders with sufficient information to infer underlying cognitive processes.
Methodologies This methodology was modeled after Frey, Sass and Arman (2006) and Hmelo-Silver (2003), where students’ original electronic transcripts of the discussion forum were mapped. It has to be noted that although this technique is popular in the field of qualitative educational research, academic researchers have yet to establish standards and this issue is compounded by the lack of a reliable instrument. It is the ambition of this paper to introduce an innovative methodology, for understanding authentic knowledge construction as well as mis-construction among group of students participating in asynchronous discussion forum. This methodology uses an overlayering approach of messages posted by students, to the level of content conceptual understanding. Postings are analyzed with a content analysis tool to identify statements according to the level of conceptual knowledge attained. Since this study is concerned
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with analysis and categorization of student’s online transcript, it primarily relies on content analysis methodology. By using both quantitative and qualitative measures, it is hoped that this will be a catalyst for a more comprehensive study of online discussion than is typically found in most of the research literature on CSCL. Although online content analysis methodologies are still in the stage of infancy development, they appeared to capture the richness of the student interactions (Hara et al., 2008). The next section will present the step-by-step process for this case study: 1) The students are to be grouped in four or five based on their class register number. The reason for this system of grouping is for ease of administration work as well as eliminating any biasness in the findings due to students forming cliques in their groupings. In line with constructivist principles, the discussion theme is based on reallife authentic situation. 2) A trigger for this asynchronous discussion forum is recommended. As this paper promotes self-directed learning among students, the reason for the physical phenomenon observed by the students in the trigger activity is not made known to the students. However, these students have been exposed to a short introduction to the content prior to their period of research. 3) The students are expected to perform extensive research through medium such as relevant books and online resources in the attempt to correctly answer the question posed by the teacher in the first posting of the asynchronous discussion forum. 4) Students, in their groups, are informed of the dates where the asynchronous discussion forum in the learning management system of the school will take place. This asynchronous discussion forum is held for a period of 1 to 2 weeks. The teacher should make an attempt to intervene every day, through logging in to the students’ virtual space
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for discussion. It is imperative that the teacher does not give concrete content feedback, but rather structural feedback (scaffolding). 6) After the asynchronous discussion period is over, the original electronic transcripts are then analyzed using the KCMM. The next few sections will explain, in detail, the methods and models adopted for an in-depth analysis of the electronic transcripts.
Method of Analysis: Knowledge Construction – Message Map (KCMM) This paper will introduce a content analysis approach, which is qualitative in nature, and explore issues such as the extent of knowledge construction or mis-construction. In view of the increasing use of asynchronous discussion forum in learning and teaching, there is a need for an analysis tool that reviews the process of knowledge construction within these online discussions. Through the detailed examination of transcripts, both theoretical and practical insights into the learning context of the students and its outcomes can be easily elicited (Gunawardena, Lowe, & Anderson, 1997). This research will analyze qualitative data through classifying individual learners’ statements. Researchers using this approach have used a diverse range of approaches for classifying individual students’ statements, ranging from classifying cognitive strategies used by individual student to classifying moves such as giving or receiving help as well as the content of students’ talk. However, this paper will introduce the methodology of classifying the individuals’ electronic statements from the asynchronous discussion forum to the levels of scientific knowledge attained. It is hoped that this will provide information about individual’s performance within each group, and the extent of knowledge construction or mis-construction. To aid understanding, a visual representation of the levels of scientific understanding is achieved through the use of the
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diagram shown in Figure 1. This diagram consists of a triangle segmented into several sections. A lozenge, labeled “Question” located within the section reserved for questioning, represents the main question raised by the teacher in this discussion forum. The segments above the question section represent increasing level of scientific knowledge attained for a particular discussion forum, while segments below the question section represent the types of knowledge mis-constructed by the students. The number of levels designated for representing conceptual understanding achieved by the students, is decided by the researcher and is not restricted to the number as indicated on Figure 1. This representation will henceforth be known as Knowledge ConstructionMessage Mapping (KCMM) and it serves two purposes. First, the KCMM is able to present the coded data to the audience, just as one depicts quantitative data graphically or in tabular form. Second, the depiction of such representation might allow researchers to detect some patterns with reference to knowledge construction in asynchronous discussion forum (Chi, 1997), through the analysis of the structure and content of interactions by the creation of these message maps which displays graphically the interrelationships among the messages (Gunawardena et al., 1997). In addition, the KCMM represented in Figure 1 is able to provide a visual representation of the reasoning pattern and overall structure or flow of the group discourse as well as how individual contributes to this overall structure or flow. Furthermore, this form of representation facilitates systematic comparisons across different groups or discussions. The KCMM, through its pyramid structure, is able to trace the student’s pattern of understanding as learning potentially involves different levels of understanding. Learning taking place in different subjects and disciplines follows different routes of argumentation and this could be shown easily with the help of the KCMM. Reasoning
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made among learners may not be complete or totally correct and from this differentiation in levels of understanding, it is possible to move from a qualitative to a quantitative approach from the use of KCMM to compare different groups in knowledge construction and mis-construction. A simple example will be illustrated to show the effectiveness of the KCMM in mapping out the knowledge construction as well as the knowledge mis-construction process. Referring to Figure 1, the cognitive processes in understanding a science topic (Why air-conditioner is situated at the top part of the room) by 2 students are shown. The first student initial message (1A) indicated that he had understood that the cooled air at the top had higher density than the warm air below (Level 1 understanding). The same student second message (1B) was then mapped to level 2 understanding where he wrote that the cooler air would sink and forced the warmer air upwards. Lastly, this student posted (1C) that the warm air would be cooled and be denser than the air below it and the process repeats with convectional current being set up (Level 3 understanding). This student has shown an increase in understanding of this topic as his messages are tagged from Level 1 to Level 3 understanding, with the use of solid arrows. Conversely, the second student first message (2A) indicated that he had understood that the cooled air at the top had higher density than the warm air below (Level 1 understanding). However, this same student second message (2B) was misconstructed (or possessed mis-conception) as he wrote that the cooled air at the top conducts the coolness to the warm air below and this is represented using a dotted arrow. It is the job of the researchers or raters to infer from the messages created from the original transcripts and tag them correctly to the map. Therefore, the KCMM is able to present the cognitive levels and processes of the various group members in a visually
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simplified diagram. The interrelationships among the different messages by different members are also visually displayed and patterns that exemplified cognitive processes can be elicited and researched upon.
Why air-conditioner is situated at the top part of the room?
1C Level 3 understanding: The warm air will be cooled and be denser than the air below it. The process repeats and convectional current is set up. 1B Level 2 understanding: The cool air will sink and forces the warm air upwards. 1A
2A
Level 1 understanding: Air at the top is initially cooled. It has a higher density than the warm air below. Question Knowledge mis-construction 2B
The cooled air at the top conducts the coolness to the warm air below
Figure 1: Knowledge Construction – Message Map (KCMM)
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Method of Analysis: Knowledge Construction – Message Graph (KCMG) The graphical representation for the number of postings as well as the level of scientific knowledge attained for every member of the team is shown in Figure 2 below. The positive y-axis represents the level of understanding attained by individual member of the group, while the negative y-axis represents the number of misconceptions posted by the individual student. The x-axis represents the number of meaningful postings made by the individual student. This representation will henceforth be known as Knowledge Construction - Message Graph (KCMG). The purpose of the KCMG is to allow the ease of tracking individual conceptual cognitive development between knowledge construction and mis-construction. It can be observed from the graph that Student 1, represented by dotted line, increased his conceptual understanding from Level 1 (L1) to Level 3 (L3) as he posted his first message to the third message. Student 2 first message was correctly constructed at L1. However, his second message was mis-constructed and was represented as a misconception in the graph as the dash line is plotted below the origin line. It has to be noted that all the students’ postings originated from the zero message as this represents a shift from nil conceptual knowledge to either knowledge constructions or mis-constructions.
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Student 1
No. of Messag es
Student 2
Figure 1: Knowledge Construction – Message Graph (KCMG)
Analysis and comparison Quantitative analysis from the electronic transcripts, which is qualitative in nature, can be easily achieved and the number of knowledge constructed as well as mis-constructed, and other parameters can be compared among different groups. An example is shown in Table 1 overleaf where the number of messages, which is constructed (represented by solid arrows) and mis-constructed (represented by dotted arrows), is shown alongside with their percentages against the total number of messages posted for easy analysis and comparison. It is also worth noting that the misconceptions posted by the students could be archived and remediation processes should be in place to address the issue of removing these misconceptions from the minds of these students.
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Group
No. of
No. of
Total No.
% of
% of
Knowledge
Knowledge
of
messages
messages with
construction
Mis-
Messages
with
mis-
Messages
construction
constructed
constructed
Messages
knowledge
knowledge
1 2 3 4 5
Table 1: Analysis and comparison between groups for knowledge construction / misconstruction
CONCLUSION It is crucial to understand how to support collaborative knowledge construction in asynchronous discussion forum settings due to prevalence of asynchronous approaches to online learning. This paper shows that content analysis of asynchronous discussion forum is both possible and feasible through the focus on both qualitative and quantitative data, with various ways to examine and evaluate the interaction of participants as knowledge is being constructed. Using our customized innovative analysis tools known as KCMM and KCMG, we are able to successfully analyzed students’ electronic transcripts and to verify characteristics of an asynchronous
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discussion forum that was previewed in the earlier sections. These processes meet our goals to develop a useable and replicable approach for content analysis of asynchronous discussion forum. It is a dangerous notion for educators to assume that students will naturally attained the correct scientific conceptual understanding once they participated in discussion forum or other forms of CSCL activities without close monitoring by facilitators. Thus, educators should be mindful of reviewing the summary of the findings by the students, through raising the awareness of the misconceptions written by the students and delivering the correct scientific understanding. It is the hope of the authors that further research on knowledge construction as well as mis-construction in asynchronous discussion forum be undertaken, as this paper draws from a multitude of research findings on the potential of using online asynchronous discussion forum to discuss course-related content.
References Chi, M. T. C. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: a practical guide. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(3), 271–315. De Wever, B., Schellens, T., Valcke, M., & Van Keer, H. (2006). Content analysis schemes to analyze transcripts of online asynchronous discussion groups: A review. Computers & Education, 46(1), 6–28. De Wever, B., Van Keer, H., Schellens, T., & Valcke, M. (2007). Applying multilevel modeling to content analysis data: Methodological issues in the study of role assignment in asynchronous discussion groups. Learning and Instruction, 17(2007), 436-447.
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Fahy, P.J. (2002). Assessing critical thinking processes in a computer conference. Center for Distance Education. [Verified 12 Feb. 2009]. http://auspace.athabascau.ca:8080/dspace/handle/2149/1220. Frey, B.A., Sass, M.S., & Arman, S.W. (2006). Mapping MLIS asynchronous discussions. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 3(1), ISSN 1550–6908. Gunawardena, C. N., Lowe, C. A., & Anderson, T. (1997). Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17, 397–431. Hara, N., Bonk, C.J., & Angeli, C. (2008). Content analysis of online discussion in an applied educational psychology. Center for Research on Learning and Technology, 28(2), 115–152. Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2003). Analyzing collaborative knowledge construction: Multiple methods for integrated understanding. Computers & Education (2003), 41(2003), 397-420. Hong, K.S., & Lee, J.A.C. (2008). Postgraduate students’ knowledge construction during asynchronous computer conferences in a blended learning environment: A Malaysian experience. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 24(1), 91-107. Lampert, M. D., & Ervin-Tripp, S. M. (1993). Structured coding for the study of language and social interaction. In J.A. Edwards & M. D. Lampert (Eds.), Talking data: Transcription and coding in discourse research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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Martinez, A., Dimitriadis, Y., Rubia, B., Gomez, P., & Fuente, P.D.L. (2003). Combining qualitative evaluation and social network analysis for the study of classroom social interactions. Computers & Educations, 41(2003), 353-368. Pena-Schaff, J.B., & Nicholls, C. (2004). Analyzing student interactions and meaning constructions in computer bulletin board discussions. Computers & Education, 42(2004), 243-265. Schellens, T. & Valcke, M. (2006). Fostering knowledge construction in university students through asynchronous discussion groups. Computers & Education, 46(2006), 349–370. Schrire, S. (2005). Knowledge-building in asynchronous discussion groups: going beyond quantitative analysis. Computers & Education, 46(1), 49–70. Waters, J., & Gasson, S. (2007). Distributed knowledge construction in an online community of inquiry. Proceedings of the 40th Hawaii International Conferences on System Sciences 2007. Weinberger, A., & Fischer, F. (2006). A framework to analyze argumentative knowledge construction in computer-supported collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 46(2006), 71–95. Veerman, A., & Veldhuis-Diermanse, E. (2001). Collaborative learning through computer-mediated communication in academic education. In P.Dillenbourg, A Eurelings & K. Hakkarainen (Eds), European perspectives on computersupported collaborative learning. Proceedings of the first European Conference on CSCL. Maastricht: McLuhan Institute, University of Maastricht. [Verified 12 Feb 2009]. http://www.ll.unimas.nl/euro-cscl/Papers/166.doc.
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Running head: Case Study of Knowledge Construction in Discussion Forum
A Case Study Approach to Science Knowledge Construction and Misconstruction in an Asynchronous Discussion Forum
Chia Kok Pin
National Institute of Education
[email protected]
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Abstract This paper introduces the methodology for analyzing the knowledge-construction as well as mis-construction processes occurring in an online asynchronous discussion forum. The use of a case-study approach could potentially advance understanding of these processes using Knowledge Construction – Message Map (KCMM) and Knowledge Construction – Message Graph (KCMG). The ubiquitous adoption of online asynchronous discussion forum in formal education institutes has far outpaced the understanding of how this dynamic and collaborative learning tool should best be used to promote independent and higher-order learning. This paper, with the use of a case study, traced the communication patterns and the knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction processes of students, working in groups discussing subject-related content. An innovative approach was used to map the messages of students‟ postings in order to reveal the extent to which knowledge is constructed or mis-constructed. Through the collection of authentic data, this methodology revealed the dynamics of the asynchronous discussion forum and educators could easily map out and quantified the learning process. This will equip educational practitioners and researchers with a useful tool for describing on-line interaction with a more systematic approach and adopt a measurement methodology more effectively than anecdotally. The research findings also uncovered that learners self-directed learning through an asynchronous discussion forum has to be monitored by the facilitator as they possessed mis-conceptions that potentially could mis-led other participants.
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Case Knowledge Construction A Case Study Approach to Science Knowledge Construction and Misconstruction in an Asynchronous Discussion Forum
Introduction The increasing pervasive use of CSCL (Computer Support Collaborative Learning) in teaching and learning, where human communication takes place via computers, has far outpaced our understanding of how this medium should be used to promote higher-order learning. The use of asynchronous discussion forum in teaching and learning is an example of CSCL popularity. As such, there is a need for analysis tools that review the process of knowledge development within these online discussions. The purpose of this study is to analyze the patterns of participation and quality of students‟ postings in an asynchronous discussion forum, from a lower secondary science module delivered through a learning and management system over a period of two weeks. Background The adoption of an asynchronous discussion forum provides opportunities for an indepth analysis of students‟ transcripts to understand the development of knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction. Asynchronous discussion forum is one of the many forms of CSCL where learners communicate with one another via an online text-based learning environment, over an extended period of time. Learners are supposed to engage with one another in an argumentative discourse to jointly analyze a written problem with the help of theoretical concepts for learning to apply and argue with these concepts. Learners may compose complex problem analysis and post them to a discussion forum where their learning partners will read these messages and reply to the contribution with critique, questions, refinements, etc at
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Case Knowledge Construction different times. During this type of discourse, learners collaboratively produce a text in order to put forward their point of view. The rationale for analyzing the discourse is that in this kind of data, cognitive processes of learning are being represented to a certain degree (Weinberger & Fischer, 2006). These students will have more time to sort out their thought processes, reflect and search for additional information. This is in contrast to synchronous discussion forum where students have less time to search for information, to provide extended information and to evaluate the posted information thoroughly due to high psychological pressure to respond as fast as possible because of time constraint. Thus, Chi (1997) pointed out that there was an increasing need in educational research to collect and analyze qualitative data that was complex in nature, as opposed to quantitative data. The need for the collection of such data pointed to the trend towards studying complex activities in practice or in the context in which they occurred. De Wever, Schellen, Valcke and Van Keer (2006) presented their findings that research in the field of CSCL utilized a wide variety of methodologies. Quantitative studies focus on measures, such as frequency of postings, which includes the number of threads per forum, the number of postings per thread, or the number of facilitator postings per thread. On the contrary, qualitative analysis also known as content analysis, has generally been qualitative and delves into issues of critical thinking, problem solving and knowledge construction. Content analysis in CSCL possesses great potential in the field of educational research but minimal research existed in this field due to the massive amount of time required to perform such analysis (Hara, Bonk, & Angeli, 2008). Waters and Gasson (2007) presented a model that viewed learning as the passive transmission of knowledge from experts to novices, as didactic and inadequate. Learning is now viewed by educational reformist, as an active
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Case Knowledge Construction process of social construction, which is situated within the cultural norms of a specific community of practice. Fahy (2002) maintained that despite some helpful discoveries, overall progress in understanding the processes at work in online interaction had not been remarkable. Some educational researchers in proposing changes to research methods had noted consistent inefficiencies and inadequacies in the methodologies utilized and approaches commonly undertaken in transcript research.
Significance of Study This case study will attempt to map the different stages of science knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction in asynchronous discussion forum as a collaborative knowledge building process, with emphasis on how students transact with one another in this dynamic process. The process of solving a task can be achieved with the contribution to and using one another‟s perspective (Schrire, 2005). Learning institutes, whose aim is to design useful learning environments and experiences, have to be aware of how learning proceeds in an online community. In addition, there is also a need to understand the preparation of students in engaging with the unstructured and unbounded problems that they will face in their future professional workplace (Hong & Lee, 2008). From this research, educators will be able to quantify and measure the efficacy of the educational program designed by the teachers in the use of an asynchronous discussion forum. This will imply that students will have more opportunities to solve open-ended, unstructured problems that are best resolved through joint knowledge building process between their peers. Social constructivists approaches to learning drastically change the roles of the students and teachers. The students drive the discussion and the teacher serves as the guide by the side. Hmelo-Silver (2003a) had the view that with increasing use of online
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Case Knowledge Construction asynchronous discussion forum, educators should assess the quality of interactions and learning that took place in this e-learning environment. Documenting and understanding collaborative knowledge construction are critical for research in asynchronous discussion forum taking place in an e-learning environment. With the focus of this research on what happens to student‟s learning and science knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction within this different and new environment. It is hoped that the results from this research will reveal the dynamics of the asynchronous discussion forum and how it may facilitate student‟s cognitive and metacognitive development. In addition, educators will be able to create a better educational tool to foster more depth and peer responsiveness in their learning. For the policy makers, the results will be able to facilitate their promotion of teaching and learning approaches that are in line with curriculum intent, as well as designing of assessment modes that support the desired learning outcomes of the nation. This case study hopes to introduce a method of analyzing qualitative data in an objective and quantifiable approach, as well as advancing quality in alternative assessment. As both qualitative and quantitative analyses have shortcomings and strengths, some kind of methods with the ability to integrate both quantitative and qualitative methodology will seem desirable, especially for answering complex questions such as knowledge construction.
Literature Review The rapid growth of CSCL has shaped current researches on how higher order thinking and learning could be promoted through interaction among facilitators, learners, and learning content. In an e-learning environment, one of the most common types of communication is asynchronous discussion forum.
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Case Knowledge Construction Social Construction of Knowledge The integration of asynchronous discussion forum in education has the potential to cover most of the communication tasks between students and teachers: debate about controversial topics, brainstorming, questioning, homework submission queries, news dissemination, etc (Ponnusawmy, & Santally, 2008). Moreover, learners can also use forum discussion space as an online socializing zone. Discussion forum is good for extended discussions and wide information dissemination but requires motivation or structure. Discussion forums create a virtual environment similar to face-to-face classroom environment where knowledge could be critically constructed, validated and shared. As popularity of discussion forums increased, more researchers have attempted to produce models that measure and analyze the networked conversations produced. An important characteristic of asynchronous discussion forum is that students dominated the discussion, not the facilitator. The facilitator creates a learning environment where students are responsible for their own learning. From the students‟ point of views, Murphy and Manzanares (2005) reported evidences of individual increasing awareness of the different perspectives of the problem. Learners also commented on their interest in sharing and collaborating in relation to the knowledge building process and to expand, and further knowledge acquisition. They not only stressed how they had personally became more aware of different viewpoints and expanded their knowledge, but they also described the various ways they intended to expose other participants to different perspectives. Ponnusawmy and Santally (2008), echoing the same perspectives, reported that support for the use of discussion forums in distance education was widespread. Discussion forums provided platforms for students to see different perspectives, which could help to foster new meaning construction and encouraged student ownership of learning and collaborative
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Case Knowledge Construction problem-solving skills. They encouraged participants to put their thoughts into writing in a way that others could understand, promoting self-reflective dialogue and dialogue with others. In addition, discussion forums had the potential to expose students to a broader range of views as compared to face-to-face talk, and hence enabled them to develop more complex perspectives on a topic. The research done by Frey, Sass and Arman (2006) produced evidence that many instructors reported that online discussion benefited shy or international students by providing them with more time to clarify and developing their remarks. However, simply requiring students to post messages to address the instructors‟ questions might not result in effective learning. Effective discussions required thoughtful design, facilitation and assessment. An inherent characteristic of asynchronous discussion forum is its ability to promote social construction of knowledge among student participants. Waters and Gasson (2007) were of the view that individual only possessed a partial understanding of the problem, so group problem solving was akin to assembling a jigsaw puzzle. Every participant must contribute his part of the picture without being able to comprehend the whole, which was gradually constructed through sustained online debate. In this way, a community of inquiry built a joint, yet distributed understanding of their domain of practice. Students were expected to share their experiences, negotiate meanings and construct subject matter knowledge through discussion. Constructivist educators generally agreed that discussion in communities of inquiry contributed to higher order thinking and helped learners in their knowledge creation, with students being stimulated to engage actively in their own learning process (Stein et al, 2006). In addition, working in collaborative groups provided opportunities for students to be engaged in knowledge building where knowledge is constructed. As meaning making was a dialogic and mediated process through language, individual
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Case Knowledge Construction constructed knowledge when they engaged socially and actively in solving shared problems or tasks (Chin & Chia, 2002). Arvaja, Salovaara, Hakkinen and Jarvela (2007) put forward the idea that the function of communication promoted student‟s reasoning and negotiating meanings through suggestion, clarification, counter argument and questions asking. In addition, students built their reasoning on one another‟s messages with the other person‟s message serving in part as a resource for one‟s own interpretations. Research by Weinberger and Fischer (2006) revealed that argumentative knowledge construction was based on the assumption that learners engaged in specific discourse activities and that the frequency of these discourse activities was related to knowledge acquisition. Learners constructed arguments in interaction with their learning partners in order to acquire knowledge about argumentation, as well as knowledge of the content under consideration. In argumentative knowledge construction, there is a need for students to inquire complex problems, construct and balance arguments and counter- arguments in order to prove possible resolutions to these problems. Learners thus continuously warrant, qualify or argue against solutions to the problems until they converge towards a joint solution. By balancing arguments and counter-arguments in order to solve complex problems, participants learn how to argue within a domain and acquire content knowledge. With the construction of sequences of argumentation, students may acquire multiple perspectives upon a problem. The acquisition of multiple perspectives on a problem facilitate students to flexibly apply the newly acquired knowledge to solve future problems. Pena-Schaff and Nicholls (2004) reported that knowledge construction should be seen as a social, dialogical process in which different perspectives were incorporated. This exchange of ideas and negotiation of meaning affected not only the individual‟s cognition but also the group‟s “distributed cognition” as participants
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Case Knowledge Construction transmitted, negotiated and transformed their ideas in the creation of new knowledge. In the process of articulation, reflection and negotiation, students engaged in a meaning making of knowledge construction processes. This process could become even more powerful when communication among peers was done in written form, because writing done without the immediate feedback of another person through oral communication and body language, required further elaboration in order to convey meaning. Content Analysis The benefits of online discussions have led several researchers to further explore student interaction and develop models and tools for online discussion analysis. The two main types of analysis for discussion forum are quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis. In an article cited by Frey et al. (2006), there are several types of quantitative analysis, which includes measures such as frequency of postings, number of threads per forum, the number of postings per thread, or the number of instructor postings per thread. On the other hand, content analysis studies have been qualitative in nature and explores issues such as problem solving, critical thinking, and in view of the increasing use of asynchronous discussion forum in learning and teaching, there is a need for analysis tools that review the process of knowledge construction within these online discussions. However, attempts to understand and demonstrate the nature and processes of online communication through quantitative analysis had reported problems such as failing to reveal the richness of the medium. Gunawardena, Lowe and Anderson (1997) promoted the view that neither quantitative analysis of participation nor reports from survey findings yielded important information on the construction of knowledge or the quality of learning that took place in an asynchronous discussion forum. In order to assess the quality of interactions and the
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Case Knowledge Construction quality of the learning experiences in a CSCL environment, content analysis of computer transcripts is essential. Murphy and Manzanares (2005) believed that content analysis of transcripts of online asynchronous discussion forum could support observation and identification of discussion and engagement in behaviours related to social processes such as interaction, collaboration and teacher presence. Also, it could provide insights into cognitive processes such as knowledge building, metacognition, and problem solving. In addition, Hmelo-Silver and Bromme (2007) reported two commonly used approaches for analyzing data: classifying individual learners‟ statements and providing descriptive, qualitative analyses of transcripts. Researchers using the former approach had used a diverse range of approaches for classifying individual students‟ statements, ranging from classifying cognitive strategies used by individual students to classifying moves such as giving or receiving help, as well as the content of students‟ talk (Hmelo-Silver, 2003b). This general approach provided information about individual‟s performance within groups but might not provide a picture of the overall structure or flow of the group discourse or how individuals contributed to this overall structure or flow. Researchers using the latter, more descriptive approach had provided rich pictures of interactions, but this was not a method that was well suited for making systematic comparisons across different groups or discussions. De Wever et al. (2006), who focused on transcript analysis, recommended that content analysis instruments should be accurate, precise, objective, reliable, replicable, and valid. Accuracy is the extent to which a measuring procedure is free of bias (non-random error), while precision is the fine detail of distinction made between categories or levels of a measure (Neuendorf, 2002). Accuracy should be as high as possible, while precision should be high, but not exaggerated. Objectivity should be attained at all time with the aim of answering the research
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Case Knowledge Construction questions. This content analysis technique could be defined as „„a research methodology that built on procedures to make valid inferences from text‟‟ (Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, & Archer, 2001). Although these research techniques were often used, standards were not yet established.
Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis will determine how the overall discussion is to be broken down into manageable items for subsequent coding according to the analysis categories. The choice for the unit of analysis will determine the accuracy of the coding and the extent to which the data reflect the true content of the original discourse. The unit of analysis determines the granularity in looking at the transcripts of the online discussion. To get a complete and meaningful picture of the collaborative process, this granularity needs to be decided and implemented appropriately. As was discussed in De Wever et al. (2006), the choice for the unit of analysis represented advantages and disadvantages, as well as problems of subjectivity and inconsistency. In the literature review of Schellens and Valcke (2006), the unit of analysis reflected in an exhaustive and exclusive way, a specific construct. A variety of choices were discussed: a sentence, a paragraph, a theme and the illocutionary unit (the complete message). Each choice presented advantages and disadvantages. Opting for each individual sentence or paragraph as the unit of analysis resulted in an objective and reliable choice but research experiences indicated that this unit was too small to represent individual theoretical constructs. Opting for themes as the analysis unit helped to counter the latter disadvantage but presented problems in terms of the reliable identification of each individual theme, resulting in subjectivity and inconsistency. The best choice was to opt for each complete message as an individual
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Case Knowledge Construction unit of analysis. Firstly, this resulted in the objective identification of all units of analysis. Second, the number of observed units was under control and could be managed for analysis purposes. A third advantage was that the researchers worked with the unit, as it had been defined by the author of the message. In addition, a finegrained line-by-line coding allowed the researchers to examine an entire corpus of discourse to identify important and representative cognitive and social processes that could be reported as frequency counts. The idea of dynamism in the coding of the students‟ transcripts was explored and discussed in Schrire (2005). The boundaries of syntactic units are not always demarcated clearly. Attention is drawn to the need for determining inter-rater reliability of the unitization itself, and not only of the content coding. Proposal was made for an alternative unit for content analysis, one that was based on the sentence but that also accounted for compound sentences. Lampert and Ervin-Tripp (1993) and Chi (1997) proposed a dynamic approach to unitization. Since there was a trade-off between the grain size and the amount of information derived from the data, the dynamic approach to unitization implied that data might be coded more than once, each time according to a different grain size, depending on the purpose and the research question. The same idea on dynamism in unitization, was also shared by Schellens and Valcke (2006) where entire posting was split up into two or three messages when the first and second part of the message needs to be coded and categorized differently. Hara et al. (2008) also concurred that any message could conceivably contain several ideas, the base "unit" of the analysis was not a message, but a paragraph. It was assumed that each paragraph in a submission was a new idea unit since college-level students should be able to break down the messages into paragraphs. Thus, when two continuous paragraphs dealt with the same idea, they
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Case Knowledge Construction were each counted as a separate idea unit. And when one paragraph contained two ideas, it was counted as two separate units.
Inter-rater Reliability Inter-rater reliability is a critical concern in relation to content analysis. It is regarded as the primary test of objectivity in content studies and defined as “the extent to which different coders, each coding the same content, came to the same coding decisions” (Rourke et al., 2001). Unfortunately, a large subset of studies did not report inter-rater reliability according to De Wever et al. (2006), which could be seen as the consequence of a lack of detailed practical guidelines and tools available to researchers regarding reliability. The literature review of De Wever et al. (2006) revealed a number of indexes used to report inter-rater reliability: percent agreement, Holsti‟s method, Scott‟s pi, Cohen‟s kappa, Krippendorff‟s alpha, Spearman Rho, Pearson correlation coefficient, Lin‟s concordance correlation coefficient, KupperHafner index, etc. However, there is no general consensus on what index should be used. The following section presents the discussions for coefficients that provide a good estimation on the inter-rater reliability. There is no general agreement on what indexes should be used. Percent agreement is considered an overly liberal index by some researchers, and the indices, which do account for chance agreement, such as Krippendorff‟s alpha, are considered overly conservative and often too restrictive (Lombard, Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002; Rourke et al., 2001). Therefore, it is suggested that researchers calculate and report both indices, as more information is made available to the reader of research studies in order to judge the reliability. The interpretation of levels of inter-rater reliability is still open to debate, since there are no established standards available. There seems to be no real consensus for the
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Case Knowledge Construction percent agreement statistic. Often a cut-off figure of 0.75–0.80 is used; others state that a value of 0.70 can be considered as reliable (Neuendorf, 2002; Rourke et al., 2001). Also for chance correcting measures, no standard is available to judge the level of inter-rater reliability. When Cohen‟s kappa is used, the following criteria have been proposed: values above 0.75 (sometimes 0.80 is used) indicate excellent agreement beyond chance; values below 0.40, poor agreement beyond chance; and values in between represent fair to good agreement beyond chance (Krippendorff, 1980; Neuendorf, 2002). Lastly, De Wever et al. (2006) stressed the importance of a clear and transparent coding procedure and the inter/intra-rater reliability. The usage of multiple coefficients was encouraged to determine inter-rater reliability, such as percent agreement and Krippendorff‟s alpha. Reporting multiple reliability indices added credibility to the research, considering the fact that no unambiguous standards were available to judge reliability values. Next to the quantitative values, information about the sample, the coding procedure, and the training should be reported carefully in order to improve the quality of research in the field of content analysis. Rourke et al. (2001) expounded on the importance of inter-rater reliability in content analysis research and were concerned that many of the studies they reviewed did not specify information about this. De Wever et al. (2006) supported their call for attending to issues of inter-rater reliability in such research and reports of statistical test results that did not include reliability indices should be treated with caution (Strijbos, Martens, Prins & Jochems, 2005).
Research Questions The research questions that will be addressed in this research are:
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Case Knowledge Construction 1) What will content analysis of students‟ transcripts in an asynchronous discussion forum reveal about knowledge construction and mis-construction within the group by means of the exchanges among participants? and 2) Did individual participant create personal construction / mis-construction of knowledge and change their understanding as a result of interactions within the group? and 3) What are the misconceptions of the students that could be analyzed from the transcripts of the asynchronous discussion forum? Through the findings of these research questions, we will be able to assess the quality of interactions as well as students‟ learning experiences in an asynchronous discussion forum.
Methodology Case study research that facilitates researcher to go “beyond quantitative analysis” has to be based on sampling procedures that are compatible with the general methodological approach. Purposive sampling (also known as theoretical sampling) should be used as reported by Strauss and Corbin (1998) because of its conceptually driven nature. We would be choosing cases in the sample that maximize and minimize similarities and differences (Schrire, 2005). Purposive sampling is different from probability sampling procedures in that the sampling selection criteria may change as the study progresses. Chin, Brown and Bruce (2002) recommended that findings from the samples be presented as grounded hypotheses rather than generalizing findings. With the use of the case study approach, purposive sampling was used to select the target students in groups who represented learners over a range of academic abilities and learning approaches.
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Case Knowledge Construction Sample This study will apply both quantitative and qualitative criteria to analyze the content of asynchronous discussion forum and its forms of electronic interaction. A case study approach and methodology were used to investigate the type of science knowledge constructed as well as mis-constructed, and the quality of science content discussions that took place in the asynchronous discussion forum. In this naturalistic setting, neither variables nor potential causes of behaviour were manipulated. This study involved detailed investigation of the electronic transcripts from 12 secondary 2 (grade 8) male students in 3 groups, from an all-boys secondary school in Singapore. These students are considered to be of above-average academic ability as they are from the Express stream with their Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) TScore of at least 227. Their original electronic transcripts, which can be found in the Appendices, have all their postings anonymized in order to protect the confidentiality of the students participating in this research. However, every effort was made to maintain the integrity of the text exchanges and messages between the students. As one of the aims of this study is to investigate the nature of students‟ knowledge construction processes in an online virtual space, this methodology is considered appropriate as it permits tracking of selected students over a period of time. Tracking of the cognitive development was carried out for a number of target groups and students, instead of a large sample of students. The reason was the ease in which researchers were able to obtain rich, in-depth, original data from the asynchronous discussion forum in small-group settings for subsequent fine-grained analysis. To provide contrast, groups of students who showed more evidences of science knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction in the discussion forum were selected.
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Case Knowledge Construction Procedure It has only been in recent years that researchers have begun to focus on analyzing the content of messages, rather than on such quantitative variables as the frequency of student participation, the level of interaction, and message length. It is only through the analysis of both the content of the messages and the patterns of interaction will researchers be able to learn whether asynchronous discussion forum can facilitate critical thinking and encourage the process of knowledge construction. This research paper describes a formative assessment process of mapping students‟ electronic discussions
to
analyze inter-group cognitive development
and knowledge
construction, as well as knowledge mis-construction among the participants. Discussions of various depth, breadth, and complexity were mapped, beginning with the initial or parent posting (facilitator‟s question) and branching to include all student responses within a thread. Postings were analyzed with a content analysis tool to identify and categorize statements according to the level of cognitive development reflected in the student‟s posting. In general, most research papers reported openended questions solicited contributions at higher cognitive levels. However, the deepness of ongoing responses in a discussion did not necessarily lead to higher levels of cognitive development as evidenced in the findings section of this report. This case study traced the communication patterns and the knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction processes of students in their discussion of science-related content. A refinement of a categorical system was made to indicate the level of knowledge attained. This research was modeled after Frey et al. (2006), where students‟ original electronic transcripts of the discussion forum were mapped. It has to be noted that although this technique is popular in the field of qualitative educational research, academic researchers have yet to establish standards and this
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Case Knowledge Construction issue is compounded by the lack of a reliable instrument. It is the ambition of this research endeavour to provide a case study approach using an innovative methodology, for understanding authentic knowledge construction as well as knowledge mis-construction among group of students participating in asynchronous discussion forum. This method uses an over-layering approach of messages posted by students, to the level of science conceptual understanding. Postings were analyzed with a content analysis tool to identify statements according to the level of conceptual knowledge attained. Since this study is concerned with analysis and categorization of student‟s online transcript for a science discourse, it primarily relied on content analysis methodology. By using both quantitative and qualitative measures, it is hoped that it can lead to a more comprehensive study of online discussion in a secondary school level course than is typically found in most of the research literature on CSCL. The current CSCL research studies are mainly devoted to undergraduate and post-graduate level. Although online content analysis methodologies are still in the stage of infancy development, they appeared to capture the richness of the student interactions (Hara et al., 2008). This study examines the process by which science knowledge construction as well as mis-construction develops in asynchronous discussion groups. This case study involved categorizing levels of science knowledge construction amongst secondary 2 (grade 8) students in a Government-aided Special Assisted Plan (SAP) school in Singapore. The next section will present the step-by-step process for this case study: 1) The students were grouped in four or five based on their class register number. The reason for this system of grouping is for ease of administration work as well as eliminating any biasness in the findings due to students forming cliques in their
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Case Knowledge Construction groupings. In line with constructivist principles, the discussion theme was based on real-life authentic situation. 2) The trigger for this asynchronous discussion forum was a digital video clip, which was to be downloaded and viewed by the students (Please see Figure 1, 2 and 3 for the images of this video). This digital video clip was a science experiment on atmospheric pressure, which exerted a net force on the water in a container and caused the water level inside the heated inverted flask to rise. As this research attempted to promote self-directed learning among students, the reason for the physical phenomenon observed by the students in the video clip was not made known to the students. However, these students had already covered and understood the chapter on pressure involving solid as well as a short introduction to pressure in liquid and atmospheric pressure. The above scientific knowledge should be understood by the students based on the scheme of work as dictated by the secondary 2 science syllabus. 3) The students had to perform extensive research through medium such as relevant books and online resources in the attempt to correctly answer the question posed by the teacher in the first posting.
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Figure 1. A heated round bottom flask is heated and inverted over a container of water. The water in container is seen rising up the neck of the inverted flask
Figure 2. Cool tap water is poured over the inverted round bottom flask. Water is seen rising up the neck of the inverted flask even faster
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Figure 3. When the inverted round bottom flask is tilted, water is seen rushing up the neck of the flask, causing a mini explosion 4) Students were informed of the dates where the asynchronous discussion forum in StudyWiz, the school learning and management system (Figure 4), would take place. This asynchronous discussion forum was held from 23rd March 2009 to 5th April 2009. The teacher intervened at least once every two days through logging in to the students‟ virtual space for discussion.
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Case Knowledge Construction Figure 4. A screenshot of StudyWiz, the learning management system of the school where the asynchronous discussion forum resides
5) It was imperative that the teacher did not give concrete content feedback, but rather structural feedback (scaffolding). Students were given the opportunity to work for a period of 2 weeks on the case study as explained in the earlier paragraph. After 2 weeks, they no longer have the opportunity to add their inputs to the forum, although they were still able to view their discussion. 6) The original electronic transcripts were then analyzed using the adopted content analysis methodology. The next few sections will explain, in detail, the methods and models adopted for answering the research questions. Method of Analysis: Knowledge Construction – Message Map (KCMM) To answer the first research question, this study will analyze qualitative data through classifying individual learners‟ statements. Researchers using this approach have used a diverse range of approaches for classifying individual students‟ statements, ranging from classifying cognitive strategies used by individual student to classifying moves such as giving or receiving help as well as the content of students‟ talk. However, this paper will introduce the methodology of classifying the individuals‟ electronic statements to the levels of scientific knowledge attained with respect to the question posed by the facilitator from the trigger activity. To aid understanding, a visual representation of the levels of scientific understanding is achieved through the use of the diagram shown in Figure 5. This diagram consists of a triangle segmented into several sections. A lozenge, labeled “Question” located within the section reserved for questions, represents the main question raised by the teacher in this discussion forum. The segments above the question section represent increasing level of scientific
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Case Knowledge Construction knowledge attained for a particular discussion forum, while segments below the question section represent the types of knowledge mis-constructed by the students. The number of levels designated for representing conceptual understanding achieved by the students is decided by the researcher and is not restricted to the number as indicated on Figure 5. This representation will henceforth be known as Knowledge Construction-Message Map (KCMM) and it serves two purposes. First, the KCMM is able to present the coded data to the audience, just as one depicts quantitative data graphically or in tabular form. Second, the depiction of such representation might allow researchers to detect some patterns with reference to knowledge construction in asynchronous discussion forum (Chi, 1997), through the analysis of the structure and content of interactions by the creation of these message maps which displays graphically the interrelationships among the messages (Gunawardena et al., 1997). In addition, the KCMM represented in Figure 5 is able to provide a visual representation of the reasoning pattern and overall structure or flow of the group discourse, as well as how individual contributes to this overall structure or flow. Furthermore, this form of representation facilitates systematic comparisons across different groups or discussions. The KCMM, through its pyramid structure, is able to trace the student‟s pattern of understanding as learning potentially involves different levels of understanding. Learning taking place in different subjects and disciplines follow different routes of argumentation and this could be shown easily with the help of the KCMM. Reasoning made among learners may not be complete or totally correct and from this differentiation in levels of understanding, it is possible to move from a qualitative to a quantitative approach from the use of KCMM to compare different groups in knowledge construction and mis-construction. A simple example will be illustrated to show the effectiveness of the KCMM in
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Case Knowledge Construction mapping out the knowledge construction as well as the knowledge mis-construction process. Referring to Figure 5, the cognitive processes in understanding a science topic (Why air-conditioner is situated at the top part of the room) by 2 students are shown. The first student initial message (1A) indicated that he had understood that the cooled air at the top had higher density than the warm air below (Level 1 understanding). The same student second message (1B) was then mapped to level 2 understanding where he wrote that the cooler air would sink and forced the warmer air upwards. Lastly, this student posted (1C) that the warm air would be cooled and be denser than the air below it and the process repeats with convectional current being set up (Level 3 understanding). This student has shown an increase in understanding of this topic as his messages were tagged from Level 1 to Level 3 understanding, with the use of solid arrows. Conversely, the second student first message (2A) indicated that he had understood that the cooled air at the top had higher density than the warm air below (Level 1 understanding). However, the same student second message (2B) was mis-constructed (or possessed mis-conception) as he wrote that the cooled air at the top conducts the coolness to the warm air below and this is represented using a dotted arrow. Therefore, the KCMM is able to present the cognitive levels and processes of the various group members in a visually simplified diagram. The interrelationships among the different messages by different members are also graphically displayed and patterns that exemplified cognitive processes can be elicited and analyzed upon. In addition, quantitative analysis from the electronic transcripts, which is qualitative in nature, can be easily achieved and the number of knowledge constructed as well as mis-constructed, and other parameters can be compared among different groups.
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Why air-conditioner is situated at the top part of the room?
1C Level 3 understanding: The warm air will be cooled and be denser than the air below it. The process repeats and convectional current is set up. 1B Level 2 understanding: The cool air will sink and forces the warm air upwards. 1A
2A
Level 1 understanding: Air at the top is initially cooled. It has a higher density than the warm air below. Question Knowledge mis-construction 2B
The cooled air at the top conducts the coolness to the warm air below
Figure 5. The Knowledge Construction - Message Map (KCMM)
Method of Analysis: Knowledge Construction - Message Graph (KCMG)
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Case Knowledge Construction To answer the second research question, this study aims to measure the amount of science knowledge construction and knowledge mis-construction quantitatively, using the number of postings delivered by members of each group. To ease implementation for calculating changes in conceptual understanding among student participants, the graphical representation for the number of postings as well as the level of scientific knowledge attained for every member of the team is shown in Figure 6 on the next page. The positive y-axis represents the level of understanding attained by individual member of the group, while the negative y-axis represents the number of misconceptions posted by the individual students The x-axis represents the number of meaningful postings made by the individual student. This representation will henceforth be known as Knowledge Construction - Message Graph (KCMG).
No. of Messag es
Figure 6. Knowledge Construction - Message Graph (KCMG) Unit of Analysis An important step in assigning data to categories is determining the unit of analysis. In order to capture cognitive processes of learning, through the application and
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Case Knowledge Construction argument with given concepts, the granularity of segmentation needs to be adjusted at multiple levels. This study suggests the consideration of multiple grain sizes for the analysis of the online transcripts, which states that the segment granularity represents different levels of knowledge in discourse. The granularity of segmentation is highly dependent on the research questions that are supposed to be investigated. After experimenting with several types of units, it was decided that a message-level unit, corresponding to what one participant posted into the thread of the discussion forum on one occasion, was the most appropriate to attain our goals. Since messages were clearly demarcated in the transcript, multiple coders could reliably identify when a coding decision was required. The message as the unit was advantageous as the length and content of the message was decided upon by its authors, rather than by coders. As each complete message was chosen as the unit of analysis for the coding, the coders were obliged – in a number of cases – to split up an entire posting into two or three messages as recommended by the model of Veerman and Veldhuis-Diermanse (2001). This was the case when, for example, the first part of a message was coded as level 1 understanding (e.g., student ability to understand that the rise of water inside inverted flask was due to the condensation of water vapour) and the second part of message was a misconception (e.g., student mis-conceptualized that the air pressure inside inverted flask was greater than atmospheric pressure). In a number of cases, the message clearly contained two completely different contributions (De Wever, Van Keer, Schellens, & Valcke, 2007). In addition, a complete message provided coders with sufficient information to infer underlying cognitive processes. Inter-rater reliability In this study, two raters coded the data source. One was the second author and the other was the second author‟s colleague in his school, who holds a Master of Science
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Case Knowledge Construction (Physics) at the time of this research. These raters were briefed on the coding scheme and trained on how coding was to be carried out. After the training sessions, each rater coded the asynchronous discussion forum transcripts independently (Appendix A, D, G). The coding decisions of the two coders were evaluated for inter-rater reliability using Holsti‟s (1969) coefficient of reliability (CR) and Cohen‟s (1960) Kappa (k). CR is a percent-agreement measure in which the number of agreements between the first coder and the second coder are divided by the total number of coding decisions. Cohen‟s kappa is a chance-corrected measure of inter-rater reliability (Capozzoli, McSweeney, & Sinha, 1999). In calculating kappa, reliability was reported after accounting for the possibility of chance agreement between coders. Both indices were calculated and reported since there was no general agreement on which should be used (Smet, Keer, & Valcke, 2008). CR is considered an overly liberal index by some researchers. On the contrary, indices such as Cohen‟s kappa, which do account for chance agreement, are considered overly conservative and restrictive (De Wever et al., 2006). In this study, the reliability sample consisted of 97 units of meaning. The two raters coded all the transcripts of the 3 groups on the discussion topics. For most cases, an agreement about the final code could be reached. All disagreements were discussed until 100 percent agreement was reached. Our results were CR = 0.938; and k = 0.917, which were regarded as indication of excellent agreement beyond chance for values above 0.75 (sometimes 0.80 is used) (Krippendorff, 1980; Neuendorf, 2002).
Results The detailed analysis of the transcripts revealed that students dominated the discussion, not the teacher or facilitator, a finding that indicated that this
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Case Knowledge Construction asynchronous discussion forum was student-centered in nature. This was in line with Hara et al. (2008) where the facilitator was purposefully creating a learning environment wherein students were in charge of their own learning and scaffolding one another understanding of scientific knowledge. The facilitator postings, within these two weeks, were mostly surface level recognition and feedback to students with the intention to encourage their collaborative effort in this asynchronous discussion forum. As a result, the facilitator avoided dictating the direction of the discussion forum and encouraged student-centered learning. Analysis using Knowledge Construction – Message Map (KCMM) This case study delved into detailed analysis of 3 teams selected from secondary 2 (grade 8) classes, with a total of 12 students. Every student‟s message was numbered individually, labeled chronologically with alphabets. We will follow the approach undertaken by Wever, Keer, Schellens and Valcke (2006) where each meaningful contribution to a discussion forum reflected a specific cognitive level of scientific conceptual knowledge. Each message received one code, indicating the degree of collaborative knowledge construction or mis-construction. When a posting comprised elements of two or more different levels of knowledge construction, it was broken down into several messages where each message was coded individually. Student whose message displayed understanding of Level 1 scientific concept would be labeled with a lozenge and be marked between the demarcation line for Level 1 and Level 2. A solid arrow would be shown extending from the “question” lozenge to the “meaningful post” lozenge. Student whose post displayed knowledge misconstruction would be labeled and be marked below the demarcation line for “question”. A dotted arrow will be shown extending from the “question” lozenge to the “misconception” lozenge.
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Case Knowledge Construction We would be using the data for Group 1 for the detailed explanation for the data analysis. Group 1 consisted of 4 students with 15 meaningful messages and 4 questions. Referring to Appendix A, the decisions of Rater 1 and 2 were shown on column 2 and 3 from the left. Most of their decisions on coding of the messages were unanimous, except messages number 8 and 9. These messages, with conflicting decisions, by the raters were discussed extensively till an agreement was reached. The resultant agreement of the coding by Raters 1 and 2 were shown in bold and underlined. Message tags (i.e. Q-M, 1A, 1B, 2A, etc) were assigned only to meaningful messages and were displayed on the fourth column from the left of the transcript. These message tags were next over-laid on the KCMM (as shown on Appendix B – KCMM), indicating the levels of scientific knowledge attained as well as the number of scientific knowledge mis-construction in this discussion. The last column on the right is the unedited transcript written by the students in the group. If the posting made by the students consisted of more than one level of scientific understanding or scientific misconception, they were separated into different messages for subsequent coding. This section will attempt to explain the visual representation of the KCMM (Appendix B, E and H) with respect to Group 1 for addressing research question 1, which can be referred from Appendix B – KCMM. There were a total of 4 questions generated by the teacher as well as the participants. There were a total of 4 participants for Group 1. The student who made the first posting was numbered ”1” in the lozenge, followed by an alphabet “A” in chronological order. His subsequent messages were labeled as “1” followed by the next alphabet “B”, and so on. The student who posted the next message chronologically was numbered “2” in the lozenge with the same rules being applied for labeling of the alphabet for his other
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Case Knowledge Construction posted messages. It was observed from Group 1 KCMM that student 1 first three messages (1A, 1B and 1C) were all coded as misconceptions as he was unable to explain the scientific concepts underlying the physics experiment correctly. On the contrary, student 3 made steady progress in posting messages that exhibited increasing scientific understanding (from Level 1 to Level 3) for the Physics experiment shown on the video clip. It can be observed that solid arrows represented students‟ messages, which exhibited increasing understanding of physical phenomenon from one message to the next. However, dotted arrows represented students‟ messages, which exhibited knowledge mis-construction or mis-conception, from one message to another. Analysis using Knowledge Construction – Message Graph (KCMG) This section will discuss the process of transferring the data from the KCMM to the KCMG. Referring to Appendix B – Group 1 KCMM, student 1 posted 3 messages while student 2, 3 and 4 posted 4 messages each. These are represented in Appendix C – Group 1 KCMG where each student is represented by different types of line. The horizontal axis represents the number of messages posted and every member starts from zero in order to represent the changes from zero knowledge. The vertical axis (above origin) represents increasing level of conceptual knowledge attained while the vertical axis (below origin) represents knowledge mis-construction or misconceptions. An example will be illustrated using Appendix C. Student 2 started his message with a misconception and as a result, his line moved towards the negative 1 point. His second message was another misconception and therefore, his next point would be negative 2. As his third message was still a recurrent misconception, his next point still remained at negative 2. For student 3, his first 3 messages were correctly constructed knowledge from level 1 to 3. Therefore, his line extended from 0 to Level
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Case Knowledge Construction 3 (L3) for his first 3 messages. His fourth message was still at L3 and therefore, his line stayed horizontally till the fourth message mark on the horizontal axis. The number of messages for every student always starts from zero for the KCMG to represent the changes from nil conceptual knowledge to either knowledge construction or mis-construction. It has to be noted that due to limitation of the software, only one student‟s line could be shown if more than one student are represented on the same path. In all cases, the reader is able to confirm the number of messages posted from the KCMM. Comparison of Inter-groups Knowledge Construction / Mis-construction In order to answer the first research question and facilitate the ease of differentiation for characteristics between groups, which exhibited more evidence of knowledge construction than knowledge mis-construction and vice versa. The number of solid and dotted arrows was counted. Table 1 below reported the number of times knowledge construction as well as mis-construction took place in the electronic transcripts of the asynchronous discussion forum. Group
Solid Arrow
Dotted Arrow
Knowledge
Knowledge
Heterogeneity
(representing
(representing
Construction
Mis-
of
knowledge
knowledge
From
construction
Participation
construction)
mis-
Questioning
from
construction)
Questioning
1
7
8
2
6
0.50
4
14
4
6
4
1.29
7
1
10
1
7
0.50
Table 1. inter-groups knowledge construction / mis-construction comparison
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Case Knowledge Construction Heterogeneity of participation is a measure of the standard deviation of the number of messages posted by members in a group (Cooke, 2000). The steps are as follows:
1) Record the number of messages posted for every member of the group, from the Knowledge Construction / Mis-construction Graph. 2) Find the mean for the number of messages posted. 3) Calculate the deviation scores. 4) Square the deviation score for each member. 5) Total the squared deviation scores from every member. 6) Calculate the variance by dividing the total by the number of members in the group less one. 7) Calculate the standard deviation (heterogeneity of participation) by performing square root on the variance. An example is illustrated for Group 1. 1) The number of messages posted is 4,4,3 and 4 for student 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. 2) Mean = (4+4+3+4) / 4 = 3.75 3) The first deviation score is calculated by 4 – 3.75 = 0.25. Thus, the deviation scores are 0.25, 0.25, 0.75 and 0.25. 4) The squared deviation scores are 0.0625, 0.0625, 0.5625 and 0.0625. 5) The total of the squared deviation score is 0.75. 6) Variance = 0.75 / (4 -1) = 0.25. 7) Standard deviation (heterogeneity of participation) = 0.25 = 0.5.
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Case Knowledge Construction Most groups with higher heterogeneity of participation rate exhibited more signs of knowledge construction, while most groups with lower heterogeneity of participation rate exhibited more signs of knowledge mis-construction. The final level of every student could be found from the Appendices C, F and I - KCMG. The group with higher incidences of knowledge construction reported higher magnitude for Heterogeneity of Participation. In other words, the participation rate among members was less homogeneous as one or two students were dominating the discussion and posted more messages compared to the others. On the contrary, the groups with higher incidences of knowledge mis-construction reported lower magnitude for Heterogeneity of Participation. In other words, the participation rate among members was more homogeneous as there were no students dominating the discussion and members posted a similar number of messages in the discussion forum. From the KCMG found in the Appendix C, F and I for the various groups, it was easily observed that the various members in the group did not move in unison in terms of their understanding of scientific concepts as they posted their messages. They seemed to be reluctant in giving up their misconceptions as the discussion forum progressed. Students who mis-constructed their scientific knowledge continued to do so even when other members of the groups were able to explain and share the physical phenomenon correctly. A good example will be the KCMG of Group 1 found in Appendix C. Although Student 3 was increasing his understanding of scientific concepts as the discussion progressed, student 1 and 2 refused to change their wrong concepts of scientific understanding and continued in their knowledge misconstruction. This particular group case study demonstrated the wide chasm of scientific knowledge attained by the members even though it was desirable that these students were scaffolding one another‟s learning.
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Case Knowledge Construction Analysis of changes from KCMG This section will attempt to answer the second research question by quantifying the frequency of students changing their understanding as they proceeded from knowledge construction to knowledge mis-construction or vice-versa. An example will be illustrated using Appendix C. Student 1 and 2 started their posted messages with misconceptions and continued to mis-construct knowledge‟s till the end of their messages. As a result, their initial knowledge stage, as reflected in Table 2, shows “Mis-construction”. Their next two columns indicate zero, as there is no cognitive shift between knowledge mis-construction and knowledge construction. Student 3 started his posted message with knowledge construction and continued to construct knowledge‟s till the end of his message. As a result, his initial knowledge stage, as reflected in Table 2, shows “Construction”. His next two columns indicate zero, as there is no cognitive shift between knowledge construction and knowledge misconstruction. Student 4 started his posted message with knowledge construction. As a result, his initial knowledge stage, as reflected in Table 2, shows “Construction”. However, his second message was mis-constructed and there was a cognitive shift from knowledge construction to knowledge mis-construction and his line moves below the origin line. His third message showed evidence of knowledge construction and there was a cognitive shift from knowledge mis-construction to knowledge construction. This is represented by a move above the origin line. He increased his understanding of conceptual knowledge for his fourth message. Table 2 captures this shift in cognition by indicating 1 for each of the column for knowledge construction to mis-construction and knowledge mis-construction to construction. From the KCMG (Appendix C, F, I), some group participants were steadfast in retaining their personal knowledge and were not swayed by the opinions of their
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Case Knowledge Construction peers. This would be a positive characteristic if the personal knowledge they possessed were aligned with correct scientific concepts. However, this would be a negative trait if the personal knowledge were peppered with scientific misconceptions and was made worst if they tried to sway the opinions of the team members who were positively constructing scientific knowledge. On the other hand, there were some group participants who frequently changed their scientific cognition as they shifted between the process of knowledge construction and mis-construction. This would be a positive characteristic if they ultimately aligned their understanding with correct scientific concepts by shifting from knowledge mis-construction to knowledge construction. However, this would be a negative trait if their final scientific concepts were full of misconceptions as they cognitively shifted from knowledge construction to knowledge mis-construction. Table 2 to Table 4 attempt to quantify the nature of participant‟s cognitive shift between knowledge construction and knowledge misconstruction. Group 1 Student
Initial Knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge Mis-
Stage
Construction to
construction to
Mis-construction
Construction
1
Mis-construction
0
0
2
Mis-construction
0
0
3
Construction
0
0
4
Construction
1
1
1
1
Total
Table 2: group 1 changes to knowledge construction / mis-construction
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Case Knowledge Construction
Group 4 Student
Initial Knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge Mis-
Stage
Construction to
construction to
Mis-construction
Construction
14
Construction
2
1
15
Construction
1
1
16
Construction
1
0
17
Construction
0
0
4
2
Total
Table 3: group 4 changes to knowledge construction / mis-construction Group 7 Student
Initial Knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge Mis-
Stage
Construction to
construction to
Mis-construction
Construction
27
Mis-construction
0
0
28
Mis-construction
0
0
29
Mis-construction
0
0
30
Mis-construction
0
1
0
1
Total
Table 4: group 7 changes to knowledge construction / mis-construction
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From the above tables, the total number of shifts in cognition for scientific understanding between knowledge construction and knowledge mis-construction were equal for most groups. Even for those groups, which possessed different total for the knowledge construction and mis-construction, the difference for their total was never more than 2. This could lead us to conclude that within the group, the shift in cognitive understanding of scientific concept seemed to be equal among the process of knowledge construction as well as knowledge misconstruction. The total number of cognitive shift among each group was also not very high (less than or equal to 4) and this indicated that most participants seemed to believe that they possessed the correct scientific concepts and not swayed by the opinion of their peers in the group. As explained before, this was debatable as the scientific concepts they possessed might be constructed or mis-constructed in the initial part of this asynchronous discussion forum. The tables listed on the earlier pages could also infer the final knowledge stage of each participant. If the initial knowledge stage indicated “Construction”, the participant would have finally constructed scientific knowledge if the total number for the last two column (“Knowledge Construction to Mis-construction” and “Knowledge Mis-construction to Construction”) were either 0 or an even number. If the initial knowledge stage indicated “Mis-construction”, the participant would have finally constructed scientific knowledge if the total number for the last two column (“Knowledge Construction to Mis-construction” and “Knowledge Mis-construction to Construction”) were an odd number.
Misconceptions postings by students The table below shows the various misconceptions that were posted by the various
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Case Knowledge Construction group members as they mis-constructed their knowledge in this asynchronous discussion forum. Thus, the content analysis of an asynchronous discussion forum about scientific phenomena could easily elicit the scientific misconceptions possessed by the participants of the discussion forum. To address the third research question, these misconceptions could be analyzed and appropriate steps could be taken to find out the reasons behind these scientific knowledge that were mis-constructed by the students. Were these misconceptions due to mis-alignment between everyday experience / observation and correct scientific thinking? As Pena-Schaff and Nicholls (2004) had stated, the process of articulating our thoughts, sharing ideas and perspectives with others, as well as arguing and defending our own perceptions engaged us in a process of meaning making. This process, as some constructivists maintained, was even stronger when we were required to communicate our ideas in writing. Therefore, these misconceptions listed in Table 5 were truly what the students had entrenched in their mind with regards to scientific concepts, which were eventually mis-constructed. Therefore, content analysis of asynchronous discussion forum was advantageous as compared to analysis of video or audio recording for analyzing scientific misconceptions possessed by the students.
Misconception
Trapped air rushed out from inverted flask when it was
Occurrence by
Occurrence by
Group
Student’s Posting
2
6
2
6
tilted. Vacuum / low air pressure in inverted flask sucked up the water.
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Case Knowledge Construction The high temperature of the air inside the flask caused
1
1
1
3
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
its volume to decrease and water rushed in to fill the spaces. The air pressure inside inverted flask was greater than atmospheric pressure. The air trapped in inverted flask maintained a constant pressure. Air pressure inside inverted flask changed with atmospheric pressure. Hot air in the flask exerted a force and “pulled” up the water level in the flask. The inverted flask expanded after heated and there was space for the water to rise.
Table 5. Quotation of misconceptions by team and student’s posting 5. Conclusion This research shows that content analysis of asynchronous discussion forum is both possible and feasible through the focus on both quantitative and qualitative data, with various ways to examine and evaluate the interaction of participants as they construct scientific knowledge. Using our customized innovative analysis tools, we were able to successfully analyze students‟ electronic transcripts and to verify characteristics of an asynchronous discussion forum that was previewed in our literature review. We concluded our analysis methodology and resulting flow diagrams, successful for visualizing data and for aiding understanding in scientific knowledge construction. This process met our goals to develop a useable and
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Case Knowledge Construction replicable instrument for content analysis of asynchronous discussion forum. The findings revealed that students engaged in a social process of either knowledge construction or mis-construction, though even not dialogical, were partially built on ideas posed by other participants. Students dominated the discussion, not the teacher or facilitator. And this was an indication that the asynchronous discussion forum offered at the secondary school levels, was student-centered. Independent learning approaches adopted by the students have to be monitored as many students refused to shake off their scientific misconceptions and continually embarked on knowledge mis-constructions even when the other group members are trying hard to correctly scaffold their learning. This is in contrast to published articles on asynchronous discussion forum, which reported mostly positive aspects from the outcomes of their research studies. Many of these articles sought to provide evidences of participant‟s increased conceptual understanding, higher order thinking‟s and other parameters that measured cognitive understanding through number of postings made, number of threads generated in the discussion, etc. Most of these articles overlooked the fact that the only way to prove evidences of increased conceptual understanding and other cognitive parameters is through a contextualized case study that involved poring through student‟s original transcripts and revealing their levels of conceptual understanding attained. It is a dangerous notion for educators to assume that students will naturally attained the correct scientific conceptual understanding once they participated in discussion forum or other forms of CSCL activities without close monitoring by facilitators. As this study had revealed, students with the wrong scientific conceptual understandings were unwilling to give up their views and this was made worst when they propagated and influenced their wrong scientific ideas onto their group members. Thus, educators should be mindful of reviewing the
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Case Knowledge Construction summary of the findings by the students through raising the awareness of the misconceptions written by the students, and delivering the correct scientific understanding. The results described in the earlier sections must be viewed in the context in which they were obtained because the study was not designed to produce results that could be generalized to other courses. Transferability, rather than generalizability, is the issue in qualitative-interpretive research (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). In order to assist the reader in determining the extent to which the results of this study are transferable to other contexts, the research purpose, the students, the course, the research design, and the findings were described in detail and no attempts were made to edit the students‟ electronic transcripts. It may be possible to make tentative and limited generalizations if the online asynchronous discussion forum contexts resemble the one in this study in terms of course design, facilitator‟s role, students‟ characteristics, and course content. This current study reflects a number of limitations. First, the study had been conducted in a particular setting with secondary 2 (grade 8) male students, studying a specific lower secondary science topic. Future research should try to replicate the findings involving other student populations (i.e. in a mixed or girl‟s school as this current study took place in a boy‟s school), and set up in alternative instructional settings or knowledge domains. There exists a need for replication studies that focus on the validation of the content analysis instrument used in the present study. A new and innovative content analysis instrument was developed for this study, based on mapping of the students‟ messages onto a knowledge construction map. To the best of our research findings, no alternative analysis scheme is currently available to study knowledge construction / mis-construction in an asynchronous discussion forum. The complex nature of knowledge construction in
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Case Knowledge Construction asynchronous discussion forum is still being uncovered by researchers. However, even though research papers are slowly filling in the enormous gaps that persists in our knowledge. The exact mechanism of how students scaffold their learning and how interaction patterns can help educators further understand knowledge construction are far from being fully elucidated. Lastly, the dynamic nature of using computer networking tool in independent learning and in the quest to predict and uncover individual and group cognitive ability in asynchronous discussion forum are the subject of innumerable debates, which testifies to the vitality of this area of research.
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Case Knowledge Construction schemes to analyze transcripts of online asynchronous discussion groups: A review. Computers & Education, 46(1), 6–28. De Wever, B., Van Keer, H., Schellens, T., & Valcke, M. (2007). Applying multilevel modeling to content analysis data: Methodological issues in the study of role assignment in asynchronous discussion groups. Learning and Instruction, 17(2007), 436-447. Fahy, P.J. (2002). Assessing critical thinking processes in a computer conference. Center for Distance Education. [Verified 12 Feb. 2009]. http://auspace.athabascau.ca:8080/dspace/handle/2149/1220. Frey, B.A., Sass, M.S., & Arman, S.W. (2006). Mapping MLIS asynchronous discussions.International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 3(1), ISSN 1550–6908. Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth generation evaluation. CA: Sage Publications. Gunawardena, C. N., Lowe, C. A., & Anderson, T. (1997). Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17, 397–431. Hara, N., Bonk, C.J., & Angeli, C. (2008). Content analysis of online discussion in an applied educational psychology. Center for Research on Learning and Technology, 28(2), 115–152. Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2003a). Analyzing collaborative knowledge construction: Multiple methods for integrated understanding. Computers & Education (2003), 41(2003), 397-420. Hmelo-Silver, C.E. (2003b). Facilitating collaborative knowledge construction. Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences
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Case Knowledge Construction Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Pena-Schaff, J.B., & Nicholls, C. (2004). Analyzing student interactions and meaning constructions in computer bulletin board discussions. Computers & Education, 42(2004), 243-265 Ponnusawmy, H., & Santally, M.I. (2008). Promoting (quality) participation in online forums: A study of the use of forums in two online modules at the University of Mauritius. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 5(4). ISSN 1550–6908. Riffe, D., Lacy, S., and Fico, F. (1998). Analyzing media messages: Using quantitative content analysis in research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Methodological issues in the content analysis of computer conference transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 12, 8–22. Schellens, T. & Valcke, M. (2006). Fostering knowledge construction in university students through asynchronous discussion groups. Computers & Education, 46(2006), 349–370. Schrire, S. (2005). Knowledge-building in asynchronous discussion groups: going beyond quantitative analysis. Computers & Education, 46(1), 49–70. Smet, M.D., Keer, H.V., & Valcke, M. (2008). Blending asynchronous discussion groups and peer tutoring in higher education: An exploratory study of online peer tutoring behaviour. Computers & Education, 50(2008), 207-223. Stein, D.S., Wanstreet, C.E., Engle, C.L., Glazer, H.R., Harns, R.A., Johnston, S.M., Simons, M.R., & Trinko, L.A. (2006). From personal meaning to shared
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Case Knowledge Construction Appendix A – Group 1 Original Transcript No.
1
Rater
Rater
Message
1
2
Tag
Q
Q
Q-M
Message
Please follow these instructions for this discussion forum: 1) Please visit your class "Physics Resource Folder" and download the digital video " Physics experiment video for discussion forum" to view a video of the physics experiment. 2) The questions to be answered through the discussion forum, after viewing the video “2009_physics_video.wmv”, are: (a) Why did the water level inside the heated flask rise when it was inverted over the container of water, as shown in the video, at time 0 min: 30 sec. (b) What can you conclude from the explosion inside the heated flask, at time 1 min: 30 sec of the video? 3) Every member in the team are expected to contribute to the discussion through searching and presenting their findings in the discussion forum. Questioning is an important component of this forum and marks will be allocated individually based on the rubrics given. Please be informed that you are accountable for what you have posted in the discussion forum. If you just cut and paste, and you are unable to explain when prompted by the teacher, you will lose marks. Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 24/02/2009 12:04 PM
2
M
M
1A
Referring to the question about why there was a sudden
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Case Knowledge Construction "explosion", when the flask was tilted, air rushed out, causing the "farting" sound. When the air rushed out, it left a vacuum, thus explaining the violent rush of water into the flask. However immediately afterwards, the flask was tilted to it's original position, sealing the vacuum, thus explaining the delay. Immediately after the first rush of air, the flask was quickly tilted back once more to cover the tip, still leaving vacuum, causing the second "explosion". However, as there was less vacuum, the "explosion" was smaller as a result. Posted By STUDENT 1, on 24/03/2009 11:42 AM 3
Q
Q
To: STUDENT 1, you mentioned that the air rushed out. Is it moving from outside to inside of the flask or vice verse? Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 24/03/2009 10:00 PM
4
M
M
2A
Referring to the question about the explosions in the round bottom flask, when the round bottom flask is heated, the air inside the flask is heated and rises to the top of the flask. Thus, creating a strong vacuum which acts as a suction to suck up the water in the trough slowly.
5
M
M
2B
However, once the cold water is poured onto the flask the heated air instantly cools down and is trying to escape the flask. Thus, when the round bottom flask is lifted slightly, the cooled air gushed out of the flask against the water, producing the "farting" sound. Posted By STUDENT 2 on 25/03/2009 10:26 AM
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Case Knowledge Construction 6
L1
L1
3A
In my opinion, i think that the when the round bottom flask was heated, the air particles in the round bottom flask expanded to a high point. when the heating stopped and the flask was inverted and put in to room temperature water, the air inside the flask started to contract, causing the air inside the flask to be compressed.
7
L2
L2
3B
This action causes a lower pressure inside the round bottom flask, compared to the higher pressure in the room, thus creating a partial vacuum so that the surrounding air would respond to this decrease in pressure to even out the higher pressure outside.
8
L3O1
M
3C
This vacuum effect causes a suction which will suck up the dyed water. when cold water is poured over the round bottom flask, the process of contraction is even faster, hence the dyed water gets sucked up faster. Until a certain point when the pressure was not high enough to counter the gravitational pull, the water stops rising.
9
L3O1
L302
3D
The mini explosion happened when there was a sudden release of pressure due to the tilting of the round bottom flask, which makes the water in the container gush up the trough of the flask at a high speed, also causing a loud sound. Posted By STUDENT 3 on 25/03/2009 2:14 PM
10
M
M
1B
Air rushed out of the flask, since the flask had transferred the heat to the air, it had expanded, and rushed out of the flask at the moment it was tilted
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Case Knowledge Construction Posted By STUDENT 1 on 25/03/2009 7:41 PM 11
L2
L2
4A
For question a), the water level inside the flask rose because of unequal pressures between the flask and the water.
12
M
M
4B
As mentioned in the beginning, the flask contained hot water, and this made the flask hot. Even when the hot water was poured out, the air that filled in became hot also because the heat from the flask was transferred to the air inside. Hot air has low pressure. That was why the water was able to rise up or push up the air or increase its volume in the flask because the air inside the flask has lesser pressure than the water and even the air pressure outside the flask. This can also be explained using the universal gas laws. The temperature of air is inversely proportional to its volume. Since air inside the flask has a high temperature, its volume lessened, and the water filled up the spaces.
13
L2
L2
4C
For question b), When the flask was tilted, air outside the flask was able enter and the unequal pressures has made it rush in at a high speed, just like a wind current, when there are sudden changes in air pressures.
14
L3O2
L3O2
4D
The explosion inside the flask was caused by the sudden rush of air inside the flask Posted By STUDENT 4 on 27/03/2009 4:02 PM
15
Q
Q
Hi, Greetings from Singapore. You mentioned that "Since air inside the flask has a high
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Case Knowledge Construction temperature, its volume lessened", I understand that if air has a higher temperature, its volume should increase and not decrease. Could you help us by explaining your statement. Thanks. Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 28/03/2009 10:09 PM 16
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Directed to STUDENT 3, Referring to your theory, may i ask why the compression of the air in the flask cause a lower pressure inside the round bottom flask, compared to the higher pressure in the room, thus creating a partial vacuum? Posted By STUDENT 2 on 02/04/2009 9:26 AM
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Directed to STUDENT 3 Referring to the following sentence, "This vacuum effect causes a suction which will suck up the dyed water. when cold water is poured over the round bottom flask, the process of contraction is even faster" It is shown very clearly in the video that there was no cup of water after the vacuum was formed, so I feel that your theory is misinformed and rather crude.
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Here is my question: I quote, "In my opinion, i think that the when the round bottom flask was heated, the air particles in the round bottom flask expanded to a high point. when the heating stopped and the flask was inverted and put in to room temperature water, the air inside the flask started to contract, causing the air inside the flask to be
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Case Knowledge Construction compressed." How is it that the air particles contracted so quickly? Posted By STUDENT 1 on 02/04/2009 9:29 AM 19
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Directed to STUDENT 2, refering to your theory, You mentioned that the cold air sinking and hot air rising causes the "farting" sound. Are You certain that the amount of force produced by the sinking action of the cold air is able to overcome the pressure of the water surrounding the flask in the container? Posted By STUDENT 3 on 02/04/2009 9:36 AM
20
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Directed to STUDENT 1, referring to your theory, " However, as there was less vacuum, the "explosion" was smaller as a result. " My question is why is there a lesser vacuum? Posted By STUDENT 2 on 02/04/2009 9:37 AM
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In response to STUDENT 2 about his question Vacuum is a sucking force, and thus would suck anything it could until it was stopped or filled. Because the vacuum had already filled some of the space in the first "explosion", there was thus less vacuum.
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Here is my question directed at STUDENT 2 You mentioned that when the hot air went up, it left a vacuum. How is this possible when the flask is filled with air? A vacuum
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Case Knowledge Construction implies that there is nothing there, and yet the flask was filled with air. Please explain this Posted By STUDENT 1 on 02/04/2009 9:40 AM 23
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Replying to STUDENT 3's question, I did not mention that the cold air sinking and hot air rising causes the "farting" sound. I only mentioned that the cold air, "sinking' resisting the pressure of the water and overcoming it, causing the "farting sound". The amount of pressure created by the cold air is ambiguous but i think that some of the air might be able to escape thus, causing the "farting sound". Posted By STUDENT 2 on 02/04/2009 9:52 AM
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Replaying to STUDENT 1 question, I am sorry if i did not make my theory that clear. I actually meant it created a "vacuum" that sucks up the water. I did not meant that it is truly a vacuum. Posted By STUDENT 2 on 02/04/2009 10:00 AM
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Case Knowledge Construction GROUP 1
Appendix B – Group 1 KCMM
Observation 1: Water level inside flask rises
Observation 2: Air rushes into the flask (explosion) when flask is tilted
3D
3C
4D
Level 3: Atmospheric pressure pushes on water surface outside flask
3B
4C
4A
Level 2: Air pressure inside flask is lower than atmospheric pressure
3A Level 1: Water vapour inside inverted flask cools and condenses or air inside inverted flask cools and contracts Q 1
2C
1A
QM
Q 2
2A
Q 3
2D
4B
1C
1B
2B
Misconception: Trapped air rushed out from inverted flask when it was tilted.
Misconception: Vacuum / low air pressure in inverted flask sucked up the water.
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Misconception: The high temperature of the air inside the flask caused its volume to decrease and water rushed in to fill the spaces.
Case Knowledge Construction
Appendix C – Group 1 KCMG
GROUP 1
No. of Messages
Legend: Student 1
Student 3
Student 2
Student 4
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Case Knowledge Construction
Appendix D – Group 4 Original Transcript No
Rater
Rater
Message
.
1
2
Tag
1
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Message
Please follow these instructions for this discussion forum: 1) Please visit your class "Physics Resource Folder" and download the digital video " Physics experiment video for discussion forum" to view a video of the physics experiment. 2) The questions to be answered through the discussion forum, after viewing the video “2009_physics_video.wmv”, are: (a) Why did the water level inside the heated flask rise when it was inverted over the container of water, as shown in the video, at time 0 min: 30 sec. (b) What can you conclude from the explosion inside the heated flask, at time 1 min: 30 sec of the video? 3) Every member in the team are expected to contribute to the discussion through searching and presenting their findings in the discussion forum. Questioning is an important component of this forum and marks will be allocated individually based on the rubrics given. Please be informed that you are accountable for what you have posted in the discussion forum. If you just cut and paste, and you are unable to explain when prompted by the teacher, you will lose marks.
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Case Knowledge Construction Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 24/02/2009 12:56 PM 2
L1
L1
14A
2a)First, the flask is heated and it significantly increases the temperature of the air in the glass. After it has been heated, it was placed inverted in the trough of water and due to the rapid decrease in temperature slows the movement of the molecules that make up the air inside the glass,
3
L2
L2
14B
creating lower pressure.
4
L3O1
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14C
The air pressure or also known as atmospheric pressure outside of the glass remains the same. This creates an air pressure of greater outside air pressure, which results in the water rising in the round bottom flask. Additionally, it goes from a higher temperature to a lower temperature thus causing water vapor in the air to condense, which produces lower air pressure in the glass. Thus both result in rising water in the glass.
5
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14D
2b) The explosion is due to as air that has been cooled rapidly under a constant pressure does so according to Charles's law, a specific version of the ideal gas law that holds the quantity of gas and the pressure constant. Thus causing an explosion in the round bottom flask Posted By STUDENT 14 on 30/03/2009 6:55 AM
6
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L1
15A
2a) This is due to a combination of factors: First, the heating up the glass significantly increases the
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Case Knowledge Construction temperature of the air in the glass.
When the glass is taken away from the flame, the rapid decrease in temperature slows the movement of the molecules that make up the air inside the glass, creating lower pressure. 7
L2
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15B
In addition, going from a higher temperature to a lower temperature causes water vapor in the air to condense, which also produces lower air pressure in the glass.
8
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15C
The air pressure inside of the glass dropped. This creates an air pressure differential of greater outside air pressure, which results in the water rising in the glass.
9
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2b) Air that cools rapidly under a constant pressure does so according to Charles's law, a specific version of the ideal gas law that holds the quantity of gas and the pressure constant. Charles's law holds that the ratio of Volume to Temperature is constant. Source: Wikipedia Posted By STUDENT 15 on 30/03/2009 8:46 AM
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What is Charles Law Posted By STUDENT 14 on 30/03/2009 10:02 AM
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2A, STUDENT 14 wrote: What is Charles Law
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Case Knowledge Construction
In thermodynamics and physical chemistry, Charles's law is a gas law and specific instance of the ideal gas law, which states that: At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas increases or decreases by the same factor as its temperature (in Kelvin) increases or decreases. Source: Wikipedia Posted By STUDENT 15 on 30/03/2009 10:03 AM 12
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2A, STUDENT 14 wrote: Air that cools rapidly under a constant pressure does so according to Charles's law... What is the formula of the law? Posted By STUDENT 15 on 30/03/2009 10:06 AM
13
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2A, STUDENT 14 wrote: Air that cools rapidly under a constant pressure does so according to Charles's law... Dear matthew this is my reply What is the formula of the law? The formula for the law is: V/T = k where: V is the volume of the gas. T is the temperature of the gas (measured in Kelvin). k is a constant.
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source:wikipedia
Case Knowledge Construction Posted By STUDENT 14 on 30/03/2009 10:08 AM 14
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Hi STUDENT 14,
The explosion happens after I have tilted the flask. Please explain. Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 30/03/2009 9:42 PM 15
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Dear Mr Chia, The explosion happened after the flask was tilted was due to the sudden change of pressure thus causing the explosion as the pressure was different as the pressure formed inside the round bottom flask changed drastically with the atmospheric pressure Posted By STUDENT 14 on 02/04/2009 9:26 AM
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Dear Mr Chia,
a) The flask is heated and it increases the temperature of the air in the flask. After it has been heated, it was placed inverted in the water and due to the rapid decrease in temperature slows the movement of the molecules 17
L2
L2
16B
thus they are not as active as usual , creating lower pressure. The air pressure outside of the glass remains the same. This creates an air pressure of greater outside air pressure,
18
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16C
which results in the water rising in the round bottom flask. Additionally, it goes from a higher temperature to a lower temperature causing water vapor in the air to condense, which
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Case Knowledge Construction produces lower air pressure in the glass. Thus both result in rising water in the glass. 19
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b)The explosion occurred as air that has been cooled rapidly under a constant pressure , a specific version of the ideal gas law that holds the quantity of gas and the pressure constant. Thus causing an explosion in the round bottom flask Posted By STUDENT 16 on 02/04/2009 9:35 AM
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When the flask is heated, the air inside the flask temperature increases and expand. The flask will cool when removed from the heating area and it contract and the temperature decreases.
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The air pressure in the flask will be lower than the air pressure outside the flask.
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The great difference between the air pressure inside and outside the flask causes the water to rush into the flask as it cools from the container. As the flask cools slowly, the water will rise in the flask more slowly.When the flask is tilted, the sudden change in air pressure in the flask causes the explosion. Posted By STUDENT 17 on 05/04/2009 4:32 PM
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To STUDENT 14: 'Charles's law holds that the ratio of Volume to Temperature is constant.' Does the ratio of volume means the volume of the gas? Posted By STUDENT 17 on 05/04/2009 4:47 PM
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To STUDENT 14:
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Case Knowledge Construction So the Charles' law have two functions? 1.holds the quantity of gas and the pressure constant? 2.holds that the ratio of Volume to Temperature is constant? Posted By STUDENT 17 on 05/04/2009 4:56 PM
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Case Knowledge Construction GROUP 4
Appendix E – Group 4 KCMM
Observation 1: Water level inside flask rises
Observation 2: Air rushes into the flask (explosion) when flask is tilted
17C
16C
14C
15C
Level 3: Atmospheric pressure pushes on water surface outside flask
14B
15B
14A
15A
16B
17B
Level 2: Air pressure inside flask is lower than atmospheric pressure
14E
16A
17A
15E
Level 1: Water vapour inside inverted flask cools and condenses or air inside inverted flask cools and contracts Q-M Q1 8
16D
14D
Q1 9
14F
15D
Misconception: The air trapped in inverted flask maintained a constant pressure.
Misconception: Air pressure inside inverted flask changed with atmospheric pressure.
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Q17
Case Knowledge Construction
Appendix F – Group 4 KCMG
GROUP 4
No. of Messages
Legend: Student 14
Student 16
Student 15
Student 17
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Case Knowledge Construction
Appendix G – Group 7 Original Transcript No
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Message
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1
2
Tag
1
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Q-M
Message
Please follow these instructions for this discussion forum: 1) Please visit your class "Physics Resource Folder" and download the digital video " Physics experiment video for discussion forum" to view a video of the physics experiment. 2) The questions to be answered through the discussion forum, after viewing the video “2009_physics_video.wmv”, are: (a)
Why did the water level inside the heated flask rise when
it was inverted over the container of water, as shown in the video, at time 0 min: 30 sec. (b) What can you conclude from the explosion inside the heated flask, at time 1 min: 30 sec of the video? 3) Every member in the team are expected to contribute to the discussion through searching and presenting their findings in the discussion forum. Questioning is an important component of this forum and marks will be allocated individually based on the rubrics given. Please be informed that you are accountable for what you have posted in the discussion forum. If you just cut and paste, and you are unable to explain when prompted by the teacher, you will lose marks.
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Case Knowledge Construction Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 24/02/2009 1:20 PM 2
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27A
(a)
Why did the water level inside the heated flask rise when
it was inverted over the container of water, as shown in the video, at time 0 min: 30 sec. a) Since the flask was heated before the experiment, the air inside the flask is hot. Hot air rises. When it is inverted over the container of water, the water level rises. The hot air which rises in the flask will then “suck” the water up the flask, 3
M
M
27B
because the pressure of air inside the flask is higher than the surrounding air. Thus, the water level inside the heated flask rises when it was inverted over the container of water. (b)
What can you conclude from the explosion inside the
heated flask, at time 1 min: 30 sec of the video? b) When the hot air inside the flask mixes with the surrounding air, the surrounding air will gush into the flask as the pressure of air is higher in the flask than the surrounding air. As water occupies space (in the flask), the air that gushes into the flask will cause the water to explode (2-3 seconds) in the flask. And the air pressure inside the flask will return to normal. 4
Q
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My Questions: 1. What is the approximate temperature of the water at the start of the experiment?
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2. What is the mixture of water in the container that made the water purple?
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Case Knowledge Construction 6
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3. Why did Mr Chia make the mixture of the water purple in colour? To: STUDENT 30
7
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Q24
4. Why did Mr Chia pour cold tap water over the flask? To: STUDENT 30
8
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5. Will the rise of water in the flask slow down when cold tap water is poured over the flask? To: STUDENT 29
9
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6. How long (approximately) did it take for the water to rise up to the top of the neck of the flask? To: STUDENT 29
10
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7. How to increase the speed of the rising of the water? (Put cold of hot water in the container of water) To: Guo Ze Chuan PS Thanks Mr Chia for correcting my mistake. (EDITED POST) Posted By STUDENT 27 on 25/03/2009 1:41 PM
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To STUDENT 27,
Q
The heated flask is already cooling down when inverted over the container. For the water level to rise, something must be pushing on the water surface. Look at the video again during the explosion, the air is moving into the flask, not out of the flask. Please review your answer and post more questions. Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 25/03/2009 3:15 PM 12
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(a)
Why did the water level inside the heated flask rise when
it was inverted over the container of water, as shown in the video, at time 0 min: 30 sec.
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Case Knowledge Construction Answer: The water level rises when it was inverted over the the container of water is because as mentioned in the video, the flask is hot and since it is hot, the air inside the flask is also hot. When it is inverted over the container of water, the hot air that is in the flask will pull the water up the flask as the hot air exert force. So, as the hot air pulls the water up, the water level will therefore rise inside the heated flask. ( (EDITED) Posted By STUDENT 28 on 30/03/2009 7:25 PM 13
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b) What can you conclude from the explosion inside the heated flask, at time 1 min: 30 sec of the video? Answer: I can conclude that the hot air exert press ure on the water since air has weight. When the flask is covered by the cloth, some surrunding air went into the flask. Hot air in the flask cannot go out of the flask and surrounding air cannot go in also as the flask is covered. At this time, the water in the container continues to go in to the flask, causing water level in the flask to rise higher. As air has weight and occupies space, it will not allow water to rise any higher after a few seconds, so it will explode
14
Questions: To STUDENT 28: What will hapen if the container is filled with extreme hot water?
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7. How to increase the speed of the rising of the water? (Put
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Case Knowledge Construction cold of hot water in the container of water) To: Guo Ze Chuan To STUDENT 27's question: We should put cold water in the container of water to increase the spped of the water. Posted By STUDENT 28 on 30/03/2009 8:26 PM 16
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7. How to increase the speed of the rising of the water? (Put cold of hot water in the container of water) To: Guo Ze Chuan To STUDENT 27's question: We should put cold water in the container of water to increase the spped of the water. Posted By STUDENT 28 on 30/03/2009 8:28 PM
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To STUDENT 28: You have asked the same question as what I asked. Mr Chia asked you to re-post another question for me to answer. Thanks in advance. Posted By STUDENT 27 on 01/04/2009 11:14 AM
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To Mr Chia: May I know what is the name of this experiment? Posted By STUDENT 27 on 01/04/2009 11:20 AM
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No exact name but you can search for info from Google about it. Posted By Chia, Kok Pin on 01/04/2009 11:22 AM
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I think this is related to pressure. The vaccum in the flask that was created in the flask slowly sucked up the water when there was cold water poured, it sped up the process Answer to STUDENT 27‟S question The time is not very accurate as there was two parts. One had
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Case Knowledge Construction cold water pourn over which then sped up the process. So this is therefore not accurate. Posted By STUDENT 29 on 01/04/2009 11:25 AM 21
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(a)
Why did the water level inside the heated flask rise
when it was inverted over the container of water, as shown in the video, at time 0 min: 30 s The water rose as the flask expanded after being heated and there was space for water to go in and air to escape. 22
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(b)
What can you conclude from the explosion inside the
heated flask, at time 1 min: 30 sec of the video? There was an explosion as the air rushed out of the flask and forced water to rush in. Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:39 AM 23
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3. Why did Mr Chia make the mixture of the water purple in colour? To: STUDENT 27 He did that so that we can see the tap water without straining our eyes.
24
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4. Why did Mr Chia pour cold tap water over the flask? To: Clarence Koh (EDMUND) He poured, as he wanted to make the water in the flask to rise faster. Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:40 AM
25
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Why is it needed to heat up the flask?
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Case Knowledge Construction What are all the apparatus he used? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:41 AM 26
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Q25
Why did the water rise so fast? Where did the air in the flask go when the flask was inverted? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:42 AM
27
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He used a round bottom flask as it can withstand high temperatures. It is made out of special glass. Posted By STUDENT 29 on 01/04/2009 11:42 AM
28
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Why did he use tap water? Why did he use a flask? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:42 AM
29
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Why the flask did not crack after the explosion? What does this experiment show? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:43 AM
30
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27C
Why did the water rise so fast? When cold water is poured over the heated flask, the heated flask will cool down, and the air pressure inside the flask will be higher, thus the water rise faster.
31
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Where did the air in the flask go when the flask was inverted? The air in the flask will still be in the flask. To STUDENT 30: Did the surrounding air gushes into the flask during the explosion? Posted By STUDENT 27 on 01/04/2009 11:45 AM
32
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As i had explained in my earlier post i had stated that the glass
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Case Knowledge Construction is made of special components. This can withstand high temperature. I think that this is a low pressure experiment Q
Q
To STUDENT 30, Can you explain what is a low pressure experiment? Posted By STUDENT 29 on 01/04/2009 11:47 AM
33
M
The water would still rise as the maximum temperature for
X
water is 100 degrees celsius and the temperature of a flask can go higher than that 34
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Q
To STUDENT 28, Why did the explosion occur? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:48 AM
35
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Pressure experiments are performed at pressures lower or higher than pressure, called low-pressure experiments and high-pressure experiments, respectively.
36
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To STUDENT 29 What is pressure?? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:50 AM
37
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Q26
Did the surrounding air gushes into the flask during tilting?
38
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Yes it did, but for only 2 seconds and the air come out. When the flask was tilted, air went in a little but after the explosion, the air came out.
39
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To STUDENT 27 Why is it pressure instead of expansion affecting the
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Case Knowledge Construction experiment? Posted By STUDENT 30 on 01/04/2009 11:55 AM 40
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Q27
To STUDENT 29: How did pressure allows the rising of the water? Posted By STUDENT 27 on 01/04/2009 11:59 AM
41
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It creates a suction, vacuum. this sucks the water Posted By STUDENT 29 on 01/04/2009 12:08 PM
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To STUDENT 27, Why is it pressure instead of expansion affecting the experiment? Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its constituent particles move around more vigorously and by doing so generally maintain a greater average separation. Materials that contract with an increase in temperature are very uncommon; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges. The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. Air pressure is sometimes defined as the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air above that surface at any given point in the Earth's atmosphere. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by
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Case Knowledge Construction the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. Low pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location. Similarly, as elevation increases there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that pressure decreases with increasing elevation. A column of air one square inch in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, would weigh approximately 14.7 lbf. The weight of a 1 m2 (11 sq ft) column of air would be about 101 kilonewtons (equivalent to a mass of 10.2 tonnes at the surface). (Source: Wikipedia) This should answer your question ! Posted By STUDENT 27 on 01/04/2009 12:09 PM 43
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To STUDENT 29: Is the air pressure low or high when water rises up the neck of the flask? Explain. Posted By STUDENT 27 on 01/04/2009 3:29 PM
44
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How to make a bigger explosion ? Explain? (Using the same experiment) Posted By STUDENT 27 on 04/04/2009 11:28 AM
45
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To STUDENT 28's question: As the flask is already hot, even when the water inside explode, the flask will not crack as it can withstand high temperature.
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Case Knowledge Construction Posted By STUDENT 28 on 05/04/2009 10:09 PM 46
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why did the explosion occur? I already explained in my second question for the experiment. Posted By STUDENT 28 on 05/04/2009 10:16 PM
47
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Question to STUDENT 29: To Galvin Koh: If the flask is cold and not hot(at first), what will the final result be? Is there any changes? Posted By STUDENT 28 on 05/04/2009 10:20 PM
48
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Q
Questions to STUDENT 27: 1.Why did Mr. Chia use a round-bottom flask in this experiment? 2.Will there be a bigger or smaller explosion(or no explosion) if the flask is covered by the cloth when the flask is fully filled with water instead of half-filled that is in the experiment? Posted By STUDENT 28 on 05/04/2009 10:23 PM
49
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1. Why is the round-bottom flask heated before the experiment? 2. What made the water moves up the flask? Posted By STUDENT 28 on 05/04/2009 10:28 PM
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Case Knowledge Construction GROUP 7
Appendix H – Group 7 KCMM
Observation 1: Water level inside flask rises
Observation 2: Air rushes into the flask (explosion) when flask is tilted
Level 3: Atmospheric pressure pushes on water surface outside flask
Level 2: Air pressure inside flask is lower than atmospheric pressure
30C Level 1: Water vapour inside inverted flask cools and condenses or air inside inverted flask cools and contracts Q-M Q2 7
29B
Q2 5
27B
28A
Q2 4
Q2 6
30A
28C
29A 27C 27A
30B 28B
Misconception: Vacuum / low air pressure in inverted flask sucked up the water.
Misconception: The air pressure inside inverted flask was greater than atmospheric pressure.
Misconception: Hot air in the flask exerted a force and “pulled” up the water level in the flask.
Page 447
Misconception: The inverted flask expanded after heated and there was space for the water to rise.
Misconception: Trapped air rushed out from inverted flask when it was tilted.
Case Knowledge Construction
Appendix I – Group 7 KCMG
GROUP 7
No. of Messages
Legend: Student 27
Student 29
Student 28
Student 30
Page 448
Bamboo Project
The Bamboo Project: A place-based early childhood science curriculum co-constructed with kindergarten teachers in northern Taiwan Tayal tribal village
Chien, Shu-Chen 1 Hsiung, Chao-Ti 2 Chen, Shu-Fang 3
1. Human Development & Family Studies National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan
[email protected]
2. Science Education National Taipei University of Education, Taiwan
3. Early Childhood Education National Taitung University, Taiwan
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Bamboo Project
Abstract The present collaborative research, based on the theoretical ideas of place-based education, was conducted in northern Taiwan Tayal tribal village. The researcher worked as partner with kindergarten teachers on analyzing and transforming Tayal traditional as well as current ecological knowledge into suitable learning resources and co-constructed a place-based science curriculum for Tayal young children. Qualitative method was adopted in this research. The researcher participated in the real context of YS kindergarten located in FS Tayal tribal village. The participants included the two classroom teachers, 15 Tayal children, their parents, and tribal elders. The research process included interviews with tribal elders, document-analysis on Tayal traditional ecological knowledge, study-group meetings of theoretical discussions, classroom observations, and interviews with teachers, children, and their parents. The teachers‟ curriculum plans, teaching records with reflective notes, and documentation of children‟s works were collected to be analyzed. Bamboo, one of the most typical and essential resources, both traditionally and contemporarily for Tayal people, was chosen as the theme of children‟s curriculum. As the result of the five months‟ study, a place-based science project curriculum using bamboo as the material, which based on inquiry and constructivists‟ belief, was co-constructed by the teachers, children, parents, and the researcher. The changes of the teachers‟ beliefs on the nature of children‟s learning, science teaching for young children and the teachers‟ curriculum and instruction methods are analyzed. The changes of children‟s learning attitudes and capabilities, self-confidence in their own ethnic identity are also presented and discussed.
Keywords: place-based education, Tayal culture, constructivist approach, inquiry-based early childhood science project curriculum
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The Bamboo Project: A place-based early childhood science curriculum co-constructed with kindergarten teachers in northern Taiwan Tayal tribal village Background In the past, indigenous knowledge was neglected as prevalence of majority was more respected, however, with the progress of increasing attention on the minority group, the importance of diversity in modern science education was emerged. The main task nowadays is to break the restrictions of knowledge boundaries and lead students into the understanding of natural exploring experiences in different ethnic groups through the process of cultural introspection. Thus, the inter-race understandings help students to broaden the variety of viewpoints and encourage the science learning of students from different cultural background (Reiss, 1993; Melear, 1995; in Fu, 2004). Science is no more culture-free, nor purely neutral or universal, but instead multicultural. The presented research was conceptually based on the educational view, and was conducted via a long-term-project approach as discussed below. Place-based Education There are scientific learning materials everywhere in indigenes‟ life experience: the interpersonal reaction, the interaction between human and nature, time and spatial perception, native language, natural landscape, the ways of traditional food cooking, houses, utensils, and toys (Fu, 2003). Fu (2004) thus indicated that the indigenous curriculum should be designed from the indigenes‟ points of view, and be placed the importance on traditional culture and life experiences. This was exactly what “Place-Based Education” emphasized. The place-based education is an educational reforming orientation which integrates the content of curriculum and utilizes natural and socio-cultural materials as learning resource. The goal is to allow students relate themselves to the community and the environment through real life learning experiences, to make them realized that everything is connected to their learning and living; in return, students are proud of their local living and in someway, react to the world naturally and in the end become caring citizens (Chin, 2001). The Page 451
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place-based education changes traditional teacher-student hierarchy into co-learning partnership; furthermore, the close cooperation and interaction between schools and communities, parents and teachers, makes it the best educational resource. Smith (2002) emphasized the importance of place-based education on “learning to be where we are”. Students learn from their own culture and natural environment, acquire problem solving abilities from their familiar fields, thus can help to eliminate the gap between schools and children, and to build learning on the basis of local atmosphere and students‟ life experiences. There are plenty of successful cases using place-based education in New Zealand, United States, Norway, and Australia (Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2004; Enos, 1999; Loveland, 2003; Null, 2002; Powers, 2004; in Chang & Hsu, 2001). The two core concepts, “Let students be part of the environment”, and “Curriculum must respond to social environmental issues” (Sobel, 2004), are crucially inspiring the development of indigenous science education. To sum up, there are several characteristics of place-based education: the connection between local environment and community, the place uniqueness, multi-discipline integration, teaching on the basis of children‟s life experiences, teaching on the basis of children themselves, and designing curriculum including learning and action. All these lead to a meaningful aid to teachers‟ pedagogy and curriculum content. On the teachers‟ side, without the inculcation of main stream knowledge, they can enhance the place identity by the emphasis on local participating learning; as to the curriculum content, the history development, social rules, belief and ceremony, economic production, life style, life manners, natural environment, language, and utensils, are all precious teaching resources. To utilize the combination of cultural assets, traditional wisdom, and the natural ecological resource as learning materials plays a key role in the place-based education. While there are still very few studies on place-based education (Lin, 2007; Tseng, 2007), the implementation and
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promotion on place-based education should provide a chance to the development of indigenous science education. Inquiry-based Science Project Curriculum In order to put an eye into children‟s learning process and acquire more valuable findings, the researcher decided to design an inquiry-based project curriculum collaboratively with the early childhood teachers. According to Katz and Chard (1992), “project” can be considered as an in-depth study implemented by one or a group of children toward a specific theme. The conducting way, time, and number of participants are diverse: it can be processed individually or jointly; it can last for several days or a couple of weeks, all depends on children‟s age and the project participants. There is one thing important in the project curriculum: children should actively participate in the inquiry process, and find out the answers on their own through the persistent investigation. Inquiry can be carried out through observation, experiment, manipulation, recording, and investigation (interview, visits, books review). The process includes to find the problems, set up the assumption, conduct the experiment, record and report, test the assumption, modify, draw the inferences...etc. To see how children change in their concepts, thoughts, competence, and behavior, the project approach curriculum should be a long-term investigation toward a particular topic, but not a collection of independent activities. Science is understood to be a process of active inquiry and a system of organizing and reporting discoveries. Rather than being viewed as the memorization of facts, science is seen as a way of thinking and working toward understanding the world. To obtain the qualitative changes of children‟s science-related inquiry behavior as well as conceptual development in natural settings, it‟s helpful for the researcher to involve in the project and make observations and records accordingly. The current collaborative research, under the prerequisite of respect to indigenous knowledge and improvement on traditional science education, is contently based on the Page 453
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concept of place-based education and methodologically referred to the inquiry-based project curriculum. The long-term study is designed to co-construct and implement “place-based early childhood science project curriculum: a bamboo project” with teachers in northern Taiwan Tayal indigenous tribe through the application of local science materials. Method Field & Participant The research was conducted in YS kindergarten located in FS township, TY county, Taiwan, with most of the residents are Tayal indigenes. There were 15 children along with 2 teachers in the kindergarten. The age level of these young children ranges from 4-6 years old. Process The research took place in certain classes during the second semester in the academic year of 2007 (started in February, 2008, and ended in June, 2008). The research process included interviewing tribal elders, collecting cultural/historical relics and documents, conducting study group meetings, placed-based curriculum implementation, and field observations. Study Group Meeting The study group meetings were scheduled once in a month, hosted by the researcher, with kindergarten teachers as the group members. Content of study group meetings included: reading and discussion, teaching experiences sharing, researcher‟s theory explanation and response. Co-constructing Place-based Curriculum & Field Observation The researcher entered the classroom to observe, taking videos, photos, and observation notes as assisting tools. There were two important points to be observed: (1) the implementation process of teachers‟ practicing inquiry oriented place-based science curriculum; (2) children‟s scientific exploration and knowledge development process when the curriculum was implemented. Page 454
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Documentation The documents included: theme planning, teaching activity notes (teachers‟ plans, notes and reflection), children‟s science learning portfolios, study group meeting records, researcher‟s field notes, and other activity documents. Interview When any doubts in practical teaching occurred, the researcher arranged informal interviews to clarify the questions; meanwhile, teachers could have a chance to explain and interpret their ideas and to share their practical experiences. Formal interviews were conducted at the end of the semester. Data Analysis Qualitative method was adopted in this research. The researcher repeatedly read the records and verbatim text to figure out the teachers‟ needs and thoughts of the place-based education and children‟s progress in the inquiry-based science project curriculum, tried to develop different categories and to encode data for further analysis. Participant Verification To ensure the accuracy and authenticity of data, the verbatim texts were checked by the interviewees to modify any mistakes or vague parts. On the other hand, study group meetings were also the chance to clarify ideas. Triangulation The researcher used multiple methods (field observation, study group meetings, document analysis, and interviews) and multiple resources to cross verify the data. Triangulation was used in data analysis. Peer Verification To avoid personal bias, the researcher invited expert colleagues with qualitative research and indigenous education background to discuss the analysis and classification of data.
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Result Bamboo, one of the most typical and essential resources, both traditionally and contemporarily for Tayal people, was chosen as the theme of children‟s curriculum. In the indigenous culture, to utilize natural plants in daily life is a prevalent tradition. In the place-based science project curriculum co-constructed by the teachers, children, and the researcher, the implementing process of children‟s inquiry as well as important research findings were featured in the following results. Constructing & Practicing Place-based Education in the Use of Ecological Materials To practice the place-based education, “learning from the environment” was implemented jointly by teachers and the children. The process of using ecological materials was presented below. Discovering “Ruma” In Tayal people‟s life, “ruma” (bamboo, in Tayal indigenous language) is one of the most common plants. The class started with a discussion on bamboo‟s nature. C131: “It can make sounds!” C2: “It smells good.” C: “Thorns of the leaves can hurt me. It‟s sharp, hard, and with a line on the surface.” (field note, 2008.04.21) Some children touched the bamboo with their fingers, while some were trying to make sounds by blowing into the hole. Another mostly used experiencing method was to smell it comparing with other plants. To encourage further exploration, the teachers took children into their surrounding world and happily to find natural learning materials everywhere. An “Ali” on the Ground From children‟s daily conversation, it was observed that collecting “ali” (bamboo shoot, in Tayal indigenous language) was one important part of their parents‟ farming work. C: “My Dad helped Grandma to cut the ali yesterday.”
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C: “My Mom cut ali in the mountains.”
(field note, 2008.04.21)
When discussing the relation between bamboos and the bamboo shoots, children showed creative thinking process. C18: “Ali comes from ruma.” C8: “No, it‟s ruma comes from ali!” C1: “Yes, it‟s ali comes from ruma. My Grandma took me to collect ali, and we found them underground.” C2: “Oh, when ali grows up, it will become a tall ruma.” T: “Then where did ali come from?” C4: “It‟s from the nature!” (field note, 2008.04.21) It seemed to be an endless question when they‟re trying to figure out the origin of bamboo, or the bamboo shoot, just like the question of “chicken & egg”, so it was a good chance to include this as a main topic in children‟s learning curriculum. C5: “It‟s an ali, hasn‟t become a ruma yet.” T: “How can you tell?” C5: “Ali is covered in brown color, but a bamboo is green.”(field note, 2008.04.29) Children were good at using analogy to describe objects or phenomena, which was more close to their understanding of the world. In their expression, indigenous language and common language were mixed, for they had been educated with the main culture as well. Here are some examples demonstrating how children represented the bark of the bamboo shoot. T: “What‟s this?” C4: “It‟s a bamboo shoot‟s clothes.” T: “Why should there be the clothes?” C10: “Like us, you wear clothes so you won‟t get cold.” C12: “Yeah! Clothes can protect the little ali.” C2: “If without clothes, a mosquito might bite the little ali.” C4: “Then the little ali will get sick, or it will get rotten.” C12: “People don‟t eat mashy ali” T: “Then why do we peel it off?” C1: “Because the bark is not delicious. We only eat the bamboo shoot.” (field note, 2008.04.29) Using children‟s term to interpret the natural mechanism, teachers were acquainted with the way they thought. T: “Why are the clothes gone when the bamboo shoot becomes a bamboo?” C1: “Because the bamboo is hard! It‟s not afraid of being bullied by the mosquito.” Page 457
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C12: “And people don‟t eat hard bamboos.” C2: “I think the wind blows away the bamboo‟s clothes.” T: “Then the bamboo doesn‟t have clothes to wear!” C9: “It‟s ok, it has new clothes!” C6: “Yeah, the green one!” (field note, 2008.04.29) It‟s amazing that children were so familiar with the details of the difference between a bamboo and the bamboo shoot. They even noticed the changing process of the plant, though interpreting in their own way. Science learning starts from a good observation, which was precisely practiced by these children.
Wise Utilization One way to look into an indigenous culture is to see how they make use of natural resources. During the exploring process, teachers related school learning with children‟s real life experiences, which helped to bring in tribal wisdom to classroom curriculum. Children were sitting in a circle to look at a bamboo section when the teacher provided a chance to freely share their experiences. C9: “It can be a water container, or a milk container.” C3: “Ruma can contain pencils, and „mami‟ (rice, in Tayal language).” C13: “We can use it to make tools.” C4: “We use it to make a bowl.” (field note, 2008.04.21) Apparently, to use bamboos as containers was a commonly shared usage. interesting discussion continued to find out more wise utilization in the culture. C1: “Grandpa cut the bamboo and made a cage for the little baby, so that he can sleep in it.” C4: “Uncle used ruma to make chairs and tables.” C5: “It can be used to make a boat.” C7: “a piggy bank!” C9: “a broom! We use the bamboo broom to clean the house.” C10: “Dad built a house for Grandma with bamboos.” C12: “A fence made of bamboo can prevent thieves from stealing our vegetables.” C9: “The bamboo can make noise, so chickens won‟t eat our vegetables.” C17: “It can be a rice container.” C10: “It works as a pair of tongs to carry garbage.” C10: “to make a bow and an arrow” C1: “I know that the bamboo shoot‟s clothes can be used to make a leaf hat, and to wrap steamed rice.” C15: “When it rains, my Grandma puts on a leaf hat, so she won‟t get wet.” (field note, 2008.04.30)
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In traditional Tayal culture, bamboos are most often used in construction, divination, and as weapons. From time to time, Tayal people gradually use bamboo as the major material of daily utensils, as exemplified by children. Within which, there was a very special and actually typical Tayal feature – bamboo as the steamed rice container. It was thus chosen as a topic of children‟s activity in the exploration into their ancestors‟ wisdom. Rice in a Bamboo Tube Making the “rice in a bamboo tube” was really interesting to children. During which, they had a chance to practice cooking rice, use different containers to compare the result, and to find out the function of membrane in the bamboo. The teacher picked up a section of bamboo tube and gave a chance to children‟s observation. C: “It‟s empty, we will put mami inside.” The teacher pointed the membrane inside the bamboo and asked: “What‟s this?” C4: “It‟s white.” C8: “It‟s the skin, very thin.” T: “Should we remove it?” C9: “Yes, it‟s dirty.” C1: “You can not eat that.” C7: “You‟ll get stomachache if you eat that.” T: “Who agrees that we don‟t have to remove it, raise your hand?” C3 & C12 (raising hands): “Don‟t have to remove it!” Then it was the cooking process. Children worked corporately together to put some rice with water in the bamboo tube, and then put bamboo tubes into a boiler. During the final stage, when the rice was steamed, they cracked tubes with a little hammer and were surprised to find that, rice was covered with the membrane. C3: “It was the skin that covered the rice.” C9: “Now we can eat the skin.”
(field note, 2008.05.06)
In fact, it was another brilliant technique performed by ancient people, to use the natural membrane as a protection preventing rice from being stuck on the bamboo tube. Only when children actually experienced the process could they have clear understanding and vivid memory of the newly learned knowledge. Page 459
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Furthermore, to compare the different aroma of rice cooked with different tools, the teacher created another activity called “make a blind guess”. T: “What‟s the difference between the rice cooked with a bamboo tube and a steel cup?” C9 (smelling): “This smells like bamboo, and that doesn‟t.” C14: “This (rice in a steel cup) is not delicious.” Children all made a good guess of the correct tool used to contain rice. (field note, 2008.05.07) Tayal people are familiar with making food with tools made from bamboos, especially the steamed rice in a bamboo tube. Thus, to choose it as a program theme was close to children‟s daily life and could make them proud of their own works. Children‟s active participation and responsive actions were observed in the progress of practicing the cultural invention. Indigenous Children’s Toy: Play with the Bamboo Toys are always accompanying children‟s development in all aspects. For the majority people, there has been a mature industry and market of all kinds of children‟s toys; however, compared with modern societies, children in tribal villages are better creators of natural toys, for the intimacy of their surrounding world. When probing into indigenous children‟s play world by recording the activities they took, the researcher found that it was not only a joyful time, but also a great opportunity for children to acquire knowledge of objects they were playing with. In this case, bamboo was one of the characters in the following interesting games. play a tug of war with a bamboo With the realization of the hardness of a bamboo, children used it as a rope in a tug of war game. lift up a “boar” A boar is quite familiar to indigenous people. Children played a pretending game to lift up another child with a bamboo as if he‟s a “boar”. Most children expressed that they‟re not afraid of falling because the bamboo was hard enough. Page 460
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cross the bamboo tunnel Children set a height limit with a bamboo as if it was the tunnel, and then under-crossed it. human fishing In the real life, people make fishing rods with bamboos, so children thought of the idea “fishing” others with a bamboo rod. Through the interactive playing activity, children had known better about the physical characteristics of bamboos: they‟re hard, strong, and never got broken. A simple thing can easily arouse children‟s curiosity and interests; moreover, including local materials in curriculum content helps children raise their learning motivation and increases their involvement. From their exciting emotional expression, we saw how bamboos played an important role in children‟s lives and as a best choice of natural toys. Inquiry-based Science Project Curriculum: Children’s Concepts Development Process In this section, children‟s conceptual development as an outcome of implementing the inquiry-based science project curriculum was presented, including scientific measurement, learning about bamboo joints, and subterranean stems. Scientific Measurement To measure the height of an object was a new skill brought to children. Using a ruler was not yet taught, and therefore, the actions and trials revealed children‟s attempts at problem solving and the progress of their scientific measurement concepts. illustrate with hands In the measuring activity, children first used their hands to illustrate the height of a bamboo shoot. However, the result was not satisfying. Two children suggested using hands, while another child found the problem. C7: “The height is different from his hands to hers.” T: “So you mean they were indicating different heights?” C7: “Yes.” (field note, 2008.04.22) Then everyone realized it was difficult to use hand illustrating as the criteria, because the length may differ when they failed to keep still. Page 461
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measure with the string One child suddenly thought of an idea using a piece of string to measure. C2: “We can use the string!” A section of a branch became the object to be measured. C3 stood the branch on the ground, letting C2 use a piece of string to measure it. C3: “It‟s not that short, pull up.” C2 moved two hands up. C3: “Up to the top. Ok, stop!” One end of the string was at the same height as the branch; however, C2 simultaneously lifted up the other end of the string and could not get the correct height. (field note, 2008.04.22) It was understandable that children failed to equal the length, for the concept of “fixing the starting point” was not established. The teacher, being not an information provider, played a role as the reminder. T: “Are they the same height?” C8: “It‟s a little bit weird.” C3: “We missed the bottom part. You should put the string on the ground.” When the bottom end of the string reached the ground, the upper end went down at the same time. After a discussion, C2 managed to loose the string scroll and reach each end of the branch. C3: “We made it!” C7 then cut off the string and stuck it on the wall, illustrating the height of the branch. (field note, 2008.04.22) The problem solving ability was observed in their interaction. Under the opportunity of free trials opened by the teacher, the thinking process was gradually shaped. compare different tools Having the experience of measuring with the string, children then curiously went further on comparing different tools. C3: “We can use the stick to measure.” A child was picked up to be the model, while children tried to measure his height with a stick and the string. From the result, they realized that a stick was too short for measurement. (field note, 2008.04.22) When the skills and tools were prepared, they could continue to the inquiry of bamboos. take down records In order to have a more clear understanding of how fast a bamboo shoot grew up, children learned to make records of the changes in height. They stuck strings on the wall, indicating Page 462
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the height of a bamboo shoot in different days, and were amazed to find that the growing speed was higher than they could even imagine. C4 (surprisingly) : “It grows up!” Then C3 marked down the date to distinguish the height from other days. (field note, 2008.04.24) C3: “It‟s growing too fast! It‟s probably taller than me!” C13: „Last week I was taller than it, and this week it‟s taller than me.” C1: “We grow up slowly, and ali grows up fast.” (field note, 2008.04.30) From the records marked down on the wall, children discovered the difference in height within two days - it was about the height of a child‟s head! A simple measurement activity like this helped to evoke children‟s logical thinking and problem solving. Teachers set up the environment for children to actively experiment and experience, as a result, scientific concepts of the natural plant were progressively built up. The Bamboo Joints Another important topic was to know more about the characteristics of the bamboo - the joints. Teachers encouraged children to observe and touch the joints on their own; meanwhile, a comparison between the joints of a bamboo tube and a bamboo shoot was conducted as well. C10: “There‟s a line here!” C9: “I see it, too!” (The “line” meant the bamboo joints; children were not familiar with the name yet.) C7: “Let‟s count how many lines there are.” T: “What‟s the difference between the „lines‟ on a bamboo and a bamboo shoot?” C10: “The color is different: this is dark, and that is light.” C2: “This(on a bamboo shoot) is soft, and that on the ruma is hard.” C8: “The length between two lines on a bamboo shoot is shorter than that on a bamboo.” T: “Why is it longer on a bamboo?” C8: “Because the bamboo grows up.” C3: “Because ruma gets taller, but Grandpa pulled out the ali when it didn‟t grow up yet.” (field note, 2008.04.24) The critical point was noticed - the growing up speed. Afterwards, teachers taught children the correct name of a joint, instead of calling it a “line”. Further inquiry into the nature of a bamboo joint was initiated. After a close observation, children figured out that the joints were the origin of new branches. Page 463
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T: “Are there branches on every joint?” A child holding the bamboo found that there were no branches on the bottom part of the bamboo. Moreover, it was also found that there were two branches on each joint. (field note, 2008.04.25) After a week‟s exploration, children acquired the knowledge of the bamboo through their observation and family experience. From the external appearance to the internalization process, children learned to infer from their findings to later experiences. The Rhizomes There was significant progress of children‟s learning of the bamboo - the knowledge of rhizomes. Back to the question of children‟s discussion on the origin of a bamboo, or a bamboo shoot, the rhizome was the answer. the appearance A rhizome of the bamboo was discovered on the ground. C4: “I know this. It is a rhizome. I learned it from the book.” Descriptions of the rhizome came up one and after: “It‟s like a bridge”, “a line”, “a caterpillar”, “a snake”, and “It‟s just like a bamboo with joints”. (field note, 2008.05.20) Children enthusiastically shared their ideas with others, demonstrating how creative their imagination could be. the origin of a bamboo/bamboo shoot To reveal the secret of “the bamboo‟s birth”, the teacher started with a question. T: “Why did the rhizome come out?” C9: “Ali was born from this.” C8: “It came out to breathe.” C4: “It came out to see the bamboo.” C8: “To see how tall her son is” C10: “To see the mother. Bamboo is the mother.” C3: “Mother is the ruma.” C7: “The rhizome is to see the child!”
(field note, 2008.05.20)
Back to the classroom, the discussion continued on where a bamboo or a bamboo shoot came from. C9: “Ali is ruma‟s child; ruma is ali‟s mother.”
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C12: “When a bamboo grows up, it gives birth to a child called „ali‟; ali is connected to a rhizome. A rhizome has many joints, and that‟s where an ali comes from.” (field note, 2008.05.21) A bamboo shoot model, a piece of string, and a section of bamboo were used to illustrate the relation between all three of them. C2: “Then where did the rhizome come from?” C12: “It‟s from the bamboo.” C7: “From the bottom part of the bamboo.”
(field note, 2008.05.21)
Through a pretending game, children practiced the cycle of a bamboo‟s birth, growing up, and giving birth again. C9: “My Dad often cuts off the ali.” T: “Have they been cut off entirely?” C3: “It‟s not possible. There are plenty of rhizomes underground. Ali grows up anyway.” T: “Where did ali come from?” C10: “Ali comes from the rhizome.” (field note, 2008.05.21) Finally, with the aid of family experience, children successfully concluded the origin of a bamboo to the bamboo shoot, and a bamboo shoot to the rhizome. how it goes underground After the implementation of the deep inquiry and exploration, children became more concerned and more sensitive to their surroundings. We went to the playground, and children noticed that there were some rhizomes revealed. C5: “It went out. With sunshine, it‟s green.” C3: “Without sunshine, the rhizome underground is yellow” C2: “The rhizome is hard. We can not pull it up. It walks underground.” C8: “Right! If it‟s soft, it will not be able to grasp the soil, and thus it can not walk.” (field note, 2008.05.22) From the very wise and vivid description, we saw how children‟s internal thinking process worked. In fact, the knowledge of a plant‟s rhizome was not prevalently taught in early childhood education. By means of the curriculum implementation and the active inquiry practice, children in this kindergarten were luckily to have better understanding of the traditional plant - bamboo. Introspection: Teachers’ Reflections on the Place-based Education Page 465
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Teachers, as well as children, were the participants in this study of the place-based education. The inquiry oriented approach was co-constructed by teachers, children, and the researcher. After the implementation process, teachers‟ introspection strengthened the value of the project curriculum carried out. From the reflections, some major concerns were discussed as below. Learning from the Environment Though it was quite easy for children to see bamboos/bamboo shoots in their daily lives, the understanding of the bamboo function stayed mainly at the containing capabilities. Therefore, teachers based children‟s learning on their existing experiences, and attempted to proceed with further exploration collaboratively with children into the profound knowledge of the bamboo. “We formed the question - the origin of the bamboo and a bamboo shoot - to be our inquiry issue. Looking into the environment to find the answer was a great learning and teaching motivation.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.04.21) With retrospection on children‟s talks, teachers were impressed by their advancing progress, especially the responsive reactions and active approaching the nature. “After a few weeks‟ experiencing, I‟m deeply touched by children‟s concrete response and interpretation. This is the best achievement we‟ve ever met in this year. I‟m really delighted to see it.” “It‟s amazing to realize that children are so familiar with the bamboo, and can internalize their findings in outdoor experiencing to conceptual knowledge establishment. I appreciate the Nature for giving us the vigorous land, so that we can probe into the secret of lives.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.05.21) The bamboo project, not only brought children a great opportunity to knowing the nature, but also inspired the teachers to make a good use of local ecological resources as learning materials. Teacher as the Co-learner, not the Instructor Followed by the inquiry process, the topics to be learned were also new to the teachers. The implementation of the project curriculum was a co-constructing process for teachers.
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Being the co-learners, instead of instructors, the teachers acquired ecological science knowledge together with their children in the research. “Not only the children were surprised by the fast growing speed of the bamboo shoot, but also ourselves were amazed to know that, it was really astonishing how fast a bamboo shoot could grow.” “As to the note, we let children decide where to put, so that they could record the change of the bamboo‟s height. Afterwards, we reviewed the change together.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.04.30) “It was also the first time for teachers to make the rice in a bamboo tube. After the activity, we all felt joyful and satisfied with the outcome.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.05.06) Sometimes children are better observers than adults. In this curriculum, it was the children that helped teachers to find more detailed and interesting things. “It was so great to see the rhizomes of the bamboo came out to the ground. Children were more sensitive to the little things than us. We observed the rhizomes together, which was also my first time to realize that rhizomes have the same joints as the bamboos.” “Children described, „it‟s hard, so it can walk in the soil‟. How intelligent these words are! Their delicate observation and exquisite interpretation was really admirable. We could learn knowledge both from the nature and from the children as well.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.05.20) There were learning materials everywhere in the natural environment; teachers, along with the children, were co-learners in their project curriculum. With children‟s creative competence and sensitivity, teachers‟ keen perception was thus regained and evoked. Active Inquiry Matters! During the whole process of implementing the inquiry-based science curriculum, teachers found that children‟s active involvement was crucial to the project achievement. In an activity, teachers used to start with a question, and let children begin their own problem solving process. Self-initiated inquiry was encouraged and most valued. “I‟m always thinking, can I throw a better question out? Can the question lead children to a flourishing discussion? From their focusing on one issue and trying to figure out the answer, we know that the thinking ability is being developed.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.04.24) To handle a good classroom management and to increase children‟s learning motivation at the same time is quite challenging to early childhood education teachers. Only when they Page 467
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continuously introspect and self-examine can they see the real problem and make adequate modification. “I was expecting that children could figure out the answer after their observation. But their viewpoints were different from teachers‟. So the better solution was to let children explore in their own way. When they had the practical experience, they could understand and response correctly.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.04.25) A series of scientific inquiry procedure was the critical point, including asking questions, introspecting, clarifying and verifying. The procedure may be repeated or reversed if a concept or outcome needs to be modified. “Supposing children could have a cognitive progression after once or twice trial was a dangerous myth. The superficial or temporary memory was easily erased. The important task for teachers was to open a chance for children to fulfill a complete process of scientific inquiry.” (teachers‟ reflection note, 2008.05.22) According to the essence of the place-based education using an inquiry approach, what matters in the science teaching is children‟s active learning. From teachers‟ reflections, we could see the importance was well captured. Conclusion In the long-term study, the researcher observed that not only the children, but also the teachers were benefited from the co-constructing process of the place-base education as well as the scientific inquiry-based project curriculum. Via study group meetings, teachers gained ideas of planning the curriculum more inspiringly. The continuous and coherent project design was just the core value of an inquiry-based curriculum. When there were more opportunities opened for children to freely and actively explore into their environment, the learning motivation grew stronger, and thus eventually strengthened their abilities to problem solving and logical thinking. Along with the local natural resources, they also tried to search for ancient wisdom, the Tayal culture. Aided by the Nature, they managed to acquire the knowledge and refresh the interests in both teaching and learning. With the good use of both traditional wisdom and the local ecological resources, children, together with their teachers, were granted a prosperous Page 468
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learning condition. These achievements successfully conformed to the expectation of the constructivist teaching: with children‟s spontaneous and voluntary involvement in learning, teachers then had a chance to modify their strategies accordingly, and as a consequence, the pedagogy was improved. Furthermore, the improvement was no surprisingly guaranteed by the successful implementation and practice of what a place-based education curriculum emphasized: the concurrent exploration into present and tradition. The whole process worked successfully due to the following reasons: 1. a good use of local resources Bamboo is closely related to Tayal people‟s lives at many aspects: food containers, weapons, musical instruments, weaving, daily used appliances, farm implements, fishing and hunting tools, and decorations. Thus, to use bamboo as the teaching and learning material could not only reveal Tayal ecological features, but also provide a chance for children to experience the life and wisdom of their ancestors. 2. the mission to preserve their cultural heritage The two teachers realized how important it was to preserve the cultural heritage; in this case, they were highly devoted to the Tayal culture. To prevent cultural decline, the two teachers wished to cultivate children‟s capability by leading them to find out their cultural vitality and to learn the wisdom of their ancestor through the curriculum. The objective of the place-based science curriculum precisely met the needs of the participating teachers, thus their high motivation and enthusiasm in return meaningfully supported the research. 3. cross verification of theory and practice In proceeding of every study group meeting, the researcher introduced related theories; meanwhile, the participating teachers shared and discussed their thoughts together. When there was any misunderstanding or misleading, the researcher could remind them and provide advice right away. Any difficulty in practice could also be resolved through the theoretical/practical cross verification process. Page 469
Bamboo Project
4. utilization of local resources to enhance cultural identity During the whole bamboo project, children also developed the ability to make a good use of local resources when they encountered obstacles in learning. Most importantly, when they understood more deeply the Tayal culture and natural resource, they appreciated more sincerely the beauty of own culture and the wisdom of their ancient people. Cultural identity was then enhanced. In conclusion, the place-based science curriculum conducted by constructivist approach, using inquiry-based project as a method, was proofed to be beneficial to early childhood Tayal children‟s intellectual and conceptual development. With the knowledge acquired through active learning, as well as the utilization of both traditional and present local resources, the Tayal indigenous young children were surely promised a flourishing educational environment.
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Bamboo Project
References 林麗君（2007）。地方本位教育課程設計之探討－以泰雅民族植物為例。花蓮教育大學 生態與環境教育研究所碩士論文。花蓮縣。 張琦琪、許添明（2001）。原住民學校實施社區本位教育之探討--國外實踐經驗及其對 我國的啟示。原住民教育季刊，21，74-101。 曾亮榮（2007）。從地方本位課程探究國小原住民學童自然科學習之研究。花蓮教育大 學科技教育研究所碩士論文。花蓮縣。 傅麗玉（2003）。誰的生活經驗？九年一貫課程「自然與生活科技」領域原住民生活經 驗教材探討。原住民教育季刊，31，5-26。 傅麗玉（2004）。原住民生活世界的科學--電土燈篇。原住民研究季刊，33，77-104。 Chin, J. (2001). All of a place: Connecting school, youth and community. The Bay Area School Reform Collaborative Founders Learning Community. Katz, G. L. & Chard, S. C. (1992).The contribution of documentation to the quality of early childhood education. ERIC Digest: ED 393608. Smith, D. (2002). Place-based education: Learning to be where we are. Phi Delta Kappa, 83(8), 584-594. Sobel, D.A. (2004). Place-based education: Connecting classrooms and communities. Education for Meaning and Social Justice, 17(3), 63-64. The Orion Society.
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Information of Biotechnology: Taiwanese Students’ Sources and Trust Kuan-Chiao Chien, Hsin-Mei Li, and Chen-Yung Lin Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract Many countries have regarded biotechnology as a key enterprise for achieving economic competitiveness and growth. Therefore, the curriculum of biotechnology has also been emphasized by government such as Australia, New Zealand and Taiwan. Moreover, biotechnology is pretty much related to personal experiences and prevails in mass media. This study aims to explore Taiwanese students’ sources and trust regarding biotechnology. By using stratified cluster random sampling, the sample population was targeted to grades seven and nine of junior high students among 40 schools and grades 11 of senior high students among 31 schools in Taiwan. In total, 5289 students were involved with this study. A list of 12 sources of biotechnology was provided. Students were asked to response on a Likert scale, from very distrustful to very trustful for each source and they were also asked to check 1-4 major sources they received most often. It was found that internet, TV news, biology teachers and printed media were top four of biotechnology resources, while students perceived higher trust on scientists/professional, biology teachers, family, and printed media, respectively.
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Unlike seven grade students rely more on family as information source, nine and 11 grade students most likely rely on printed media and TV news. Also, there was a tendency shows that students who enrolled in senior high or with social science major had higher trust than students who enrolled in junior high or with science major. It also found that female students held significantly higher trust than male students in most sources, except internet.
Introduction
The importance of biotechnology
Biotechnology is becoming the most popular industry around the world in the 21-century and it has been part of human life. Especially it is widely applied in the agriculture, the foods production, medicine fields and environmental protection. Therefore, Oliver pointed out " It is the era of machine-building industry in 19 century and the chemistry-physical industrial age in the twentieth century, while the twenty-first century is the biological industry age! ". Given the point , more and more counties take it for granted that biotechnology have to be involved in biology curriculum. For example , the English National Curriculum suggest that the knowledge of biotechnology should discuss with respect to ethical issues subject to international attention at present (Solomon, 2001). In addition, it is the same case that
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The New Zealand Government’s Biotechnology Strategy (Conner, 2006) recommends that biotechnology issues must be inclusive of ethical topics and the authorities set a program to raise understanding of various biotechnology concerns by school education. As for Australian(National Biotechnology Strategy, 2008), The National Biotechnology Strategy was launched in July 2000 to provide a framework for the development of Australian biotechnology and the strategy addresses six key themes with specific objectives and activities to achieve them:
Biotechnology in the community
Ensuring effective regulation
Biotechnology in the economy
Australian biotechnology in the global market
Resources for biotechnology
Maintaining momentum and coordination.
In view of importance with respect to biotechnology, in Taiwan , the government (Executive Yuan, 2002) has been positive to push the sub-plan of the project of “Challenge 2008：Country Development Key Plan” for setting up biotechnology industry to enhance competitiveness. For that reason, a program related to application in biotechnology is built for recognizing and solving social、ethical and cultural issues
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about biotechnology (Ministry of Education, 2009).
Information sources Mass communication Mass communication which has played a vital role in modern is inextricably linked with people's daily lives, including newspapers, magazines, internet, TV etc. However, many kinds of social activities such as political affairs, economic industry, cultural performance and religious are subject to the impact of mass communication. Lerner in 1958 recognized that the media is a catalyst, once quickly and widely spreading into every aspects of the society, would cause a migration of high dissemination between people's daily life and media. The content of mass media is attempted to connect with daily materials and the reporter is able to understand what the people do around the world and how to assessment by self. The relevant study indicated that (NSF, 2006) television, Internet, newspapers, magazines and other media are national of the main information source, so we want to explore the related factors of national scientific literacy and need to look into the mass communication media.
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Internet When Internet boomed in recent decades, it also provided people another channel to connect with information. As the infrastructure goes better in recent years, people can access to Internet more easily and this accessibility of Internet also brings up the applications and development on it. Except for business use Internet as one of their channel to communicate with consumers or to provide them information. Increasingly, there generates so called collaborative knowledge on the Internet which means Internet users gathered and sharing their experience or knowledge about events or products. Besides, in the revolution of interaction on the Internet, from e-mail groups, chat room until recently discussion forum and weblog became popular, these shows different ways present information on the Internet.
Information sources Information is regarded as one of life's necessities in the information age. In addition to personal needs, information is also considered as social interests. Sex issues of information sources are often used to analyze the acceptance of new information technology (Lerouge et al., 2005; Huang, 2005).Therefore, later reviews indicate that research on gender differences have played a very important role in the use of different conducting information ( Ong and Lai, 2006; Sanchez-Franco, 2006;
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Chou and Tsai, 2007, Lu and Hsiao, 2008). In recent years, many studies have begun to explore between gender differences and acceptance of different information sources (Venkatesh et al., 2001; Venkatesh et al., 2003; Im et al., 2008)
Methodology Based on the above , the purpose of this article was to investigate students in Taiwan how to get biotechnology knowledge through various information sources and which sources they contact most frequently. Furthermore, how the students trust the information from various different sources after students are in contact with them in this modern, fast-developed society is the other goal of this study. At present, according to 98 curriculum framework, the program contains specific chapter to discuss about biotechnology. Therefore, biotechnology becomes the vital part of not only biology curriculum, but also human life. The goal of this study wants to understand the relation of communication between information sources (mass media, school teachers, organization, scientist, etc. ) and students effected by multimedia in 21 centuries. Participants The purpose of this study is attempted to explore which information students want to contact as they learn some biotechnology agenda and how trustful they are
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with these sources. Thus, the target population is defined to those who are seven and nine grades of junior high students among 40 schools and 11 grades of senior high students among 30 schools in Taiwan. There are 2,897 male students and 2,348 female students in this study. According to their different grade level, the study is expected nearly 1,424 seven grade students, 1,434 nine grade students, and 2,507 11 grade students are selected. 11 grade students are divided into two groups as social science group (n =1,179) and science (n =1,280) group because of their majoring in different domain ( Table 1).
Questionnaire format design
This study consists of three parts. The first part of this survey is demographic information (Table 1), including sex, age, and major (response if students are senior high). The second part of this survey has two sections. One is to investigate that biotechnology information sources (12 items) which students are asked to select 4 items from at most, and the other is to survey their trustful or distrustful with the items provided using four-point Likert scales where a value of 1 indicates strong distrustful and 4 indicates strong trustful.
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Table 1. Questionnaire respondents
Variable
Respondents
Percentage of all
(n )
%
Gender Male
2,897
55.2%
Female
2,348
44.8%
7 grade
1,424
27.1%
9 grade
1,434
27.3%
11 grade
2,507
47.8%
Social science
1,179
22.5%
Science
1,280
24.4%
Grade
Major
Validity
This study designs a pilot test for the purpose of increasing the content validity. 322 participants among seven, nine, and 11 grades of students are asked to read
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smoothly for this sample questionnaire and three biology teachers are interviewed for more complete content. Hence, any problem in the survey is revised by pilot study.
Data and Analysis
The Social Science (SPSS) Version 17.0 was used to analyze the descriptive and influential data. The mean and standard deviation of total students are computed for representing descriptive data. In order to test whether the demographic variable (the sex, grade level and major) towards information sources are different or not, we check the sample distribution by χ² test. Then, paired sample t-test is used to show the difference within sex and major. In addition, repeated ANOVA is performed to identify if between cross-age groups reach significant difference about trust toward biotechnology sources or not. Finally, the last part is concern about consistency between information sources that students contact and their trust form sources with students’ intention. Results At first, we order information sources which all students select to understand which sources students frequently keep contact with (Table 2). Besides, the percent (%) of each item is represented as：
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%= Table 2. Analysis of biotechnology sources based on (overall and) gender χ²
Df
p
3(59.1%)
24.615a
1
.000**
2(60.8%)
1(62.2%)
1.019a
1
0.313
3(59.2%)
3(58.5%)
2(60%)
1.117a
1
0.291
Print media
4(48.5%)
4(47.6%)
4(49.5%)
1.647a
1
0.199
Family
5(38.1%)
5(36.6%)
5(39.8%)
4.837a
1
.028*
Scientist/professional
6(27.3%)
6(30.4%)
6(23.8%)
25.088a
1
.000**
Peers
7(23.7%)
7(24.4%)
7(22.5%)
2.480a
1
0.115
Advertisement
8(19.3%)
8(21%)
8(17.4%)
9.556a
1
.002**
9(14.7%)
9(16.1%)
9(13%)
8.857a
1
.003**
Overall
Male
Female
Category
Rank(%)
Rank(%)
Rank(%)
Internet
1(63%)
1(66.2%)
TV news
2(61.4%)
Biology teacher
Governmental organization Biotech company
10(12.3%) 10(13.3%) 10(11.1%)
4.911a
1
.027*
Non-governmental
11(8.7%)
11(9.6%)
11(7.6%)
5.889a
1
.015*
Non-biology teacher
12(5.4%)
12(6.1%)
12(4.3%)
7.915a
1
.005**
a
The χ² represents difference(%) between male and female with 12 information sources
*p < 0.05 . **p < 0.01
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The more frequent sources students are in touch with are internet, TV news, Biology teacher, and Print media while the less frequent ones are Governmental organization, Biotech company, Non-governmental, and Non-biology teacher.To test the sex effect, the result shows that the order of information sources which male performs are nearly the same as female does except Internet, TV news, and Biology teacher (Table 2).
Table 3. Analysis of biotechnology sources based on grade 7 grade
9 grade
11 grade
χ²
Df
p
4.618a
2
0.099
Category
Rank(%)
Rank(%) Rank(%)
Internet
1(60.8%) 2(62.7%) 2(64.4%)
TV news
4(47.3%) 1(65.8%) 1(66.9%) 143.014a
2
.000**
Biology teacher
2(58.2%) 3(55.3%) 3(62.0%) 15.344a
2
.000**
Print media
7(30.1%) 4(44.8%) 4(60.8%) 309.788a
2
.000**
Family
3(52.9%) 5(42.3%) 5(27.4%) 231.032a
2
.000**
8.191a
2
.017*
Peers
5(30.8%) 6(28.1%) 8(17.4%) 96.677a
2
.000**
Advertisement
9(17.5%) 8(21.7%) 7(18.9%)
7.245a
2
.027*
Governmental
10(17.3%) 9(15.2%) 9(13.1%) 11.522a
2
.003**
Scientist/professional 6(30.3%) 7(26.9%) 6(25.8%)
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organization Biotech company
8(18.3%) 10(14.7%) 10(7.6%) 93.937a
2
.000**
Non-governmental
11(9.7%) 11(9.8%) 11(7.5%)
7.693a
2
.021*
Non-biology teacher
12(5.0%) 12(7.6%) 12(4.3%) 17.134a
2
.000**
a
The χ² represents difference(%) range from grade 7 to 11(7、9 and 11) with 12
information sources *p < 0.05 . **p < 0.01
In conclusion, the 12 informationed-survey which male contacts with is almost more frequent than female does. However, TV news, Biology teacher, Print media and Family among those items are the exception. Moreover, it is found that the information sources (such as Internet, Scientist/professional, Advertisement, Governmental organization, Biotech company, Non-governmental and Non-biology teacher) male contact with are statistically greater than female does by χ² test. In contrast, it is only one sources, Family, that female receives is statistically greater than male does by χ² test (Table 2). We will explain that on next chapter.
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Table 4. Analysis of biotechnology sources based on major χ²
Df
p
2(62.6%)
19.016a
1
.000**
2(57.7%)
4(56.3%)
.379a
1
0.538
Print media
3(54.3%)
3(61.8%)
.652a
1
0.419
Biology teacher
4(50.1%)
1(68.7%)
40.780a
1
.000**
Family
5(24.5%)
6(23.9%)
.087a
1
0.768
Scientist/professional
6(20.3%)
5(29.0%)
12.181a
1
.000**
Advertisement
7(19.4%)
8(16.6%)
8.712a
1
.003**
Peers
8(14.7%)
7(18.3%)
1.630a
1
0.202
9(13.7%)
9(11..0%)
8.771a
1
.003**
Non-governmental
10(7.2%)
11(6.0%)
.893a
1
0.345
Biotech company
11(6.5%)
10(7.9%)
.331a
1
0.565
Non-biology teacher
12(3.4%)
12(5.0%)
2.253a
1
0.133
Social science
Science
Category
Rank(%)
Rank(%)
TV news
1(64.5%)
Internet
Governmental organization
a
The χ² represents difference(%) between social science and science with 12
information sources *p < 0.05 . **p < 0.01
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It is found that internet is the most frequently used for biotechnology on grade 7, while TV news is the most on grade 9 and 11(Table 3).In addition, the rank of Print media on grade 7 is seventh, while grade 7&11 is fourth. The information sources used by cross-age students (7, 9, and 11) are a little different except Non-governmental and Non-biology teacher. Moreover, it is nearly that all items have significant statistical difference within cross-age students except internet. Table 5. Trust of biotechnology toward all respondents(students)
Category(n = 5245)
Mean
SD
Scientist/professional
3.45
.65
Biology teachers
3.31
.66
Family
2.98
.69
Print media
2.89
.73
2.85
.93
Biotech company
2.83
.78
Non-governmental
2.77
.64
Grand mean
2.75
.37
TV news
2.62
.72
Governmental organization
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Internet
2.61
.70
Peers
2.61
.72
Non-biology teacher
2.20
.71
Advertisement
1.87
.71
Note：Grand mean is equal to 2.75
Table 4 shows that social science students get the most frequent information by TV news and science students do it by Biology teacher. There is some statistically significant difference between social science students and science ones, such as TV news, Biology teacher, Scientist/professional, Advertisement and Governmental organization. As for trust of information sources, we compute the grand mean (=2.75) with all students. It is called “High-trustful region (HTR)” as the mean score is above 2.75(Table 5). For this reason, Scientist/professional, Biology teachers, Family, Print media, Governmental organization, Biotech company and Non-governmental are located in the HTR.
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Table 6.Trust towards Information sources of respondents in different conditions on sex, grade and major overall Category
Male
Female
7 grade
9 grade
11 grade
Social science Science
Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana) Rank(Meana)
Scientist/professional
1(3.45)
1(3.43)
1(3.47)
1(3.34)
1(3.42)
1(3.52)
1(3.51)
1(3.53)
Biology teacher
2(3.31)
2(3.31)
2(3.32)
2(3.25)
2(3.27)
2(3.37)
2(3.34)
2(3.41)
Family
3(2.98)
5(2.94)
5(3.03)
3(3.12)
3(3.04)
5(2.87)
5(2.9)
5(2.84)
Print media
4(2.89)
3(2.88)
3(2.9)
8(2.60)
5(2.80)
3(3.10)
3(3.06)
3(3.13)
Governmental organization
5(2.85)
4(2.83)
4(2.87)
5(2.77)
6(2.79)
4(2.92)
4(2.95)
4(2.9)
Biotech company
6(2.83)
7(2.79)
7(2.86)
4(2.87)
4(2.96)
7(2.73)
7(2.73)
7(2.73)
Non-governmental
7(2.77)
6(2.73)
6(2.81)
7(2.64)
7(2.77)
6(2.84)
6(2.89)
6(2.78)
TV news
8(2.62)
8(2.60)
8(2.65)
10(2.55)
8(2.66)
8(2.64)
8(2.67)
8(2.61)
Peers
9(2.61)
10(2.58)
10(2.65)
6(2.68)
9(2.64)
10(2.56)
10(2.56)
10(2.55)
Internet
10(2.61)
9(2.63)
9(2.59)
9(2.57)
10(2.62)
9(2.62)
9(2.63)
9(2.62)
Non-biology teacher
11(2.2)
11(2.20)
11(2.21)
11(2.02)
11(2.16)
11(2.33)
11(2.33)
11(2.32)
Advertisement 12(1.87) 12(1.88) 12(1.87) a Mean is from each item of respondents in different conditions
12(1.77)
12(1.95)
12(1.89)
12(1.94)
12(1.85)
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Table 7.Trust of biotechnology based on gender
Mean Male
Female
t
P
n =2897
n =2348
Scientist/professional
3.43
3.47
-2.469
.014*
Biology teacher
3.31
3.32
-0.795
0.427
Family
2.94
3.03
-4.795
.000**
Print media
2.88
2.9
-0.966
0.334
Governmental organization
2.83
2.87
-1.262
0.207
Biotech company
2.79
2.86
-3.055
.002**
Non-governmental
2.73
2.81
-4.495
.000**
Internet
2.63
2.59
2.123
.034*
TV news
2.6
2.65
-2.575
.010*
Peers
2.58
2.65
-3.497
.000**
Non-biology teacher
2.2
2.21
-0.561
0.575
Advertisement
1.88
1.87
0.263
0.793
Total mean (Each)
2.73
2.76
-3.192
.001**
Category
**p < .01
*p< .05
Grand mean = 2.75
The collected data with respect trust of information sources is ordered as Table 5. We find that two sources, Scientist/professional and Biology teacher, are respectively ranked top 1 and 2 after computing mean score of trust while another two sources,
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Non-biology teacher and Advertisement, are respectively on the last two list of grades. Therefore, the other sources are ranked as Table 5 and we will discuss their consistence later. Turning now to Table 6 to 8, we pay attention to the trust of different variables, including sex, grade and major. Table 6 deals with the gender variable and reveals that male respondents have more trustful than female ones for each item within the gender except Internet and advertisement (nearly equal ). Moreover, we use inferential statistics to show the difference between male and female, t = -3.192, p < .001, with significant difference among the information sources. On the whole, Table 7 is presented one kind of tendency that trust increases with grade. However, we will find Table 8. Trust of biotechnology based on grade Mean 7 grade
9 grade
11 grade
F
p
f
Post-hoc
n =1400
n =1416
n =2483
Family
3.12
3.04
2.87
67.055
.000**
.16
7>9>11
Non-governmental
2.64
2.77
2.84
41.869
.000**
.13
11>9>7
Internet
2.57
2.62
2.62
3.139
.043*
.03
11>7
Governmental
2.77
2.79
2.92
15.668
.000**
.08
11>9&7
TV news
2.55
2.66
2.64
9.528
.000**
.06
11&9>7
Scientist/professional
3.34
3.42
3.52
35.205
.000**
.11
11>9>7
Biology teacher
3.25
3.27
3.37
19.210
.000**
.08
11>9&7
Print media
2.60
2.80
3.10
237.530
.000**
.30
11>9>7
Non-biology teacher
2.02
2.16
2.33
85.528
.000**
.18
11>9>7
Advertisement
1.77
1.95
1.89
23.219
.000**
.10
9>11>7
Biotech company
2.87
2.96
2.73
40.647
.000**
.12
9>7>11
Peers
2.68
2.64
2.56
14.773
.000**
.08
9&7>11
Total mean
2.68
2.75
2.78
32.459
.000**
.11
11&9>7
Category
*p<.05
**p< .01
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out this part in detail that the trust of some sources increase with grades (i.e., Non-governmental, Internet, Governmental, TV news, Scientist/professional, Biology teacher, Print media and Non-biology teacher) while some decrease with grades (i.e., Family and Peers)(Table 8). Overall, there are no significant statistical difference about trust between Social science group and science group (Table 9). However, Biology teacher, Print media, Family, Non-governmental, TV news and Advertisement which we discuss on next chapter for their difference within majors. Finally, Table 10 presents to compare the rank of sources with rank of trust. Table 11 shows that HTR (High trustful region) has highest negative relationship of -0.702 with HTR corresponding to source (HTRCS). There is no consistence between HTR and HTRCS.
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Table 9.Trust of biotechnology based on major (only 11 grade) Mean Social science
science
n =1179
n =1280
Scientist/professional
3.51
3.53
-0.73
0.466
N/A
Biology teacher
3.34
3.41
-2.931
.003**
0.12
Print media
3.06
3.13
-2.615
.009**
0.11
2.95
2.9
1.273 0.203
N/A
Family
2.9
2.84
2.254 .024*
0.09
Non-governmental
2.89
2.78
4.752 .000**
0.19
Biotech company
2.73
2.73
TV news
2.67
2.61
Internet
2.63
2.62
0.267 0.79
N/A
Peers
2.56
2.55
0.581 0.561
N/A
Non-biology teacher
2.33
2.32
0.502 0.616
N/A
Advertisement
1.94
1.85
3.341 .001**
0.13
Total mean
2.79
2.77
1.310
N/A
Category
t
p
d
Governmental organization
**p < .01
*p< .05
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-0.215
0.83
2.3 .022*
.190
N/A 0.09
Table 10. Compare the rank of sources with rank of trust
Rank Information Category
Trust sources
Scientist/professional
1
6
Biology teacher
2
3
Family
3
5
Print media
4
4
5
9
Biotech company
6
10
Non-governmental
7
11
TV news
8
2
Peers
9
7
Internet
10
1
Non-biology teacher
11
12
Advertisement
12
8
Governmental organization
Table 11. Kendall’s tau_b
HTRCS Correlation coefficient
-.733*
HTR p * Correlation is significant at the .05 level（2-tailed）
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.039*
Discussion and conclusion
We have some suggestions to Scientist, Mass media, Teacher and Government.
To Scientist
The goal of this study calls on scientists to negotiate with students more frequently, since science communication means that scientists communicate with public and they should introduce science to the public. Although the students have very high confidence in scientists, they do not always receive the information from scientists. The thesis suggests that have to walk along the street and talk with the public. Therefore, scientists are asked to hold “Workshop” which is inclusive of science for increasing their relationship.
To mass media
In general, TV is the most common information source among mass media and it can communicate the information of science and technology to the public. Hence, the main information which TV programs and TV news convey has to reach precision, currency, and completeness. That is because that the information they convey
have
an important influence for the public's scientific and technological understanding. It is suggested that an in-depth research to the quality experience should be executed. Besides, Internet which is explored messages and digital information has been emphasized gradually. That is, with the booming development of the Internet and information technology, the Internet has broken the limitation of time and space. In
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other words, the application of network has changed the living style of human beings. However, it is urgent that the quality and quantity of information on the web must be raised. The precision, currency, and completeness of internet seem to be an important indicator to science development.
To Teacher
Teachers are more famous with students at school. It should be transferred students to the correct concept by teachers. They can design some teaching activities with respect to biotechnology issues for letting students debate with issues in public. To Government and Authority
The Government must play a vital role to integrate a program which plans to efficiently use the media, teachers and scientists and that attains to science communication with the public. References
Biotechnology Australia. (2008). National Biotechnology Strategy. Australia Retrieved December 16, 2008, from http://www.biotechnology.gov.au/index.cfm?event=object.showContent&objectID =538B635B-BCD6-81AC-1E1B66BB24EA3184 Brenner, V.(1997). “Psychology of computer use: XL VII. Parameters of internet use, abuse and addiction: the first 90 days of the internet usage survey,” Psychological-Reports. 80(3, Pt 1):879-882. Conner, L. (2006) Assessing Bioethical Issues: A Case Study (Invited). Seoul, Korea:
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UNESCO Asia-Pacific Conference on Bioethics, 26-28 Jul 2006. Chou, C., and Tsai, M. "Gender differences in Taiwan high school students's computer game playing," Computers in Human Behavior (23:1), pp 812-824, 2007. Executive Yuan. (2002). Challenge 2008：Country Development Key Plan. Taiwan： Author：http://www.cepd.gov.tw/m1.aspx?sNo=0001539&ex=1&ic=0000015 Hsueh-Lin, Chen . " The Study of Influential Factors in High School Students’ Internet Information Seeking Behavior─Taking Taipei City as an example," Master Thesis, Yuan Ze University, June. 2002. Huang,E. "The acceptance of women-centric websites," The Journal of Computer Information Systems (45:4), pp 75-84, 2005. Lerouge, C., Newton, S., and Blanton, E. "Exploring the systems analyst skill
set :
perceptions, preferences, age, and gender," The Journal of Computer Information Systems (45:3), pp 12-24, 2005. Mark J.W. Bos, Cees M. Koolstra and Jaap T.J.M. Willems (2009) “Adolescent responses toward a new technology: first associations, information seeking and affective responses to ecogenomics,” Public Understanding of Science 18： 243-253. Morgan, R.M. and Hunt, S.D. (1994.), “The Commitment.trust Theory of Relationship Marketing”, Journal of Marketing, 58, 20.38. Morahan-Martin, J., & Schumacher, P. (2000). “Incidence and correlates of pathological internet use among college students,” Computers in Human Behavior, 16(1): 13-29. NSF (2006). Science and Engineering Indicators 2006. Retrieved Sep. 23, 2007, from the World Wide Web: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/
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Oliver, R. W. (1999). The Coming Biotech Age: The Business of Bio-Materials. New York: McGraw-Hill Ong, C.S., and Lai, J.Y. "Gender differences in perceptions and relationships among dominants of e-learning acceptance," Computers in Human Behavior (22), pp 816-829, 2006. Sanchez-Franco, M.J. "Exploring the influence of gender on the web usage via partial least squares," Behaviour & Information Technology (25:1), pp 19-36, 2006. The Directorate General of Telecommunications, Ministry of Transportation and Communications (DGT)(2004)：Retrieved 2004, from http://www.dgt.gov.tw/Chinese/About-dgt/Publication/95/11.htm Solomon, P.(1993). Children’s information retrieval behavior：a case analysis of an OPAC. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 44, 245-264. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B. and of information
Davis,
F.D. "User acceptance
technology: toward a unified view," MIS Quarterly (27:3), pp
425-478, 2003. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., and Ackerman, P. "A longitudinal field investigation of gender differences in individual information technology adoption decision-making processes," Organizational Behavior and Human DecisionProcesses (831), pp 33-61, 2001. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, G.B. and Davis, F.D. "User acceptance of information technology: toward a unified view," MIS Quarterly (27:3), pp 425-478, 2003. Yung-RU, Lin. " A Study of Information Sources in Jinshan Senior High School," Master Thesis, National Taiwan University, June. 2000.
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
Fundamental thermal concepts: An evaluation of Year 11 students’ conceptual understanding in everyday contexts
Hye-Eun Chu, Kim Chwee Daniel Tan & Loh Lee Choon
National institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
David F. Treagust
Curtin University of Technology, Western Australia
First author contact information: Assistant Professor Chu Hye-Eun Natural Sciences & Science Education National Institute of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University 1 Nanyang Walk Singapore 637616 Tel: +65 6790 3891 Fax: +65 6896 9414 E-mail:
[email protected].
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
Abstract This research was conducted to investigate students‟ understanding of fundamental thermal concepts in everyday contexts. The 19 multiple-choice items in the questionnaire used in this study required written justifications for students‟ choice of responses. The items involving fundamental thermal concepts about heat, temperature, heat transfer and conduction were based on a previously developed questionnaire and from students‟ alternative conceptions derived from the research literature. The items which were entirely based on everyday contexts with scientific terminology avoided were administered to 80 Year 11 Singapore students. Four or five students from each class were interviewed in order to obtain additional information about their conceptual understanding and to probe the reasons they gave. Analysis of students‟ responses revealed several alternative conceptions of thermal concepts. Also, even though they held several acceptable scientific conceptions, many students had difficulties in applying thermal concepts in everyday contexts. The findings imply that classroom teaching needs to provide opportunities for students to make connections between scientific concepts and everyday contexts and to develop teaching strategies to help students better understand the related science concepts.
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
Fundamental thermal concepts: An evaluation of Year 11 students’ conceptual understanding in everyday contexts Introduction
Over the last three decades, studies have revealed and proposed reasons for the existence and resilience of children‟s and adolescents‟ naïve understandings about the physical world (Duit, 2009; Osborne & Freyberg, 1985). Despite the diversity of these naïve understandings and theories, different researchers have repeatedly reported similar results and patterns across age groups. It is also generally agreed that traditional instruction that does not take into account the existing beliefs of students is largely ineffective in changing their naïve ideas. Many students leave school (and even university) with their naive physics understandings unchanged or existing alongside more accepted scientific views (Meltzer, 2004; Vosniadou, 1994; White & Gunstone, 1989). Previous studies involving learners enrolled in a university bridging program have indicated that students experienced difficulties in making connections between scientific concepts and their everyday life experiences (Chu, Treagust, & Chandrasegaran, 2008a). Also, students could not apply scientific concepts in different contexts even though the same scientific concepts were involved (Chu, Treagust, & Chandrasegaran, 2008b). It is important to elucidate what kinds of students‟ conceptual misunderstandings prevent them from applying the same scientific concepts in different everyday contexts.
This approach is
considered relevant in view of the growing emphasis in several science curricula on the relevance of contextualized science in elementary and secondary school levels. The 26 multiple choice item Thermal Conceptual Evaluation (TCE) was developed (Yeo & Zadnik, 2001) and used by different researchers to assess the extent to which students have attained scientifically acceptable understandings about basic thermal concepts like heat,
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
temperature, heat conduction and phase changes. Mustafa (2006) used the TCE as a pre-test and post-test to investigate the effectiveness of a cognitive conflict-based physics instruction over traditionally designed physics instruction on primary school teachers‟ understanding of thermal physics. However, Chu et al. (2008) were unable to find out what kinds of detailed misconceptions and factors hinder students‟ conceptual understanding of thermal concepts because the TCE contains typical multiple choice items. So in this study, 17 of the TCE items were modified requiring students to provide reasons for their choice of responses and the instrument was renamed the Thermal Conceptual Questionnaire (TCQ).
Purpose of the study
This study was conducted to investigate (1) students‟ alternative conceptions about thermal concepts (2) the factors that hinder students‟ conceptual understanding and their ability to apply the same thermal physics concepts in different contexts. Methods Participants Eighty-six first year junior college students in Singapore participated in this research. They were studying physics and had previously achieved O-level physics scores ranging from A1 – B3. Thermal physics concepts taught in first year junior college include heat capacity and the microscopic view of thermodynamics, as well as molecular motion caused by heat energy. Questionnaire Thermal Conceptual Questionnaire (TCQ) The 19 multiple choice items in the questionnaire used in this study required written justifications for the students‟ choice of responses. Seventeen of the items were based on a
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
previously developed questionnaire by Yeo and Zadnik (2001) and two items were based on concept cartoons developed by Naylor and Keogh (2002). The items were based on everyday contexts and avoided the use of scientific terminology. Figure 1 shows an example of one of these items. The items were categorised into four conceptual groups namely, (1) heat transfer and temperature changes, (2) boiling, (3) heat conductivity and equilibrium, and (4) melting (see Table 1). The Cronbach‟s alpha reliability for the multiple choice items was 0.70. When both students‟ correct multiple choice responses and justifications were taken into account, the reliability increased to 0.80. 12. Jan announces that she does not like sitting on the metal chairs in the room because “They are colder than the plastic ones.”
a) Jim agrees and says: “They are colder because the temperature of the metal is lower than that of plastic.”
b) Kip says: “They are not colder, they are at the same temperature.” c) Lou says: “They are not colder; the metal ones just feel colder because they are heavier.” d) Mai says: “They are colder because metal has less heat to lose than plastic.” Who do you think is right?
The reason for my answer is:
Figure1. An example of Thermal Conceptual Questionnaire (TCQ)
Data analysis First level of analysis: students’ correct responses Students‟ correct and incorrect responses were coded 1 and 0, respectively for the multiple choice items as well as when their justifications were taken into account. This analysis will provide percentages of students‟ correct responses to each of the 19 items separately, as well as in the four conceptual groups.
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Second level of analysis: Identifying students’ alternative conceptions Students‟ justifications for the choice of correct responses have been identified based on prior research findings (see Table 2). These categories enabled us to identify the alternative conceptions that were held by students who were involved in this study. Table 1. Description of items in the four conceptual groups No. 1
Conceptual group Heat transfer and temperature changes
Item no. 10
13
14 15
16 18 2
Boiling
1 2 3 6 7
3
Heat conductivity and equilibrium
9
12 11 19 4
Melting and freezing
1 2
Item description Comparing the temperature of a cold can of coke with the temperature of the bench top beneath the can Comparing magnitude of „coldness‟ resulting from a temperature decrease announced in a weather forecast Comparing the temperature of our skin and the sweat lying on our skin Predicting room temperature based on cooling effect of bottles wrapped with wet and dry washcloths Finding the direction of heat energy transfer Wearing a coat in cold weather Predicting the initial temperature of boiling water Predicting the temperature of continuously boiling water Predicting the temperature of steam in contact with boiling water Preparing tea at high altitude Cooking of soup in a pressure cooker Comparing the temperature of a plastic coke bottle with the temperature of the drink in the plastic bottle Comparing the „warmness‟ and coldness‟ of plastic and metal Comparing temperatures of the wooden and ice parts of an icy-pole Measuring the temperature of dolls wrapped in blankets Predicting the temperature of ice water when ice cubes have stopped melting Predicting the temperature of ice water when ice cubes have stopped melting
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
Table 2. Previous studies on thermal concepts related to this study Identified alternative conceptions Heat There are two types of heat; hot heat and cold heat Heat is a material substance like a wave that rises from the road
Students‟ age
Research method
Authors
12 year-olds
Informal interviews followed by indepth interviews
Erickson (1979)
Heat and temperature are the same thing Heat is not energy
16-19 yearolds
Multiple-choice questionnaire
Yeo and Zadnik (2001)
Informal interviews followed by indepth interviews Interviews
Erickson (1979)
Temperature Temperature is an extensive quantity
12 year-olds
4-11 yearolds
Paik, Cho and Go (2007) Andersson (1980)
Temperature of boiling water can exceed 100oC during boiling
12-15 yearolds
Interviews
Temperature is a measure of heat Boiling The matter inside bubbles of boiling water is water, water vapour, heat, air, smoke, oxygen or carbon dioxide
15-16 yearolds
Clinical interviews
Kesidou and Duit (1993)
6-12 yearolds
Open-ended oral individual tests Open-ended written tests Multiple-choice tests
Bar and Travis (1991)
12-14 yearolds Adults(19-45 years) Scientists
Interviews
Lewis and Linn (1994)
15 year-olds
Interview about tasks
Clough and Driver (1986) Harrison et al. (1999) Lewis and Linn (1994)
Thermal Insulation Metals attract, hold or store heat and cold Wool warms things up
Thermal Equilibrium The temperature of different objects is different even though they have been placed in the same environment over an extended period of time
17 year-olds Inquiry method 12-14 yearolds Adults (1945 years) Scientists 4-11 yearolds
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Clinical interviews
Seoung et at. (2007) Interviews
AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
Results
Item analysis - First level of analysis: students’ correct answers As previously mentioned, students‟ correct and incorrect responses were coded 1 and 0, respectively for the multiple choice items as well as when their justifications were taken into account. Table 3 shows the percentage of students‟ correct responses to the multiple choice items as well as when their justifications were taken into account in the four conceptual categories.
Table 3. Percentage of students correct responses to the multiple choice items as well as when their justifications were taken into account in the four conceptual groups (N=86) Conceptual group Multiple choice Multiple choice and items open-ended justification 1.Heat -Temperature change 26-92 14-84 transfer -Cooling process and 14-48 8-37 temperature changes 2.Boiling
-Boiling water
38-62
2-27
-Boiling under high/low pressures
47-78
44-50
3.Heat conductivity and equilibrium
48-74
37-64
4.Melting
48-69
36-63
In most instances the percentage of students‟ correct responses to the multiple choice items were higher than when their correct justifications were considered. In particular, the boiling concept group showed the biggest differences between the percentages of correct answers for the two sub-categories, boiling water and boiling under high/low pressures. For example, Item 1 solicited the temperature of boiling water in a kettle. While 38% of students chose 98°C, only 2% of students provided the correct justification that the boiling point of
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
water was 100oC only at sea level and any location above the sea level will have a lower pressure. The heat transfer conceptual group consisted of two sub-categories, temperature changes, and the cooling process and temperature changes. Over 80% of students provided the correct response for the temperature change sub-category to both the multiple choice and when taking into account the open-ended justification in Items 10, 13 and 16. Only Item 18 that involved whether or not the snowman wearing a coat would melt showed low correct response in the temperature change sub-category (26% for the multiple choice item and 14% only 8% when the justification was taken into account). The percentage of students who provided correct responses about this cooling process (Item 14) was very low (14% for the multiple choice item and only 8% when the justification was taken into account). Students‟ correct responses when their justifications were taken into account are summarised in Table 4. Table 4. Students‟ correct responses to the multiple choice items as well as when their justifications were taken into account in the four conceptual groups (N=86) Conceptual group
1. Heat transfer and temperature changes conceptual group - Temperature changes
Item no.
Correct responses
10
When two bodies at different temperatures are in contact, heat energy flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
16
The direction of heat energy transfer is always in one direction: from hot to cold and never from cold to hot. Coldness then cannot be transferred.
85
13
Hotness and coldness are subjective quantities. The degree Celsius scale is not an absolute temperature scale.
44
18
An insulator delays the rate of heat energy transfer from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. So, the coat delays the melting process of the snowman as heat energy from the surroundings takes a longer time to reach the snowman
17
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Percentage of correct responses 85
AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING - Cooling process and temperature changes
2.Boiling conceptual group - Boiling water
- Boiling under high/low pressure
3. Conductivity and thermal equilibrium
14
When sweat evaporates, the sweat needs energy to convert it from a liquid state to a vapour state. This energy is drawn from the skin. Since the skin loses heat energy, the skin feels cold.
77
15
The room would have to be quite dry. Water evaporates and cools down one bottle; the other bottle, it tends towards thermal equilibrium, which occurs 26°C.
37
1
The most likely temperature of water boiling in a kettle is 98oC. The boiling point of water is 100oC only at sea level. Any location above the sea level will have a lower pressure.
4
2
The boiling point of water remains constant during boiling as there is no change in pressure. If water is boiling at 98oC, then its boiling point will remain the same five minutes later.
35
3
The temperature of steam is the same as the boiling point of water; so the temperature of the steam is 98oC, at the atmospheric pressure of the location.
19
4
Up on the mountain, the pressure is lower than at sea level. Since the pressure is lower the boiling point is lower as well. The lower the pressure, the lower is the boiling point. The boiling point of water is dependent on pressure.
51
5
The greater the pressure, the higher is the boiling point. The boiling point of water is dependent on pressure.
52
9
Different objects are made from different materials and will eventually acquire the same temperature if these objects are placed in the same environment for an extended period of time. Thermal equilibrium has been achieved.
50
11
Different objects made from different materials feel different because the rate of heat energy transfer is different for different materials, although their temperatures are the same.
65
12
Different objects made from different materials feel different because the rate of heat energy transfer is different for different
52
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING materials, although their temperatures are the same.
4.Melting
19
If placed long enough in a certain environment, all materials will acquire the same temperature which is the temperature of that environment.
41
6
Ice melts at 0oC. During the melting process, solid ice and liquid water are present at the same time and the temperature is constant at 0oC during the whole melting process.
37
7
Since ice is still present in a mixture of ice and water, the temperature of the water should be the same (thermal equilibrium) as the temperature of ice which is at 0oC.
64
Second level of analysis: Categorisation of students’ alternative conceptions To identify students‟ alternative conceptions in thermal concepts, responses from two classes of students (N=41) were analysed.
Heat transfer and temperature changes conceptual group Table 5 shows categories that were drawn from students‟ incorrect open-ended responses in heat transfer and temperature changes conceptual group. The alternative conceptions “heat and cold as the each end of continuum” keep appearing all items in Heat Transfer and conceptual group. Also, 70% of students understood heat energy can be transferred from one object to the other object easily because of the properties of materials.
Boiling conceptual group Table 6 shows the categories that were drawn from students‟ incorrect open-ended justifications in boiling conceptual group. Most students believed the boiling point of water is always stable (100°C) under standard conditions even though 26% of students showed this alternative conceptions in the context of the high mountain. Except two students, student Page 507
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Table 5. Percentage of incorrect students‟ open-ended justifications in categories of the heat transfer and temperature changes conceptual group (N=41) Item numbers In HT during
Item number in HT & TC Categories
Examples of students‟ open-ended justifications
Item 10
Item 13
Item 16
Item 18
Item 14
Properties of material
-Coat traps heat or air -Coat is a good insulation -Wet cloth is a good conductor
Temperature movement
-Temperature moves from higher region to lower legion
Considering heat and cold at the ends of a continuum
-Cold is transferred -Ice cream absorbs & gives out heat at the same time -Heat energy absorbed from skin
Everyday observation
-In the movies, there was no difference -I saw it in my physics text book
Evaporation cause cooling
-The evaporation caused molecules with less kinetic energy to remain
Not in categories
-Repeating the multiple choice options -The answer cannot be understood
10
10
12
12
12
Total
17
12
16
91
53
7
2
Item 15
51
19
2
2
7
2
24
27
2
2
53
12
79
Item number in HT & TC: Item numbers in Heat Transfer and Temperature Changes sub-conceptual group Item numbers in HT during CP: Heat Transfer during Cooling Process sub-conceptual group
could not make connection between the boiling point of water in everyday context and water boiling point under atmospheric pressure. Students had more difficulties applying the scientific concept in the high pressure context in item 5 (88%) than in the low pressure context in Item 4 (50%).
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AN EVAUATION OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL UNDERSATNDING
Table 6. Percentage of incorrect students‟ open-ended justifications in the categories of boiling conceptual group (N=41) Examples of students‟ open-ended justifications
Categories
Item number in BW Item numbers In B at DP Item Item Item Item Item 1 2 3 4 5
Always stable Boiling point
-Boiling point is always 100°C -Boiling point cannot exceed 100 °C -Water does not boil when the pressure is lowered
67
9
Presence of impurities
-In the water there are impurities -The tap water is not pure water - Kinetic energy is decreasing - (Thermal) energy loss to surroundings
27
24
Energy loss
Continuous boiling increases/decrease /has the same temperature
-Steam increases temperature -Temperature of steam is more than boiling point of water - Temperature of steam has the same temperature of boiling water -Cooling effect of evaporation
15
10
30
19
18
Pressure influenced -Higher pressure caused higher temperature/ boiling point temperature -Pressure is lower therefore boiling point increase -Constant pressure in the pressure cooker Pressure influenced heat
-Pressure affects heat -Pressure affects rate of heat
Not in categories
-Repeating the multiple choice options -The answer cannot be understood
Total
26
9
57
16 2
5
19
15
15
96
67
82
50
88
Item numbers in BW: Item numbers in Boiling Water conceptual group Item numbers in B at DP: Item numbers in Boiling at Different Pressure
Heat conductivity and equilibrium conceptual group Table 7 shows categories that were drawn from students‟ incorrect open-ended justifications in the heat conductivity and equilibrium conceptual group. Students‟ alternative conception that “we feel some objects colder than other objects at the same temperature because of the properties of materials” kept recurring in items 9, 11, 12 and 19. In item 17 about comparing metal and plastic chairs, 70% of students showed these alternative conceptions.
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Table 7. Percentage of incorrect students‟ open-ended justifications in the categories of heat conductivity and equilibrium conceptual group (N=41) Categories
Examples of students‟ open-ended justifications
Heat gained/lost from surroundings
-Heat gained from surroundings -Heat lost from surroundings
Properties of material
-Metal is a good conductor -Plastic is a good insulator -Insulating properties of blanket -Heat transferring properties of blanket
Specific heat capacity
-Specific heat capacity of metal is less than specific heat capacity of plastic
Item 9
Item 11
Item 12
Item 19
18
70
43
70
43
7
24
5
Different amounts/volumes -Different amounts of coke results in different heat capacity
2
Not in categories
2
13
40
31
-Repeating the multiple choice options -The answer cannot be understood
Total
Melting Conceptual group Table 8 shows the categories that were drawn from students‟ incorrect open-ended justifications in the melting conceptual group. Seventy-four percent of students in Item 8 suggested that ice melts at higher than 0°C as well as during a phase change (ice to water), the temperature can be increased. Items 6 and 7 have context differences in only size of ice, but most students‟ could not answer Item 7correctly.
Conclusion and implications
The purpose of this research was to investigate first year junior college students‟ understanding of thermal concepts relating to their everyday life experiences and to identify alternative conceptions that were held by the students based on a questionnaire (the TCQ) that was developed by Yeo and Zadnik (2001) and related research conducted by Chu et al. (2008).
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Table 8. Percentage of incorrect students‟ open-ended responses in the categories of melting conceptual group (N=41)
Categories
Examples of students‟ open-ended justifications
Item 6
Item 7
Thermal equilibrium
-Ice and water are not in thermal equilibrium -Ice and water are in thermal equilibrium at 5°C because water cannot be at 0°C
7
The temperature when ice stops melting
-When ice stops melting, the temperature must be less than 0°C -When ice stops melting, the temperature must be higher than 0 °C -Temperature increases while ice cubes have melted
9
74
Heat lost to/gained from surroundings
-Heat lost to surroundings -Heat gained from surroundings
9
7
Heat transfer
-Heat has transferred from the water to ice, causing minor drop in temperature. They are still at around 10°C
5
Not in categories
-Repeating the multiple choice options -The answer cannot be understood
Total
20
10
50
91
However, a different approach was used in the design of the questionnaire and the data analysis in this study; initially students‟ open-ended justifications for their responses to 19 multiple choice items were categorized in four conceptual groups. Alternative conceptions from the open-ended justifications were next identified to determine the factors that hindered students‟ conceptual understanding and their ability to apply the same thermal physics concepts in different contexts. Most students had alternative conceptions in basic thermal concepts such as boiling concept, heat transfer during cooling process, and melting concept. Students mentioned scientific concepts with theoretical definitions in their open-ended justifications but they could not make connections with the everyday contexts of the items. For example, students knew that evaporation resulted in a cooling process but they could not explain the heat energy transfer from the skin to the sweat. Also, students knew that the boiling point of water is
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measured under standard conditions (1 atmosphere pressure at sea level), but students were unable to use this scientific concept in an everyday context. The findings of this study have several implications for classroom instruction as well as for future research. Opportunities for students to make connections between their knowledge have to be provided. Also, the metacognitive process to make students to think about what they know, what they don‟t know and why they don‟t know should be provided through these kinds of everyday based test items. This is ongoing research. There will be further data analysis of alternative conceptions considering the combination of multiple choice options and categories of justifications.
References Andersson, B. (1980). Some aspects of children’s understanding of boiling point, in Archenhold, W.F., Driver, R., Orton, A. And Wood-Robinson, C. (eds.), Cognitive Development Research in Science and Mathematics, Proceedings of an International Seminar, 17-21, September 1979, University of Leeds. Bar, V., & Travis, A.S. (1991). Children‟s views concerning phase changes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(4), 363-382. Baser Mustafa (2006). Fostering conceptual change by cognitive conflict based instruction on students‟ understanding of heat and temperature concepts. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2 (2), 96-114. Chu, H-E, Treagust, D. F, Yeo, S., & Zadnik, M. (2008). Students‟ difficulties in understanding of fundamental thermal concepts in everyday context. The annual meeting of Australasian Science Education Research Association (ASERA), Brisbane. Chu, H.-E., Treagust, D. F., & Chandrasegaran, A. L. (2008a). Naïve students‟ conceptual development and beliefs: the need for multiple analyses to determine what contributes
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to student success in a university introductory physics course. Research in Science Education, 38 (1), 111-125 Chu, H.-E., Treagust, D. F., & Chandrasegaran, A. L. (2008b). The context dependency of students’ conceptions of basic optics concepts using two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument. The 81st annual international conference of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST), Baltimore, MD. Clough, E.E., & Driver, R. (1986). A study of consistency in the use of students‟ conceptual frameworks across different task context. Science Education, 70(4), 473-496. Duit, R. (2009). Students„ and teachers„ conceptions and science eudcation. Retrieved from the internet on 13 August, http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/aktuell/stcse/stcse.html Erickson, G.L. (1979). Children‟s conceptions of heat and temperature. Science Education, 63(2), 221-230. Harrison, A.G., Grayson, D.J., & Treagust, D.F. (1999). Investigating a grade 11 student‟s evolving conceptions of heat and temperature. Journal of Research Science Teaching, 36(1), 55-87. Lewis, E.L., & Linn, M.C. (1994). Heat energy and temperature concepts of adolescents, adults, and experts: Implications for curricular improvements. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(6), 657-677. Meltzer, D. E. (2004). Investigation of students' reasoning regarding heat, work, and the first law of thermodynamics in an introductory calculus-based general physics course. American Journal of Physics, 72(11), 1432-1453. Naylor, S., & Keogh, B. (2002).
Concept cartoons, teaching and learning in science: an
evaluation. International Journal of Science Education, 21 (4), 431-446. Osborne, R., & Freyberg, P. (1985). Learning in science: The implications of children's science. Auckland: Heinemann.
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Paik, S.H., Cho, B.K., & Go, Y.M. (2007). Korean 4- to 11- year-old student conceptions of heat and temperature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(2), 284-302. Seoung, H. P., Boo, K.C., & Young, M.G. (2007). Korean 4 - to 11 - year old student conceptions of heat and temperature. Journal of Research in Science teaching, 44(2), 284-302. Vosniadou, S. (1994). Capturing and modelling the process of conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 4, 45-69. White, R. T., & Gunstone, R. F. (1989). Metalearning and conceptual change. International Journal of Science Education, 11, 577-586. Yeo, S., & Zadnik, M. (2001). Introductory thermal concept evaluation: Assessing students‟ understanding. The Physics Teacher, 39, 496-504.
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EFFECTIVENESS OF WEB-BASED PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
The Effectiveness of Web-based Problem-based Learning for Secondary School Students
Sherine Shi Yun, Chua
Hwa Chong Institution
[email protected]
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Abstract The problem-based learning (PBL) model was originally conceived in the 1960s for use in medical education, with the goals of fostering flexible knowledge, problem-solving, selfdirected and effective collaboration skills as well as intrinsic motivation to learn. Since its inception, the PBL approach has been widely adopted in several settings that have shown much success in achieving these goals. However, much of the research has been limited to higher education and not enough has been documented about the effectiveness of its use at the secondary school level, much less to say of its applicability in the online context. This paper examines the effectiveness of a web-based PBL program carried out over three months for a group of secondary three students enrolled in a Physics module. Students worked in groups to resolve an authentic problem and the process was captured in their blogs that was also used to develop the final report and a product. At the end of the PBL, they posted their group and individual reflections in the blog. The analysis carried out was mostly qualitative based on the students’ blog portfolios, post-PBL surveys, interviews as well as a written pretest and posttest. Findings show that the web-based PBL achieved the afore-mentioned goals. The paper ends with a discussion of the challenges faced and suggestions for future research.
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The Effectiveness of Web-based Problem-based Learning for Secondary School Students Introduction Problem-based learning (PBL) is an inquiry approach in which learners engage in solving ill-structured problems situated in a meaningful, real-world context. This approach was conceived in the 1960s for use in medical education as students were disenchanted with the passive mode of learning until residency training, during which they were able to work with patients in solving authentic problems (Blumberg, 2000). However, they faced immense difficulties during residency training as they retained little of what they had learnt and often used knowledge incorrectly in their clinical diagnosis, highlighting poor transfer of knowledge and skills to actual practice. In fact, past research found no correlation between developing competency in solving self-contained well-structured problems and real-world problems (Coulson, Feltovich & Spiro, 1989; Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, & Anderson, 1988), thus appealing to the use of PBL where learning takes place in an authentic context. Since then, the PBL model has been successfully adopted in several learning institutions (Milter & Stinson, 1994; Bridges & Hallinger, 1992; Gallagher, Stepien & Rosenthal, 1992; Grady & Alwis, 2002). Students became active learners and took greater ownership of their learning. While mastering the content, they also developed effective problem-solving strategies (Gallagher et al., 1992; Hmelo-Silver, 2004), improved their written report and teamwork skills as well as enhanced their understanding of specific industries (Merchant, 1995). Despite the many benefits of using PBL in instruction, much of the research has been limited to higher education, with little being documented about its effectiveness at the secondary school level. This paper examines the effectiveness of a web-based Physics PBL Page 517
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program carried out over three months for a group of secondary three students, with an emphasis on the use of Web 2.0 to enhance the learning process. First, the rationale for its use is described in relation to the constructivist model of learning. This is followed by a description of how the PBL program was carried out before analyzing its effectiveness based on the five goals of Barrows and Kelson (1995). The paper ends with a discussion of the challenges faced and suggestions for future research. Historical & Theoretical Precedence of Constructivist Learning Our beliefs and assumptions about teaching are a direct reflection of the beliefs and assumptions we hold about the learner (Bruner, 1999). Much of education has traditionally been centered on the perception of children as imitative learners in need of didactic instruction. The teacher decides what and how students should learn. Propositional knowledge is usually taught first followed by repeated practices to gain familiarity. Students are then assessed on their competence in generating similar successful performances. There are several dangers in this approach. Firstly, an overemphasis on theory causes learning to become decontextualized and students are unable to relate what they learn to their lives (Boshuizen, Schmidt, & Wassamer, 1990; Patel, Groen, & Norman, 1991). Secondly, an over-reliance on practice gives them a false sense of self-efficacy where they can answer conventional questions but are unable to apply the same concepts to problems presented in a novel manner (Duncker, 1945; Needham & Begg, 1991). As Bruner (1999) puts it, knowledge has simply grown from practice and is not linked to theory. Didactic instruction becomes ineffective when it is overly teacher-centered and the teacher fails to reconstruct the students’ view of learning accurately. Students find it difficult to adapt to the methods enforced upon them when there is a considerable mismatch between actual and perceived learning styles.
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With increasing awareness of the failures of didactic instruction, education has since evolved to a more inclusive stance that sees children as thinkers and not empty vessels waiting to be filled. It is essential that we “place ourselves inside the heads of our students and try to understand as far as possible the sources and strengths of their conceptions” (Gardner, 1991, p. 253). Our choice of pedagogies should provide greater accommodation of what the child thinks and how he arrives at his beliefs. As a result, learning experiences now often constitute opportunities for collaboration and negotiation with others in building collective world views, which is characteristic of the social constructivist approach of learning. Social Constructivist Learning Social constructivist learning is an active process of constructing knowledge through meaningful interactions with others. The individual interprets and assimilates knowledge based on his unique experiences and perceptions within the environment that he is immersed in. To create a rich learning environment, activities should be pitched at the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) where learning is optimized and helps to mediate the formation of one’s self concept. At the ZPD, the child lacks knowledge that he is unable to learn on his own and requires help from more capable others who are able to provide scaffolding and mutual support. Group activities bring an uphill task to a manageable level as each individual can take on a smaller sub-task, expediting learning as well. Social interactions also provide opportunities for individuals to check and negotiate for understanding with others, expanding the pool of shared knowledge and skills. Besides pitching tasks at the ZPD, effective learning of Science takes place when students engage in entire research projects where they learn what it means to conduct research from beginning to end (Roth, 1999). Specifically, students begin with identifying a
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problem before proceeding to resolve it as “it would be inappropriate to engage in problemsolving without also framing and reframing the problem until it is solved – the very way scientists solve problems in their everyday lives” (p.12). The social constructivist mode of learning thus paves the way for learning through PBL where individuals collaborate to solve an entire authentic problem, the basis being that “an individual’s knowledge is a function of one’s prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events […]. The mind produces mental models that represent what the knower has perceived [and] are used to explain, predict or infer phenomena in the real world. Much of reality is shared through a process of social negotiation.” (Jonassen, 1994, p. 35) The PBL Approach PBL is a form of “focused, experiential learning organized around the investigation, explanation and resolution of meaningful problems” (Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p. 236). The process begins with a problem that is presented in an ill-structured manner and often situated within an authentic context. The problem triggers the learning of content and skills, both underpinning the development of strong foundational thinking and inter-personal skills (Grady et al., 2002). According to Herrington (2006), authentic problems should have these ten characteristics: 1. Have real-world relevance 2. Are ill-defined 3. Comprise complex tasks to be investigated over a sustained period of time 4. Provide opportunities to examine the problem from different perspectives using a variety of resources 5. Provide opportunities to collaborate
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6. Provide for reflection 7. Can be integrated and applied across different subject areas and lead beyond domainspecific outcomes 8. Are seamlessly integrated with assessment 9. Create polished products valuable in their own right rather than as a preparation for something else 10. Allow competing solutions and a diversity of outcome Students work in groups and follow the process outlined by Gallagher et al. (1992): 1. Fact finding: Groups source for information that helps to organize the problem. 2. Problem finding: Based on the information gathered, they identify the central problem and identify learning issues. 3. Brainstorming: A list of possible solutions is generated. 4. Solution finding: The list of solutions is evaluated based on a set of criteria to the most viable ones. 5. Implementation: The chosen solutions are applied in context. 6. Evaluation: These solutions are tested for their effectiveness. Throughout the process, the student reflects on his learning which includes the adequacy of ideas and knowledge gained, group dynamics and readiness for lifelong learning. The process is iterative as research is ongoing all the time. Students constantly find new information, gain deeper understanding of the problem and new insights from accumulated experiences and reflections of their own learning, all of which require them to return to previous steps to refine their strategies. There is no standard or predetermined solution for a PBL problem. The rigor of learning and quality of the outcome depend on how engaged the students are in the process, while enjoying greater freedom in directing their learning. Successful learners take Page 521
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responsibility for their learning and are proactive in identifying learning deficiencies and finding means to overcome them. PBL provides space for individuals to customize learning according to how they want to develop. By working in groups, students are able to mentor and seek help from each other, thus enhancing collective learning and social processes. All this time, the teacher only facilitates learning by scaffolding student thinking and group functioning. PBL is not about a particular methodology of learning and teaching; rather, it is a philosophy that embraces self and collective wisdom, depth of understanding and ownership of learning. It seeks to instill in learners a way of learning that encompasses appropriate personal thinking processes and positive learning attitude when faced with difficulties. Learners construct a personal understanding of knowledge by exploring possibilities in different contexts, connecting new information with prior knowledge, determining the viability of their conceptions and appreciating how they come to make meaning of the knowledge gained (Grady et al., 2002, p. 2). More specifically, the goals of PBL (Barrows & Kelson, 1995) are to 1. construct an extensive and flexible knowledge base 2. develop effective problem-solving skills 3. develop self-directed, lifelong learning skills 4. become effective collaborators 5. become intrinsically motivated to learn Recently, there has been an increasing trend of using the Web for implementing PBL. The online environment supports the constructivist mode of learning as it provides a platform for learners to develop individual competence while participating in learning communities. According to Wilson and Lowry (2000), three core principles provide the framework for effective use of the Web for learning – to provide access to rich sources of information; to Page 522
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encourage meaningful interactions with content and to bring people together to challenge, support and respond to each other. With Web 2.0, there is now a multitude of online resources to support collaboration and formation of such interactive learning frameworks. For example, blogs enable joint journal entries and can be easily customized with various embedded applications. Social network applications such as Facebook and Twitter allow us to connect to anyone across the globe easily, making our presence more ubiquitous than ever. Chat applications such as MSN allow people to communicate quickly, anytime and from anywhere. Wikis and Google documents allow information to be catalogued and shared via common accounts, saving us the trouble of emailing documents to and fro. YouTube videos provide another dimension for learning and cater to different types of learners. The Web has been successfully used in several educational settings. Lefoe (1998) described two postgraduate distance learning courses, one carried out using a virtual simulation of an industry project and another using mainly videoconferencing and chat tools to carry out direct interactions between the lecturer and students from different countries. Several universities also use the Web heavily to implement PBL in their courses, requiring students to develop their final products online using Web 2.0 tools (Herrington, Reeves, Oliver & Woo, 2004). Conducting PBL for a Year 3 Physics Module Students in this study were in their third year and attending a two-year Science and Math Talent Programme for the highly-gifted. The Physics curriculum was divided into electives and students chose one module to take per term. Each module lasted three months and all were to be completed by the end of the year. As such, the distribution of students was more or less random across the four modules.
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The module used in this study was “Waves, Optics & Sound” where students learnt about Refraction, Lens and Wave properties including the Electromagnetic spectrum and Sound. They attended weekly lessons comprising lectures, tutorials, activity and practical sessions. Lectures and tutorials were meant for learning basic concepts and practising written assignments. Activity sessions involved group work where students applied and demonstrated their understanding of concepts in new situations. Most of these activities were IT-based and focused on developing a different set of skills each time. Practical sessions provided students with hands-on experience in setting up actual experiments and observing real phenomena. Students had to do self-study for the topics of “Electromagnetic Spectrum” and “Sound”. They were also required to complete a PBL on the topic of Lasik that constituted fifty percent of the assessment. Various Web 2.0 tools were used in this module. A Wiki was used as the main medium for informing about the course structure, weekly schedule and grades. Reading materials and assignments were uploaded and links to useful online references, simulation tools and PBL blogs of various groups were provided. A discussion forum provided a platform for students to carry out further sharing. IT activities and interactive lessons were designed using CourseLab – an e-learning authoring tool – and published on a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). Students worked in groups of four on the PBL titled “Operation Lasik”. They took on the role of ophthalmologists tasked by the director of a hospital to look into the viability of setting up a Lasik department at the hospital. The problem was presented as a scenario using multiple online modes such as a series of fictitious conversations (Figure 1) and patient profiles, actual articles and YouTube videos (Figure 2).
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Figure 1: Simulated Conversation
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Figure 2: Initial resources provided to illustrate problem The design of the problem closely followed Herrington’s ten characteristics of authentic problems. 1. Had real-world relevance Students took on the role of ophthalmologists tasked to provide recommendations for a Lasik department at a hospital. The topic of Lasik was current and relevant, especially with a large portion of the population suffering from poor vision (Bunn, 2009), changes in the public’s lifestyle and perception of Lasik. With the surge in demand and supply of Lasik services coupled with the diversity of technologies available, there was a real need to increase public awareness of Lasik and what it entailed. 2. Was ill-defined Students identified the central problem based on how they interpreted the scenario. The problem statement defined the areas that they would focus on in their research and subsequent development of the task, following the process outlined by Gallagher et al. (1992). This process provided only a framework and groups had to decide on their problemPage 526
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solving strategies as they deemed appropriate. As a result, every group faced a slightly different problem and relied on their unique methods to resolve it. 3. Comprised complex tasks to be investigated over a sustained period of time The PBL was conducted over a period of three months following the process outlined by Gallagher et al. (1992). Groups first did a background research to source for information that could throw some light on what the problem was about. Once the central problem and learning issues were identified, they brainstormed for ideas and created a mindmap using Bubbl.us, an online collaborative mind-mapping tool. While research was ongoing, the problem statements and mind-maps were refined as students acquired new information and insight. Fieldwork was also carried out via surveys and interviews to gather more current and diverse viewpoints. The data was analyzed and interpreted to draw out generalized information that could be applied to the problem. Following this, a list of possible solutions was generated and evaluated. The most viable solutions were picked and implemented within the context of the problem. Throughout the process, group and self-reflections were carried out as students thought about the skills they have learnt, what they did well, improvements that could be made, the difficulties faced and how they went about resolving them. The entire process was documented in their group blogs, which formed the portfolio for the groups. 4. Provided the opportunity to examine the problem from different perspectives using a variety of resources Students worked in groups, with each student bringing different experiences, values, perspectives and metacognitive skills to share with the rest of the group. They were also free to use any resources they saw fit. As a result, they ended up with a diverse pool of information, which gave them a more holistic view of the problem. 5. Provided opportunities to collaborate
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Each member worked on a different subtask and collated the information in their group blog. To do this well, there must be proper communication amongst members and individual effort to understand what the others were doing. Members also collaborated to create a single mind-map using Bubbl.us. There was also room for creative synergy while drawing up the recommendations and creating the group product. Links of the group blogs were made available on the course Wiki, so that everyone in the course was able to access other blogs to learn from each other. 6. Provided opportunities to reflect Formative assessment was carried out over three phases during different stages of the PBL. The grades were published on a Google document accessible from the course Wiki to inform students of their progress. In-depth comments were also put up on their blogs to facilitate their reflective and collaborative strategies. 7. Was integrated and applied across different subject areas and led beyond domainspecific outcomes The problem was multi-disciplinary in nature and required students to find out about concepts related to other subjects. For instance, the topics of laser and behavior of light under different conditions were related to Physics. However, students also had to study the structure of the eye and various vision problems, which fell under Biology. Besides these, students had to perform statistical analysis for the survey outcomes, write a proper report and design an aesthetically pleasing blog and product, all requiring skills from different domains. 8. Was seamlessly integrated with assessment The PBL took up fifty percent of the module assessment. Whilst the core syllabus focused on basic concepts, students had to do further study to deepen their understanding of these concepts and apply them in the context of the problem. The process and development of the final product were captured on their blogs, which revealed several aspects of learning Page 528
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such as content knowledge, problem-solving skills and ability to work collaboratively to a large extent. This reflected real world assessment more closely. 9. Required the creation of polished products valuable in their own right rather than as a preparation for something else At the end of the PBL, each group had to produce a formal report to justify their recommendations. They also had to produce a creative product related to the problem and representative of their cause. Some groups designed posters and brochures. One of the groups even created an interactive brochure and game that could be used for public education. Groups were also encouraged to be creative in designing their blogs as it formed part of the assessment. 10. Allowed competing solutions and a diversity of outcome Since the problem comprised a broad range of sub-problems, each group was free to determine the scope of their research and focus areas. The direction of the research, final recommendations and creative product were dependent on the collective experiences of each group, lending to the diversity in the final outcome. Achieving the Five Goals of PBL This section considers the evidence of the five goals of PBL drawn from the blog portfolios, recommendation reports and creative products, surveys, interviews, pretest and posttest. The survey and interviews were conducted at the end of the PBL to obtain feedback from the students. The pretest and posttest were administered before and after the PBL respectively to find out the extent to which PBL had enhanced the problem-solving ability of the students. Students were given a complex problem and had to describe how they would go about to solve it, the emphasis being the process and not the solution. In order to obtain their
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spontaneously-elicited problem-solving strategies, they were not required to name the steps or provided with heuristics to follow. The tests were presented as follows: Directions: How will you go about solving the problem? List the steps you will take during the problemsolving process. Elaborate on each step as much as possible to your best ability. There is no need to propose a solution here. Pretest: Just over the past week, 50 students from your school were hospitalized for food poisoning. Your principal has tasked you to lead a team to investigate this matter. You will have to submit a report at the end of the investigation. Posttest: There have been plans to relocate an old folk’s home near your place to another area. In place of it, the land will be used to develop one- to two-room flats to cater to the able elderly and low-income families. You are a consultant and have been asked to provide your recommendations on the feasibility of this plan. Constructing Extensive and Flexible Knowledge Knowledge is stored in schemas which are mental structures enabling each individual to create meaning out of his experiences, thus facilitating cognitive adaptation to those experiences (Tan, 2003, p. 38). This knowledge remains dormant in the brain until it is perturbed by new experiences that call for it to be retrieved. Effective learning takes place when the student is able to fluently retrieve prior knowledge from existing schemas and flexibly conditionalize it such that it can be transferred to appropriate and varying circumstances (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). The potential for learning increases when knowledge can be integrated across multiple domains.
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For this PBL, results showed that this goal was achieved in three ways: 1. It enabled students to read extensively, draw information from multiple domains and gain multiple perspectives. Students were taught the basic concepts and encouraged to explore the topics on their own to gain a more thorough understanding. The PBL was also presented with diverse complex sub-problems. With this, students found it necessary to brush up on their grasp of basic concepts from various subjects before venturing to solve the problem, as exemplified below. Here, the student made use of subgoaling by setting and achieving intermediate goals that placed him at a better position to reach his final goal of resolving the problem. The PBL covers important topics such as refraction and lens. I have understood more about refraction due to lots of reading about how light rays are refracted through various layers in our eyes and about lens because the light rays are converged to form an image in our eyes too. Moreover, the PBL allows me to learn more about the various techniques of Lasik, understand how we can alter our eyes to achieve perfect eyesight and how short and far-sightedness affect people differently. (Andrew Sung, personal communication, August 26, 2009)
By rooting the PBL in an authentic context, the PBL also avoided oversimplification of information often encountered in textbook explanations as students had to consider various exceptions in understanding the problem. In the excerpt below, the student found it necessary to consider possible “what-if” scenarios, from where he gained a deeper and more convincing understanding of the problem and was able to relate back to the basic concepts. Previously, when I learnt Physics, it was always based on the textbook because usually that would be what was tested. But with PBL, it makes use of what happens in real life, […] allows me to go deeper into the subject […] because what we learn in textbooks may not be completely useful for real life problems […] Real life problems involve other issues apart from what is found in textbook. In textbooks,
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there are assumptions made. But in real life […] It allows me to think deeper [and] learn more about the topics. (Fan Yi, personal communication, July 8, 2009)
Besides considering different scenarios, students also had to view the problem from different perspectives. Through this, they were able to construct an extensive understanding of the problem and made better decisions to resolve the problem, as seen below. PBL has allowed me to explore various areas of studies and I am not limited to just dead facts as when I study from notes and textbooks. I get to know more about the thoughts of the different people undergoing Lasik – the patients, the surgeons, experts and even those who are not in favor of Lasik. Some people are supportive of Lasik whereas others do not find it reliable. Hence I get to hear both sides of the story. Now it becomes instinctive for me to look at a problem from different areas, so as to fully understand and produce the ideal solution for the problem. (Andrew Sung, personal communication, August 26, 2009)
2. It provided opportunities for students to form meaningful interconnections between prior and new knowledge. During the PBL, students experienced cognitive disequilibrium whenever they encountered new information that they have not learnt before. They then had to find means to learn and internalize new knowledge into their mental schemas, as shown below. It was hard at first because I don’t understand the application. But as I slowly do research, I find that old stuff I have learnt [can be linked] back to what I have read previously. I will know that I have read about it before and I will remember the concepts I have learnt and apply them in the applications. As I progress, I suddenly find that everything just links. It just clicks and comes back to you. (Seow Wen Jun, personal communication, September 2, 2009)
Here, the student initially experienced a great amount of cognitive disequilibrium. Concepts learnt were fragmented and needed frequent accommodation of new schemas. As the research progressed and more knowledge was gained, he was able to form meaningful
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links between new and previous schemas through the process of backward-reaching transfer (Santrock, 2006). With this, different schemas became linked and new information could be assimilated into previous schemas rather than having to constantly accommodate new schemas, thereby forming a fluent extensive network of information. By rooting the learning of concepts in real-world applications, students found learning more meaningful while they practiced retrieving abstract knowledge and applying it flexibly into new situations until they became adept at it, as shown below. Because when we learn about the basics in class, we don’t know about what they are used for […] doesn’t really hold any importance to us; so through this method, we can know what are the real world applications for [the concepts learnt]. (Li Zong Chen, personal communication, September 2, 2009)
The use of Web 2.0 tools helped to facilitate the knowledge construction process. One common advantage was that webpages usually had several useful links that students could refer to. As a result, students were able to access plentiful information and gained greater awareness of the interrelationships while maneuvering from one link to another. The ease of using Bubbl.us and process of mindmapping also helped students to visualize the interdependency of different concepts and identify learning issues. As shown below, the mindmap provided mental scaffolding where initial ideas become anchors for subsequent, relevant ideas (Tan, 2003). It made explicit the students’ thinking processes, guided them to make step-by-step progress in understanding the problem and developing their mental schema. The several rounds of refining the mindmap also developed their metacognitive skill as they had to constantly assess the associative relationships between the various nodes and decide if they were relevant or useful for the task. The mindmaps allowed me to understand the problem statement better because I could expand on certain areas that I was not really sure about. It was also easy for the whole group to share their ideas because everyone could put in something.
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Furthermore, the editing of the mindmap allowed us to decide what parts of the PBL to include and what to exclude, hence it made the group more focused. (Andrew Sung, personal communication, August 26, 2009)
Students also became more precise in their language and thought through the mindmapping process. In the excerpt below, mindmapping enabled the student to focus on only the important points, making it easier for him to develop on his ideas. I used Bubbl.us for making mindmaps to get a better understanding of the problem. Because I am more of a visual learner, so making mindmaps helps me understand the problem. When it comes to paragraphs, we have to find the main points. But in mindmaps, they cut down the words a lot and shows only main points […] It also has a shape […] so it is easier to understand. (Fan Yi, personal communication, July 8, 2009)
During the process, students had to choose keywords that would be useful anchors for further brainstorming. With the proper use of keywords, colours, symbols and shapes, the problem could be broken into fewer chunks of distinct information and the interdependency of different concepts made more discernible. This aided the retention, retrieval and development of knowledge. Figures 3 and 4 show the initial and final mindmaps created by one of the groups. In the mindmaps, appropriate colours were used to chunk the information meaningfully, which made clear the groups’ metacognitive processes. The final mindmap had more meaningful interconnections, showing that students had developed complex thinking processes during the course of the PBL. It was also more elaborate in the development of ideas, showing the potential of using the mindmap for constructing extensive knowledge.
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Figure 3: Initial mindmap
Figure 4: Final mindmap
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3. It required knowledge to be elaborated and applied in context. Learning becomes more efficient when knowledge can be fluently and accurately applied to varying situations. This was evident in the extracts drawn from a group’s report shown below.
In this extract, students demonstrated their understanding of scientific concepts such as lasers, corneas and vision problems. Rather than dealing with each concept generally and separately, they applied the concepts in a sophisticated manner to justify their recommendations for different types of patients. This showed that they had a firm understanding of the concepts and were able to apply them with ease to the appropriate situations. In the following extract, the group initially found out from literature that blood glucose levels might affect viability of Lasik. Subsequently, they were able to infer about how the suction process during Lasik might have implications on diabetic patients. This showed that they were able to identify relevant concepts and use them expertly in the context of the problem, proof of effective transfer of knowledge.
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Develop Effective Problem-Solving Skills Developing expertise in problem-solving constitutes being able to transfer these skills fluently to new problems as well as recognize the central problem of a messy situation (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). For this study, a paired t-test was done based on the results from the pretest and posttest to measure the significance of the PBL in helping students to internalize the problem-solving strategies outlined by Barrows and Kelson (1995). Twenty-eight students were tested and the results are summarized in Table 1 and Figure 5. Step
Pretest (%)
Posttest (%)
p
Fact finding
100
96
0.32
Problem finding
75*
79
0.77
Brainstorming
36
75
0.0027
Solution finding
14
79
1.7 × 10-6
Implementation
25
75
0.00072
Evaluation
4
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Results showed a general increase in the likelihood of students including each step in the problem-solving process after the PBL. The increase was particularly significant (p < 0.05) for the higher-order steps of solution finding, implementation and evaluation. At the pretest stage, students focused mainly on the first few steps consisting of fact finding, problem finding and brainstorming, while the rest of the steps showed very low rate of use. A look into their answers revealed a lack of higher-order thinking as many of them were intent on tracing the food causing the problem and providing short term relief measures. Few students considered multiple perspectives or produced long term sustainable solutions to prevent the incident from recurring. On the other hand, answers from the posttest were markedly elaborate where students considered the issue from the perspectives of various stakeholders, looked into proposing counter solutions and reflected on their choices. Furthermore, students made use of a more comprehensive set of problem-solving strategies. This is shown in Figure 6 where there was a significant increase in the mean score at the posttest (p = 2.76 ×10-5), which computed the total number of relevant steps included per student. As such, it was evident that students had developed more elaborate higher-order thinking strategies to a large extent at the end of the PBL. Mean scores before and after PBL
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Besides this, results also showed that students had become more adept at evaluating alternatives and making informed decisions after the PBL. For the pretest, many students tend to miss out the solution finding step (refer to Figure 5) and jumped directly from brainstorming to implementation. Most students simply implemented all the solutions without evaluating them thoroughly to check if all were necessary. For the posttest however, most of them compared and evaluated competing solutions before picking the more suitable ones. Students also followed the steps in sequence instead of jumping from one to another randomly. Considering that many students entered this course with no prior experience in PBL, it can be concluded that the PBL was instrumental in developing their higher-order problemsolving skills and helping them to “keep the importance of implementing problem solutions in perspective relative to other problem-solving steps” (Gallagher et. al, 1992, p. 199). Results from qualitative analysis also concur. For instance, the excerpts below show how PBL had helped students develop sophisticated metacognitive skills such as questioning and predicting. I realize I have to be more directional in my questioning […] I must know what I am looking for instead of just wondering what is going on. Some questions I asked were about the underlying cause of the problem because there may be many causes but there is actually only one root cause. (Li Zong Chen, 2 Sep 2009, interview) It helped me realize that in the real-world, there may be complications to any issue, no matter how simple it may seem. Thus, we need to look deeper and think further […] by predicting possible scenarios and how to solve or counter them (Ong Han Wee, personal communication, August 26, 2009)
The use of Web 2.0 tools was also advantageous in developing problem-solving skills. For the blog, postings could be arranged chronologically or categorically, which allowed students to keep track of their research, ideas and thinking processes over time (Ng Jing Hao,
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personal communication, August 26, 2009). This encouraged reflective processes that helped to improve students’ metacognitive ability. In the previous section describing the first goal of PBL, it was shown that the use of Bubbl.us for mindmapping had the same effect as well. Despite the benefits, some challenges remain. Many students entered the course with no experience in PBL and were already accustomed to the traditional curriculum characterized by spoonfeeding and standard single-solution questions. The teacher had to provide more facilitation initially to acclimatize students to the problem-solving process without providing them with answers. This had to be done through expert questioning to reveal gaps in the thinking processes and strategies used by the students. Students also required time to practice these skills before they could use them in the PBL. Results from the posttest also showed that less than half the class included evaluation of their chosen solutions, thus more had to be done to help them cultivate this habit into their thinking processes. Develop Self-directed, Lifelong Skills Cultivating a mindset for self-directed learning is important because it promotes and equips one with the skills for lifelong learning. Feedback from the students showed that they were proactive and took ownership of their learning while working on the PBL. Students were assessed based on Blumberg’s (2000) indicators. One indicator of self-directed learning skills is the ability to define what to learn. This entails having the metacognitive awareness of what one does and does not understand, which helps him to set learning goals. In the excerpt below, the student clearly identified areas he was lacking in and recognized the need to seek for different opinions. Having an awareness of his learning deficiencies guided him to take proper steps such as picking suitable websites to find the information he needed.
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One website that was particularly useful was “Lasik I”. The website was based on refractive surgery for the eye and they invited experts in different hospitals from different countries to come and debate on issues […] I find the experts’ opinions very useful because [they help me in forming] my opinions and generate ideas. There’re also forums […] useful because I can see from the patient’s and doctor’s point of view. This helps me to see from different sides, which I feel is important. (Seow Wen Jun, personal communication, September 2, 2009)
A second indicator of self-directed learning skills is the ability to plan and operationalize one’s learning, which entails selecting appropriate strategies that drove learning and made it efficient. During the PBL, students developed strategies that helped them to cope with challenges to their self-efficacy. For instance, one group found that the survey carried out was biased and they had difficulty obtaining true responses. They eventually decided to do an interview with a former Lasik patient to get more accurate information. A student in this group also found himself changing his learning strategies during the course of the PBL that led to more effective learning, as seen in the excerpt below. He likes to ask people questions directly while I prefer to research on my own. So, at first I didn’t like the idea of interview because I thought that the person being interviewed may not know any better than us. But in the end, I realized that through interviews […], I can learn more about different opinions. (Li Zong Chen, personal communication, September 2, 2009)
In operationalizing their plan, proper time management was also important because it made learning more efficient (Blumberg, 2000, p. 205). The PBL comprised several activities, so students should not be spending too much time on one and compromising the quality of learning in subsequent higher-order activities. Most of the groups divided the workload amongst their members according to individual interests and strengths. They also set timelines, so that everyone was able to track their progress. With this, students were more
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certain about the demands of their individual tasks. They also had more time to familiarize themselves with using the resources effectively and gained information more efficiently. The third indicator of self-directed learning is the ability to seek, use and evaluate the effectiveness of resources. For this PBL, students were provided with some useful links as a start that was obviously insufficient. Due to the ill-structured nature of the task, students found themselves having to look for and choose the resources that met their individual learning needs. This resulted in a wide variety of resources used such as academic course sites, blogs, forums, virtual learning environments, search engines, YouTube, Wikipedia and Ejournals. In particular, several students found the YouTube very useful as they were more visual learners and faced difficulties in understanding huge chunks of text in some websites. Besides these resources, groups also carried out fieldwork such as interviews and surveys to get an idea of the current trends. Several groups found online surveys useful because they could be forwarded in bulk quickly to obtain greater participation from the densely-linked Internet. Data analysis could also be quickly performed with just a few clicks of the mouse. These information-seeking actions showed that students had developed the self-directed learning skill of knowing who to approach, the information to expect and how to evaluate the data obtained. The PBL had thus helped to develop self-directed learning skills that could be carried over to lifelong learning. One challenge faced was in ensuring that sufficient content was covered while giving students freedom to do self-directed learning. This was a constant dilemma because students could easily choose to work on tasks that they were interested in and not learn enough content. This could however be countered by sufficient exposure with PBL as according to Dolmans and Schmidt (2000), students became more proficient in generating learning issues that provided clear guidelines about the content to be studied with increasing experience in PBL. Page 543
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Become Effective Collaborators The PBL provided opportunities for students to work with others in their groups, which helped them to develop effective collaborative skills. One such skill was the ability to resolve discrepancies, negotiate group actions and establish common ground. In a group, this often entailed accepting different styles of learning of the members and finding means to ensure that everyone was still able to contribute to the project in a valuable way. The excerpt below shows how this was done by one group. Rather than be confrontational, the student observed and found out more about the interests of his group member and was able resolve the problem amicably without compromising on the quality of the work. It is not that he doesn’t want to do but he wants to do it in his own way. Given something, he will summarize it because he feels this is the best way. […] I found out that he liked to do animations and he’s very good at coding games. So I thought that rather than forcing him to do things a certain way, why don’t the three of us do the research work and he will work on something creative such as a game? (Seow Wen Jun, personal communication, September 2, 2009)
The PBL also enabled students to cultivate an open mindset to learning and engaging all members, which required them to express their ideas clearly. For instance, the same student above found himself working with classmates who came from different cultural backgrounds and learnt in ways different from what he had always experienced. His group members read broadly, questioned critically about what they read and actively went about ensuring that the information obtained was accurate. This led him to become aware of his learning gaps and he sought to learn the inquiry skills from his group members. As his experiences accumulated, he found himself able to express his ideas more concisely and confidently, thus engaging his group members more effectively. Incidentally, he was in turn able to provide his expertise on how the information should be represented as he had prior
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experience in PBL, thereby correcting misconceptions of the very classmates whom he had learnt the inquiry skills from. Besides these skills, the PBL also enabled distributed expertise to take place such that every member could specialize in an area that he would become expert in. After that, the group came together to collate the information; in the process, each member learnt from the rest as they attempted to integrate the information fluently and meaningfully. Students found this advantageous as it made the task more manageable and allowed everyone to hone their skills. It also enabled them to tap on each other’s strengths as one student who was a more visual learner found out below. My team mate is less of a visual learner and can understand words better. He’s also better at remembering concepts. I contribute in terms of the drawings while he contributes by telling me how things work and helping me to develop the mindmap. (Fan Yi, personal communication, July 8, 2009)
In addition, the use of Web 2.0 tools such as Blogger, Bubbl.us and MSN enhanced collaboration amongst the members and encouraged collective knowledge construction to take place. From the feedback obtained, students found Blogger useful because it provided a chronological database of all the entries that enabled them to keep track of their task and cognitive progresses. Information could also be accessed online and updated easily anytime and anywhere, thus easing the problem of finding a common time to meet up for discussions. Besides this, Blogger catered for communication amongst the members, classmates and teacher as its interface could be easily customized. For instance, apart from the “Comments” section, tag boxes and other applications could be embedded to allow others to type their feedback for either individual or overall entries. This facility was particularly useful for facilitating learning because it allowed the teacher to think through her responses and elaborate on them more clearly.
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Similarly, Bubbl.us provided an interactive interface for all members to be involved in creating the mindmap together from a common account. Through the process, members found themselves having to negotiate for common understanding of the problem, which helped them to set group goals subsequently. Chat tools especially MSN were also used heavily for delegating tasks and communicating schedules in real-time. One challenge in developing students’ collaborative skills was that the facilitator must provide appropriate and timely facilitation. This was because the quality of facilitation affected group dynamics which had implications on the learning outcomes and intrinsic motivation (Schmidt & Moust, 2000). For instance, one group was found to be nonfunctioning despite the teacher providing prompts about how they could go about working on the PBL. In the end, each member worked on their sub tasks alone and information was simply collated with no proper integration or signs of developing second-order knowledge from the primary information. This signaled a need to develop team camaraderie before effective collaboration for PBL could take place. Become Intrinsically Motivated Research has shown that students who are intrinsically motivated achieve better than those who are extrinsically motivated (Hennessy & Amabile, 1998; Wigfield & Eccles, 2002; Gottfried, 1985). They work on a task due to an inner desire to accomplish it successfully, regardless of any external payoff (Tan et. al, 2003, p. 280). For this PBL, it was observed that this desire was often driven by students’ own interests, needs and self-efficacy. In general, higher-ability students had a strong need to achieve and gain mastery in knowledge and skills. As demonstrated below, students tend to be critical of their own work, were motivated by their own interests and challenging tasks. By giving them ownership of their learning, they were motivated to plan their own learning goals and were also more
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willing to take risks. This subsequently led to more creative pieces of work such as self-made interactive games and videos. I feel that doing a poster is very common […] I like to think out of the box and don’t like to do what other people have already done, so I try to think about what other stuff I can do. […] The videos are in Mandarin because this eyecare exercise is based on the traditional Chinese medicine, so if it is translated to English, the essence will be lost. (Seow Wen Jun, personal communication, September 2, 2009)
Students also experienced a greater sense of self-efficacy, which was positively correlated to intrinsic motivation and student achievement in science (Liu, Hsieh, Cho, & Schallert). The overall setup of the PBL motivated them to expend more effort on the task and maintain the effort in the face of difficulty. Students were taught the basic concepts and skills in class, so as to pitch the task at the ZPD. Grading was carried out at different stages to provide students with opportunities for second attempts and experience small successes progressively. Feedback was provided during each stage to scaffold student learning that includes both planning and thinking processes. For instance, some groups were found to rely heavily on online resources and faced problems gathering sufficient data during the initial stage of PBL. After feedback was given, most groups gained ideas on how they could go about gathering more useful data. It was also advantageous to work in groups as students were encouraged to learn and seek help from their peers. The use of Web 2.0 enhanced students’ intrinsic motivation as well. With the abundant information available online, students were able to customize their learning based on their needs. Webpages had related links that were easy to navigate and fueled students’ curiosity further as they found themselves researching deeper into the topics. The variety of tools made learning interesting as students found themselves testing out new tools and techniques (Bryan, personal communication, August 26, 2009). Chat tools and features
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allowing comments to be posted made it easier for collaboration to take place and encouraged helping behavior. Videos were particularly useful as they complemented written explanations and enabled students to visualize the processes better (Fan Yi, personal communication, July 8, 2009). All these served to increase students’ self-efficacy that in turn enhanced intrinsic motivation. Despite so, there were some difficulties faced during the PBL. While most students enjoyed PBL, some of them resisted changing their way of learning or disliked working with others. As such, there is a need to look into grouping students optimally and providing them sufficient time and experience, so that they could adapt to the new culture of learning. Conclusion PBL is a pedagogical method that situates learning in an authentic, complex problemsolving context. It focuses on the development of both knowledge and skills. Students take greater ownership of their learning as they decide what and how to learn, often constructing knowledge from personally meaningful experiences. Based on this study, there is strong evidence to show that the use of web-based PBL is able to achieve the five goals of PBL following Barrows and Kelson (1995). Students gain mastery of a broad spectrum of knowledge and problem-solving skills that can be transferred into other real-world situations. The use of Web 2.0 has great potential in enhancing the learning experience as it caters for differentiated learning, collaboration and learning beyond borders. Nonetheless, some barriers to its use include the need to provide proper scaffolding, cultivate effective group skills and ensure sufficient content is learnt. As the PBL experience is vastly different from current typical classroom teaching methods, teachers and students must be given sufficient time to acclimatize to the new culture of learning before the full benefits of PBL can be seen.
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The agenda for further research also includes investigating the dynamics of PBL carried out for students having differing abilities, learning styles and in different domains.
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References Barrows, H., & Kelson, A. C. (1995). Problem-based learning in secondary education and the problem-based learning institute. Monograph 1, Problem-Based Learning Institute, Springfield, IL. Blumberg, P. (2000). Evaluating the evidence that problem-based learners are self-directed learners: A review of the literature. In: Evensen, D. H., & Hmelo, C. E. (Eds.), Problem-based learning: a research perspective on learning interactions (pp. 199225). Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Boshuizen, H. P. A., Schmidt, H. G., & Wassamer, A. (1993). Curriculum style and the integration of biomedical and clinical knowledge. In: Bouhuys, P. A. J., Schmidt, H. G., & Berkel H. J. M. (Eds.), Problem-based learning as an educational strategy (pp. 33–41). Maastricht: Network Publications. Bridges, E., & Hallinger, P. (1992). Problem based learning for administrators. University of Oregon : ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. Bruner, J. (1999). Folk Pedagogies. In: J. Leach, & B. Moon (Eds.), Learners & Pedagogy (pp. 4-20). London: Paul Chapman Educational Publishing. Bunn, K. (2009). Myopia in Singapore kids. The Asian Parent. Retrieved September 07, 2009 from http://sg.theasianparent.com/articles/Childhood_Myopia_in_Singapore Coulson, R. L., Feltovich, P. J. & Spiro, R. J. (1989). Foundations of a misunderstanding of the ultrastructural basis of myocardial failure: A reciprocation network of oversimplifications. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 14(2), 109-146. Dolmans, D. H. J. M., Schmidt, H. G. (2000). What directs self-directed learning in a problem-based curriculum? In: Evensen, D. H., Hmelo, C. E. (Eds.), Problem-based
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learning: a research perspective on learning interactions (pp. 251-262). Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychology Monographs, 58, 270. Gallagher, S. A., Stepian, W. J., & Rosenthal, H. (1992). The effects of problem-based learning on problem solving. Gifted Child Quarterly, 1992, 36(4), 195-200. Gardner, H. (1991). The Unschooled Mind. New York: Basic Books. Gottfried, A. E. (1985). Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 631-645. Grady, G. & Alwis, W. A. M. (2002). One day, one problem: PBL at Republic Polytechnic. Presented at The 4th Gifted Pacific Conference in PBL. Hatyai, Thailand. Hennessey, B. A., & Amabile, T. M. (1998). Reward, intrinsic motivation and creativity. American Pscyhologist, 53, 674-675. Herrington, J. (2006). Authentic e-learning in higher education: Design principles for authentic learning environments and tasks. Presented at World Conference on ELearning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare and Higher Education. Chesapeake, Va. Retrieved September 06, 2009 from http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/29 Herrington, J., Reeves, T. C., Oliver, R., & Woo, Y. (2004). Designing authentic activities in Web-based courses. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 16(1), 3-29. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-265. Jonassen, D. H. (1994). Thinking technology: Toward a constructivist design model. Educational Technology, 34(3), 34-37. Lefoe, G. (1998). Creating constructivist learning environments on the Web: The challenge in higher education. Centre for Educational Development and Interactive Resources,
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University of Wollongong, Australia. Retrieved September 01, 2009 from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/wollongong98/asc98-pdf/lefoe00162.pdf Liu, M., Hsieh, P., Cho, Y., & Schallert, D. L. (2006). Middle school students’ self-efficacy, attitudes, and achievement in a computer-enhanced problem-based learning environment. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 17(3), 225-242. Merchant, J. E. (1995). Problem-based learning in the Business curriculum: An alternative to traditional approaches. In: Gijselaers W., Tempelaar, D., Keizer, P., Bloommaert, J., Bernard, E. & Kasper, H. (Eds.), Educational innovation in Economics and Business Administration: The base of problem-based learning (pp. 261-267). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Milter, R.G., & Stinson, J.E. (1993). Educating leaders for the new competitive environment. In: Gijselaers, G., Tempelaar, S., & Keizer S. (Eds.), Educational innovation in economics and business administration: The case of problem-based learning. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Needham, D.R./Begg, I.M. (1991). Problem oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer: Memory oriented training promotes memory for Training, Learning, Memory and Cognition (in press). Patel, V.L. Groen, G.J. Norman, G.R. (1991): Two modes of thought: A comparison of conventional and problem based curricula, Academic Medicine, 66, 380-389 Roth, W-M. (1999). Authentic school science: Intellectual traditions. In: McCormick, R, & Paechter, C. (Eds.), Learning & Knowledge (pp. 6-20). London: Paul Chapman Educational Publishing. Santrock, J. W. (Eds.). (2006). Educational Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Schmidt, H. G., & Moust, J. H. C. (2000). Factors affecting small-group tutorial learning: A review of research. In: Evensen, D. H., Hmelo, C. E. (Eds.), Problem-based learning: Page 552
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a research perspective on learning interactions (pp. 19-51). Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Spiro, R. J., Coulson, R. L., Feltovich, P. J. & Anderson, D. K. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In: The Tenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tan, O. S, Parsons, R. D., Hinson, S. L., & Sardo-Brown, D. (2003). Educational psychology: A practitioner-researcher approach (An Asian edition). Canada: Thomson Learning. Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (Eds.). (2002). Development of achievement motivation. San Diego: American Press. Wilson, B., & Lowry, M. (2001). Constructivist learning on the Web. In: Burge, L. (Ed.), Learning directions for adult and continuing education (pp. 79-88). Retrieved September 06, 2009 from http://www.miun.se/flexwebb/download/8chapNDACE.pdf
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What are students up to during problem solving? Shien Chue & Kim Chwee Daniel Tan National Institute of Education, Singapore
Abstract This paper reports on a qualitative case study of the strategies used by a pair of first year science undergraduate students to solve an organic chemistry tutorial problem on addition reaction. Video recording of the students‟ interactions during the problem solving session was studied using interaction analysis. Contrary to findings reported in research literature about students solving problems using memorized or algorithmic procedures, the students in this study relied on the use of gestures, speech and inscriptions to work out a solution that was contingent on previously revealed information. The students‟ interactions also demonstrated their limited understanding of addition reaction mechanism as they could only work out the structure of the intermediate but could not describe the reaction pathway. The finding that students relied on the coordination of semiotic resources to solve the chemistry problem has an impact on the assessment of students‟ learning. Word-centered evaluative activities need to be complemented with alternative assessment methods that provide students with opportunities to engage with a multitude of resources in order to enhance their ability to express themselves and facilitate a more comprehensive assessment of their understanding of chemistry concepts.
Introduction Problem solving in chemistry education has constantly intrigued researchers (Bowen & Bodner, 1991; Chandrasegaran, Treagust, Waldrip, & Chandrasegaran, 2009; Tsaparlis & Angelopoulos, 1999). Students‟ cognitive processes are often focused upon during problem solving in order to understand their learning difficulties in topics such as stoichiometry, chemical equilibrium and organic chemistry synthesis. However, the
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conclusions often reiterate claims that students solve chemistry problems using algorithmic methods and lack understanding of chemical concepts on which the problems were based (Gabel, Sherwoods, & Enoch, 2006). At the first year undergraduate level, most educators see solving chemistry problems as one of the major learning objective (Nurrenbern & Pickering, 1987). The transmission of knowledge approach which relies substantially on regurgitation of content and the solution of routine problems which only serves to develop lower order cognitive skills (Zoller, 2000) are inadequate to help students achieve this objective.
Within the context of organic chemistry synthesis, research focus has been placed on the cognitive aspects of problem solving as researchers highlight the importance of mental models in the development of problem solving capabilities (Bodner & Domin, 2000; McLoughlin & Taji, 2005). By observing problem solving behaviours of students, Bowen & Bodner (1991) concluded that students engage with organic chemistry synthesis problems through a non-linear sequence of preparation, production and evaluation of their solutions. Preparation is understood as the phase a problem solver uses to interpret the problem and to begin to construct a representation of it for which individuals differ in the kinds of representations they construct. Using the chosen representation formed in the preparation phase, the problem solver begins to construct a solution by combining the chosen representation with knowledge she brings to the problem. The last component is the evaluation phase of the solution where problem solver checks for completeness and correctness of solution. Bowen (1990) found that graduate students used different representational forms containing concepts and processes useful for solving problem on hand, of which verbal, pictorial representations to name a few, as a common language for communicating the solution to others. Bowen & Bodner‟s (1991) work serve as the basis for the focus of this research paper. Paying close attention to a pair of students as they prepare, construct and evaluate their solution to a given problem, we want to demonstrate how students arrive at the final solution within the three stages in a multimodal fashion. In this way, we add on new context-dependent knowledge by foregrounding the importance of a multimodal
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approach to understand the construction of knowledge as a practical activity of science students.
Literature review A multimodal social semiotics epistemology (Kress, 2003; Kress, Jewitt, Ogborn, & Tsatsarelis, 2001) offers a useful way to examine organic chemistry problem solving. The basic concept espoused is that knowledge is co-constructed through the co-ordination of meaning making resources that is not limited to only language. Extending beyond means of speech or writing, semiotic resources such as visuals and even actions are capable of carrying information that contributes to the overall meaning that one intends to communicate. By attending to all modes of communication as part of meaning making, the monolithic emphasis on language as the valued mode of communication in education is superseded by a growing recognition of the multiple modes in which ideas could be represented (Bezemer & Kress, 2008; Knain, 2006; Kress et al., 2001; Kress, Jewitt, & Tsatsarelis, 2000). Increased prevalence of image, sound and animation through the computer and internet is, perhaps, behind this new emphasis on multi-semiotic representations we produce and see around us (Iedema, 2003). In science education, there is no denying the myriad of representations and artifacts required to represent scientific concepts and artifacts in additional to speech or writing. These multiple modes of representations are material expressions of abstract scientific phenomenon being experienced and can be understood as individuals‟ articulations of their observations and knowledge about phenomena (Lemke, 2001). In Kress et al.‟s (2001) book entitled „The rhetorics of the science classroom‟, semiotic resources of actions and visual representations used in the science classroom were examined with Halliday‟s (1994) social theory of communication where meaning making resources function to communicate ideationally (representing states of affair in the world), interpersonally (to bring about interactions between participants in the act of communication) and textually (to bring about a coherent message relevant to the situation) . For example, when a teacher described the movement of air particles in an open space, her hands would spring open from her sides and motion in a zig zag manner in space (Kress et al., 2001). Such an action realized the ideational construction of the
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gaseous particles, with the teacher representing it for her students. At the interpersonal functional level, students are requested to see the world in a particular way through her speech and movement of her body. With the co-ordination of speech and action, the science teacher produce a coherent account of the sub-microscopic process of particle movement for her students. Similarly, when students constructed concept maps to represent their knowledge of blood, results revealed a great variety of concepts maps being produced despite the students being given the same type of material resources to produce them and having attended the same series of lessons on blood circulation (Kress, 2003). As a result of focusing on the individual semiotic modes employed for meaning making in the classroom, the commonly held view of teaching and learning of science as a purely linguistic accomplishment was challenged (Kress et al., 2001). These ideas are useful in describing and examining problem solving in a semantically rich field like organic synthesis. This is accomplished by first positioning visual inscriptions, gestures and speech as common semiotic resources and layering a dynamic view on how the resources are employed for meaning making. While research has established the social and cognitive affordances of multiple representations (Kozma, 2003; Schank & Kozma, 2002), little research actually foregrounds students as members of the scientific community engaged with multiple representations for problem solving in chemistry. Hence, the findings presented in this paper shed light on how students express themselves within the problem solving context through the co-ordination of multiple semiotic resources that reveals scientific knowledge through time.
Purpose of the study In this paper, we examine a pair of students engaged in constructing an appropriate synthetic pathway from initial reagents to the formation of final chemical product in a typical closed problem. Problems of this kind have been suggested to be simplistic as solutions can be reduced to routines or algorithms for which students can be trained to recall (Wood, 2006). However, the choice of a closed problem for this study is deliberate in order to investigate the phenomenon of students‟ knowledge as multimodal,
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supported by an analytic focus on language in conjunction with action in forms of gestures and with the students‟ inscriptions. In this regard, the multimodal approach taken in this paper is a continuous attempt in challenging the notion that students‟ science knowledge consists of propositions composed of well defined concepts (Klein, 2006) to reveal knowledge as an accomplishment of practical action (Garfinkel, 1967) in the context of solving chemistry problems. By looking at the types of semiotic resource employed for interaction and the functional role they play in students‟ discourse, we have a way of uncovering and studying the social creation and maintenance of scientific knowledge between students. Through a logical expression of knowledge that expands upon each other‟s previously communicated ideas, students shape their multimodal discourse in order to provide a solution to the given problem. By providing descriptions of how students describe an addition reaction in a problem solving context, we aim to inform the science education community about the meaning making potential of speech, inscriptions and gestures as means to gain insight to the actual competencies of students typically considered as novices of scientific practices.
Methodology The interview A pair of students, Sally and Heidi was given a typical tutorial problem to solve as shown:
Question: Using cyclohexene and bromine in carbon tetrachloride as starting materials, explain the synthesis of trans-1,2-dibromocyclohexane. Problem solving can be defined as “figuring out what to do when one does not already know what to do” (Bowen & Bodner, 1991, p. 143). While organic chemistry tutorial questions may look like mere exercises for most chemists with wealth of chemical knowledge, the lack of familiarity with such problems for first year undergraduate chemistry students (Bodner & Domin, 2000) make this question about the synthesis of
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trans-1,2-dibromocyclohexane challenging for them. The identities of the starting reagents were provided in the question so as to facilitate discussion about how the reagents may react. To solve the given organic chemistry question, students needed to first work out the solution in the following manner though not necessary in the linear order as presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Written solution to given interview question
1. draw cyclic ring structures of cyclohexene and bromine 2. draw an arrow from double bond of cyclohexene to delta plus bromine 3. draw an arrow from the bond between the two bromine groups directed at the delta minus bromine 4. draw a bromonium intermediate with a positive charge 5. draw arrow to represent movement of bromide ion to either carbon involved in the bromonium intermediate. 6. draw the configuration of the final product of trans-1,2-dibromocyclohexane.
The interview was video recorded and analysis of video based data followed Jordan and Henderson‟s (1995) interaction analysis approach. This method is committed to grounding theories of knowledge and action in empirical evidence, building generalizations from records of naturally occurring activities and draws upon researchers‟ experience and expertise as competent members of ongoing social communities of practice. Video recording of students during the problem solving session was viewed repeatedly with one other faculty member. The recording offered not only students‟ speech as a source of understanding of students‟ communication acts, but also gestures,
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bodily orientation and inscriptions of chemical structures as clues to the meaning making process that students were engaged in. Emergent meanings about what was happening were discussed and when different interpretations arose, the video segments were replayed and assertions modified until the modified assertions could be used to explain other segments of video data. Micro-analysis of video segments, thus, afforded the means to describe dynamic activity involving the use of multiple meaning making resources. The video recording documented the two students making use of speech, gestures and visual inscriptions to solve the given problem. Semiotic resources employed for meaning making by students were thus analyzed as the “means and practices by which we represent ourselves to ourselves and others” (Kress, 1996, p. 18). This view of students as active sign makers emphasized students‟ interest and motivations for the uses of particular semiotic resource. As a result, students were understood as “social beings functioning to remake, transform and re-shape the representational resources available to them” (Kress, 2000, p. 155) to express their learning. The next section aims to illustrate how semiotic resources were engaged by students within each phase of problem solving. Each analysis begins with an observational description of the nature of the interactions obtained from repeated viewing of students solving the given organic chemistry problem. This description is followed by discussion focusing on how semiotic resources have been used to organize abstract scientific ideas during the problem solving session.
Findings Sally and Heidi began by working out the structure of the final chemical compound. While it was not possible to confine their interaction within isolated phases of preparation, construction and evaluation, it was possible to understand their process of problem solving as revolving around the construction of isolated chemical structures. Within the construction of each chemical structure, students underwent the phases of preparation, construction and evaluation before moving on to the next cycle of problem solving. It is also interesting to note that while their final written solution as shown in
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Figure 2 seemed to indicate knowledge about the process of synthesis, their conversation revealed many areas of uncertainty.
Figure 2: Final written solution of Sally and Heidi
Final chemical structure The preparation phase began when both students relied on gestures and speech to debate over which type of chemical structural representation to inscribe (Figure 3). With her right hand pointing finger raised, Sally produced an iconic gesture by tracing the outline of a six-membered carbon ring (panel 1) as she offered verbal information about drawing a carbon structure (01). This gesture carried crucial information for Heidi who immediately offered an alternative structure by tracing in quick downward diagonal strokes on the table. While Heidi did not express verbally the chair conformer that she had in mind (02), her gestures illustrated clearly for Sally the chair conformer as an alternative to the cyclic skeletal representation. Although Sally expressed her uncertainty about Heidi‟s suggestion that the chair conformer should be drawn (03), she proceeded to draw the chair conformer of the final product (Figure 3) which signaled the genesis of knowledge construction on paper.
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panel 1
panel 2
01 Sally: Draw [carbon]. (gestures in the direction of arrow, iconically sketching out a skeletal structure)panel 1 02 Heidi: [Draw that]. (gestures in direction of arrows, iconically representing part of the chair conformation)panel 2 03 Sally: Hmm, let‟s just try. (draws chair conformer as shown below)
Figure 3: Gesturing structures of final reagents
After the inscription of carbon-hydrogen bonds in the chair conformer, Sally hesitated over the placement of the bromo groups (Figure 4) and both students communicated with gestures again to determine the orientation of the two bromine substituent groups. Heidi first asked Sally what “trans” might mean (04). This focused Sally‟s attention on the spatial orientation of the substituent groups in a trans molecule for which she responded silently with a gesture in which two pointing fingers were oriented perpendicularly to each other (05). Substituent groups of six member cyclic ring are typically oriented at the equatorial positions to prevent 1,3-diaxial interaction, the angle between the substituent groups as a result is less than ninety degrees. However, Sally‟s gesture seemed to indicate an orientation where the substitutent groups are ninety degrees away from each other. This imprecision of Sally‟s gesture is congruent with her uncertainty and subsequent tentative verbal request for Heidi‟s affirmation (06).
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3 1
4 2
Panel 1
Panel 2
04 Heidi: Trans 1 2 dibromo, trans is? 05 Sally: […] (gestures up and down in opposite direction indicated by arrow 1 and 2)panel 1 06 Sally: Should be. Is that right? 07 Heidi: Trans [should be one up and down]. (gestures in the direction of arrow 3 and arrow 4)panel 2 08 Heidi: Trans. They are in [opposite side]. If you put one up the other will be down.
Panel 3
(left hand raised, flipping upwards and downwards in quick succession) (Sally draws position of two bromine groups as shown below)
Figure 4: Working out the spatial arrangement of substituent groups
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While Sally positioned her pen over the chair conformation of the final structure, Heidi reasoned verbally that if one bromo group was drawn pointing upwards, the other should be pointing downwards (07). Observing the directions of her pointing figures (Panel 2), the angle between the instance of pointing upwards and downwards embodied Heidi‟s conception of the manner in which bromine groups are attached to the cyclic ring. This gesture was similar to Sally‟s except that the angle between the upward and downward pointing finger was greater. This information was repeated as Heidi this time flipped her right hand in an up-down manner to demonstrate her verbal utterance of “opposite side” entailed a direct up-down orientation as materially carried in her gesture (08).
Initial chemical structures After the final chemical product was inscribed, Sally began another phase of problem solving as she prepared to construct the initial reagents. First she signaled her thoughts about the location of a double bond by tracing two parallel lines along the inscribed final compound (Figure 5). Verbally, Sally also informed Heidi that they had to place a double bond at the location where she had previously gestured over (09) and proceeded to draw a cyclohexene at the upper section of the page (09). Sally subsequently completed the equation with further inscriptions of the chemical formula of bromine, CCl4 and the reaction arrow pointing downwards (10).
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09 Sally: Ok, so we have to put a [double bond here]. (gestures in direction of arrows twice as shown above over the structure of final product) 10 Sally: And [reaction with bromine]. (draws starting compound and writes Br2 and arrow pointing downwards with CCl4 inscribed on right side of arrow)
Figure 5: Gesturing to determine structure of initial reactant
Intermediate structure The pair of students next engaged in drawing “something else” (11), (Figure 6). Suggesting to Sally that their written solution required another chemical structure, Heidi entered the preparation phase of solving the problem of drawing an intermediate structure by gesturing towards the table (11). With her fingers held in an inverted cup shape directed at the answer sheet, the metaphoric gesture encapsulated the abstract notion of the intermediate in which speech was equally vague with an ambiguous reference of
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“something else”. Sally interjected to offer new information that the intermediate had a “wing” (12) in rapid speech and repeatedly traced a triangular outline on paper. After each student had contributed her own ideas about the intermediate, Heidi signaled her readiness to construct the chemical structure on paper by suggesting “let‟s try” verbally (13). Projecting her thoughts as an idea verbally (14), Sally simultaneously also outlined the three-membered ring with a clenched fist over the inscription of the starting chemical reagent before drawing the intermediate structure (15).
Panel 1
Panel 2
11 Heidi: I think we need to draw something else right? (cupped left hand directed downwards at table) panel 1 12 Sally: Something that has a wing… (traces shape of triangle with finger) panel 2 13 Heidi: Let‟s try. 14 Sally: I remember there is a [three member ring]. (traces shape of triangle with clenched fist over previously drawn starting reagent) 15 Heidi: I think that‟s right. Correct, correct. (Sally proceeds to draw the bromonium ion intermediate)
Figure 6: Verbal-gestural exchange leading to inscription of intermediate
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Evaluating the completed structure of the intermediate, Heidi suggested through an interrogative request for a positively charged bromonium intermediate (Figure 7, line 16). Heidi‟s evaluation of the incomplete intermediate chemical structure led Sally to draw a positive charge and a bromide anion in the diagram (17). Through inscriptional means, Sally acknowledged the information provided by Heidi and at the same time contributed her share of knowledge with an inscription of the bromide ion.
16 Heidi: Br, is it positive? 17 Sally: Let‟s try. (adds in positive sign for carbocation and draws a bromide ion). 18 Sally: Something like that.
Figure 7: Inscription of intermediate of reaction
Discussion Analysis of this single case study leads to three points of discussion. First, we claim that this problem solving event involving the two students serves as an exemplar to highlight problem solving as an accomplishment of multimodal scientific activity. By providing detailed description about the events leading to the final solution and the specific ways in which they were constructed through speech, visual inscriptions and gestures, we show how students relied on a myriad of meaning making resources and their limited knowledge of organic chemistry to construct a reasonable solution. In this case example, the students were uncertain of the process of addition reaction mechanism. Firstly, they focused upon the final product and worked backwards
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to derive the structure of the starting compound. Secondly, in the inscription of the final product, students were unaware of the placement of the bromine groups in the equatorial position to prevent 1,3-diaxial interactions. Thirdly, they focused on the inscription of the intermediate so as to mediate between the starting and final chemical structures. These can be understood as filling in a gap in order to fulfill the requirements of the question. Lastly, the lack of inscriptions of arrows symbolizing the movement of electrons as well as lack of verbal or gestural reference to electron movement indicates that the students may not be aware of electron movements in the addition reaction process. Despite their lack of understanding of the addition reaction process, they were able to collaboratively generate a final written solution on paper. In fact, the coordination of semiotic resources was critical in enabling both students to reveal their limited knowledge about addition reaction in order to solve the given problem. Firstly, gestures enabled students to agree upon an outline for the structure of the final product (01-03). Next, transformation of gestural information occurred as the chair conformer of the final trans product was revealed through visual inscription on paper (04-08). This inscription provided the platform for Sally to gesture over it, the location of the double bond of the starting chemical compound (09). Subsequently, the gestural information was marked down on paper through Sally‟s drawing of the starting chemical compound (0910). Students had relied upon gestures to communicate their ideas about the bromonium ion intermediate (11-14). Relying on speech alone, we may most likely be left wondering what the students were talking about. Speech of both students was mostly restricted to verbal request for inscriptions or to seek affirmation of drawings or verbal expressions that needs to be understood in relation to what had been gestured or drawn on paper. More importantly, this case example illustrates the rich potential of gesture as a meaning making device. Observing the gestures Sally produced with her finger over the starting compound in a triangular manner coupled with our knowledge of organic chemistry, we may interpret her gestures in this instance to embody abstract concepts about the bromonium ion intermediate. Sally‟s iconic gestured outlined the structural arrangement of the bromonium ion intermediate where the bromine is attached to two carbon atoms through
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partial bonds. This contrasted with Heidi‟s metaphoric gesture where she appeared to be holding down an object in her hand which could be the embodiment of the abstract concept of an intermediate. Students‟ gestures embodied the structural features of the intermediate they had in mind (11-14) while visual inscription was used as a means to concretize the structural information of the intermediate expressed through speech and gestures. Hence, based on the gestures produced, Heidi was able to verbally assure Sally that they were on the right track resulting in Sally inscribing the intermediate (15). The drawing by Sally followed closely her gestures of the triangular „wing‟ structure in line 12 and line 14. In this example, students‟ knowledge expressed and negotiated through their gestures and speech, preceded further elaboration of chemical structures through inscriptions on paper. Essentially, we highlight further evidence to argue for view of students‟ knowledge as embodied within semiotic resources chosen for communication. While speech provided fragmented details of the reaction process, gestures provided visual information about the structural features of the chemical compounds and inscriptions concretized the final solution by laying out the chemical structures that students had in mind. Adding up the information as revealed through the three semiotic resources, we have a sum total view of students‟ knowledge about the addition reaction which was only sufficient to solve the given problem superficially rather than provide an in-depth understanding of the reaction mechanism. Second, we provide a method for investigating problem solving from a multimodal perspective that goes beyond the typical focus on cognitive processes of students during problem solving. Through interaction analysis which provides a fine comb to untangle the intricacies of student interactions as a multimodal event, data can be examined repeatedly by focusing on the ways students interact and the role of meaning making resources in the accomplishment of the activity. By providing descriptions regarding the social creation and maintenance of scientific knowledge between students as they attempt to describe an addition reaction in a problem solving context, interaction analysis explicates the hidden possibilities of speech, inscriptions and gestures as means to gain insight to the actual competencies of students typically considered as novices of scientific practices.
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Third, we make a theoretical claim that problem solving is a practical activity of human interaction which goes beyond the confines of cognitive processes. While a conceptual base of content knowledge (Krange & Ludvigsen, 2008), mathematical knowledge (Chandrasegaran et al., 2009) and procedural knowledge of problem solving are necessary for problem solving, it does not preclude the use of meaning making resources for building knowledge contingent upon previously constructed knowledge along the pathway of problem solving as exemplified in this case study. Students in this example certainly did not follow the typical progression of problem solving by beginning with an analysis of the given problem (Bodner & Domin, 2000). In the preparation of problem solving, students relied on gestures and speech to reveal their knowledge of organic chemistry. During the construction of the chemical structures, students engaged simultaneously in evaluating their construction of the chemical reagents leading to a final inscription on paper. From the gestures and inscriptions that were produced, the written solution on paper could thus be understood as a joint construction of knowledge as students worked from the given final structural compound to the structure of the initial reactants and subsequently filling the gap with a diagram of the bromonium intermediate. This example highlights further evidence to argue for view of students‟ knowledge as embodied within semiotic resources chosen for communication. The implication of this case study is at least twofold . Firstly, it is necessary to raise awareness of multimodality of concepts and knowing among teachers and students. Focusing on nonverbal aspects of communication in addition to written and spoken words produced during problem solving may provide teachers with new resources that will enhance their teaching. This is important as students who rely on algorithmic strategies for problem solving continue to possess weak understanding of chemistry concepts which lead to alternative conceptions at later development (Bucat & Fensham, 1995). A multimodal approach of understanding students‟ accomplishment of problem solving activity may provide teachers with additional resources for organizing their teaching and modeling problem solving strategies during classroom teaching. Secondly, undergraduate chemistry students‟ assessments need to include a variety of activities other than written or oral examinations. Students may be able to better articulate their conceptions and understandings when a multitude of resources in
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addition to speech and writings are made available. Especially when we are interested to develop students‟ problem solving skills to rise above the realm of algorithmic manipulations into the realm of creative problem solving (Woods, 2006), we need to provide opportunities for students to explore some of these nonverbal resources when they are communicating with teachers and peers. This includes gesture for which evidence is mounting to establish its communicative and cognitive effects (GoldinMeadow & Wagner, 2005). The gestures of Sally and Heidi as explicated in previous section are not just random acts of hand-waving. Their gestures embodied their thoughts which led to accomplishment of task. This also lends further support to the argument that gestures are meaning making resources which students can rely upon to communicate scientific concepts (Pozzer-Ardenghi & Roth, 2007). As a result, students need to be provided with more opportunities to „talk chemistry‟ through which teachers need to pay attention to students‟ gestures and verbiage in order to understand the scientific ideas of the students. In the same vein, aseessment practices need to include at least both visual and verbal modes of representation for students. For example, if the assessment intent is to elicit students‟ understanding of reaction mechanisms, chemical structures of reagents could be provided in addition to the written question. Similarly, chemistry tasks for students could be designed so as to provide more opportunities for students to present their knowledge using a variety of modes.
Conclusion In summary, through a close examination of how students engage in solving organic chemistry problems through a multimodal perspective, the cognitive focus on students‟ learning (Johnstone, 2000; Johnstone & Kellet, 1980) is broaden to include a social semiotic perspective which views students‟ engagement with scientific tasks as an accomplishment of practical action (Garfinkel, 1967). Through the co-ordination of semiotic resources, students are engaged in the process of using and the reshaping of resources (Kress et al., 2001). This has potential to unveil what students have in mind, which also in turn shapes their subsequent responses.
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Therefore, students need to be given opportunities to use multiple representations central to the practices of scientific communication as a way to both support, develop and showcase their understanding of scientific phenomena. This suggestion is congruent with calls for the development of representational skills as part of the chemistry curriculum and the use of these skills to better understand the chemistry that resides in the heads of our students (Kozma, Chin, Russell, & Marx, 2000).
References Bezemer, J. & Kress. G. (2008). Writing in multimodal texts: A social semiotic account of designs for learning. Written Communication, 25(20), 166-195. Bodner G. M. and Domin D.S., (2000), Mental models: the role of representations in problem solving in chemistry. University Chemistry Education, 4(1), 24-30. Bowen, C. W. (1990). Representational systems used by graduate students while problem solving in organic synthesis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(4), 351-370. Bowen, C. W. and Bodner G. M., (1991), Problem-solving processes used by students in organic synthesis. International Journal of Science Education, 13(2), 143-58 Bodner, G. M. & Weaver, G. (2008). Research and practice in chemical education in advanced courses. Chemistry Education and Research Practice, 9(4), 81-83. Bucat, B. & Fensham, P. (1995). Teaching and learning about chemical equilibrium, In Selected papers in chemical education research (pp.167-171). IUPAC-Committee on Teaching Chemistry. Delhi: IUPAC-Shatabdi Computers. Chandrasegaran, A. L., Treagust, D., Waldrip, B. G. & Chandrasegaran, A. (2009). Students‟ dilemmas in reaction stoichiometry problem solving: Deducing the limiting reagent in chemical reactions. Chemistry Education Research and Practices, 10(1), 14-23. Gabel, D. L., Sherwoods, R. D., & Enoch, L. (2006). Problem solving skills of high school chemistry students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21(2), 221233. Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Goldin-Meadow, S. & Wagner, S. M. (2005). How our hands help us learn. Trends in Cognitive Science, 9(5), 234-241.
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Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold. Iedema, R. (2003) Multimodality, resemiotization: Extending the analysis of discourse as multi-semiotic practice. Visual Communication, 2(1), 29-57. Johnstone, A.H. (2000). Teaching of chemistry: Logical or psychological. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice in Europe, 1(1), 9-15. Johnstone, A. H. and Kellett, N. C. (1980). Learning difficulties in school scienceTowards a working hypothesis. International Journal of Science Education, 2(2), 175-181. Jordan, B. & Henderson, A. (1995). Interaction analysis: Foundations and practice. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4(1), 39-103. Klein, P. D. (2006). The challenges of scientific literacy: From the view-point of second generation cognitive science. International Journal of Science Education, 2(2/3), 143-178. Knain, E. (2006). Achieving science literacy through transformation of multimodal textual resources. Science Education, 90(4), 656-659. Kozma, R. (2003). Material and social affordances of multiple representations for science understanding. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 205-226. Kozma, R., Chin, E., Russell, J., & Marx, N. (2000). The role of representations and tools in the chemistry laboratory and their implications for chemistry learning. Journal of the Learning Science, 9(3), 105-144. Krange, I. & Ludvigsen, S. (2008). What does it mean? Students‟ procedural and conceptual problem solving in a CSCL environment designed within the field of science education. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 3(1), 1556-1607. Kress, G. (1996). Representational resources and the production of subjectivity: Questions for the theoretical development of critical discourse in a multicultural society. In C. R. Caldas-Coulthard & M. Coulthard (Eds.), Texts and practices: Readings in critical discourse analysis (pp. 15-32). London: Routledge. Kress, G. (2000). Design and transformation: New theories of meaning. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of social futures (pp. 153-161). London: Routledge. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.
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Kress, G., Jewitt, C., Ogborn, J., & Tsatsarelis, C. (2001). Multimodal teaching and learning: Rhetorics of the science classroom. London: Continuum. Kress, G., Jewitt, C., & Tsatsarelis, C. (2000). Knowledge, identify, pedagogy: Pedagogic discourse and the representational environments of education in late modernity. Language and Education, 11(1), 7-30. Lemke, J. L. (2001). Articulating communities: Sociocultural perspectives on science education. Journal of Research on Science Teaching, 38(3), 296-316. McLoughlin, C. & Taji, C. (2005). Teaching in the sciences: Learner centered approaches. New York: Binghamton. Nurrenbern, S. C. & Pickering, M. (1987). Concept learning versus problem solving: Is there a difference? Journal of Chemical Education, 64(6), 508-509. Pozzer-Ardenghi, L. & Roth, W.-M. (2007). On performing concepts during science lectures. Science Education, 91(1), 96-114. Schank, P. & Kozma, R. (2002). Learning chemistry through the use of a representationbased knowledge building environment. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 21 (3), 253-279. Tsaparlis, G. & Angelopoulos, V. (1999). A model of problem solving: Its operation, validity and usefulness in the case of organic synthesis problems. Science Education, 84(2), 131-153. Wood, C. (2006). The development of creative problem solving in chemistry. Chemistry Education and Research Practice, 7(2), 96-113. Zoller, U. (2000). Teaching tomorrow‟s college science courses: Are we getting it right? Journal of College Science Teaching (May), 409-414.
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Moving Science as Inquiry into the Classroom: Research to Practice
Barbara A. Crawford Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
Abstract Facilitating children in science classrooms in developing images of science consistent with current practice, and in understanding what science is, what science is not, and the relevancy of science to society, has been a longstanding goal of science education in the United States. National science education reform documents in the last decade consider inquiry, combined with teaching about nature of science, a central component of science instruction at all grade levels. Inquiry can be a confusing term, and most teachers in the U.S. do not use inquiry-based instruction in their classrooms. Further, there is little empirical evidence of the most effective ways to support teachers in understanding scientific inquiry and nature of science, or how to implement inquiry in their classrooms. This paper will focus on promising ways to support teachers and children in developing in-depth understandings of science, of using essential features of scientific inquiry, in particular the use of evidence by scientists and making sense of observations. The construct of authenticity as an important theoretical construct will be discussed. Recent findings from a new multi-year teacher professional development project that immersed teachers in an authentic investigation and in understanding past environments and evolutionary theory will be presented. Examples will be given of how teachers translate their knowledge of inquiry to their classrooms, and in turn, students are engaged in authentic scientific inquiry. Viable ways to support prospective and
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practicing teachers‟ in developing knowledge of scientific inquiry and beliefs that teaching about scientific inquiry is important will be addressed.
A paper based on a Keynote Address given at the National Institute of Education International Science Education Conference (ISEC2009) Singapore, November 24-26, 2009
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How can teachers help children understand what science is, what science is not, and develop images of how scientists think and work? How can we create science classrooms where children use observations as evidence and creatively think about how we can understand our world? My long time career interests involve trying to figure out how we can change the way science is taught in most classrooms across the United States. First and foremost, I am a teacher. As a former public school science teacher, I taught life science and biology, physical science, chemistry and physics to children ages 12-18 in the U.S. for over 16 years. For the past 14 years I have worked with preservice and inservice science teachers in designing classrooms that provide children an opportunity to gain an interest in science, use science inquiry and to learn about nature of science. My passion is to engage children in actively understanding what science is; not by trying to memorize the massive amount of facts in science textbooks; but through investigation, by grappling with data, and in becoming critical thinkers. Ultimately, I would like all children to be motivated to learn about science, and to develop into life long learners of science. The main question driving this paper is, how can we move science as inquiry into the science classroom? In the United States we are challenged to motivate children from many diverse backgrounds and abilities to understand key concepts and principles of science, as well as aspects of scientific inquiry and the nature of science. To this end, teachers need to support students in developing a scientifically literate understanding of the ways in which the body of scientific knowledge is developed. The process of moving students towards greater understanding of how scientific knowledge is created involves an increasing reliance on logic and evidence. Science education reform documents in the United States consider inquiry, combined with teaching about nature of science, a central component of science instruction at all grade levels (AAAS, 1989, 1993; NRC, 1996, 2000). However, inquiry related to science teaching, can be a confusing term. Decades ago inquiry had been posed as an effective method of engaging students in real-world experiences (Dewey, 1938). Although the U.S. reform documents emphasize inquiry as a central strategy for teaching science, the reality is that most teachers do not use inquiry-based instruction in their classrooms. Further, there is little empirical evidence of effective ways to support
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teachers in understanding scientific inquiry and nature of science, and how to implement inquiry in science classrooms. My view of teaching science as inquiry, at its most basic level, involves helping children to find answers to questions using logic and evidence. Inquiry involves going beyond the simple asking of questions, to trying to figure out how to make sense of data to answer a scientifically based question. Aligned with guidelines in education reform documents in the U.S., the learner asks and answers scientifically-oriented questions about
the natural world, gives priority to evidence in responding to questions, comes up with explanations using data as evidence, connects explanations to scientific knowledge, and communicates and justifies explanations (NRC, 2000). Similar to what a scientist does, in a classroom the student figures out something by herself, with the guidance of the teacher, by making sense of observations, the text in a book, the images on a computer screen, or the data gathered during an investigation. At the heart of inquiry is the learner herself, grappling with data and making sense of some event or phenomenon in a social environment.
Inquiry-based teaching is a complex and sophisticated way of teaching that requires the teacher to have an adequate understanding of scientific inquiry and the nature of science and inquiry-based teaching approaches (Crawford, 2000, 2007). This kind of teaching requires significant professional development and support. Many teachers do not have adequate
preparation in science to create a successful inquiry-based environment (Krajcik, Mamlok, & Hug, 2001) or they simply may not understand what inquiry is (Anderson, 2002), or not have beliefs and views that support this kind of teaching (Gallagher, 1991;
Lederman, 1992; Luft, 2001). The problem is more acute at the elementary and middle school levels, where teachers generally have little or no formal science training and lack familiarity with the fundamentals of scientific inquiry (Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry, & Hewson, 2003). Theoretical Framework. The theoretical framework guiding the design of my research and the assertions offered in this paper include two main areas:
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Social-constructivist perspectives of learning. This view of learning aligns with the recent framework and assessments in the PISA project (see Bybee, McCrae, & Lurie, 2009) in which context is important. In this paper I view learning from a socialconstructivist perspective, taking the position that knowledge is developed in the context of personal experiences in collaboration with others (Driver, 1989; Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer & Scott, 1994, Vygotsky, 1978). Millar (1989) compares the way we learn science to the way we learn about things in everyday life. In a process of grappling with data to make sense of it and through negotiation of ideas with peers and experts in a social context, the learner gains an individual and internalized understanding.
Authenticity. The construct of authenticity is an important theoretical construct that underpins my views of teaching science as inquiry. Authenticity relates to classroom practices aligned with those in which scientists engage, including, epistemological and reasoning aspects (Chinn & Malholtra, 2002); and demonstrates or replicates the kinds of work scientists do and is relevant to students (Braund & Reiss, 2006; Dewey, 1938; Hodson, 1998; Roth, 1995). Woolnough (2000) presents an argument for incorporating more science project work in European science classrooms. The difference between authenticity in actual science research laboratories and fieldwork, and authenticity in formal and informal science education settings needs clarification. Just moving a scientist‟s science into classrooms is not appropriate and treats “authenticity as static rather than dynamic and as fixed rather than emergent, and ignores the potential of transformations of learning environments by its participants”, Rahm, Miller, Hartley, & Moore, 2003, p 738). Authenticity connects with the time, place, and situation associated with the learning experience (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). An example of authenticity in school science is provided by Rosebery, Warren, & Conant (1989) in the Cheche Konnen project, that provided evidence for the importance of connecting inquiry to the lives of diverse children. The learning environment was transformed from traditional worksheet-driven instruction to authentic inquiry for these Haitian middle level students. Important questions to consider are, what are the goals of science instruction? For whom is science authentic? What kinds of developmentally and culturally appropriate experiences are feasible in classroom situations? How can teachers
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address aspects of the nature of science (NOS), and attend to the developmental and cultural needs of learners?
Building Upon a Research Agenda Focused on Inquiry The main goal of my research agenda is to understand and develop viable ways to support teachers and students in using and understanding inquiry. We have carried out a series of empirical studies over the last ten years, investigating how learners, in a range of settings and levels, gain understandings of the processes, nature, and subject matter of science through inquiry. These studies include: 1) A Middle School Community of Learners, a qualitative study of my own middle level students engaged in open-ended projects designed by the students in collaboration with experts outside the classroom (Crawford, Krajcik, & Marx, 1999); 2) The Community Slough Project, a case study of an experienced high school ecology teacher who engaged his students in an authentic investigation of a local river slough with university experts (Crawford, 2000); 3) High School Students’ Authentic Summer, a study investigating high school science students participating in a summer-long research internship at a university, and the effect of the experiences on their ideas about scientific inquiry and nature of science (Bell, Blair, Crawford, & Lederman, 2003); 4) The Authentic Research Seminar for Preservice Teachers, a study of adults in a graduate level science teacher education course, that integrated an authentic research experience with a campus-based, theory-driven seminar, rich in opportunities for discussion and reflection (Schwartz, Lederman, & Crawford, 2004); and 5) Teaching Methods and Modeling, a study of undergraduate college students preparing to teach secondary science, as they designed investigations of real-world phenomena, then built and tested models of scientific phenomena using modeling software (Crawford & Cullin, 2004). Findings from these studies provide growing evidence for a proposed model of inquiry learning and teaching science in classrooms, in which active investigation, authenticity, and reflection are critical components. A summary of some key assertions includes:
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• Authenticity, in its various forms, can provide valuable context for reflection on aspects of the nature of science (i.e. Schwartz, Lederman, & Crawford, 2004; Schwartz & Crawford, 2004). • Authentic contexts are those that support the learner in making sense of naturally occurring events and constructing compelling explanations that justify the time, resources and effort needed to set inquiry into action (Crawford, Zembal-Saul, Munford, & Friedrichsen, 2005). • Authentic science in classrooms enables students to engage in investigations that are meaningful to them (e.g. Crawford, Krajcik, & Marx, 1999; Crawford, 2000; Krajcik, et al., 1998). • Guidance and scaffolding by the classroom teacher in facilitating students in collaborating with others is critical (Crawford, 2000; Crawford, Krajcik, & Marx, 1999). • Authority of the teacher may impede, rather support the process of negotiating ideas, and the willingness of the teacher to shift authority to students is pivotal (Crawford, Krajcik, & Marx, 1999). In our latest efforts to understand how to effectively support teachers and students in learning through inquiry and about inquiry, we have designed a new multi-year project that combines an authentic scientific investigation, innovative inquiry resources and tools, an interactive data-based website, and teacher professional development. The basic idea is to immerse teachers (as learners) and their students in an authentic science investigation. In this case the investigation involves classroom students helping scientists learn about past environments. The learning of science in this project includes core concepts related to geology and evolutionary theory. Teachers involve their own students in contributing data to the authentic scientific investigation, and in learning about multidisciplinary concepts such as uniformatarinism, superposition, diversity, structurefunction, deep time, environments, change over time, finding patterns in data, and aspects of nature of science. In this paper I will present some of our preliminary findings, as we endeavored to provide authentic experiences for teachers and help teachers to bring their experiences into their classrooms. I will present evidence of the kinds of things teachers learned from the PD, how teachers translated their knowledge of inquiry to their classrooms; in turn,
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how students were engaged in authentic science experiences and what students learned about scientific inquiry, nature of science and key science concepts.
The Fossil Finders Project- Research to Practice Starting in January 2008 the Cornell University Department of Education and the Paleontological Research Institution (PRI) in Ithaca, New York, U.S.A. collaborated to actively support teachers and children in learning about science inquiry and concepts related to evolutionary theory. The Fossil Finders project strives to bridge research to practice by engaging teachers and children in classrooms carrying out an authentic investigation of Devonian fossils (Crawford, Capps, McCullough, Meyer, Ortenzi & Ross, 2009). The goals of the project include helping children and teachers to understand how scientists use evidence to build theory, enhance abilities to do inquiry, and stimulate interest in paleontology, biology, and geology in target demographics (females, low SES, and ELL students). Ultimately, the Fossil Finders project aims to provide a viable national model for informal-formal partnerships in which natural history museums connect with classrooms and provide inquiry-based, authentic science. The theoretical framework guiding our work is that learning is associated with meaningful activities. This view is embodied in the constructs of social constructivism, situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeships (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991). In the Fossil Finders project children in classrooms from two grade spans (5th/6th and 7th/9th) receive shipped samples of rock (i.e. samples of shale from an Upstate New York outcrop). Teachers help children identify the fossils they find, and teachers and students use an interactive website, to add their own data to an emerging database. A key focus is on classrooms with a high proportion of underrepresented groups of children (English language learners, [ELL] and children whose race and gender are not well represented in the sciences. The Fossil Finders project provides a context for students to learn about how the Earth has changed throughout time. Developed instructional materials target interdisciplinary science content, including environmental science, global climate change, variation, adaptation, biological evolution, and the fossil record. As part of the project, students use fossil data from rocks sent from scientists. Students build on their own
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knowledge to begin to understand that New York State (in the northeastern part of the United States), once had very different environmental conditions from today. Helping students to understand that the area where people live now, was not always as it is today serves to lay the groundwork to develop more sophisticated understandings of environmental change. Teachers, scientists, science education researchers, and students all collaborate to answer a driving question and enter data on a website (www.fossilfinders.org) . See Table 1 for the various roles of the personnel. Table 1. Roles in an Authentic Science Classroom Inquiry Collaborators Scientists
Science Education Researchers
Teachers
Students
Various Roles • provide research question • develop protocols • use student-contributed data to develop scientific explanations • provide tools and materials • develop explanations (reconstruct the geologic past of central New York) • provide inquiry teaching strategies • explicit NOS support • curriculum development • liaison between scientists and teachers • engage with scientists (in studying past environments) • facilitate students in gathering and analyzing data (identifying and measuring fossils, analyzing aggregate data) • help students understand key science concepts and NOS • provide feedback on lessons and pedagogy • change agents in classrooms • identify fossils in rock samples • enter their class‟ data into an online database • analyze data • work with their peers • help scientists develop explanations (reconstruct the geologic past of central New York) • ask their own questions
The Teacher Professional Development To support teachers in understanding inquiry the Cornell and PRI team planned and carried out a five and a half day work session in August 2008. We used the research on professional development programs (i.e., Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 2003) and our own research conducted on inquiry-based teaching (Crawford, 2000, 2007) to
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inform our PD design. In particular, Loucks-Horsley, et al. 2003 describe strategies that include immersion in inquiry into science and mathematics; immersion into the world of scientists. In the Fossil Finders project the focus of our designed PD involves an authentic scientific setting conducive to translation to a science classroom, combined with modeling an inquiry approach with explicit connections to aspects of NOS. The centerpiece of the Fossil Finders project is the authentic paleontological investigation examining how sea life responded to changes in the environment during the Devonian Period in central New York, U.S.A. In August 2008 ten Fossil Finders (P-1) teachers engaged in a weeklong PD experience in Ithaca New York. We had a packed agenda, featuring four field trips; discussions in the Cornell Geology classrooms of how to find and measure fossils, teaching about nature of science, use of inquiry-based approaches; a tour of the Museum of the Earth, highlighted by a behind-the-scenes look at the work of paleontologists and the world class PRI fossil collections; and evening discussions of ELL strategies and how to deal with controversial issues of teaching about evolution.
Evidence of Teacher Learning Teacher Pre-Post-assessment data qualitatively showed some positive gains in understandings of NOS, inquiry, and science concepts. The following is an excerpt from the evaluation team‟s (Ohio Evaluation & Assessment Center) report on some quantitative data on teacher change:
Significant differences were found between the mean pre- and post-scores of Fossil Finders teachers for 3 (of 13) items on the Fossil Finders Teacher Questionnaire. After exposure to the Fossil Finders professional development, teachers demonstrated a more informed understanding of some processes of science, including how scientists reach different conclusions from the same evidence, and the importance of data and its relationship to evidence. Teachers also demonstrated a more accurate understanding of the chronological order and scale of significant events in Earth’s history.
Analyses of the post-PD interviews further demonstrated enhanced views of inquiry and NOS as compared to teachers‟ earlier views. For example, many teachers progressed from describing inquiry instruction as simply “hands-on” teaching to articulating the importance of having students work with data and use evidence to back their claims.
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Following the PD several teachers made explicit reference to NOS, at least to some degree versus no references pre-PD. For a more in-depth qualitative look at teachers‟ Pre-Post knowledge and views and translation to classroom practice, the Cornell research team purposively selected two upper elementary teachers. Both teachers teach in high-needs school districts, having many students from populations generally underrepresented in science. These two teachers had taught five years or less; both taught in elementary grades and neither had formal coursework in geology or evolution or scientific research experience. One teacher Ana (pseudonym) clearly gained an enhanced understanding of one essential feature of inquiry, that of the use of evidence by scientists. Following the PD Ana also demonstrated growth in understanding aspects of NOS, including that a scientist uses creativity in all aspects of his or her work. Further, Ana clearly strengthened her science content knowledge during the Fossil Finders professional development week. In a prequestion #17 Ana did not understand the principle of superposition at the beginning of the PD week; however, immediately following the PD, Ana gave a scientifically accurate response to the question. For example, Ana stated that a changing environment could contribute to variations in populations of organisms in the past, a big idea addressed during the PD week. This important idea relates to learning progressions of evolution (Catley, Lehrer, & Reiser, 2004) leading children to understand Darwinian theory of evolution through natural selection in later grades. This growth is particularly encouraging given the fairly short, one-week duration for the professional development. A second teacher, Katie, teaches 5th grade (ages 9-10) in an inner city school, with a high percentage of underrepresented students. Many of Katie‟s students were on freeor reduced lunch plans, indicating a low socio-economic level. There was evidence that Katie improved her own understandings of NOS and inquiry, as well as science concepts. See Table 2 for evidence of Katie‟s growth in understandings following the PD.
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Table 2. Katie‟s (5th grade teacher) Pre-Post Views of Inquiry and NOS and Science Concepts Question
1. What, in your opinion, is science? What makes science (or a scientific discipline such as physics, biology, etc.) different from other disciplines of inquiry (e.g., religion, philosophy)?
6. Scientists perform experiments/investigations when trying to find answers to the questions they put forth. Do scientists use their creativity and imagination during their investigations?
Pre-test Response (August 10th, 2008)
Post-test Response (August 15th, 2008)
[Science is the study or interaction of people with nature and life.]
[Science is an interaction with natural world, having a question, investigating it, collecting information, data and constructing a possible answer. I think the difference lies in that the fact that science can be investigated and there is evidence to be found.]
[Yes, creativity and imagination are a big piece of the investigation during planning and designing and data collection. I think they have to use all their senses to discover new ways to answer new and old questions.]
[They use their creativity and imagination during all phases of an experiment. I think allows them to be able to access a more varied sample and to get to stuff not thought possible before because of lack of creativity. I think creativity and imagination push science forward always asking why and why not.]
9.The “scientific method” is often described as involving the steps of making a hypothesis, identifying variables (dependent and independent), designing an experiment, collecting data, and reporting results. Does good science need to follow the scientific method? Explain your answer. 10.What is inquiry-based science teaching?
Yes [I think it does need to follow these steps to ensure an accurate result and to keep organized.]
[No, I think good science can look sloppy and chaotic. The important piece is to ask question, investigate, collect, investigate, conclude and it does not have to be in that order.]
[It is where students are given a task, question or self-directed question and try to answer it through experiments and/or research.]
[It is allowing students to take control, when ready, of their learning through hands on minds on experiences. It is student driven with teacher guidance.]
11.What are some important features of inquiry to teach students?
[I think the most difficult part is “good questions.” An experiment without a good question leaves a “so what”. Students need to know how to be self-disciplined, manage their time, be organized, and stay on task with their question.] [Never saw this word. Guessing it might have something to do with using one source of information.]
[Hands-on experiences, self –motivation, driven to answer their questions, statements, willingness of teacher to let go of the control element in teaching]
[I don‟t know.]
[It is the fact that the bottom layer is the oldest layer, unless some major external force has changed that.]
16.Explain what the word uniformatarianism means?
17.Explain what is meant by the law or principle of superposition.
[It means that the past mimics the present or the present mimics the past. We can look back in history of an organism to see the past and continuances of that species.
In the post-PD interview Katie described how the PD experiences changed her way of thinking about how scientists work. See excerpts of her interview below:
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Interviewer:~17:40-Along those lines, in terms of theory, what about doing science and the scientific method, does good science need to follow the scientific method? Katie: See, now that‟s where I always thought that, yes, it did. You see you know, you got to do this, this, this, this, that. Now, I am thinking, not really, because certain circumstances might ever require you to work backwards. … Interviewer: Did you change your ideas during the Fossil Finders week? If so, how? Katie: Oh yeah, definitely yeah. So if you would have asked me before, I would have said you need to start with a hypothesis and go that way, just like it says in the book. Interviewer: What experiences led you to rethink that or see that differently during the FF week. Katie: I think actually looking at the fossils; having the hands-on looking at them, and hearing different people talk about it, so I don‟t really necessarily have to have a question about it. I can have the object in my hand and kind of go backwards with it. There is evidence that Katie had held the mistaken notion that there is only one scientific method; that scientists always follow one particular set of steps (as depicted in many science textbooks). From her experiences in the PD she developed a more informed view, that scientists select a particular method, depending on the question they are investigating; and that scientists use multiple methods.
Teachers Translating their Views to Their Classrooms We are interested in the question, What is the evidence of teachers translating their knowledge to their own classrooms? Following the summer work session we visited our pilot teachers‟ classrooms and videotaped their lessons associated with the Fossil Finders curriculum. To measure any changes in teaching practice we had videotaped one lesson taught by each teacher earlier that spring. We used this lesson as a baseline to compare changes, if any, in their teaching approaches. Analyses of pre-post lessons indicated that all teachers showed some positive movement towards using more reformed-based ways of teaching, including using at least some features of inquiry-based instruction. Given the complexity of teaching we understand the limitations of using videotape alone as a tool to measure a teacher‟s practice. Videotapes of single lessons cannot capture all the nuances of teaching. However, we also analyzed teacher responses to written questions and
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conversations, in an attempt to portray the most accurate representation of these teachers‟ view of teaching science and triangulate our data. In observing teachers enacting the Fossil Finders curriculum and investigation there were many instances of teachers delving deeper into use of evidence with their students. Prior to the PD both Katie and Ana involved their students in activities; however the use of essential features of inquiry was limited to that of asking students questions. For many teachers we observed them asking primarily „yes‟ or „no‟ questions to their students. Many questions were not scientifically oriented. After the professional development there was evidence that teachers made a point to ask students to think about the difference between observations and inferences. Katie began to ask more scientifically oriented questions. She pressed her students to consider the use of data as evidence for their explanations. Katie’s Teaching Practice (PRE) Prior to the PD we characterized Katie‟s teaching as hands-on with emphasis on students doing things and using process skills. Videotape data, informal conversations, and application materials provided evidence that prior to the Fossil Finders professional development, Katie valued active learning; a classroom visit showed that her students were comfortable working in small groups. She used “hands-on” activities. In lessons we observed she included a challenge lesson where students used materials to construct the best marsh or a field trip to a nearby creek; students made sketches, took measurements, and collected water samples. However, beyond simply collecting data and asking rudimentary questions, we did not see any evidence of the essential features of inquiry in her lessons. She made limited use of scientifically oriented questions. The prelesson ended with limited closure. Additionally, Katie mentioned to one of the authors that, “I am really interested in inquiry, but I have had problems pinning the term down.” Katie’s Teaching Practice (POST) Following the Fossil Finders professional development videotaped lessons showed evidence of Katie‟s students working on scientifically oriented questions. There was evidence this teacher had moved beyond a simplistic notion of “hands-on teaching”.
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Following the professional development Katie spent a lot of time asking students to defend their inferences/drawings based on their observations/prior knowledge as evidence in the excerpts below: Video 3 Teacher has set up the room, so that students can work in pairs making observations and inferences about rock samples that have fossils in them. Students are using hand lenses. Two girls are working at the front of the room. S: Were there beaches back then? (one student calls out to the teacher) S: Is Fayette Quarry near water? (a second student asks another question) K: It is interesting you say that…. Why did you say that? S: Because we see shells in there and these worm-like things. ~12:00K: What did you say about the environment? S: Beachy. K: Why did you say this? S: Shells are found near the beach. K: How many shells would we need to find to make a conclusion that the area was a beach millions of years ago? ~16:40- K: Why did you say it was a shell? What did it remind you of from today? S: An oyster. ~18:30- K: What observations did you make and what inferences did you make? S: Fossil is rough, rock feels dry, the rock breaks easily, and it seems like it has a type of stain. K: What inference did you make? S: It looks like a piece of shell. K: What environment would a shell be in? S: Water.
In this series of teacher-student interactions, Katie prompted her students to provide evidence for their claims. “Why did you say that?” Katie pressed her students to use observational data to make inferences about past environments. These preliminary findings from the project‟s first year show positive enhancement of teachers‟ views of science, understandings of NOS and of some evolutionary concepts, and their emerging abilities to use inquiry-based approaches in their teaching practice. We cannot claim cause and effect, but it is likely teachers‟ growth and apparent changes in practice are associated with their experiences in the professional development and their use of the inquiry-based curricular materials.
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Impact on Student Learning about Scientific Inquiry Ultimately, we are interested in the impact of inquiry-based instruction on student learning. Specifically, we ask, do students understand more about what science is, from engaging in the Fossil Finders inquiry-based instruction? To assess the effectiveness of teachers using the Pilot Fossil Finders curriculum, we constructed student assessments (Pre and Post), in collaboration with the Ohio E & A Center. The developed instruments have three scales: content science knowledge items, NOS items, and inquiry items. We administered these assessments to students in our Pilot teachers classrooms, at the beginning of the school year 2008 and near the end of the school year Spring 2009. Additionally we asked our teachers to select a comparison teacher (not involved in the project, but teaching similar classes in the same school) to provide a control group of students. The comparison teacher would administer the Pre and Post-tests to classes similar to those of the Fossil Finders teachers. In developing the Pre and Post student assessment the E & A Center studied the Fossil Finders curriculum and identified item sets containing valid and reliable student assessment items, chosen from U.S. state and national standardized tests and items from other validated instruments (i.e. Lederman). When no items from standardized state and national tests matched our objectives, we constructed new items. A wide range of students participated (see Table 3 for displays of respondent race/ethnicity and gender for participant and comparison groups). As shown in Table 3 most of the Form E (Elementary) pre-questionnaire respondents indicated either African American (32% of participant; 38% of comparison) or White (29% of participant; 31% of comparison) as their race/ethnicity. Male and female respondents were relatively evenly distributed for each group.
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Table 3. Form E (Elementary) Respondent Student Gender and Race/Ethnicity.
Race/Ethnicity African American Native American/ Alaskan Native Asian or Pacific Islander Hispanic/Latino(a) White (not Hispanic/Latino(a) Other Total
Female
Participant Male
Total
Female
Comparison Male
Total
16
17
33
26
21
47
1 1 3
2 2 0
3 3 3
3 0 22
1 1 10
4 1 32
11 10 42
16 7 44
27 17 86
17 8 76
25 13 71
42 21 147
Significant differences were found between the Fossil Finders elementary students‟ and comparison students‟ post content knowledge scores and understanding of the nature of science and inquiry. While comparison group students‟ performance improved on the content knowledge subscale, no improvement was seen in their understanding of inquiry and nature of science. Further, ANOVA results suggest that differences in gains between Fossil Finders students and comparison students were attributable to exposure to Fossil Finders materials. See Figure 2 for a display of students‟ pre and post Rasch mean scores of change in views of nature of science by Fossil Finders participation. Excerpts from the evaluation report appear below:
Fossil Finders elementary student mean scores improved on all but one item on the content knowledge assessment, with 4 (of 13) items demonstrating statistically significant gains. Students demonstrated a better understanding of important Earth science and evolutionary concepts, including the impact of environmental change on organisms, the Law of Superposition, and fossil forming processes.
Fossil Finders elementary student mean scores improved on 5 of 7 items measuring knowledge of the nature of science. Students demonstrated a more informed understanding of two critical concepts—the tentative nature of science, and the use of creativity and imagination in scientific investigations. Interestingly, students were not able to clearly articulate a definition of science either before or after exposure to the Fossil Finders materials.
Analysis of elementary students‟ constructed responses showed that after teacher instruction, and utilizing the Fossil Finders curriculum, students demonstrated a more informed understanding of scientists‟ use of creativity and imagination in scientific investigations. In answering the question, why do scientists disagree about why and how
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dinosaurs died (Q5), see Table 4 for a display of a sample of matched student pre- and post-questionnaire responses to this item.
Figure 2. Students’ pre and post Rasch mean scores on “VNOS Form E” by Fossil Finders participation.
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Table 4. Sample Response of VNOS –E Item 5 Pre
Post
“They disagree because all facts have different senaroes [sic] unless you have all the facts so they might not have all the facts” (Scored as a 1)
“They disagree because they are different people.” (Scored as a 3)
Figure 3. Example of elementary student writing a response to a question about interpreting fossil data.
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Conclusion In this section I will return to the main question addressed in this paper, how can we move science as inquiry into the classroom? Preliminary findings from our latest project add support to the hypothesis that, a focus on authenticity, in collaboration with others, can lend support to teachers carrying out inquiry-based instruction and facilitate students in engaging in learning science. This finding aligns with social constructivist and situated cognition theories of learning (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991). Examples of how students engaged in essential features of inquiry in their science classrooms during the Fossil Finders project appear in Table 5. Table 5. Essential Features of Inquiry in the Fossil Finders Science Classroom Feature (abbreviation) SQ
Description of Feature
Example in Classroom
Learner engages in answering a scientificallyoriented question
Learner asked to help answer, How did sea life respond to the environment in New York State, nearly 400 million years ago? Learner identifies and measures brachiopods, clams, trilobites, and other fossils she finds in shale samples Learner makes graphs of sizes and kinds of fossils; enters his or her data into an online database, uses data as evidence; using fossils for clues to what the area was like nearly 400 million years ago? Learners connects her explanations of the past environment with those of paleontologists and geologists Learner posts a report of her explanations on the project Fossil Finders website in the student-scientists area
DE
Learners gathers (or is given) data to use as evidence for answering the question
EE
Learner grapples with and analyzes data to develop evidenced-based explanations and answers, by looking for patterns and drawing conclusions
SE
Learner connects the explanations with those explanations and concepts developed by the scientific community
CD
Learner communicates, justifies, and defends explanations
As we continue to work with teachers and develop inquiry-based curriculum, we are developing a model for creating an inquiry community of learners in a science classroom. Our emerging model (Figure 4) gives teachers specific roles; not acting as
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passive participants in a professional development experience, but as active inquirers and agents of change. When our teachers were given the opportunity to participate in authentic science, they appeared to gain confidence in implementing inquiry-based instruction in their classroom; their enthusiasm in turn, motivated and engaged students in their classrooms.
Figure 4. An authentic science model for supporting inquiry-based teaching. Moving students towards an understanding and appreciation of the enterprise of science--can enable the individual, regardless of race, culture, gender, and social class, to continue to build on his or her previous knowledge and throughout life to participate in making decisions. The method of moving all learners towards a deeper understanding of science, first and foremost, positions students in active participation in authentic inquiry in education settings. When children engage in real world, authentic investigations, connect their prior knowledge to new learning experiences, and are supported by a knowledgeable other in learning the cultural tools of science, they will gain a deeper
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understanding of science. The important point is that the teacher needs to hold herself, a well-developed view of what science is and of the pedagogy required for supporting children in their own thinking about science as inquiry. In designing an authentic context that scaffolds students in pursuing answers to scientific questions; it is important that the questions have some importance to the life of the learner. Children have a good sense that “made-up” scientific questions, designed only for classroom use, are just that- prefabricated and de-contextualized exercises to teach scientific facts and procedures with little regard for the nature of the learner. Authenticity to the learner does not necessarily mean that the topic is of cutting-edge importance to research scientists. The authentic science investigation may likely be embedded in a local community problem requiring a systematic approach for solving it, and the findings may not revolutionize the science world. An ultimate goal in science education is for the learner to reflect on his or her own learning through metacognition, and it is this component of learning that positions the student in a sustained curiosity and a life-long quest for understanding.
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. NSF 733233. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The National Science Foundation.
References American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989). Science for all Americans: A project 2061 report on literacy goals in science, mathematics and technology. Washington, DC: author. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Anderson, R. (2002). Reforming science teaching. What research says about inquiry? Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13, 1-12. Bell, R., Blair, L, Crawford, B., & Lederman, N. (2003). Just do it? The impact of a science apprenticeship program on high school students‟ understandings of the nature of science and scientific inquiry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40, 487-509. Braund, M. & Reiss, M. (2006). Towards a more authentic science curriculum: The contribution of out-of-school learning. International Journal of Science Education, 28 (12,)1373-1388.
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Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. Bybee, R., McCrae, B., & Laurie, R. (2009). PISA 2006: An assessment of scientific literacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46, 487-509. Catley, K. Lehrer, R., & Reiser, B. (2004). Tracing a perspective learning progression. Paper commissioned by the National Academies Commission on Test Design on K12 Science Achievement., 2005. National Academy of Sciences. Chinn, C. A. & Malholtra, B. A. (2002). Epistemologically authentic inquiry in schools: A theoretical framework for evaluating inquiry tasks. Science Education, 86, 175219. Crawford, B. A. (2000). Embracing the essence of inquiry: New roles for science teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 916-937. Crawford, B. A. (2007). Learning to teach science as inquiry in the rough and tumble of practice. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44 (4), 613-642. Crawford, B. A. & Cullin, M. J. (2004). Supporting prospective teachers‟ conceptions of modelling in science. The International Journal of Science Education. 26, (11), 1379-1401. Crawford, B. A., Krajcik, J. S., & Marx, R. W. (1999). Elements of a community of learners in a middle school science classroom. Science Education, 83, 701-723. Crawford, B. A., Zembal-Saul, C., Munford, D., & Friedrichsen, P. (2005). Confronting prospective teachers‟ ideas of evolution and scientific inquiry using technology and inquiry-based tasks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42 (6), 613-637. Crawford, B. A., Capps, D., McCullough, D., Meyer, X., Ortenzi, D. & Ross. R. (April 2009). A poster presented at the National Association of Research in Science Teaching Annual Conference in Garden Grove, CA. April 17-20, 2009. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier. Driver, R. (1989). The construction of scientific knowledge in school classrooms. In Millar, R (Ed.), Doing science: Images of science in science education (p126-136). London: The Falmer Press. Driver, R., Asoko, H., Leach, J., Mortimer, E., & Scott, P. (1994). Constructing scientific knowledge in the classroom. Educational Researcher, 23, 4. Gallagher, J. J. (1991). Prospective and practicing secondary school science teachers‟ knowledge and beliefs about the philosophy of science. Science Education, 75(1), 121-133. Hodson, D. (1998). Is this really what scientists do? Seeking a more authentic science in and beyond the school laboratory. In J. Wellington (Ed.). Practical work in school science: Which way now? (pp 93-108). London: Routledge. Krajcik, J. S., Mamlok, R., & Hug, B. (2000). Modern content and the enterprise of science: Science education in the twentieth century. In L. Como (Ed.), Education across a century: The centennial volume. One-hundredth yearbook of the national society for the study of education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Lederman, N. G. (1992). Students and teachers conceptions about the nature of science: A review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 331-359.
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Loucks-Horsley S., Hewson P.W., Love N., Stiles, K.E. 2003. Designing Professional Development for Teachers of Science and Mathematics. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Luft, J. A. (2001). Changing inquiry practices and beliefs: the impact of an inquiry-based professional development programme on beginning and experienced secondary science teachers. International Journal of Science Education, 23(5), 517-534. Millar, R. (1989). Bending the evidence: The relationship between theory and experiment in science education. In Millar, R (Ed.), Doing science: Images of science in science education (p126-136). London: The Falmer Press. National Research Council (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Rahm, J., Miller, H., Hartley, L., Moore, J. C. (2003). The value of an emergent notion of authenticity: Examples from two student/teacher–scientist partnership programs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40: 737–756. Rosebery, A.S., Warren, B., & Conant, F.R. (1989). Cheche konnon: Science and literacy in language minority classrooms. (BBN Technical Report No. 7305). Cambridge, MA: BBN Laboratories, Inc. Roth, W. M. (1995). Authentic school science: Knowing and learning in open-inquiry science laboratories. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Schwartz, R. & Crawford, B. A. (2004). Authentic scientific inquiry as a context for teaching nature of science: Identifying critical elements for success. In Scientific inquiry and nature of science: Implications for teaching, learning, and teacher education (Eds. Flick, L., & Lederman, N.). The Netherlands: Kluwer Publishing Co. Schwartz, R. S., Lederman, N. G., & Crawford, B. A. (2004). Developing views of nature of science in an authentic context: An explicit approach to bridging the gap between nature of science and scientific inquiry. Science Education, 88, 610-645. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scriber, & E Souberman, Eds. and trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Woolnough, B. (2000). Authentic science in schools? An evidence-based rationale. Physics Education, 35, (4),293-300.
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APPENDIX A Lesson Description This five-day paleontological investigation engages students in authentic scientific inquiry. Through this investigation there are many opportunities to discuss evolutionary, geological, and nature of science concepts. Students will learn about collecting, compiling, and interpreting data related to a population of fossils. After collecting the data, students will then enter their data into an online database and analyze and interpret the data they collected. The online database can also be used to share data with other classes and scientists and look for trends in the data beyond one’s own class.
National Science Education Standards Grades 5-8 (ages 10 - 14) As a result of activities, students should develop an understanding of: CONTENT STANDARD A: Science as Inquiry
Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
Populations and ecosystems
Understandings about scientific inquiry CONTEND STANDARD C: Life Science Diversity and adaptations of organisms CONTENT STANDARD D: Earth and Space Science
Earth’s History CONTENT STANDARD G: History & Nature of Science
Science as a human endeavor Nature of science
An Excerpt of the Lesson
Say: We will be the first ones to collect this data. Nobody else has looked at these samples and knows what will be found! We will use this data to learn about science, share with scientists and other classes, and perhaps answer some questions of our own or questions posed by other classes. Explain how to fill out each sheet. For brachiopods and bivalves (sheets 1 and 2) students will measure in millimeters (mm’s) in the A direction and B direction indicated on the handouts and PowerPoint slides (see example below). They will also indicate the color of the fossil and fragmentation.
B A A
B
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For all other organisms (sheets 3 & 4) the students need to first record what type of fossil they are measuring. Next they will measure length, width, color and fragmentation (see examples on the PowerPoint).
Data Analysis Explain The explanation portion of the investigation should take about 1-2 class periods but could take more if your students are engaged. The class should have already entered their data into the database. Elementary grades should focus on Graphs 1 & 2 of the database; however, feel free to use the other graphs as well. At the end of this section, elementary students will have recreated what proportions of different kinds of organisms would have lived in the Devonian Sea in the area they were studying. From this, they can begin to infer what the sea may have looked like based on the data they collected from their fossils (Graph 1). Graph1 (Relative Abundance of Organisms within a Sample)- If students have access to computers (or if there is a projector in the classroom) ask students to refer to Graph 1 of the database. Have them use Graph 1 to consider how the data
they collected gives clues to what the area was like nearly 400 million years ago?
Students should select their sample from the drop-down list and click the graph button in the bottom right hand corner of the box. Based on what they found in the rocks, what do they think the area where their rocks formed looked like during the Devonian Period (360 and 415 million of years ago)? What might it have been like if they snorkeled through the area? What would the Devonian Sea have looked like
~400 million years ago? How do they know?
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TALK ABOUT A WALKABOUT: ICT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
Talk about a walkabout: pathways and potholes using ICT in science education
Julie Crough1, Jenni Webber2 and Louise Fogg2
1
Tropical Savannas Management Cooperative Research Centre, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
[email protected] 2
Northern Territory Department of Education and Training, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
[email protected];
[email protected]
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Abstract Northern Australia is one of the most sparsely settled regions of the world with population density of 0.3 people per square kilometre. Forty-seven percent of students in the Northern Territory live in remote areas. Therefore, due to the tyranny of distance and other factors, ICT plays a fundamental role in science education in northern Australia. The Tropical Savannas Cooperative Research Centre, in partnership with the Northern Territory Department of Education and Training, have developed a range of online resources that focus on valuing and sustaining the northern environments of Australia. EnviroNorth: Living Sustainably in Australia’s Savannas (environorth.org.au) helps bridge the identified gap that exists between the scientific research in northern Australia and the science education that is taught in schools. Indigenous people have inhabited and shaped northern Australian environments for more than 50,000 years. However, in the mid-late nineteenth century European settlement has accelerated the rate of environmental change considerably. Despite this history, northern Australia is relatively intact ecologically and its biodiversity richness is internationally significant. EnviroNorth provides a relevant context for learning in these regions. It also provides a window for learning opportunities in other parts of Australia and the rest of the world. While many teachers and schools throughout northern Australia have embraced ICT for science education, it still poses a challenge for many teachers. Through research and case studies from different schools, this paper addresses some of the pathways, potholes and lessons learnt developing online science education resources and adopting ICT in schools.
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Talk about a walkabout: pathways and potholes using ICT in science education Introduction: Challenges and Pathways for Savanna Science In northern Australia, the population density is extremely sparse with an average of 0.3 people per square kilometre who live in an expansive area covering 1.5 million square kilometres (Garnett et. al., 2008; Woinarski et al., 2007). In stark contrast, Singapore has a population density of 6,814 people per square kilometre and a land area of 710.2 square kilometres (Statistics Singapore, 2009). Yet, less than four hours‟ flight from Singapore across the Arafura Sea is northern Australia where 47% of schools are located in rural or remote areas (in the Northern Territory); where the teacher retention rates are low; but where challenges for schools in general and science education in particular, are high. Other unique demographics that characterise this region create further challenges. In 2007, 39.5% of students enrolled in school were Indigenous and this percentage is increasing relative to the total student cohort (Department of Education and Training, 2008). The Secondary Education Review highlighted the significance of this high proportion of young Indigenous people in the Northern Territory. In particular, such a demographically young and rapidly expanding Indigenous population has responsibility, through the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 for custodianship of 85% of the Territory coastline and half of the total Northern Territory (NT) land mass. The implications of this for education, and particularly science education for Indigenous students is significant; in order to fulfil responsibilities for “caring for country” Indigenous people would increasingly need to access and engage with Western knowledge systems (Ramsey, et al., 2003). However, the affordances that educational technology provide, offer a critical tool for teachers and students both in these remotely located schools and in other schools throughout the north.
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While teachers face enormous challenges in northern Australia, some of these apply to other parts of Australia. For example, a 2005 study commissioned by the Deans of Science found that a large percentage of teachers had not completed a major three-year undergraduate degree in the science subject for which they were responsible (Fensham, 2006). Another study in 2001 - The Status and Quality of Teaching and Learning of Science in Australian Schools - identified the need to provide quality curriculum resources for lower secondary teachers and raised the concern of the lack of an interesting, relevant and challenging curriculum that actively engages students (Goodrum et al., 2001). Such needs are indeed the case in northern Australia but are further exacerbated in rural and remote areas where there are difficulties securing teachers. Access to appropriate curriculum resources that are relevant and current to the environment in which the teachers and students live is also a considerable challenge. Not only is this a limiting factor for teaching and learning science in remote schools but also for teachers and students in urban schools.
In response to identifying such needs at both a national and large regional level, the project – Tropical Savannas Knowledge in Schools - was created to develop relevant, current, interactive and authoritative resources for sustainability in northern Australia. It was the first collaborative online project for the Northern Territory Department of Education and Training (NT DET) as well as the first project between the Tropical Savannas Cooperative Research Centre (TS-CRC) and NT DET. Thus no models to adopt or adapt were available that could guide the process for developing the project. However from the outset, the project had two key directives from NT DET: it needed to be an online project (to support all schools) as well
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as support for the newly implemented outcomes-focused Northern Territory Curriculum Framework. Subsequently, the focus of such a collaborative project would be the creative development of a dedicated website for, and designed with, teachers and students.
Cooperative Research Centres (CRCs) are an Australian Government initiative established in 1990 to strengthen collaborative research links between industry, research organisations, educational institutions and relevant government agencies. The Tropical Savannas CRC, with its 16 partner organizations, focuses research on sustainable land-management issues in northern Australia. Hutley and Setterfield (2007) state that while savanna ecosystems are most commonly associated with the great African plains, with huge herds of animals, they occur in over 20 countries, mainly in the wet-dry tropics. Savannas are defined as “grassy landscapes – woodlands with a grassy ground layer, or grasslands – that occur in tropical areas where the climate is seasonally dry” (Dyer et al., 2001 p. 5) and in Australia cover about 25% of the continent as illustrated in Figure 1 (Hutley & Setterfield, 2007). Due to Aboriginal occupation for nearly 50,000 years, coupled with relatively recent European settlement in the last 150 years, northern Australia has been bestowed with a great natural legacy where an extraordinarily large ecologically functioning natural landscape is ornamented by biodiversity richness of international significance (Woinarski et al., 2007). Australia has international commitments to conserve biodiversity which are enacted through the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, and related State legislation (Woinarski et al., 2007). However, the savanna landscapes of northern Australia are in flux where fire, large grazing animals and invasive species have all been implicated as drivers of adverse change (Woinarski et al., 2007). While northern Australia includes three World Heritage
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Areas: Kakadu, Purnulula and Einsleigh, it remained largely ignored for developing appropriate resources to support schools, especially those that are web-based and accessible to everyone.
Figure 1: Map of Australia‟s tropical savannas
Pathways: ICT Affordances for Science Education Computer-based learning environments provide enormous “potential of a new generation of learners for whom technology is the environment and for whom learning means different things” (Sims, 2005, p. 2). Not only do computer-based learning environments provide access to all schools in the Northern Territory, irrespective of their remoteness, but
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they also provide an opportunity to adopt different approaches to learning in science education. Research supports that constructivist beliefs are more conducive to technology integration than traditional beliefs. Becker and Ravitz (1999) identify “constructivistcompatible” instructional activities that incorporate Dewey, Piaget and Vygotsky‟s educational theories. These include: designing activities around teacher and students‟ interests rather than in response to an externally mandated curriculum; engaging students in collaborative group projects in which skills are taught and practiced in context, rather than sequentially; focusing instruction on students‟ understandings of complex ideas rather than on definitions and facts; teaching students to self-consciously asses their own understanding; and engaging in learning in front of students, rather than presenting oneself as fully knowledgeable (Becker & Ravitz, 1999). These constructivist approaches are also supported by research on effective learning that identifies the following three principles: learning is enhanced when learning opportunities are tailored to an individual‟s current levels of readiness; learning is more effective when it leads to deep understandings of subject matter; learning is more effective when learners are supported to monitor and take responsibility for their learning (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000).
Methods: Savanna Science Pathways and ICT Integration Collaborative and participatory research methodologies were integral to the design and development of the aforementioned dedicated website. A framework was developed to facilitate the collaborative and participatory nature of the project (see Appendix 1). In February 2007 the website resources, EnviroNorth: Living Sustainably in Australia’s
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Savannas that included three key sections: Teach Savannas; Learn Savannas and Savanna Windows were launched (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: EnviroNorth website homepage and its three key sections. Methods for Developing Digital Resources The overall concept and overarching website, EnviroNorth drew heavily from ethnography, user observation and user testing approaches to inform its design, structure and development (Futurelab, 2004). The actual learning design modules, Savanna Walkabout about and Burning Issues were underpinned by current research (including: Futurelab 2004; Haughey & Muirhead, 2005; Hedberg & Harper, 1997; Jonassen, 20007; Herrington et al., 2007; McLoughlin & Oliver 2007; and Oliver & Herrington, 2001). The modules‟ development adopted a modified informant design approach whereby “expert” informants (researchers, students and teachers) were involved in the co-designing of the Savanna
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Walkabout and Burning Issues that helped develop early design ideas and tested prototypes in development. For example, with Burning Issues, a small group of educators comprised the expert informant group to develop the initial performance task and continued as key codesigners throughout the module‟s development. Once a draft prototype was developed, a teacher focus group informed the early design phase. Students were key informants and user tested an early prototype to interact with as well as provide constructive feedback by talking aloud during semi-structured interviews. Barriers and Enablers for ICT Integration Common barriers to technology integration include: lack of infrastructure and practical computer access for teachers and students; lack of teachers' confidence and skills; lack of curriculum freedom to integrate technology; social norms in teaching and learning communities that do not support technology integration; and teachers' pedagogical beliefs that do not align with constructivist pedagogy (Becker & Ravitz 1999; Ertmer 2005; Lim & Chai 2007). Conversely, Becker and Ravitz (1999) identify key enablers to technology integration as: opinion climate; information and social support resources; and appropriate educational resources in sufficient quantity. The online modules and the whole EnviroNorth website were developed to align with the Standard Operating Environment in all NT schools. For other educators, the Flash plug-in option and link is available with the online modules. As much as possible, any potential infrastructure barriers have been addressed and continue to be revised. For example, teachers in remote schools identified the need for a CD version of the modules to overcome Bandwidth constraints and unreliable Internet facilities.
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Ethnography, user observation and user testing approaches with middle-year students and teachers were conducted as part of the needs analysis of the “EnviroNorth” project, confirming and emphasising that an effective interactive learning environment needed to: engage students visually (in appeal); actively challenge students to explore the environment; and cognitively challenge students to work out a problem or similar by transforming information that is presented. This feedback has been incorporated, ensuring that users have the opportunity to explore the democratic learning environment and are actively engaging with it to construct their own understandings. The project (and research) also identified that middle-year students also needed activities that enable them to choose from a variety of possible solutions or approaches to problems. This influenced the adoption of Schwier‟s (1994) democratic approach to the learning environment, especially in the Burning Issues module that is discussed in the next section.
Results: Integrating Savanna Science and ICT At the heart of the EnviroNorth website are interactive multimodal learning modules. In particular, the modules enable constructivist practices by supporting knowledge construction and by enabling learning (embedding authentic tasks and resources) that are related to context, to practice (Oliver & Herrington, 2001) and to the physical world in which the students live (i.e. northern Australia). The learning modules, Savanna Walkabout and Burning Issues use an inquiry-based approach to engage students in problem solving and issues that reflect the challenges of researchers in the real world. The modules represent authentic settings and current issues and engage students in identifying and challenging their thinking. Issues focus on biodiversity conservation, environmental management and climate
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change in the tropical savannas. The learning modules, based on learning design, have been co-designed with teachers, researchers and students to represent credible activity and problem solving within realistic situations resembling the contexts in which the knowledge that the users are learning can be realistically applied (Herrington, Oliver & Reeves, 2003). Learning Designs Learning designs represent “a planned set of learning activities resources and supports designed to bring about the development of particular forms of knowledge, skills and understandings” (Oliver and Herrington 2001, p. 99). Sims (2005, p. 6) identifies a learning design for online environments “that emphasizes and acknowledges the role of the learner and embraces the shift to a learner-centred focus.” Such a learner-centred approach is fundamental to constructivist learning environments where knowledge construction is supported (Haughey & Muirhead, 2005) and where technologies support an active, constructive, intentional, complex, contextual, conversational and reflective approach (Jonassen, 2000). Authentic Learning Tasks Herrington et al., (2007) assert that authentic learning tasks need to provide the types of multiple roles and perspectives that are available in real world challenges. In particular, “the affordances of the web enable alternative perspectives to be readily accessed” and can be targeted for specific tasks (Herrington et. al., 2007, p. 5). Burning Issues is driven by an open-ended task that is engaging and challenging as well as relevant to any context in northern Australia. The metaphor for the information landscape (Florin, 1990) is a jointly managed national park in northern Australia. Florin relates such information landscapes to “virtual towns or intellectual amusement parks” where
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you can “walk along pathways and look at roadside attractions, or you can choose from many different options” (Florin, 1990, p. 30). The module is based on the generic situated problemfocused learning design of review, interpret, construct and justify (Angus et al., 2002). In the Burning Issues module, as active constructors of knowledge, learners are required to review available information, interpret appropriate data, construct (and create) a well-argued response to the situated issue and justify the response with appropriate evidence (Angus et al., 2002) The Burning Issues learning environment provides an “open” democratic environment that does not support a single best sequence for learning (Schwier, 1994). Instead this democratic learning environment offers students a wide range of learning opportunities that are featured in Table 1. The overarching learning outcomes for Burning Issues focus on: scientific literacy; information literacy; critical thinking skills and appropriate technologies as well as literacy. Authentic Activities A learning activity, as Conole and Fill (2005) assert, comprises three elements: the context within which the activity occurs; the learning and teaching approaches adopted (including the theories and models); and the tasks undertaken. As far as possible, the activities embedded in both learning modules draw from the ten broad design characteristics of authentic activities that Oliver et al. (2007) identify. For example, in Burning Issues, the introductory scenario places the learner in a helicopter flying in to the simulated national park. On landing “you” are congratulated as the newly appointed joint manager for the park. A mobile device with email and map functions is the key global navigation tool. “Your” task is to design a community awareness campaign/product targeting a specific audience about the role of fire in managing northern Australian environments.
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Web 2.0 Tools The emergence of Web 2.0 over the past few years provided opportunities to embed Web 2.0 tools into the performance and assessment task in the more recent Burning Issues module. Students are provided with a Guide (see Figure 3) and teachers are provided with more support tools in the application of Web 2.0 for effective learning in the Teach Savannas section. The Guide is structured in two sections: My Notes provides scaffolding about how students might approach their public awareness campaign. My Tools provides support on some of the Web 2.0 tools learners might like to adopt as part of their campaign. These tools were selected to provide a range of options that align with Multiple Intelligences (Gardner 1999) and their affordance to enhance learning. Becta (2008, p.16) asserts the merits of Web 2.0 tools as they provide “particular opportunities for the personalisation of learning, because they enable activities such as the decoupling of applications and their recombination according to individual preference (the creation of what are often known as „mash-ups‟), and because they allow individuals to create their own resources, which also potentially enables increased creativity in the curriculum”.
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Figure 3: Students‟ guide in Burning Issues supports them to scope and develop their assessment task.
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Table 1: The democratic learning environment for Burning Issues Learning Attributes and Opportunities
Burning Issues section
Review information to demonstrate and connect with their prior knowledge using the myth busting maps and questions;
Visitors‟ Centre
Review a recent community survey graphed results to assist in identifying misunderstandings in the community and a possible target audience for their campaign;
Visitors‟ Centre
Explore and interpret key strategies used for effective communication with visitor interpretation displays;
Visitors‟ Centre
Explore different peoples‟ perspectives in order to interpret the range of needs and concerns surrounding fire;
Visitors‟ Centre
Explore fire survival strategies of key plant species and the impact of burning on various fauna;
Savanna Lookout
Interpret the impact of burning/not burning over periods of time; the impact of introduced weeds and causing hot intense burns;
Savanna Lookout
Value the role that fire restrictions can play in the wider Camp Ground community to protect peoples‟ lives and property. Interpret the impact of traditional indigenous fire practices Outback Cinema – ecological, social/cultural and economic; Value the role of using a two-toolkit approach (i.e. western science and traditional burning practices) for controlled burning and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions;
Outback Cinema
Construct an outline of the awareness campaign, demonstrating their understandings;
The Guide
Justify their ideas by identifying how the design would The Guide consider key effective communication features and the use of scientific evidence for a specific audience.
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Computer-based Simulations Computer-based simulations can provide students with opportunities to –predict-observeexplain using phenomena that otherwise would not be available. Papadouris, Constantinos, and Constantinou (2009) identify the value and role of simulations for students as a powerful tool for exploring, investigating, and interpreting natural phenomena. In Burning Issues, students “enter” a virtual world, guided by an “expert” and have the opportunity to manipulate the Flames model as illustrated in Figure 4. However, Papadouris et al. signal a cautionary note: “interpreting the results generated by the simulations and conducting meaningful experiments to guide the development of real understanding still posits a fundamental challenge for educators and designers of learning environments that is not specifically addressed by the stimulation environments themselves” (Papadouris et al., 2009, p. 530). In order to guide students in manipulating and understanding the model and its implications for real world situations, a key scientist who developed the Flames model, Dr Adam Liedloff provides support. This support is via email messages generated at appropriate times that poses question, emphasise key points and explain the more complex concepts (see Figure 4). Similar experts from their respective fields provide support and scaffolding for students throughout the rest of the Burning Issues module. This conversation model (Crawford, 2003) is mirrored in all the other sections of the Burning Issues module both directly and via emails. These “conversations” correspond with key concepts and understandings and/or provide background information that might help breakdown (dissolve) misunderstandings or misconceptions; and/or pose questions to encourage reflective thinking.
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The conversation model was also used (although less extensively) in Savanna Walkabout throughout the Termite Trails and Research Tracks sections.
Figure 4: Flames model simulation with timely support via email from the scientist.
Learning Supports For example, Savanna Walkabout is fully supported on the EnviroNorth website by a suggested learning plan based on the Teaching for Understanding framework. Overarching understandings or “big ideas”, understanding goals that identify what students should know and do – the concepts, processes, skills and key questions – all help to focus the teaching/learning program towards the intended outcomes. The culminating performance task gives students a chance to apply and demonstrate their understandings in a purposeful and contextualised way.
The democratic learning environment is flexible enough to meet a diversity of learner needs depending on the learning focus taken and the offline teaching and learning. Some students will thrive in such an environment and others will need more support than is provided within the online environment. Teachers, in the role of facilitators of learning, guide their learners with the process of making meaning. By targeting specific assessment for and as learning opportunities within the module and/or offline to gain and give feedback, teachers can be
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informed as to what focused teaching or support different learners require. Also, the teaching guide is home to a range of further materials including articles (often written accessible language by the scientists), videos, data sets and graphics.
Discussion: Savanna Science and ICT Go Walkabout Savanna Science programs in schools that incorporate EnviroNorth resources and other innovative ICT practices have provided engaging, relevant, meaningful and purposeful learning for students. The following case studies from a primary school and secondary school provide insights into the potential (and realised) potholes, pathways and lessons learnt from integrating ICT in science education with a focus on the EnviroNorth resources. Humpty Doo Primary School Humpty Doo Primary School is a large primary school with over 400 students located 40 kilometres south of Darwin in a rapidly growing rural area. The school caters for all children from preschool to year 6, including a special education annex. Most children at the school live on two-hectare blocks and small farms but this rural area is undergoing major change. The population has increased significantly over the past 15 years with the once predominately savanna-covered land now undergoing rapid subdivision into small holdings for residences and micro-agriculture.
Environmental and sustainability education is a central part of the school‟s mission and its curriculum plan, to: encourage learners to examine and interpret the environment, both locally and globally, from a variety of perspectives; encourage learners to participate actively in resolving problems associated with sustainable development in our locality and
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the development of our school as a sustainable community; give learners “first-hand” experiences within the environment - our school grounds, our immediate locality and other visits within the region and beyond; and involve learners in finding practical ways of ensuring the caring use of the environment and its resources, now and in the future. At Humpty Doo Primary, the EnviroNorth website has been identified as a preferred primary resource for the teaching of the savanna environment and related issues both locally and globally. Since 2007, the resources have been used to support core teaching in areas including Science, Studies of Society and Environment, English, Mathematics, Learning Technology and Visual Arts. The versatility of the website has allowed for flexibility in the delivery of course content and supports a variety of teaching strategies. The resources have afforded a range of opportunities from teaching a comprehensive integrated unit of work that spans a whole semester to taking advantage of discrete sections of the site for targeted teaching.
The school has adequate technology infrastructure including several student computers in each classroom, access to a mobile trolley unit with several tablet computers, a student computer lab and an interactive white board (Smart Board) located in the Library. Students‟ exposure to the EnviroNorth has been through teacher directed lessons in the classroom using a data projector and individually or with a partner on a PC. In upper primary, approximately 80% of students have access to the internet from home. Funding secured in 2009 will see approximately 14 more interactive whiteboards installed across the school.
EnviroNorth has been used with early childhood classes to introduce them to scientists, scientific method and dispel the myth of the white lab coated scientist. The interviews with the savanna scientists and great number of images of scientists in the field (in Meet the
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Researchers section of Savanna Walkabout) had most students agreeing that being a scientist out in the “bush” looked like a lot of fun. Use of this section (see Figure 5) also provided an engaging way to introduce students to the type of questions that scientists use.
Graphs and data from cane toad and northern quoll research proved an active way to engage students in data that reflected recent environmental changes in their own back yards. This area of the website – Join the Researchers - was chosen by teachers to teach focused lessons on enhancing students‟ visual literacy skills (see Figure 5).
Figure 5: Meet the Researchers and Join the Researcher sections in Savanna Walkabout
Humpty Doo: Creating Digital Presentations Using ICT As extension activities based on food webs in Termite Trails, students have used both information technology and visual arts to prepare oral presentations for both students and parents. Students have used programs such as Kidspiration, PowerPoint and Photostory to plan, construct and represent local savanna food webs. They sourced suitable images, manipulated and presented information and shared understandings and concerns for savanna ecosystems.
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Another integrated program at Humpty Doo included culminating tasks that created “claymations” where students scripted their short films used webcams to produce the footage. These cooperative “claymation” films not only reflected the depth of the students‟ understanding about, and for, conserving savanna environments but they also provided students with opportunities to embed field work and investigate ecological and historical aspects of the savannas.
Humpty Doo: Reporting and Assessing Humpty Doo Primary School is working towards storing more evidence of student learning on electronic student portfolios. The EnviroNorth website allows evidence to be gathered easily as screen snapshots. The school is currently trialling the effectiveness of this method across upper primary classes. Taminmin Middle School Taminmin High School is also located at Humpty Doo. Catering for over 1100 students from Year 7 to Year 12, it incorporates a 75-hectare working mixed produce farm in the areas of stock, horticulture and aquaculture and Woodside Reserve, 150 hectares of natural resource study area where students undertake research and practical studies in conservation and land management. With the adoption of Middle Schooling in 2007, a savannas-focused integrated unit of work was introduced to as a Year 7 theme to engage and connect students with their local environment. Taminmin is well resourced with many aspects of ICT in the classrooms. New Smart Boards were installed at the beginning of 2008 which facilitated the interactive use of the EnviroNorth website in the classroom (as illustrated in Figure 6). However, challenges arose
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with the use of individual PCs in student computer labs. Older computers were very slow and several instances of machines freezing hampered students ability to complete set work in the lesson time available.
Incorporating Science, Studies of Society and Environment, English and Mathematics, this Savannas unit of work built on the students‟ prior learning by utilising the mapping skills developed earlier in the year. Students built on their knowledge of the adjacent Woodside reserve which they visited earlier in the year. Field work was supported by local government weeds officers who supported both teachers with resources and both students and teachers in the field. Links with both home and community were achieved through the development and implementation of their own weed management plan. This process enabled students to take direct action in their own environment by knowing and applying effective weed management strategies.
Figure 6: ICT integration for savanna science at Taminmin Middle School.
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Conclusions: Pathways, Potholes, Lessons Learnt and Future Directions Overcoming many of the barriers to effective ICT integration in science education has been a challenge over the past few years since the EnviroNorth website was launched. Conole and Fill (2005, p. 5) emphasise that “the key to online education and constructivism is not whether or not the potential exists, but rather, whether or not the potential will be actualised.” Actualising such potential, by overcoming barriers to the implementation of these resources, is a challenge. Unfortunately, implementation has not been supported at a systemic level due to resource shortages (especially people) within the education department. Some infrastructural barriers still exist although they are relatively minor. Confidence and capability in teaching science is still a considerable barrier in many primary, secondary and remote schools in northern Australia where teachers don‟t usually have any tertiary background in science and as such often don‟t feel confident and comfortable teaching it. National programs such as Primary Connections use various aspects of the EnviroNorth resources as part of their professional development programs. Despite these barriers, EnviroNorth has been widely supported not only in northern Australia, but throughout the rest of Australia and to a smaller extent, in other countries throughout the world (as reflected in the EnviroNorth website usage statistics in Figure 7).
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Figure 7: World distribution of visitors to EnviroNorth website for one month.
Experience has demonstrated that supporting teachers with professional learning can be problematic. In northern Australia, not only are there vast distances to cover for teachers to meet for the Science Teachers Association of the Northern Territory, there is also difficulty finding appropriate times. While such face-to-face meetings are usually preferable, Web 2.0 tools such as wikis offers greater flexibility for teachers to exchange ideas, experiences and resources irrespective of time and physical location. Such potential opportunities are currently being explored. Acknowledgements Other key people who have been involved in the project include: Viki Kane, Peter Gifford, Dr Peter Jacklyn, Kate O‟Donnell, Barbara White, Dr Linda Ford, Dr Penny Wurm, Dr John Woinarski, Dr Sam Setterfield, Dr Michael Douglas, Ian Dixon, Dr Christine Bach, Dr Ben Hoffmann, Dr Lindsay Hutley, Leslee Hills, Stephen Sutton, Dean Yibarbuk, Dr Adam Liedloff, Andrew Turner, Andrew Edwards, Dr Gordon Duff and Dr David Garnett. Bushfires NT provided 50% of funding for the Burning Issues module. The Tropical Savannas CRC funded the project.
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References Angus, M., Gray, J. and Oliver, R. (2002). Review, Interpret, Construct, Justify: a situated problem focused learning design. Learning Designs. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://www.learningdesigns.uow.edu.au/guides/info/G3/index.htm
Becker, H. J. and Ravitz, J. (1999). The influence of computer and internet use on teacher's pedagogical practices and perceptions. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31(4): 356-384.
Becta. (2008). Analysis of emerging trends affecting the use of technology in education. Retrieved September 21, 2009, from http://www.becta.org.uk
Bransford, J., Brown, A., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning. Retrieved October 28, 2007, from http://www.newhorizons.org/neuro/neu_review_bransford.htm
Conole, G. and Fill, K. (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 8(08), 1-16.
Crawford, C. (2003). The Art of Interactive Design: A euphonious and illuminating guide to building successful software. San Francisco, CA: No Starch Press.
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Department of Education and Training. (2008). Annual Report 2008-2009. Darwin: Northern Territory Government Printers.
Dyer, R., Jacklyn, P., Partridge, I., Russell-Smith, J., & Williams, D. (2001). Savanna Burning. Darwin: Tropical Savannas CRC.
Ertmer, P. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4): 25-39.
Fensham, P. (2006). Student interest in science: the problem, possible solutions, and constraints. Plenary address to the ACER Research Conference 2006, “Boosting science learning – What will it take”, Canberra.
Florin, F. (1990) Information Landscapes. In S. Ambron & K. Hooper (Eds), Learning with Interactive Multimedia. (pp. 27-49). Washington: Microsoft Press.
Futurelab. (2004). Designing educational technologies with users: a handbook from Futurelab Retrieved September 30, 2009, http://www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/publications-reportsarticles/handbooks/Handbook196
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. Basic Books: New York.
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Garnett, S., Woinarski, J., Gerritsen, R. & Duff, G. (2008). Future Options for North Australia. Uniprint: Darwin.
Goodrum, D., Hackling, M. & Rennie, L. (2001). The status and quality of teaching and learning of science in Australian schools: a research report, Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Retrieved March 20, 2004, http://www.detya.gov.au/schools/publications/index.htm
Haughey, M., & Muirhead, B. (2005). The pedagogical and multimedia designs of learning objects for schools. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 21(4), 470-490.
Hedberg, J., & Harper, B. (1997) Creating Motivating Interactive Learning Environments. Keynote address at EDMEDIA, Calgary, Canada, 1997.
Herrington, J., Oliver, R. and Herrington, A. (2007). Authentic Learning on the Web: Guidelines for Course Design. Retrieved October 12, 2009, http://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/48
Herrington, J., Oliver, R., & Reeves, T.C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59-71.
Hutley, L.B., & Setterfield S.A. (2007). Savannas. In S.E. Jørgensen (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Ecology, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
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Jonassen, D.H. (2000). Computers as Mindtools for Schools: Engaging Critical Thinking. Columbus, OH: Prentice-Hall. McLoughlin, C., and Oliver, R. (2000). Designing learning environments for cultural inclusivity: A case study of indigenous online learning at tertiary level. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1), 58-72.
Oliver, R., Herrington, J., Herrington, A., and Reeves, T. (2007). Representing authentic learning designs supporting the development of online communities of learners. Journal of Learning Design, 2(2), 1-21. Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology.
Oliver, R. and Herrington, J. (2001) Oliver, R. & Herrington, J. (2001). Teaching and learning online: A beginner’s guide to e-learning and e-teaching in higher education. Edith Cowan University: Western Australia.
Papadouris, N. Constantinos, P. Constantinou, T.K. (2009). A methodology for integrating computer-based learning tools in science, Curricula. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41(4), 521–538.
Ramsey, G., Hill, G., Bin-Sallik, M., Falk, I., Grady, N., Landrigan, M., & Watterston, W. (2003). Future Directions for Secondary Education in the Northern Territory. Darwin: Department of Employment, Education and Training. Retrieved October 14,
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2009 from http://www.det.nt.gov.au/about-us/publications/secondary-educationreview
Reeves, T.C., and Hedberg, J.G., (2003). Interactive Learning Systems Evaluation. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Schwier, R.A. (1994). Multimedia design principles for constructing prescriptive, democratic and cybernetic learning environments. Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia Annual - 1994, Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computers in Education.
Sims, R. (2005). Beyond instructional design: making learning design a reality. Journal of Learning Design, 1(2), 1-8.
Statistics Singapore. (2009). Statistics Singapore. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from http://www.singstat.gov.sg/stats/keyind.html
Woinarski, J.C.Z., Mackey, B., Nix, B., and Trail, B. (2007). The Nature of Northern Australia: its natural values, ecological processes and future prospects. Canberra: Australian National University.
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Appendices Appendix 1
Figure 1: Participatory Framework for Material Development and Implementation
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Lived Experiences of Teachers
Lived Experiences of Teachers: A Reflection on Interpersonal Relationships
Maria Antonia Crudo-Capili
University Research and Development Center Trinity University of Asia 3rd Floor, Ann Keim Barsam Hall Cathedral Heights, 275 E. Rodriguez Sr. Ave., Quezon City, Philippines Trunkline No. 702-2882 local 632/631 e-mail:
[email protected]
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Abstract Phenomenology as a method of research makes use of lived experiences as empirical data in describing a phenomenon. The different stories of teachers signified that teaching is more relational than pedagogical. This finding however runs counter to the belief of teachers that their role in school is confined to their didactic duties. Science teachers in particular are constrained by the fact that they are accountable to whatever happened to their students in the classroom. As a result the creativity and adventurousness of the student especially during experiments or laboratory classes are curtailed. To ensure that their students would learn and be safe at the same time, science teachers often resort to what they have been trained to do- teach literally As a consequence, science teaching becomes stifling to some teachers and boring to students. A further reflection on the lived experiences of teachers reveals the multiple and conflicting expectations of different social groups that teachers relate with in school as a result of their expanded role brought about by the ever changing society. Students expect their teachers to care for them, parents want teachers to teach and care for their children, while administrators expect teachers to perform as they were bidden to do. This is another reason why teachers are trapped by their role “to teach” which prevents them from addressing such compounded roles. Teachers, as well as these social groups are challenged to meet the demands of the times in their effort to share the responsibility of giving a holistic education to students.
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Lived Experiences of Teachers: A Reflection on Interpersonal Relationships
Introduction I had always found it frustrating when my students cannot memorize the symbols of the different ions used in writing chemical equations. I observed that they tend to forget the little that they learned when they go on Christmas vacation. With this in mind, I required each one of them to write in 60 sheets of paper the different ions using blue ink.
They were instructed not to use the computer, photocopying
machine or ask somebody to do it for them. I asked them to submit their work on the first day of school after the holidays. To compensate their effort, I told them that it will be graded as a project. I thought that the students will like my strategy, but when I told them about it, they scowled at me, begged me to cancel the assignment or reduce the number of pages. I ignored their plea and stood firm on my decision. My students left the room angry and only a handful wished me the best for the holidays. I felt sad because in my desire to make my students learn I jeopardized my relationship with them. Judging the way my students reacted; I felt I was a tyrant. I was caught in a dilemma in making the students learn science and like me as their teacher. I realized that it is hard for teachers to teach and at the same time maintain a friendly rapport with their students. My students as I perceived it were not concerned whether they learned or not. Their focus is on how I deal with them. My experience
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disclosed that teachers are caught up with the demands of teaching the course that often their interpersonal relationships with students suffer.
This is one of the experiences
teachers encounter in relating with their students, as well as with the students’ parents, peers and administrators. These experiences define the roles teachers perform in school. It is in understanding lived experiences that researchers can attain a holistic view of life (Van Manen, 2006).
Hence, lived experiences can be used as empirical data in
constructing and structuring the life of teachers in any discipline, be it social or physical science. One of the key players in the social ethos of the school is the teacher. Teachers share common beliefs and practices as they fulfill their multifarious roles in school. They create mental patterns of behavior and expectations for specific situations. These patterns of behavior were constructed from their interactions in school. Stigler (1998) stated that teacher culture evolves over a long period of time in ways which are consistent with the stable web of beliefs and assumptions that are already part of the culture. Sachs (1998) pointed out that these patterns of behavior which make up the teacher’s cultural repertoire are the result of social constitution - the overlapping discourses which characterize relationships in school. The relationships of teachers with colleagues, students, parents, administrators and staff can be used as a template to rationalize teachers’ behavior and practices. This research explores the experiences of teachers as they interact with parents, students, peers and administrators in school and reflects on the meanings of these experiences as a means of understanding the interpersonal relationships of teachers with these people.
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Methodology This is a descriptive study which concentrated on exploring and reflecting on the interpersonal relationships of teachers with students, parents, peers and administrators. The phenomenological method was utilized.
Phenomenology makes use of lived
experiences as empirical data. As a research method, it is anchored on the Transcendental Phenomenology of Husserl which points out that to understand the meaning of an object or act, one must look at the object as it is actually seen or an event as it actually happens (Moustakas, 1994). The existence of an object or the reality of an event lies on the consciousness of the person. This consciousness makes up the lived experience of an individual. According to Ramirez (1983): Phenomenology is an approach in Sociology which is based on the human character of the subject matter of the discipline. As a specifically human approach, it uses lived experience (the consciousness of social phenomena) as facts on which to base its finding. (p. 153) Phenomenology entails knowing and reflecting on lived experiences so as to enable the researcher to develop insights which can lead to the understanding of a phenomenon. Phenomenology focuses on the “deep, lived meanings that events have for individuals assuming that these meanings guide actions and interactions” (Marshall & Rossman, 2006, p. 105). Human experience is “spacious and multidimensional, more like a panoramic photo than a snapshot” (Braud & Anderson, 1998, xxvii). Recognizing the richness and
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multifaceted nature of human experience in describing the social world, in this study, I collected teachers’ narrations on their experiences in their social interactions with the different social groups in school. As a phenomenologist, my initial step was to look at the actual experience openly. I refrained from viewing the phenomenon the way I usually perceive things. I bracketed all of my preconceived notions and saw the phenomenon from the perspective of the person experiencing the event.
This was followed by phenomenological reduction
wherein each experience was seen in its singularity.
I viewed and described each
narrative at different angles, reducing it at different levels of consciousness until I have exhausted all possible description, as a result I constructed a good description of the phenomenon. A good description embodies the essence or meaning of the experience hence bringing to fore the significance of the experience (Van Manen, 2006). I reflected on the narratives until the meanings emerged.
All meanings were
further reflected upon until categories which were used as bases in classifying the meanings were developed.
I reflected on these categories until insights came out
explicating the teachers’ relationships. In reflecting on my co-researchers’ experiences, I integrated my own experiences which echoed theirs until I arrived at a unifying theme which phenomenologists term as eidetic insight. I used my experiences in reinforcing the insights I have developed.
I
went into a series of reflections before I arrived at the eidetic insight. As a phenomenologist, I did not just listen to their narratives but went through a cycle of understanding and reflecting each story until I was able to provide a meaningful interpretation of the experiences.
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Ten high school teachers of Trinity University of Asia who have taught for three consecutive years were selected as my co-researchers. Each co-researcher was visited and interviewed in the workplace four to five times. Each interview lasted from 40 to 90 minutes. The interviews were audio-taped with the permission of the co-researchers to ensure faithfulness to the data.
The co-researchers were asked to narrate their
experiences while interacting with students, parents, colleagues and administrators in school.
In telling their stories, the co-researchers did not only tell me what they
remembered but in the process reflected on what happened to them. While telling their stories, my co-researchers and I embarked on a deeper journey to the world of teaching. The co-researchers explicitly requested for anonymity, hence they were identified by numerical codes. The narratives were transcribed and organized into retrievable and manageable collection of stories. The stories were presented to the co-researchers for validation and further reflection. First Reflection One of my co-researchers asked me on what I would do with their stories and reflections. Will I be going to analyze the person telling the story? Or quoting her exact words, are you going to psychologize us? I felt her apprehension. In telling their stories, my co-researchers unwittingly bared their souls. I noticed that they realized this when they read the draft of their narrations. Upon introspection, I did not see the souls of the persons telling the stories; rather I saw the souls of teachers. Their stories were windows which gave me a view of the world teachers live in. I am also a teacher, but it was only after I heard the stories of my co-researchers did I discern and understand the life I lived
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for the past 20 years. The stories of teachers on their interaction with parents, students, staff, fellow teachers and administrators were the bricks I used to build the world teachers live in. In answer to my co-researcher’s query - I told her: no, your stories are the lenses I will look into to know who teachers really are. Insights on Science Teachers’ Interaction with Students Science teachers want their students to learn. They know that their foremost duty is to transmit knowledge. Teacher 1, a physics teacher was relentless in making sure that her students learned the lesson and had acquired the skills she taught… I don’t want my students to just sit in my class and stare, they have to study. I empathize with Teacher 1. It is frustrating for us teachers to know that students do not appreciate our effort to make them learn. However, further reflection reveals that we’ve been too focused on teaching. We failed to realize that we have to know how our students feel when they are in our class.
Being apathetic to students can adversely affect student-teacher
relationships consequently inhibiting the learning process. Bennet (2001) states that a mutual regard is instrumental in developing a mutually collaborative relationship between the student and the teacher which can lead to a productive learning. The teacher’s attitude towards a student is rooted on his/her opinion. Teacher 8, a science teacher narrated an incident when she ignored a student. She thought that the girl was just fooling around in class. Her initial reactions were anger and irritation: I asked the class to do an experiment on mixtures. I gave them sample chemicals to combine.
Tina, without my knowledge, mixed two
chemicals which resulted to the emission of obnoxious fumes. Although
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the amount of fumes she inhaled was minimal she still experienced difficulty in breathing. She called my attention. I thought that she was just joking so I dismissed her complaint. When I noticed that she seemed to be suffocated, I brought her to the clinic for medical attention. I learned that Tina was asthmatic. Teacher 8 felt guilty, but she rationalized that the girl was always playing in class so naturally that she did not take her seriously. Teacher 1 had a similar encounter: I usually asked my students to write the complete solutions whenever I give them quizzes on problem solving. Lito, a troublesome boy wrote the answers only; he did not include the solution. It so happened that his answers were all correct.
However, because of his happy-go-lucky
attitude in class and he happened to sit beside a bright student, I gave him a grade of zero. He resented claiming that he indeed knew the answers and that he used a shorter technique in his solution. I ignored his explanation. He was angry at me but I did not relent. The reactions of the two teachers were based on their perception of their students. They justified their actions by citing several incidents when the students disrupted their classes.
The teacher’s behavior towards students is influenced by the conduct of
students. This can be explained by the Theory of Social Interaction which states that interacting individuals modify and adapt their actions and reactions on the actions and reactions of others (Light & Keller, 1985). Both Teachers 1 and 8 tailored their behavior to the behavior of the students.
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Experimentation is essential in science teaching. The teachers’ stories revealed that some teachers are wary when students perform experiments. Teacher 8 and Teacher 4 who handled chemistry, shared stories which have one theme in common---- they are vigilant and on their guard when students do experiment. Teacher 4 shared that every time his students performed experiments on burning, he was always watchful and alert. He would constantly remind the students to do the procedures only when he was with them.
I did the same thing, I required the students to carry out complicated
procedures only when I was around. If I caught any one doing the procedures without my supervision, I would get angry.
Sometimes, I would hear some of the students’
reactions like: Si ma’am walang tiwala sa amin. (Ma’am does not trust us.)
Teacher
8 on the other hand, would usually demonstrate the complicated part of the experiment. She was fearful that the students might commit errors which will harm them. On the other hand, Teacher 1 prevented boisterous students from performing experiments. She was afraid that they might cause accidents. She often felt that she deprived them of the opportunity to learn, but whenever she remembered their playfulness, she believed that she was right. We knew that our cautiousness can impede learning but we don’t want to be blamed for any harm that might befall our students. Teachers are responsible for the safety of the students in the classroom. They knew that aside from teaching they have to make sure that no accident would happen to the students. In situations where the teacher is the only adult supervising the work of 40 students, teachers initiate measures that will minimize mishaps. In retrospect, we treat our students as children whose
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behaviors need to be checked from time to time consequently limiting their opportunities to learn. An incident which happened to Teacher 1 reinforced science teachers’ apprehension when conducting experiments. Teacher 1 recalled an incident when a boy left the room without her permission: I was supervising the students as they work on their experiment when one of the boys slipped out of the room. I was too busy moving from one table to another, I did not notice that the boy was missing. I only learned about it when I received a note from the school nurse stating that one of my students fell down the stairs. I was fearful of what the parents would say. I kept on thinking that probably if I did not conduct the experiment then there would be no accident. The anxiety cited by science teachers were grounded on experience. HoffmanKipp, Artiles & Lopez Torres (2003) state that teachers’ behavior stems from the reflections of their prior experiences. Additional Insights Teachers as friends: Teachers are always in the company of students. They see students regularly either in or out of the classroom. It is this situation that makes it propitious for students and teachers to become friends. The friendship between Teacher 2 and first-year student Gigi flourished when the two started working closely together. Teacher 2 aside from being Gigi’s subject teacher was also her adviser in the campus organization where Gigi was an active member. They
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became friends because they have the same passion, interests and goals. The depth of the friendship can be best described when Teacher 2 said…I felt that she was just my age. Friendship based on needs: Some students at a certain moment in their lives need friends who can be their crutch to lean on. Teacher 1 and Teacher 5 had served as crutch to some students. Teacher 1 in her stories spoke of Mina, a fourth year summer crossenrollee who had trouble with drugs and relationships while Teacher 5 referred to Tito, a second-year transferee who was burdened with family problems. Teachers empathize with the students but are aware that they could not solve their problems. The least that teachers could do is listen. Teachers willingly listen to the problems of their students, but as Teacher 1 said… listening to Mina’s problem made me uncomfortable. Teachers care for their students that is why they listen to them.
The difficulty starts when they
could not relate with the problems of the students due to some valid reasons. They could dish out advice but these are gut-feeling counsels. They fear that in the end they might be blamed on what happens to the student. To listen to matters one can relate with is okay, but to listen to and deal with problems one cannot relate with is difficult and uncomfortable. Teachers set a limit on their friendship with students: Teacher 9 believes that there are proper school personnel who can deal with problematic students.
Teachers
cannot act as substitute parents to students with emotional problems. Students who are emotionally disturbed need to be referred to psychologists or counselors.
Ideally,
teachers should work hand in hand with the guidance counselors in addressing problems of emotionally troubled students. I remember Christine whom I befriended because her parents separated.
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I thought that by being her friend I could help her. I was always there to listen and give pieces of advice but I was not able to help her cope with her emotional problems. I should have realized my limitation.
I
should have referred her to the guidance counselor. I felt that I did not really help Christine. On the contrary, I encouraged her dependence on me and failed to give her the chance to grow up. I should have set a limit. Teachers give advice to students.
Teachers can sense if their students have
problems. Teacher 10 recalled how he advised a boy who discovered that his father had another family. The boy lost interest in his studies. Teacher 3 talked to a student who was pregnant and persuaded by her guardian to abort the child. Teacher 1 talked to a boy and a girl cuddling in one of the empty classrooms. Teachers could only advise what students should do. Teacher 10 was successful in making the boy who lost interest in his studies to improve but Teacher 3 had no control over the problem of his pregnant student. It was still the guardian’s decision that prevailed; the child was aborted. As for Teacher 1, the two students did separate when she talked to them. She reminded the girl that she had a baby already when she was in second year. Teacher 1 could not guard the two students wherever they were. She could only hope that her admonition did not fall on deaf ears. Inasmuch as teachers wished to help students, teachers can only tell students what to do. Teachers feel differently about students as they grow older: When Teacher 5 was younger she had plenty of time to spare for her students. Her priority then was work. She was more open and willing to deal with students. Now after nth years of teaching, Teacher 5 is wary of dealing with problematic students.
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I am tired. Whenever a student started getting too close to me I would tell myself that here is another student with a problem. In one way or the other his problem will be solved and he would leave and another student would come. (Teacher 5) Teachers observed that students need to touch their teachers:
Students are
expressive of their feelings as observed by some co-researchers. Teacher 3 noted… some students would embrace me when they meet me. He does not see anything wrong with this but he feels that school officials would not see it as appropriate.
The same
observation was made by Teacher 8. Whenever she meets her students, they would embrace her and hold onto her arm. She does not mind but just like Teacher 3, she believes that the school administrators will not tolerate display of emotions between teacher and students. Teacher 3 and Teacher 8 sense that students need to touch and be touched because they clamor for attention. They feel guilty when they ward off students who touch them. To avoid hurting the students’ feelings, the teachers encouraged them to kiss their hand. Teachers have feelings: Teachers and students were often thrown together. They collaborate and work as a team. Some students showed intelligence and maturity beyond their age hence teachers, especially young teachers become attracted to their students. One of the co-researchers, Teacher 10 recounted how young girls would openly flirt at him. I remember a girl who kept on coming to me. I was not sure of what her motives were but she always got too close to me every time she saw me.
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Teacher 10 admitted that the advances of the students made him uncomfortable. His confidence made me realize that teachers are humans and they are vulnerable. However, as teachers they must exercise restraint and control in dealing with such a delicate situation. In relating with students they have to exercise high moral ethical standards because they are teachers. Second Reflection Two simple truths emerged from the stories of teachers. Teachers want their students to learn.
They care for their students; hence I call teachers as caring
pedagogists. Their relationships are anchored on this belief. Science Teachers Interpersonal Relationships with Students An extended reflection on the experiences of science teachers reveal that the task of teaching the students and at the same time familiarizing with each one of them have put a strain on the teacher. This makes the teacher become confined to the task of transmitting knowledge. As Teacher 1 said I prepared very well for my lesson. I could not accept the fact that my students did not understand the lesson. It was a lesson on torque and V had a difficulty understanding the concepts. He questioned me repeatedly. Knowing that he was one of my intelligent student I thought he was just putting me to the test. Thus I just went ahead with the discussion. It turned out that I assumed too much. He did not really comprehend the lesson. Teachers maintained a pretension that they know each of their students well. However when an untoward incident happens in class they come to realize that to know
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the student superficially is not enough, Bennet (2001) points out that students’ need for interpersonal caring predominates over needs which are skill related. In essence teaching not only involves transmission of knowledge but caring for the students. Moreira (in Gezer & Bilen, 2007) describes an effective teacher as someone who listens to students, helps students and does not ridicule the students. Science teachers relate with their students in a way that will not jeopardize both their safety. They see to it that their students learn and at the same time ensure that the students as well as they will not be adversely affected by the process. This behavior is instinctive; anchored on the theory of sociobiology wherein all behavior of man is anchored on the intuition to survive (Gribbin & Gribbin, 1988). This reminds me that whenever I conduct an experiment, I see to it that all safety precautions were taken. It includes close monitoring of the rowdy students because if any accident happens I have to bring them to the clinic and inform the parents. As Teacher 1 remembered about the incident which occurred to the boy who left the classroom without her knowledge: I am glad the parents did not blame me for what happened. Alako (in Halawah, 2006) described teaching as going beyond transmitting knowledge to students. Teachers strive to make their students emotionally stable. It is important that teachers interact with the students not only inside but outside the classroom. Teachers teach.
They have to make the students learn.
students’ cognitive development.
Teachers attend to
The academic needs of the students are mostly
addressed within the classroom. Aside from their pedagogical obligation, teachers have to look into the affective development of the students.
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To fulfill their mission as
teachers, they have to interact with students. Schussler and Collins (2006) claim that researchers who study students at risk of dropping out of school have learned that one of the main reasons why students drop out is their low quality of interaction with other people of school. They may feel disconnected from teachers (p. 1463). Students call Teacher 10 as daddy.
The students were in jest but it is an
expression of how students see their teachers; not a teacher nor parent but someone they can trust and talk to. The tag daddy indicates a sense of familiarity which is within the bounds of respect and casualness towards a mentor. Teacher 10 felt that students used the appellation not as recognition of fatherhood but friendship. The stories of teachers reinforce the notion that students regard teachers more as a friend than a parent; a friend who is their equal rather than a person who has authority over them. Not all students sought teachers for friendship. As Teacher 5 said, only those students who wanted to be close to her became her friends. The students were the ones who took the initiative in advancing their friendship to teachers. The students do not instantaneously like their teachers; they size up teachers they would like to be close with. Students approached teachers who they knew can be trusted and can become their friends. Teachers have to earn students’ trust. None of the teachers mentioned strategies in building up friendship with students. Teachers in their stories have one characteristic which wins students’ trust--- sincerity. Although invisible and intangible, the students can sense teachers’ sincerity. Schussler and Collins (2006) described teachers as carers and to be one, they have to establish a personal connection with the students.
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Teachers noticed that students see them not in the same level as their peers but as older friends who care for them. Students do not want another 15-year old as friend rather they want an adult friend who can give them the perspective of a mature person. The friendship between teacher and student is influenced by the difference in age and status. It is this difference which makes the friendship unique from the other forms of friendship found in school. The teachers have the burden to keep the friendship strong and make it beneficial to the students as long as it would not promote students’ dependence on the teacher. Although students took the initiative, the teachers have to nurture it. One reality which emerged from the stories of teachers is the realization that as teachers get older they became less receptive to students’ friendship. To be friends with students means to be the repository of their heartaches and insecurities. A young teacher is like a cup half-filled with water and has space for more problems while an older teacher is like a cup full of water that a mere drop will cause it to overflow. Teachers as they get older have more personal problems and less patience in dealing with the problems of students. The interaction between teachers and students is a pedagogical endeavor complemented by caring. Teachers’ Interpersonal Relationships with Parents The reflection of Teacher 6 best described how teachers feel towards parents: Parents consider the school as their children’s second home. When students fail, I could not help but feel that I was not able to live up to their expectations.
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The sentiment of Teacher 6 was rationalized by Teacher 8 when she said that the school is a business enterprise. Teachers are accountable to parents. A failing student can be perceived as a result of poor service.
Westergard (2007) reported that parents
expect teachers to give their children good education, motivate and extend them all the necessary support. Teachers are aware that every cent parents spent in school was obtained through hard work and sacrifice. Further reflection shows that teachers equally shed tears and sweat to recompense the parents. This awareness emboldens the teachers to seek the help of parents in educating their children. Eiptein ( in Witmer, 2005) regards parents as the greatest resource that teachers have: When parents are actively engaged in a positive way in their children’s education, the children’s achievement in school, motivation and concern for learning increase. (p. 224) This means that student achievement is high if there is a positive teacher-parent interaction. Knopf and Swick (2007) explained the need to have a positive teacher – parent interaction: Positive teacher-parent relationship seems to promote a recursive pattern of teacher-parent interactions that empower the teacher and the parents. Once parents have a positive experience with teachers, they are empowered to this initial interaction to multiple relationships with teachers that not only empower them but the children as well. (p. 292) Teachers knew that it is their task to convince parents to become active partners in educating their children. Hence, when interacting with parents they present a façade which is approachable not intimidating, competent not inept, and most of all caring and
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not insensitive. Olson and Hyson (in Knopf & Swick, 2007) said that teachers who project a positive attitude and who are responsive towards the parents and the child seem to create a respectful relationship with parents (p.292). Teachers have to show parents that they are competent but not competent enough to educate the students by themselves. Canter (as cited in Witmer, 2007) stated that teachers need to shatter the myth of a “good teacher” which means that teachers can handle all situations. Teachers need parents as partners in resolving problems which arise in educating students. The social world of teachers and parents is a world of irony; parents should see teachers as efficient but not efficient enough to educate the students alone. Teachers’ Interpersonal Relationships with Fellow Teachers Teachers become friends. They extend assistance to one another in all possible ways. Teachers commiserate with one another especially if the difficulty encountered arises from teachers’ interactions with students, parents and administrators. Teachers see other teachers as allies, who aid them during tough times. Teachers in helping one another have established a built-in support system in the school. Teachers have developed among themselves a joking relationship.
Laughter
serves as a panacea to the problems teachers encounter in school. In the course of their work teachers have mastered the skill of turning serious matter into light situation. Injecting humor to their routine has enabled the teacher to survive and overcome the difficulties that accompany the teaching profession. teachers’ coping mechanism in school.
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The joking relationship is the
In examining the relationship between teachers, one truth is evident: long years of teaching have empowered teachers. They gained knowledge and wisdom through experience. They also learned to view situations without fear and censure. Senior teachers willingly advised young teachers on what to teach, how to teach, and sometimes what to feel. When a senior teacher speaks, it is not he/she alone who speaks, this is accompanied by the different voices he had imbibed during the long years of teaching. The teachers’ stories speak of gossiping. It is a mode of communication which a teacher avoids doing but does it anyway. The teachers were not quite open in sharing their stories on gossiping. None admitted doing so but their stories allude to gossiping taking place in school. Some sort of satisfaction is derived from gossiping and this is the only reason which explains why teachers gossip.
Further reflection leads to the
conclusion that it may be a mechanism teachers utilized in dealing with the different problems encountered in school. It gives teachers a momentary escape from the mundane problems in school. Teachers have to be teachers during their interaction with students, parents and administrators. With fellow teachers, they can be free from the constraints of being teachers. Teachers’ Interpersonal Relationships with Administrators In analyzing the stories of teachers on their relationship with administrators, one main theme emerged: teachers view administrators in terms of the good and bad deeds the administrators have accorded them. The teachers categorized their experiences with administrators into two: circumstances where the administrators supported and cared for them, and situations where administrators maligned them. Administrators who have
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supported and extended personal care are considered good while those who have hurt them are seen as bad administrators. Teachers judge administrators on how they relate with each teacher in school. Teachers see the adroitness of administrators in relating with them but they ignore the administrators’ management styles. Teachers critically assess every action and behavior of administrators. Administrators are seen as persons who should act and behave better than teachers. They should be more intelligent, sensitive, dignified and professional. Administrators should be ethically and morally superior than teachers because they are administrators. A flaw in their character is regarded as a sign of weakness. Teachers simply tolerate weak administrators. Their long years of experience have empowered the teachers, hence they have developed a construct of what an ideal administrator should be. Teachers, especially veteran teachers have a list of appropriate behaviors of good administrators and once the administrators’ attitude deviate from the list, they were viewed disparagingly. Gordon and Patterson (2006) described an effective leader as a person who exhibits concern for people. Leadership is a negotiation between administrators and constituents. Teachers want administrators to treat them as equals. Administrators should give the respect due to teachers. Teachers and administrators are both human beings. The only difference is that an administrator has a position of authority which is simply a status. The relationship of teachers and administrators is a complicated relationship. Both interacting parties would like to be in control and in the process of asserting control negotiation between the principal and teachers takes place.
The stories show that
teachers judge administrators’ efficacy in terms of their skill in negotiating with teachers.
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Synthesis The teaching and learning process is a social activity (Abdullah & Salleh, 2007). Relationships between teachers and different social groups in school are elements contributory to the success or failure of the learning process. Each social group has defined expectations for teachers. These expectations are meshed to form a web of relationship. Its sturdiness depends on how strong is the bond among teachers, students, parents and administrators. The co-researchers share the same observations when they said that the parents’ concern is only the welfare of their children. In a study of Smrekar (2001), she stated that parents viewed schooling as a vehicle for success.
Education is a necessary
condition for success. Parents also stressed that the most important outcome of schooling was the acquisition of social skills, respect, ability to get along well with others and self discipline. Teacher 8 and Teacher 10 encountered parents who expected them not only to teach but to discipline their children. Parents perceived that the role of the teacher is beyond pedagogy moreso with the changing structure of the family system wherein parents work abroad and entrust the care of their children to teachers as experienced by Teacher 5 and Teacher 8. A mother said to Teacher 8: Please keep an eye on my son while I am away and if you need help financially or otherwise feel free to tell me when we meet. Teacher 5 had the same encounter with an OFW mother. Parents expect teachers to take up their role as parents to their children. The stories of the co-researchers talked of parents’ certainty that teachers should act as surrogate parents to their students. The teachers do manifest care and concern for the students but to take up the yoke of “being parent” is beyond their perceived role. There is a conflict between what the
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parents expect the teachers would do for their children and what teachers are willing to do for their students. In fact, teachers admit that they need the parents in educating their students.
When the expectations of the parents clash with the expectations of the
teachers, a role conflict ensue wherein the formal roles and responsibilities of teachers clash with the reality of teachers’ work life (Washburn-Moses, 2005). As I deliberated on the stories of teachers, one truth slowly emerged. Whereas teachers believed that they are able to connect with the parents, in reality they are inadvertently ignoring the needs of the parents. Teachers are torn between what they want to do for the parents and what the parents want them to do. In dealing with this dilemma, teachers turn the table around and seek the help of parents in educating their children. Between teachers and parents there is a clash of interest. The same condition is evident between teachers and students. From the stories of teachers on their relationship with students, teachers are primarily concerned with their didactic obligations toward the students. In teaching they display sincere concern to the students. This however is not enough for the students. Tito, Mina, Christine and the other students whose voices were heard in this paper relayed to us that they want teachers to do more than teach them. These students begged teachers to help and care for them. Students according to Montalvo, Mansfield and Miller (2007) expressed their desire for a teacher who is caring and approachable, a teacher who provides written feedback, oneon-one assistance and who is interested in students’ lives outside of school. Equally, Korkmaz (2007) said that teachers should respect and care for students, use a variety of instructional strategies, be aware of individual differences, motivate the students very well, be a role model for them, prepare lesson plans, have a good communication skill,
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use home work effectively, practice fairness and inspire students to accept responsibilities. Students see teachers as the proper persons who can help them solve their problems. The problems of the students as gleaned from the stories range from drug addiction, unwanted pregnancy to absentee or uncaring parents - problems which Teacher 1 said were beyond her field of experience. Teachers genuinely care for their students but as Teacher 10 mentioned, they can only listen and give advices to their students. Again, the expectations of the interacting parties do not match. To all the problems of the students, the solution which teachers readily offered was to listen and give pieces of advice. Listening and advising are not infallible solutions. There are students’ problems which need more than mere listening and advising. Some students want teachers to solve their problems and make them happy. Teachers, as Teacher 9 said, do not have the training and expertise to deal with students faced with these kinds of problems. The teachers are torn between what is expected of them and what they can give. There are other people in school like the guidance counselors who are trained and equipped to deal with such problems. Science teachers are accountable for whatever happens to their students hence in fulfilling their task there are situations wherein they curtail students’ actions. They are cautious in dealing with students lest they put the students’ security in jeopardy which will also unfavorably affect them.
They consider students’ behavior as a gauge in
determining what the students may or may not do in class. This relational strategy was practiced by the science teachers. They are shackled by their concern for the well-being of their students as well as themselves. Every action or decision is evaluated in terms of
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what good it can do for the students and what harm it may cause the teacher. It is ironic that the teachers themselves act as impediments in delivering an effective science education for their students. Rereading the stories gave me an idea as to why teachers were caught in the web of conflicting expectations. Teacher 5, Teacher 6, and Teacher 8 spoke of the changing times. Teachers’ roles have changed over time. The structure of society’s basic unit which is the family had also changed. The teachers’ experiences in their stories revealed cases of disintegrating family values. Parents separate and care of the children is shouldered by a single parent or relegated to relatives. Thus, children become overwhelmed with the changes in their family structure. In their confused state, the children look up to teachers as the persons who can help them. The teachers, however in their long years of experience are accustomed to deal with students whose parents are around. For teachers, the school is a place for teaching while for parents and students, the school is a refuge and safe haven with the teachers acting as carers. Normally, teachers as they relate with students limit themselves into teaching, listening and giving pieces of advice. These may not be all that the students want but these are what the teachers could readily provide. The relationships among parents-teachers and student-teachers are characterized by diverging expectations. They deal with the conflict to the best of their ability -- they provide temporary solutions to deep-seated problems because they are incapable of really solving the problems.
Teachers in their stories speak of their own problems, the
changing attitude of the students, their overloaded work schedule, their didactic duties and lack of training as impediments in meeting the needs of parents and students.
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Teachers negotiate in their relationship with their peers.
All have duties and
responsibilities in school and each needs the other. Unlike their relationship with parents and students, there is no clash of expectations between teachers as long as each one of them completes the assigned tasks. Teachers’ relationships with colleagues are not restricted by role expectations. All of these people as narrated by the teachers were doing their job and negotiating with each other to facilitate the fulfillment of their responsibilities.
In the process of negotiating, the teachers define and control the
interaction; ensuring that each transaction will be free from stress and tension and beneficial to the teachers. The joking relationship, the gossiping, the friendship and even the quarrels are relational strategies which teachers do to attain their goal which is the fulfillment of their duties with less stress and conflict with staff and colleagues. Teachers expect administrators to support them.
Administrators are seen as
ambivalent towards teachers. Teachers value administrators who put special emphasis on person-person relationships. Teachers want administrators who put the welfare of the teacher as a priority whereas in their stories the administrators are not attentive to the needs and welfare of each teacher.
This dictates the teachers’ attitudes towards
administrators. The different insights make us believe that teachers are involved in a complex relationship where each set of people teachers relate with has assigned a role for teachers to fulfill. What is the result of these multiple expectations on the teachers? Teachers define their roles on what they have been trained and accustomed to do. This leads to a conflict between teachers and the people they relate with in school. The disparity of expectations together with the limited resources, time and curricular dictum of the
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educational system has restrained teachers from delivering a holistic education called for by today’s rapidly changing societal structure. The new millennium has brought forth a change in the structure of the family as well as in the outlook of both parents and students. The evolving technological-oriented society has affected the value system of the youth, thus calling for teachers to redefine their roles in school. With the lack of support from administrators, the teachers perceive that they are alone in dealing with the changes which society demands from them. Teachers, unable to meet the multiple expectations of the different groups of people in school have limited themselves to the familiar and customary task. There is a need for teachers to evaluate their role in the context of the diverging needs of the people they relate with. They have to redefine their expectations and in the process resolve the conflict as well as meet students’ needs. The other significant people in school have to be equally reoriented not only on their expectations but on their role in ensuring that the education of the young is a joint undertaking. Education is not a sole responsibility of the teacher but a shared responsibility among the social groups identified in order to provide a holistic education to students of this millennium. My Symbolism of Teachers
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Contemplating on these insights, teachers are confined to what they have been trained and instructed to do. This is compounded by policies of the school administration as well as the dictates of society wherein achievement is solely measured by what and how much the students have learned. Teachers should be freed from the social trap created by the other social categories: parents, administrators and society. There should be a reorientation as well as an update on the roles and expectations of each of these social categories taking into context the changed outlook of the students brought about by the complexities of the rapid changing society. Implications 1. Teachers have to develop humane skills and qualities which will help them understand students especially those whose families have failed to give them the support and care they need. Teachers have to look into the core of their being and bring to fore compassion and empathy which will fill up the void which the family was unable to fill up. Equally, the administrators have to acquire the same compassion and understanding in dealing with teachers thus enabling them to support teachers in fulfilling multiple roles.
The nurturing persons within the
perspective of education will create an atmosphere which will foster a learning environment which is fun and caring for the students. 2.
An alternative paradigm in education should be developed for the whole school system that would involve all social categories. There should be a shift from a conventional system to a more holistic education that is enjoyable and meaningful which will focus on the body, mind and spirit. Teacher training institutions
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should lead in the paradigm shift to ensure that future teachers would be able to cope with the demands of the changing society. 3. Some science teachers are restricted by their fear of being accountable to whatever happens to the students.
Science teaching should be a collaborative
enterprise wherein responsibility is shared including administrators and parents as such the teacher will be more motivated to explore strategies in enriching the teaching-learning process rather than curtailing the activities of students. Safety measures should be instituted such as designation of a laboratory assistant so as to lessen teachers’ apprehensions. 4. A holistic approach in teaching science or any other discipline means that the teacher does not only focus on the content but on other factors that affect learning. These factors can be determined by looking into the lived experiences of both the teachers and the students. Researches which use the experiences of teachers and students can clarify the weaknesses in the teaching and learning process. The educational community should be open to different research designs that are able to unearth the truth as seen in this phenomenological study on the lived experiences focusing on the interpersonal relationship of teachers. Conclusions Based on the experiences of teachers, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. Science teachers are so focused on their duty to teach that they inadvertently fail to establish a nurturing relationship with their students.
Their
responsibility to educate the students on the different concepts of science is their primary objective that they neglect to form a bond with their students
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during the teaching-learning process. Consequently, students feel neglected that they developed a sense of apathy towards the subject and the teacher. The stories showed that students favored teachers who showed concern and caring rather than teachers who simply impart knowledge. 2. Science teachers are apprehensive of losing control over their students especially during laboratory activities. They know that they are accountable to whatever happens to their students. If students’ security is neglected, their employment would be adversely affected. Hence teachers strictly impose discipline to their class up to the extent of treating their students as toddlers. All of their actions are carefully considered in terms of what good these can do to the students and at the same time what harm these would bring them. This attitude stifles teachers’ and students’ creativity. Some teachers resort to spoon-feeding their students with the intention of minimizing accidents in the classroom particularly during laboratory periods. 3. Parents expect teachers not only to teach their children but as well as to care for them. Parents want teachers to become surrogate parents to their children. Teachers on the other hand expect the parents who are around to take care of their children. The conflict of expectation of teachers and the expectation of the parents overwhelmed teachers. More often teachers simply ignore the expectations of the parents and limit their efforts to just teaching and counseling. 4. Teachers perceive that only their fellow teachers can empathize with their situation. This belief compels teachers to negotiate with fellow teachers to
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maintain harmony in their relationship. Each transaction with their fellow teachers and staff is carried out with ease and harmony. 5. Administrators play a vital role in assuring the survival of teachers in the teaching profession. Teachers want caring and supportive administrators. They resent administrators who regard them merely as an employee and less as a friend. This feeling stems from the fact that teachers exercise autonomy within the classroom most of the day that they become wary of administrators who tend to subjugate them in and outside the classroom. 6. Teachers assume a complex relationship with the different social group in school where each group have a specific role and function for the teachers. As a result of these multiple expectations teachers tend to limit their function to what they have been trained and accustomed to do which is merely teaching. Recommendations Based on the above cited conclusions, the following specific recommendations are made: 1. Lessons can be taught within the context of relationships building not only between students and students but also between teachers and students. Modalities in establishing relationships can be used as a medium in teaching. One example of a lesson which can be anchored on relationship is the lesson on chemical bond. A chemistry teacher can use the importance of friendship in stressing the necessity of bond formation among molecules.
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2. The school should provide teachers and students opportunities to know each other without the constraints of lessons and grades. 3. To reduce the teachers’ fear as a consequence of being solely accountable to the well-being of their students, there should be laboratory assistants to assist science teachers as they conduct experiments. The presence of the laboratory assistants would lighten the burden of teachers in imposing discipline and order among the students. This would also allow teachers to freely conduct the lesson thus enabling them to develop methods and strategies that will motivate students to learn. A radical idea is to invite the parents of the students to participate in the laboratory activities of their children.
The
exposure of the parents to what their children are doing inside the classroom may motivate them to play an active role in the education of their children. 4. Teachers have the tendency to be autonomous thus resulting to a superficial relationship with the other social group in school. The school should persist on bringing these social groups together by organizing regular socialization activities where each group would be forced to interact with each other. 5. Fora should be organized for the teachers, parents and administrators wherein the role of education will be defined in the context of the changing structure of society and how this has affected the perspective and outlook of today’s youth.
Each category should relearn their roles in providing a holistic
education.
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References Bennet, C. (2001). Lifelong learners: In their own words. International Journal of Lifelong Learning, 20 (2), 272-288. doi: 10:1080/02601370110048782 Braud, W. E and Anderson, R. (1998). Transpersonal research methods for the social sciences: Honoring human experiences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication Inc. Braud, W. E. (1998). Can research be transpersonal [Electronic version]. Transpersonal Psychology Review. 2(3). 9-17. Cole, S. (1975). The sociological orientation: An introduction to sociology. Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company. Duncan, P.
(2007). Pet peeves about parents:
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[Electronic version]. Education Digest , 73(2), 53-57. Gezer, K & Bilen, K. (2007). Pre-service teachers’ views about characteristics of effective science teaching and effective science teacher. [Electronic version]. Journal of Applied Sciences, 7(20), 3031-3037. Gordon, J. & Patterson, J. ( 2006). School leadership in context: Narratives of practice and possibility. [Electronic version]. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 9(3), 205-228. Gibbin, J & Gribbin, M. (1988).
The One Percent Advantage. New York:
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Hinde, R. A. (1979). Towards understanding relationship. London: Academic Press Inc. Hoffman-Kipp, P., Artiles, A. & Lopez-Torres, L. (2003). Beyond reflection: Teacher learning as a praxis [Electronic version]. Theory Into Practice. 42(3), 248-254. Knopf, H.T & Swick, K.J. ( 2007). How parents feel about their child’s Teacher/school: Implication for Early childhood professional. [Electronic version]. Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(4), 291-296. Juanta, R. D. (2003). A lecture presented at a special convocation at Philippine Normal University, Manila sponsored by the College of Graduate School. Retrieved July 9, 2007 at http://www.mb.com.ph. Korkmaz, I. (2007). Teachers’ opinion about the responsibilities of parents, schools, and teachers in enhancing student learning.
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http:/findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa 3673/is_200704/ai_n19430529 Lenski, G., Nolan, P. and Lenski, J. (1995). Human societies: An introduction to macrosociology. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. Light, D. & Keller, S. (1985). Sociology (4th ed.). New York: Alfred Knopf Inc. Marshall, C. & Rossman G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research. California: Sage Publications. Mckee, J. B. (1981). Sociology: The Study of society. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Montalvo, G.P., Mansfield, E.A. & Miller, R.B. ( 2007). Liking or disliking the teacher: Student motivation , engagement and achievement [Electronic version]. Evaluation and Research Education, 20(3), 144-158.
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Ramirez, M. (1983). The phenomenological method (pp.145-174 ). In L. Mendoza (Ed). Research Methods in Philippine Context. Philippine: Divine Word University Publication. Rothman, B. K. (1991). Symbolic interaction ( 151-185). In H. Etzkowitz, & R. M. Glassman (Eds.). The Renaissance of sociological theory. Illinois: F.E. Peacock Publisher Inc. Sach, J and Smith, R. (1988). Constructing teacher culture {Electronic version] British Journal of Sociology of Education . 9(4). Schussler, D.L. & Collins, A. (2006). An empirical exploration of the who, what and how of school care [ Electronic version]. Teacher College Record, 108(7), 14601495. Smrekar, C. (2001). The voices of parents: Rethinking the intersection of family and school. [Electronic version]. Peabody Journal of Education, 76(2), 75-100. Stigler, J.W. and Hiebert,.J. ( 1998). Teaching is a cultural activity, Retrieved August 10, 2007fromhttp://www.aft.org/pubs_reportsamerican_education/winter98/teaching/wi nter98.pdf Wasburn, L. (2005). Roles and responsibilities of secondary special education teachers in an age of reform. [Electronic version]. Remedial and Special Education, 26(3), 151-158. Westergard, E. (2007). Do teachers recognize complaints from parents and if not, why not? [Electronic version]. Evaluation and Research in Education, 20(3), 159-179. Witmer, M.M. (2005). The fourth r in education-relationship. [Electronic version], The Clearing House, 78(5), 224-228.
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Waller, W. (1932). Sociology of teaching. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
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Role Play in Physics
Role play as an innovative strategy to actively engage students in the learning of physics
Mohun CYPARSADE Mauritius Institute of Education
[email protected]
K Moheeput DAV College, Mauritius
S Carooppunnen Keats College, Mauritius
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Role Play in Physics
Abstract Teaching and learning of physics at secondary level in Mauritius, lacks the dynamism educators, teacher trainers and any one else wishes to see. The causes of this quandary may be attributed to many reasons. There is growing evidence that current classroom experiences are not able to take students “on board” as these experiences are not bridging the gap between science curriculum and everyday life activities of learners. Thus, students are not able to understand and apply the science concepts, are not able to understand the purpose of science in the school curriculum and are regrettably shying away. This case study attempts to engage students into meaningful scientific experiences through role play to enhance understanding and application of scientific concepts and therefore choose to study science the longest possible for them. The hypothesis of this study is that use of role play as an innovative strategy in science classrooms can bring about the desired conceptual and behavioural changes among students at secondary level and attempt to retain them in the science stream. Two types of activities were tried in this case study; the setting up of scenes on scientific concepts by the teacher, then these scenes are explained to students so that they can act accordingly and learn the concept as they enact. The second type of activity was setting up and acting of scenes by groups of students independently, after the concept had been taught by the teacher in some interactive ways other than role play. Pre-test and post-test scores, along with classroom observation, teacher interview and focus group discussion with students have shown that there is much enthusiasm developed during classroom interactions and this has enabled students to better understand concepts in physics through role play than normal teacher lecture method.
Key words: Role play, innovative strategies, learning physics Aim of the study: The aim of the study is to assess the effectiveness of Role Play as an innovative strategy to bring about conceptual change in physics learners at secondary level. Objectives of the study Through this study the researcher intends to 1. Implement the use of Role Play as an innovative strategy in the teaching and learning of Physics concepts at secondary level. 2. Assess the extent of conceptual change taking place through the use of role play. 3. Gauge the feeling of learners with regard to the use of Role play in the teaching and learning process. Page 668
Role Play in Physics
Role play as an innovative strategy to actively engage students in the learning of physics
Introduction The following study is an attempt to implement and evaluate an innovative strategy such as the role play in the teaching and learning of concepts in physics at secondary level. It is very important to implement innovative strategies in the teaching and learning of science for several reasons. One of these is the intention of bringing variety to the classroom practices both for the benefit of the teacher and also the learners. In this way learners are not always subjected to the same type of treatment from the same teacher. At the same time the teacher has an enlarged repertoire of strategies to choose from to enable him to transmit the intended message. Role play has been chosen as it is a relatively new strategy and has not been implemented so far at the secondary level in the teaching and learning of physics in Mauritius. Moreover, it is being tried at secondary level as younger students are more easily distracted away from learning tasks and they need more focussed exercises during teaching and learning process. It is also intended to make learners grasps certain abstract concepts through the engagement of more than one sense at a time (Sharma, 2006). It has been found that learners in Mauritius and worldwide are less at ease with Physics concepts than other science subjects because more abstract concepts are concentrated in Physics than elsewhere. Therefore the learning of physics concepts demands more concretisation instead of abstraction. The elicitation of prior knowledge and then constructing the new knowledge around the knowledge already acquired is the basis of appropriate learning. Different structures of students‟ prior knowledge implicate different instructional strategies to help students reorganise those structures (Ozdemir and Clark, 2009). However, the availability of appropriate and up to date resources in schools, especially low achieving and privately run schools, is much of a dream to be made true. In such a situation how do we Page 669
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concretise abstract concepts? Teachers who are dedicated are trying means and ways to make resources available through their own initiatives but others are resorting to teaching by telling, which is the worst thing to happen in a classroom situation. Thus, one way teachers can curb this problem is to use his/her learners as well as his/her resourcefulness to the maximum. What I mean to say is that the teacher can adopt strategies that will translate abstractions into concrete experiences and provide meaningful learning experiences to students, without the need for expensive material resources. One such strategy is Role Play and this has proved its worth in many other countries at pre-primary, primary, secondary as well as tertiary levels. This is why this research is trying to see if this innovative strategy can help learners as well as teachers to improve on classroom experiences and produce meaningful and contextual learning of physics concepts. It is being tried at form III level because it is at this level that students choose to study science further or shy away from it. Since there is a growing concern about the number of students who are choosing to study science (Osborne, 2008, Mauritius Research Council, 2004) means and ways have to be devised to maintain students in the science stream.
Literature Review Innovative strategies Anything that is not chalk and talk is supposedly an innovative strategy. Various innovations have been brought in the teaching and learning process in the Mauritian Schools. Some of these have shown desirable results but have not been tried out on larger scales. Teachers at secondary level have used peer-tutoring (Goomannee, 2003), Cooperative learning (Narana Pillay, 2008), Jigsaw method (Katwaroo, 2008), and other innovative strategies and all these endeavours were meant for improving practice and therefore
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Role Play in Physics
producing meaningful learning and better results. These initiatives show that it is important to make use of innovative strategies for the reasons mentioned earlier. Other innovations that have been tried elsewhere are the use of „play-n-learn‟ approach in the learning of Physics (Munirah, 2006), use of Magic Scientific Toys (Jon-Chao Hong (2006) and these innovations have brought encouraging results. Since implementation of anything that is beyond the traditional way of teaching is enhancing skills acquired by learners, these new methods should be tried and spread across larger areas to reach many more learners and bring about the desired changes we all wish to see. One of the new ways of teaching is the Role Play method that can enrich and inform both its audience and those who participate in a performance (Nickerson, 2009). Role Play Role play has sprung from other common forms of expression such as drama, play, games and simulation (McSharry and Jones, 2000). PLAY
GAMES
SIMULATION
ROLE PLAY Learning outcome
(McSharry and Jones, 2000)
In science education, this innovative strategy is considered to be an interaction between any combination of these forms of expression, the learner who carry out the activity and the resulting learning experiences from these. It has been observed that there is an increasing intellectual rigour as we move from play to games to simulations as the rules get more serious. The author has elaborated on several categories of role play such as experiments/investigations, Games, Presentations, Metaphorical role play, analogy role play Page 671
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simulation and theatre in education. Of these the analogy role play has been tried in this study as “analogy role play and simulation are perhaps the most useful to science teachers because they can be used to teach the more difficult scientific concepts – those which for reasons of size or logistics, cannot be demonstrated easily in the laboratory” (McSharry and Jones, 2000). Analogy role play is about using children as objects or elements of scientific theory. According to Nickerson (2009) role play is a form of drama and other forma of drama has been stated as physical theatre, personification, scripted drama, animation and film/video. The author is of the opinion that drama, and therefore role play, is an effective means of providing opportunities for deeper understanding of science topics. Though implementation of role play has not taken place in physics instruction, teachers have tried it in biology and chemistry at secondary level. For example, SukhooBusawon (2008) has used role play to teach circulatory system at O-Level. She used teacher prepared notes as well as reference books to deliver content to learners and then students role played the concepts. Several concepts relating to the heart and blood circulation were learnt through this technique. Responses were positive and she recommends that teachers could use this technique for the benefit of our students as it is a fun based strategy leading to meaningful learning.
Benefits of role play as a pedagogical tool Role play has several benefits. It is a good pedagogical tool, as learning takes place through engagement of multiple sense organs. It gives an opportunity to bring variety through the use of multiple intelligences of learners where linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic and visualspatial intelligences of learners can be explored. It is another way to increase confidence and improve communication skills of learners. The philosophy of „learning by doing‟ or „doing is understanding‟ fits very well with the role play method as Nickerson (2009) puts it, “use of Page 672
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drama (and Role play) forces deeper understanding of scientific subject matter ... provides benefits to students of all abilities”. Role Play involves co-operative learning where each member has to contribute towards the success of the activity and learn much through the process. It is also observed that learners are physically, emotionally and intellectually involved in their lessons which make it a memorable experience. Above all, simulating real life situations and learning from them can also make learning a fun-based activity where creativity of learners can develop (Wardle, 2009).
System of Education in Mauritius In Mauritius the system of education is broadly compartmentalised as pre-primary education or early childhood education for children of age 3 to 5 years, primary education for children aged 5 to 11, secondary education for learners aged 11 to 18/19 years and then post secondary/tertiary education. It should be noted that secondary education includes the 3-year pre-vocational education meant for students who have not been successful academically despite two attempts at the end of primary level examinations. In Mauritius compulsory education extends up to the age of 15 years and students have to remain enrolled in a school till that age and therefore unsuccessful learners at primary level are recruited in the pre-vocational stream. This initiative also helps to curb child labour as well as juvenile delinquency when children are left on their own. It is also noteworthy that in Mauritius education is free from pre-primary up to age of 19 years which it the completion of secondary schooling. However, there are a number of privately run schools (pre-primary, primary and secondary) which are fee paying. In order to make the access to education easier, students of full time pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary education do not pay for travelling expenses and this is paid by the government. Page 673
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The subjects that are taught at primary level are English, French, Mathematics, Science, History & Geography, Creative Arts, Health Education, Asian/Arabic languages. At the secondary level learners have to study a broad curriculum till Form III (students aged 14) and after this stage students have to choose whether they wish to study subjects/streams such as Science, Technical, Literature, Computing, Economics or Arts. It is found that the number of learners choosing to study science is not very encouraging (Mauritius Research Council, 2004). This appears to be a worldwide trend and means and ways are devised to retain learners in science stream for longer time. One way to popularise science and increase intake of learners in science is to adopt innovative practices and maintain interest of learners. This is why the use of role play as an innovative strategy is being investigated so as to produce meaningful learning, long term retention, transfer and recall.
Methodology Structure and procedure of this study In this study, the topics that were taught using the role play method were reflection and refraction of light from the chapter on „light‟ at form III level. At this level, learners are supposed to study about nature of light, sources of light, luminous and non-luminous bodies, reflection of light, difference between ray and beam of light, refraction of light, applications of refraction of light in our everyday life. The topics that were chosen to be taught through drama are reflection at a boundary (both perpendicular and oblique incidence) and then refraction of light when it encounters a boundary. In this case the motion of light from air to water was picked as it is something very common to experience. These concepts are a bit abstract as the ray of light is not visible most of the time and the way that the reflection of light is taught in the laboratory can present problems to pupils (Trusler, 2006).
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Methods and tools for gathering data This study was conducted through a case study approach which would produced a detailed examination of one setting (Wellington, 2000). A class of 21 students were chosen from a coeducational school. The learners are of low to middle ability and this can be explained from the intake of students at form I level. These learners have poor to average results in science at Certificate of Primary Education (CPE) Examinations. As a result, the ability of these learners in Mathematics, Science, Languages and so on have remained poor on average, though some students have improved since the CPE examinations. For this reason, the intake of subject matter by the learners is not as easy as it is expected. This calls for additional effort from teachers, parents and learners themselves so as to be able to understand and apply concepts in science and prepare to enter the next level of the school curriculum. These efforts also include innovations that will enable educators to take learners „on board‟ by allowing them to take more responsibility in their learning. As no one kind of evidence is likely to be sufficient, multiple sources of evidence have been chosen in this case study (Gillham, 2003a). Data gathering tools used are pre-test and post-test scores (Hewson and Hewson, 2003), observation by the researcher, focus group discussion (Wellington, 2000) with learners and interview (Gillham, 2003b) of the class teacher. Pre-test Just before teaching the topics related to reflection and refraction of light, a pre-test was given to the learners. Questions set were related to what would be taught on light during the session. Basic content and applications of these ideas were assessed before instruction. The time allowed was ten minutes and it was made sure that each learner worked individually. The seven questions set were of the structured type to test their preconceptions on reflection and refraction of light (Appendix). After the pre-test, the scripts were collected for later analysis and comparison with scores of post-test. Page 675
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Teaching of lesson on light At this instant, basis ideas in the chapter of light, appropriate to form III level, were taught through PowerPoint presentation, whole class discussions as well as role play. It should also be noted that as these learners have poor linguistic skills, the teaching took place partly with the use of L1 that is „creole‟ which all learners are familiar with. This was necessary to be able to keep proximity with the learners and also to be able to bring about meaningful learning. Learners felt more at ease to express their answers/comments in L1 and then I translated these expressions into English so that they grasp these meanings.
Using role play in the teaching/learning process For teaching of reflection of light, learners were asked to imagine that they are actually the light travelling straight towards a wall in front of them. They were asked to perform the act to show how the light would behave before, during and after striking the wall. It was intended to see what would happen to speed and also direction of light as it strikes a surface perpendicularly.
It was seen that several learners had a tendency to move towards the wall and after coming close to it they stepped backwards along the same line as the line of approach, in order to show how light would behave on striking a perpendicular surface. Several questions were raised at that instant by the researcher for more in-depth reflection on the process by the learners.
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(i)
Should the person step backwards from the wall or turn around by half a turn before moving away from the wall?
(ii)
Will the person move away from the wall without striking or touching it?
(iii)
Will the person move away from the wall at the same speed as when moving towards the wall?
These issues raised by me made learners think deeper and then suggest how they would improve on what they have acted earlier. They suggested that the person should turn around and then walk along the same path as before striking the wall. However, they could not explain why this turning around is necessary. I asked them to keep thinking about it as we are going to ponder on it a little later. Few students also suggested that the person should touch the wall before moving away from it and this would show that there is actual bouncing off the surface as the definition states. Regarding the speed with which students should move towards and then away from the wall, it was stated by several of them that it should be the same. However, they could not explain why the speed does not change during reflection of light. The next mission was to ask learners to imagine that instead of moving straight towards the wall, they were moving obliquely to it. Now they had to think about how they will behave after striking the wall obliquely.
One learner volunteered to do it and then performed it very well, keeping in mind that she should strike the wall and then move away, she also kept the speed more or less the same before and after collision. It was seen that she also changed her orientation so that she is always moving forward and not taking back steps. I was more interested to see if the angles Page 677
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subtended by her with the imaginary normal will be the same before and after striking the wall and it was found that she was conscious about this issue and did it well. Afterwards, we drew a line to represent the normal and then compared the paths taken by her before and after hitting the wall. It was found that the angles of incidence and the angle of reflection were almost the same. This is an important aspect in the study of reflection of light and was learnt well by these students. It was also important to find out from the student who performed the act whether she knew about the angles being the same or she just did it unknowingly. It was found that she knew about this idea and that is why she performed that way. After this exercise, few other students were asked to role play the path of light being reflected but each time a different angle was tried to assess whether learning is taking place. This idea was well internalised by the students and then we switched to refraction of light. Another important aspect in the study of light is refraction. Learners do have some difficulties with this concept as it looks abstract. It is common to observe that learners think about refraction only in terms of a change in direction of the wave as this idea can be shown easily by drawing while the change in speed is left out. Bearing this in mind, another role play activity was envisaged. A line was drawn on the floor to represent the boundary between air and water and name cards were used to represent the media such as air and water as well as the interface. One student was requested to walk obliquely to this interface and follow the path as a ray of light would do. He walked along the line showing the ray moving in air towards the interface, struck the surface and then changed direction as shown by the broken line.
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Light in air AIR
Interface
WATER Light in water
When asked to comment on what this learner has executed, everyone was satisfied that it was well done. I asked them to think once more and still learners were convinced that it was done well as there should be a change in direction when light enters a denser medium. I could have given the answer right away but decided to ask another student to act as if light is entering the water from air but this time it is moving perpendicular to the surface of water. In this case how would it be? The student performed the role play and showed that the light will go straight without any change in direction. The question arose at this point whether nothing changes when light moves from air to glass.
RAY OF LIGHT
AIR
INTERFACE
WATER
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After some reflection one learner stated that the speed should also change and the student should move slower when entering the water as it is a denser medium. So the two scenes were enacted again by learners and this time they showed that in both cases, there is a decrease in speed when the light entered from air into water and for the case where the light moves obliquely to the interface, there is a change in direction as well. Unlike reflection of light, acting out refraction of light is slightly more demanding as learners should be able to turn around about the interface and at the same time their reduction in speed should be made obvious. For this to materialise appropriately, the space available in the laboratory or classroom should be quite large, otherwise it has to be performed in an open space such as the playground or the Gymnasium. It is also important to show to all students the name cards placed at the right positions on the ground. This will enable learners to situate the concept pictorially and assimilate information through a multi-sensory approach. After the role play, there was a discussion among all students to clarify issues (Sharma, 2006), to find out if the same concept can be enacted in a different ways or the reasons for doing it this way. As such talks proceed, students are able to engage in dialogic process of meaning making (Mortimer and Scott, 2003). This idea is also in line with the three step process comprising the role playing; preparation, presentation and analysis (Bender, 2005). Post-test After the pre-test and the instruction, a post-test was envisaged. This post-test contained the same questions, the same number of questions and for the same duration as it intended to assess the extent of conceptual change due to the use of role play. Again it was necessary to monitor the learners so that they follow appropriate steps and do not discuss answers among themselves as it was an individual task to be completed. After the ten minutes
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allowed, the scripts were again collected to be corrected, marked, analysed and compared with scores in the pre-test. Focus group discussion (FGD) After the post-test, a sample of learners had been called to give their views on the days‟ lesson and especially the role play as a classroom innovation. The teacher selected the learners who would participate in the FGD. He picked two low-ability, two average-ability and two above average-ability learners to join the FGD. A series of simple guiding questions were set such as
What did you like most in this method of learning science?
Would you like to learn other topics using this method and why?
How is this method different from other methods used to learn science?
Learners were eager to talk about their experience with this innovative way of learning science. They stated that difficult words were explained and this made them understand the issue better. They liked the explanation using the PowerPoint presentation but above all this was the first time that they had acted something on a science concept and they were excited about it. Even those who watched the concepts in action were unanimous to state that acting leads to better understanding as compared to reading or listening. This idea is in line with Sharma (2006) when he states that information assimilated through multiple senses is much better understood, retained and applied in novice situations. Learners have also stated that they wish to learn other concepts in similar innovative ways such as role play and drama. They believe that this type of interactive sessions will help them comprehend concepts better. Students opined that this method is different from other methods as they have to understand the content to be able to act it out. It is also a pictorial way of understanding an idea and it is better retained as a sequence of actions. Since it is easy to recall a movie as a sequence of actions in the same way the concepts can be retained. As mentioned earlier, students of this Page 681
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class are of poor to average ability and therefore more demanding role plays such as debates could not be tried.
My observation of the lesson During the lesson learners showed much enthusiasm and participated in the discussions. Their linguistic skills brought a certain degree of handicap in the way the lesson was proceeding. They were at first hesitant to answer to my questions in the course of the lesson but as I increased the use of L1, they were more and more able to join the discussions and answer to my questions. As I asked them to perform the role play on the reflection of light learners were eager to do it. In this part of the lesson I explained what has to be done and then the concept was drawn from it. However, for refraction of light learners had to decide on their own about how they will act as a ray of light moving from air into water. Both types of plays were performed by learners to my satisfaction and even learners seemed to enjoy and participate. Teacher interview The regular physics teacher of this class was present in the class at the time the lesson was being conducted by the researcher but he did not participate in the discussions as the researcher was in control of the implementation of the innovation. Nevertheless, he was asked to give his impressions on the way the lesson was conducted. He stated that the lesson was quite interactive where students have participated actively. He also liked the visuals used and agreed with the philosophy „I do, therefore I understand‟. He supported the fact that if a concept is taught by use of role play it is understood better and can be recalled easily when needed.
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Data Analysis Analysis of scores from pre-test and post-test Student number S1 G
Pre-test mark 08
Post-test mark Difference in % increase marks marks 13 +5 62.5
S2 B
23
23
0
0
S3 B
19
24
+5
26.3
S4 G
18
25
+7
38.9
S5 B
14
23
+9
64.3
S6 B
12
24
+12
100
S7 B
16
18
+2
12.5
S8 G
18
22
+4
22.2
S9 G
12
22
+10
83.3
S10 G
16
24
+8
50.0
S11 G
09
26
+17
188.9
S12 B
02
23
+21
1050.0
S13 B
10
14
+4
40.0
S14 G
16
21
+5
31.3
S15 B
14
21
+7
50.0
S16 G
06
18
+12
200.0
S17 G
16
16
0
0
S18 B
25
26
+1
4.0
S19 B
22
25
+3
13.6
S20 B
20
24
+4
20.0
S21 B
15
21
+6
40.0
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Pre-test and Post-test Marks 30
Marks obtained on 28
25
Pre-test marks/28
20
Post-test marks/28
15 10 5 0
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 S21
Student Number
Average score on pre-test = 311/21 = 14.8 Average score on post-test = 453/21 = 21.6 Increase in average marks = 21.6 – 14.8 = 6.8 % increase in average marks = (6.8 / 14.8) x 100 = 45.9% From these figures it is found that on average there has been a positive leap in understanding of the concepts related to light. The observation that I had while conducting the session tallies with what students have said in the focus group discussion and it also tallies with the marks obtained in the pre-test and the post-test. Since students said that they have understood the concept better as they had to act them out, it can be stated that use of role play has benefited them. But to be able to confirm this fact larger scale studies have to be conducted where other concepts at various levels have to be taught for extended periods of Page 684
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time. This would provide additional facts to be able to establish the effectiveness of the innovative strategies such as role play and drama. However, use of role play in this study has brought certain degree of conceptual change in the learners. In this small scale study one item that could not be established is whether role play benefits boys and girls equally or differentially. For this to be established, further investigations will have to be conducted over extended durations. On closer analysis, it is found that there is a very small number of learners who have not had any change in marks obtained in the pre-test and post-test. It could be that they have not been able to undergo any conceptual change through this method of learning and need other strategies. It could also be that the conceptions that they have are deep rooted and more intense activities are needed to produce conceptual change. It has also been seen that some students had given the right answer in the pre-test but have given the wrong answer in the post-test i.e., after explicit instruction. It looks a bit strange for this to happen. The explanation could be that the conception that these learners have are not strong and permanent. Students vacillate between alternative conception and scientific conception (Sookrauj, 2006, Hewson and Hewson, 2003). Sometime they use the right scientific conception to explain an idea and at some other time they switch to naïve ideas to explain the same idea. In such cases, more activities are needed to bring about permanent conceptual change in learners as it is an established fact that deep rooted misconceptions do exist and are quite difficult to remove.
Discussion Over the years, researchers, curriculum specialists, educators at pre-primary, primary, secondary, pre-vocational, post secondary and tertiary levels as well as other stakeholders have advocated the use of active learning techniques. Many techniques have been applied and Page 685
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evaluated and their strengths and weaknesses have been identified for implementation on larger scale. Many science education specialists have focussed on the use of role play and have compiled the benefits that this technique brings about in the classroom, apart from a break in the monotony. Practical implementation of this technique also shows that the potential of using drama and role play in science classrooms are enormous. As well as being fun, boosting confidence and self-esteem, it is a way to enable learners to apply concepts they have learnt, in a rich and realistic environment. Role play has also provided a valuable opportunity to learn not only the subject matter but other skills such as communication skills, cooperation and tolerance. Moreover, the tutor‟s point of view as well as feedback obtained from observers can also be sources of fruitful information to make the learning even better. If lessons involving this technique are well prepared, teachers can involve the whole class in the process and no one is left behind, as each individual will have a role to play, even if it is to ask certain pertinent questions to the students acting the concept. The model of learning as conceptual change suggests that there are three conditions which a new conception has to satisfy before it can be integrated with existing knowledge (Hewson and Hewson, 2003). These are the intelligible, plausible and fruitful nature of the new conceptions. This means for the new knowledge produced through the role play method, learners should be able to see that they are consistent with common views, they are possibly true and also useful in some ways to be able to solve additional problems and apply in new situations. This is what educators strive to do especially with deep rooted alternate conceptions. If we are able to show visually that a concept is having these three characteristics, then the battle is won and one way of doing it is through role play where learners are actively engaged in production of the new knowledge to be attached to the prior ideas learnt.
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It is good opportunity for educators to try new strategies especially if they have constraints on material resources and have financial pressures on provision of these resources. In fact, role play can be conducted with the minimum resources but the teachers have to be very creative and need lots of imagination and also believe in this innovative technique as well as few others.
Limitation of the study The amount of space available in the classroom of the low achieving school was a limitation to the open and free expression of the learners. If role play is to be conducted, whether teacher instructed or wholly student prepared, the space available to learners should be large so that the role playing can be achieved freely. This will also enable all other students to watch and learn from the scenes and expressions. Another limitation that I faced in the implementation of this technique was the poor linguistic ability of the learners. For such an exercise learners should be kept engaged for a longer time in the learning process, there should be the use of L1 if teaching is being conducted in second language. Moreover, a delayed post-test would have shown how far the positive conceptual changes have been retained, a reasonable time after instruction.
Conclusion Data obtained through focus group discussion, pre-test and post-test scores, along with my own observations, views from the classroom teacher all show that the use of various types of role play in the process of learning is a useful tool to enhance the teaching and learning process. Additionally, the advantages provided by this innovative method of instruction should be explored by educators and it can prove to be very beneficial for our students. It is therefore recommended that teachers make use of the range of role play Page 687
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strategies available and tested, to be able to produce the desired conceptual change among learners. It is also essential to vary teaching and learning strategies to avoid monotonous lessons. This is in line with the recommendation made by the Science Education Action Plan (2005) of the Mauritius Research Council.
References 1.
Bender, T. (2005) Role playing in online education: a teaching tool to enhance student engagement
and
sustained
learning,
Innovate
1
(4),
available
at
http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=57&action=article (5 Jan 2009) 2.
Gillham, B. (2003a) Case Study Research Methods, London and New York, Continuum
3.
Gillham, B. (2003b) The Research Interview, London and New York, Continuum
4.
Goomannee, R. (2003) Using student centred teaching strategy to enhance the learning of Physics at form III level, PGCE dissertation, Mauritius Institute of Education
5.
Hewson, M.G. and Hewson, P.W. (2003) “Effect of Instruction Using Students‟ Prior Knowledge and Conceptual Change Strategies on Science Learning”, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 40, Supplement, pp.S86-S98.
6.
Jon-Chao Hong (2006) A study of using the Magic Scientific Toys to enlighten the curiosity of Science, Proceedings of the International Science Education Conference 2006, Singapore
7.
Katwaroo, M. (2008) Using cooperative learning to develop Conceptual Understanding of students in Electromagnetism at O level, PGCE dissertation, Mauritius Institute of Education
8.
Mauritius Research Council (2005) Science Education Action Plan
9.
Mauritius Research Council (2004) Report on teaching of science in schools Page 688
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10.
McSharry, G. and Jones, S. (2000) Role Play in Science Learning, School Science Review, September 2000, Vol. 82, No. 298
11.
Mortimer, E.F. and Scott, P.H. (2003) Meaning making in Science classrooms, Maidenhead and Philadelphia, Open University Press
12.
Multiple Intelligences, from http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.htm accessed: September 2009
13.
Munirah, K.S. (2006) Learning Physics: the „play-n-learn‟ approach, Proceedings of the International Science Education Conference 2006, Singapore
14.
Narana Pillay, M. (2008) Incorporating Interactive Digital Multimedia to enhance student understanding of „Dynamics‟ at O level, PGCE dissertation, Mauritius Institute of Education
15.
Nickerson, L. (2009) Creativity in Science: Science Drama, School Science Review, March 2009, Vol. 90, No. 332
16.
Osborne, J. (2008) Engaging young people with science: does science education need a new vision? School Science Review, March 2008, Vol. 89, No. 328
17.
Ozdemir, G. and Clark, D. (2009) Knowledge structure coherence in Turkish students‟ understanding of Force, Journal of research in Science Teaching, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp.570-596
18.
Sharma, R.C. (2006) Modern Science Teaching, Dhanpat Rai, New Delhi
19.
Sukhoo-Busawon, N. (2008) Role play as a strategy in teaching circulatory system at OLevel, PGCE dissertation, Mauritius Institute of Education
20.
Trusler, A. (2006) An alternative way to teach the reflection of light, School Science Review, December 2006, vol. 88, No. 323
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21.
Wardle, J. (2009) Creativity in Science, School Science Review, March 2009, Vol. 90, No. 332
22.
Wellington, J. (2000) Educational Research: Contemporary Issues and Practical Approaches, London and New York, Continuum
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Appendix Pre-test and post-test questions
1.
What do you understand by the term reflection of light?
………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.
Where have you observed reflection of light taking place?
………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3.
Label the diagram using the expressions given normal line, angle of reflection, angle of incidence, incident ray, reflected ray
P: ………………………………………………………
Q P x
y
R
Q: ……………………………………………………… R: ……………………………………………………… x: ………………………………………………………. y: ……………………………………………………….
4.
If the angle of incidence is 45o, what is that angle of reflection?
………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5.
Imagine seeing our image in a plane mirror; tick the following statements that are true
Statement Image is larger than object Image is upright
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Image can be touched so it is a real image When I lift my right arm, the left arm moves in the image
6.
Why does the stick appear bent when placed partly in water as shown? ………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………
7.
What happens to light when it is refracted?
………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
Running head: STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL VS ALGORITHMIC PROBLEM IN CHEMISTRY
Thai Grade 11 Students’ Conceptual Understanding versus Algorithmic ProblemSolving in Quantitative Chemistry
Chanyah Dahsah
Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Thailand e-mail:
[email protected]
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
Abstract
Chemistry is one of the most important topics in science, and the literature suggests that many students have difficulties in understanding and applying chemistry concepts, especially in quantitative chemistry. The purposes of this study were to explore Grade 11 students’ performances in conceptual and algorithmic chemistry problems, and to determine the differences and relationships between students’ conceptual understanding and abilities to solve algorithmic problems. The participants were 208 Thai Grade 11 science students from eight public schools in Bangkok and bordering areas.
The research instrument was a
questionnaire using two-tier questions (4 multiple choices with space for giving the reason). The questionnaire included eight questions with each question consisting of two parallel subquestions, one conceptual and one algorithmic question. The questions covered all quantitative chemistry concepts that are taught in Thai Grade 10 including; mole, solution concentration, colligative properties, conservation of mass, quantity relationships in chemical reactions, limiting reagent, gas laws, and gas velocity. The results revealed that students did better on algorithmic problems and when solving algorithmic problems, students frequently resorted to the use of formulae without understanding the underlying concepts.
Keyword: Chemistry, Conceptual Understanding, Algorithmic Problem-Solving
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Thai Grade 11 Students’ Conceptual Understanding versus Algorithmic ProblemSolving in Quantitative Chemistry Introduction To be successful in chemistry learning is to have students succeed in understanding the concepts and being able to solve the chemical problems both in conceptual and algorithmic.
Numerous research studies in chemical education conducted to explore
students’ conceptual understanding in chemical concepts; for example, chemical bonding (Birk & Kurtz, 1999; Tan & Treagust, 1999), chemical equilibrium (Bergquist & Heikkinen, 1990; Tyson, Treagust, & Bucat, 1999), acid-base (Carr, 1984; Chiu, 2002), and stoichiometry (BouJaoude & Barakat, 2000; Dahsah & Coll, 2008). The research results found that many alternative conceptions were found in both high school and university students. A review of problem-solving research also indicated that students had difficulty in solving chemistry problems (i.e. Dahsah & Coll, 2007; Gabel & Bunce, 1994; Mulford & Robinson, 2002). Many research studies also have investigated the relationship between problem solving and conceptual knowledge since the study by Nurrenbern and Pickering (1987). The findings could be separated into two groups. First, there is a small relationship between algorithmic problem-solving and conceptual understanding (e.g. Lythcott, 1990; Nakhleh, 1993; Nakhleh & Mitchell, 1993; Sawrey, 1990). That is, students can produce the correct answer in algorithmic chemistry problems without understanding the underlying chemistry concepts, and that students cannot provide the correct answers for conceptual questions dealing with the same concepts. Second, students’ abilities to solve algorithmic problems related to their conceptual understanding (Dahsah & Coll, 2007; BouJaoude & Barakat, 2000). Those students who did not understand the related concepts in the questions could not
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solve the problem to construct the solution Likewise, the students who held alternative conceptions could sometimes ‘solve’ the algorithmic problems, but without providing fully correct answers. Similarly, the studies by Chui (2001), Coşto (2007), and Lin, Kirsch, and Turner (1996) found that there is no difference between students’ performance in algorithmic problem-solving and conceptual understanding. In another, students who could solve algorithmic problems showed a conceptual understanding in parallel questions. In Thailand, there was no research conducted to investigate the relationship between students’ performance in algorithmic and conceptual understanding in chemistry concepts. The related research that was conducted by the researcher (Dahsah & Coll, 2007) was aimed to study students’ abilities to solve stoichiometry problems, and to see how students related their conceptual understanding when solving the problems but did not directly explore students’ conceptual understanding. Thus, in this research, parallel questions were set to investigate both students’ conceptual understanding and algorithmic problem-solving of Thai high schools students in same concepts. This aimed to explore both students’ performances in algorithmic and conceptual understanding questions, and whether algorithmic problemsolving and conceptual understanding in chemistry of Thai high school students would have a little or strong relationship.
Research Questions This study aimed to explore Grade 11 students’ performance to solve conceptual understanding and algorithmic problems and to determine the relationships between students’ abilities to solve algorithmic problems and conceptual understanding in quantitative chemistry. Thus, this study was designed to answer following questions;
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How do Thai Grade 11 students perform in quantitative chemistry conceptual understandings problems?
How do Thai Grade 11 students perform in quantitative chemistry algorithmic problems?
Do Thai Grade 11 students’ algorithmic problem-solving abilities relate to their conceptual understandings for quantitative chemistry?
Research Design This research aims to explore the existing situations of students’ performance in solving conceptual and algorithmic problems in quantitative chemistry, and to see the relationship between situated variables. There are no variables and interventions deliberately manipulated by the researcher. Thus, the research design is a survey research in nature.
Sample Participants in this study were two hundred and eight Grade 11 science students from eight different schools in Bangkok and bordering areas. The schools are public schools with mixed gender students. The students’ ages ranged from 15 years to 18 years. The participants were chosen by the teachers upon the researchers’ request to show a spread of academic ability. All students studied have learned all the concepts explored.
Instrument To explore students’ performance in conceptual understanding and algorithmic problems, a questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire consisted of eight questions with each question consisted of two parallel sub-questions, one conceptual and one algorithmic question. The questions used 4 multiple choices with space for giving the reason Page 697
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
for their choice. The questions required students to use their conceptual knowledge to select and give a reasonable answer. The questions in the questionnaire included the concepts of mole, solution concentrations, colligative properties, conservation of mass, quantities relationships in chemical reactions, limiting reagent, gas laws, and gas velocity. Those concepts were taught to all Thai Grade 10 or Grade 11 science students. The questions used in the questionnaire are shown in Appendix 1. The questionnaire was validated by three experts, one science educator, and two professors in science to see items correlation and correction.
Procedure Two hundred and eight Grade 11 students took the questionnaire (8 questions, 16 subquestions) in one and a half hours (90 minutes). The students were required to answer the entire set of questions by selecting a correct choice and giving a reason or solution for their choice. The scoring scheme was designed to have 0 (incorrect or no response) or 1 (correct) point. The results were showed in the means scores of students’ correct responses in each question, and summation of scores for each student.
Results and Discussion Students’ Performance in Conceptual and Algorithmic Problems The scores of individual student’ performance shown in Fig 1 indicated that most students did better in algorithmic problems than conceptual understanding problems. In addition, the total scores of the students were also better in algorithmic problems than conceptual understanding problems (Fig 2). On average, students’ performance scores in algorithmic and conceptual understanding problems were 3.64 and 2.81, respectively (total scores = 8). According to the t-test, the students’ performance between algorithmic and Page 698
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
conceptual understanding problems was significant at 0.05 (t = 7.31). This is similar to the studies by Lythcott (1990), Nakhleh (1993), Nakhleh & Mitchell (1993) and Sawrey (1990) which indicated students can produce the correct answer in algorithmic chemistry problems, but cannot provide the correct answers for conceptual questions dealing with the same concepts. 9 8 7
Scores
6 5
Algorithmic Conceptual
4 3 2 1 0 1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73 81 89 97 105 113 121 129 137 145 153 161 169 177 185 193 201
Student Note:
represents students’ scores in algorithmic problems (total score is 8) represents students’ scores in conceptual problems (total score is 8)
Fig 1: Each student’s scores for algorithmic and conceptual problems
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
60
40
60
30
50
20 10 0 0
Number of Students
Number of Students
50
algorithmic conceptual
40
algorithm
30
conceptu
120
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Item
10 0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Item
Fig 2: Number of students who had the total scores in each type of problem
The analysis on each item as shown in Table 1 indicated that students’ means scores for each item both in algorithmic and conceptual understanding problems were quite low. The means scores in each question ranges from 0.23 – 0.78 (full score for each item is 1). Students’ means scores reached 60 percentages on only one question; that is the algorithmic question about gas law (means score = 0.78). From the t-test analysis at the 0.05 significance level, students significantly performed better on algorithmic problems than conceptual understanding problems on the topics of gas law, mole, colligative properties, and percent yield. Students significantly performed better in conceptual understanding on the topic of gas velocity and conservation of mass. There are no differences between students’ performance on algorithmic and conceptual understanding in the topic of solution concentration and limiting reagent.
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
Table 1. Students’ Correct Scores on Algorithmic and Conceptual Understanding Problems (1 score for each item, total = 8 scores) Questions
Algorithmic Problem
Conceptual Problem
Means (S.D.)
Means (S.D.)
1. gas law (1A, 1C)
0.78 (0.41)*
0.23 (0.42)
2. gas velocity (2A, 2C)
0.22 (0.41)
0.41 (0.49)*
3. mole (3A, 3C)
0.57 (0.50)*
0.29 (0.46)
4. solution concentration (4A, 4C)
0.55 (0.50)
0.51 (0.50)
5. colligative properties (5A, 5C)
0.41 (0.49)*
0.25 (0.43)
6. limiting reagent (6A, 6C)
0.38 (0.49)
0.37 (0.48)
7. conservation of mass (7A, 7C)
0.39 (0.49)
0.50 (0.50)*
8. percent yield (8A, 8C)
0.33 (0.47)*
0.25 (0.43)
3.64 (2.65)*
2.81 (2.28)
Total
* p < 0.05
Students’ performance on conceptual understanding questions might also relate to the level of difficulty (see Chiu, 2001). Students did better on the macroscopic level questions (i.e. gas velocity, conservation of mass), rather than the microscopic level questions (i.e. gas law, colligative properties). The common alternative conceptions found in this study were both similar and different from others (see Dahsah & Coll, 2008; Furio, Azcona, & Guisasola, 2002; Chui 2001; Coşto, 2007). -
use the degree Celsius instead of Kelvin when calculating in gas law equation
-
limiting reagents is the reactant that has the smallest amount
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
-
when the temperature decreased, pressure is decreased so molecules of gas will be far from each other
-
the solution that contains high intermolecular force (H-bond) solute, has a higher boiling point
-
the compounds that have the same molar mass, always have the same amount of moles
-
all compounds in the same volume, have the same number of molecules.
Relationship between Algorithmic Problems - Solving and Conceptual Understanding From each student’s scores, the researcher categorized the students in four groups according to Chio (2001)’s study that shown below. HAHC: High performance in Algorithmic problems; High performance in Conceptual understanding problems LAHC: Low performance in Algorithmic problems; High performance in Conceptual understanding problems HALC: High performance in Algorithmic problems; Low performance in Conceptual understanding problems LALC: Low performance in Algorithmic problems; Low performance in Conceptual understanding problems Students were assigned to high performance groups (H) if students’ total scores in each type of problems was over 50% (5 out of 8 scores) which HA for high performance in algorithmic problems and HC for high performance in conceptual understanding problems. If students’ scores were 50% or less, he/she was categorized as low achievement which LA for low performance in algorithmic problems and LC for low performance in conceptual understanding problems. The percentages of students in each group are shown in Fig 3. Page 702
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
HAHC 26%
LALC 60%
HALC 12% LAHC 2%
Fig 3: Percentage of students categorized in a group of HAHC, LAHC, HALC, and LALC.
Sixty percent of the students were in LALC, and twenty-six percent of the students were in HAHC. Only 12% and 2% of the students were in HALC and LAHC, respectively. The results here shown that students’ performance in algorithmic problems related to conceptual understanding. Students who had high performances in algorithmic problems also had high performances in conceptual understanding problems. In contrast, students who had low performances in algorithmic problems also had low performances in conceptual understanding problems. For groups of students who had different performances in algorithmic and conceptual understanding problems, only 2% of the students held high performances in conceptual understanding and low performances in algorithmic problems. That is, students did better on algorithmic problems than conceptual understanding. The results also indicated that students who had inappropriate conceptual understanding could be able to solve algorithmic problems in related concepts. As indicated in Lythcott (1990), Nakhleh (1993), Nakhleh & Mitchell (1993) and Sawrey (1990).
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
The relationship between students’ algorithmic problem – solving and conceptual understanding were also analyzed by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The results are shown in Table 2. Overall, students’ algorithmic problem-solving had a strong relationship to their conceptual understanding (correlation = 0.791). However, the analysis on each item did not relate to that. There were on moderate relationship in the topic of conservation of mass, limiting reagent, and percent yield. There were on weak relationship in the topic of gas velocity, mole, and solution concentration. In addition, there are no relationships in the topic of colligative properties and gas laws.
That means, the relationship between students’
algorithmic problem-solving and conceptual understanding depending on the difficulty of the concept behind.
Table 2. Correlation between Students’ Performance in Algorithmic and Conceptual Understanding Problems Questions
Correlation
1. gas law (1A, 1C)
0.122
2. gas velocity (2A, 2C)
0.252
3. mole (3A, 3C)
0.379
4. solution concentration (4A, 4C)
0.335
5. colligative properties (5A, 5C)
0.169
6. limiting reagent (6A, 6C)
0.549
7. conservation of mass (7A, 7C)
0.583
8. percent yield (8A, 8C)
0.568
Total
0.791
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
In the difficulty concepts, students would solve the algorithmic problems using a formula rather than relating it to conceptual understanding. Whilst, students try to use the algorithmic or formula to solve conceptual understanding questions, for example; in question 4C, students used the formula to calculate the number of moles in the solution rather than use the microscopic view. This is similar to Gable and Bunce (1994) who claimed that when solving chemistry problems, many students tend to use algorithmic methods, apply a memorized formula, manipulate the formula, and ‘plug’ in numbers until they fit without understanding underlying concepts.
Conclusion Overall, students’ performances on both algorithmic and conceptual understanding problems were quite low. Over half of students were in the group of low performance both in algorithmic and conceptual understanding problems (LALC). Students’ performances on algorithmic problems had a strong relationship to their performances on conceptual understanding problems, whilst, students significantly did better on algorithmic than conceptual understanding problems. In item analysis, the comparison and relation between students’ performances in each question were different depending on the concept. The students did better in the conceptual understanding questions if the question was asked in a macroscopic view, and they faced difficulty with microscopic questions. So the levels of difficulty need to be concerned during the analysis.
The students were also more familiar with algorithmic problems than
conceptual ones. Thus, in some questions, students tried to use a formula in describing the solution in conceptual understanding problems.
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
References Bergquist, W. & Heikkinen, H. (1990). Student ideas regarding chemical equilibrium. Journal of Chemical Education, 67(12), 1000-1003. Birk, J.P. & Kurtz, M.J. (1999). Effect of experience on retention and elimination of misconceptions about molecular structure and bonding. Journal of Chemical Education, 76(1), 124–128. BouJaoude, S. & Barakat, H. (2000). Secondary school students’difficulties with stoichiometry. School Science Review, 81(296), 91 - 98. Carr, M. (1984). Model confusion in chemistry. Research in Science Education, 14(1), 97103. Chiu, M-H. (2001). Algorithmic problem solving and conceptual understanding of chemistry by students at a local high school in Taiwan. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Republic of China, Part D, 11(1), 20 – 38. Chiu, M-H. (2002). Exploring mental models and causes of high school students’ misconceptions in acids-bases, particle theory and chemical equilibrium. Project Report in National Science Council. Coşto, B. (2007). Comparison of students’ performance on algorithmic, conceptual, and graphical chemistry gas problems. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 379 – 386. Dahsah, C. & Coll, R.K. (2007). Thai Grade 10 and 11 Students’ Conceptual Understanding and Problem- Solving Ability in Stoichiometry. Research in Science and Technological Education, 25(2), 227-241.
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Dahsah, C. & Coll, R.K. (2008). Thai Grade 10 and 11 Students’ Understanding of Stoichiometry and Related Concepts. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 6 (3), 573- 600. Furio, C., Azcona, R. & Guisasola, J. (2002). The learning and teaching of the concepts ‘Amount of Substance’ and ‘Mole’: A review of the literature. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice in Europe, 3 (3), 277-292. Gabel, DL. & Bunce, DM. (1994). Research on problem solving: chemistry. In: Gabel, D.L. (eds) Handbook of research on science teaching and learning (pp. 301–326). Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. Lin, Q., Kirsch, P., & Turner, R. (1996). Numeric and conceptual understanding of general chemistry at a minority institution. Journal of Chemical Education, 73(10), 1003 – 1005. Lythcott, J. (1990). Problem solving and requisite knowledge of chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 67(3), 248 – 252 Mulford, D.R. & Robinson, W.R. (2002). An inventory fro alternate conceptions among first semester general chemistry students. Journal of Chemical Education, 79(6), 739 – 744. Nakhleh, M-B. & Mitchell, R.C. (1993). Concept learning versus problem solving: there is a difference. Journal of Chemical Education, 70(3), 190 – 192. Nakhleh, M-B. (1993). Are our students’ conceptual thinkers or algorithmic problem solvers? Journal of Chemical Education, 70(1), 52 – 55. Nurrenbern, S. & Pickering, M. (1987). Concept learning versus problem solving. Is there a difference? Journal of Chemical Education, 64(6), 508 – 510. Sawrey, B.A. (1990). Concept learning versus problem solving: Revisited. Journal of Chemical Education, 67(3), 253–254. Page 707
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
Tan, D.K-C. & Treagust, D.F. (1999). Evaluating students’ understanding of chemical bonding. School Science Review, 81(294), 75–83. Tyson, L., Treagust, D. F. & Bucat, R.B. (1999). The complexity of teaching and learning chemical equilibrium. Journal of Chemical Education, 76(4), 554 - 558.
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Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
Appendix 1 1A
1C
20 cm3
H2 Fig 1.
CH4 5 cm3
H2
The dots represent the distribution of methane
Fig 2.
The pressure of H2 gas in fig 1 is 300 mmHg at
molecules in the container that filled with
27 °C. If the volume is decreased as shown in
methane gas at 27° C, 200 mmHg. If the
Fig 2. What is the pressure (mmHg) of H2 gas in
temperature is decreased to – 150 °C. Which of
a container at 47° C?
the following diagram illustrate one probable
a)
172
b)
1200 c)
1280
d) 2090
distribution of methane molecules in a container? (The boiling point of methane is -161.6 °C.)
Solution:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Reason: 2A. If sulfur dioxide gas (SO2) diffuses from one
2C. If concentrated ammonia solution is placed
end of a tube to the other in 16 s. Using the same
on a pad in one end of a tube and concentrated
tube, what is the time of helium gas (He) will use
hydrochloric acid on a pad at the other, after a
to diffuse from one end of a tube to the other?
minute a ring of solid ammonium chloride is
a) 1 s
formed. Which of the following picture illustrate
Solution:
b) 4 s.
c) 32 s.
d) 64 s.
the possible position of the ring? NH4Cl NH3 HCl
a)
b) c)
NH3 NH3 NH3
d) Reason:
Page 709
NH4Cl
HCl NH4Cl NH4Cl
HCl HCl
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
3A. What is the mass in grams of nitrogen
3C. Which of the following pair of boxes has the
dioxide (NO2) that have the volume equal to
same number of atoms at same volume,
3.01 1023 molecules of O2?
temperature and pressure?
a) 11.2
b) 23
c) 0.5 1.66 10 – 24 d) 46 1.66 10 – 24
a)
F2 (g)
I2 (s)
b)
H2 (g)
CO(g
c)
Cl2(g)
) O3 (g)
d)
N2(g)
Mg(g)
Solution:
Reason: 4A. If take 200 ml. from 500 ml. of 1.2 M
4C.
CH3COOH, then add the water up to 500 ml. What is the molarity of CH3COOH after water
The black circle represents the molecules of
added?
solute in a solution, if we pour a half of the
a) 0.24 Solution:
b) 048
c) 0.96
d) 1.20
solution to another beaker, then fill it with the water until have the same volume as previous. Which picture represents the new solution? a)
b)
c)
d)
Reason:
Page 710
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
5A. What is the freezing point of 100 grams of
5C.
ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in 0.5 L. of water? (Kf of water = 1.86 °C/m) a) - 6 °C
b) - 3.72 °C
From the diagram, the dots represent benzoic c) 3.72 °C d) 6 °C
Solution:
molecules (C6H5COOH) in the solution. The boiling point of the solution is 105 °C. If the ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH) solution was prepared to has the same boiling point? Which of the following diagram represent the molecules of ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH) in the solution? a)
b)
c)
d)
Reason: 6A. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) reacts with sulfur
6C. Atoms of different elements are represented
dioxide (SO2) to produce sulfur (S) and water
by
(H2O). If start with 11.2 L of hydrogen sulfide
when four molecules of
and 11.2 L of sulfur dioxide, after the reaction
to form
. Which is the limiting reagent, and
and
?
complete which of the reactant left, how much? a) 4.2 g. H2S
b) 8.5 g.H2S
a)
b)
c) 8 g.SO2
d) 16 g.SO2
c)
d)
Reason:
Reason:
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react
Conceptual vs Algorithmic in Chemistry
7A. 10 g. sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)
7C. Reaction of baking soda and vinegar form
reacts with 6 g. acetic acid (CH3COOH) to form
gas product. If baking soda and vinegar is mixed
carbon dioxide gas (CO2). After the reaction
in close container, weight of the reagents after
complete, the mass of the reagent left in the
reaction complete is x grams. If use the same
container is 11.6 g. What is the mass in grams of
amount of baking soda and vinegar mixed in
carbon dioxide formed?
open container, weight of the reagents after the
a) 0
b) 4.4
c) 11.6
d) 16
reaction complete is y grams. Which of the
Solution:
following is correct? a) x = y
b) x < y c) x > y d) could not tell
Reason: 8A. Winter green oil (C8H8O3) could be prepared
8C. Atoms of different elements are represented
by the reaction of salicylic acid (C7H6O3) and
by
methanol (CH3OH). What is the percent yield of
with 3 molecules of
this reaction if 13.8 g. of salicylic acid reacts with 16 g. of methanol to produce 11.4 g. of winter
c) 75
d) 125
to form x molecules of
represent the value of x? a) 0
b) 50
reacts
? Which of the following could not
green oil? a) 15
. If 3 molecules of
Reason:
Solution:
Page 712
b)
1
c) 2
d) 3
MT in Learning Science Running head: MT AS LEARNING TOOL FOR DEAF IN LEARNING SCIENCE
Using MT as an Alternative Learning Tool for Deaf in Learning Science
Nadh Ditcharoen1, Kanlaya Naruedomkul2, Srisavakon Dangsaart3
1
Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer, Faculty of Science Ubon Ratchathani University, Thailand
[email protected] 2
Department of Mathematics, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
[email protected]
3
Department of Computer Science, Dhonburi Rajabhat University, Bangkok, Thailand
[email protected]
Page 713
MT in Learning Science Abstract The purpose of this study was to design and develop an assisted learning tool for which deaf learners can access the scientific knowledge. We propose T2S translator, Thai to Thai Sign language machine translation, which is used for translating from Thai text into Thai sign language. The translator contains the vocabularies of basic words and scientific words for primary school. Deaf learners can use the translator to learn a Thai word or Thai sentence. It provides meaning of each word in both text and image forms which is easy to understand by Deaf. With T2S translator, deaf learners are less dependent on a teacher and are capable to improve their knowledge by themselves. The evaluation of the study was performed in terms of the translation accuracy and user satisfaction. The 225 sample sentences were tested and were evaluated by Thai sign language experts. We evaluate the user’s satisfaction in terms of their thought and their preference via a questionnaire and interview. The results show that on average, learners were highly satisfied when using the T2S translator in studying science.
Keyword: machine translation; Thai sign language; computer assisted learning.
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MT in Learning Science
Using MT as an Alternative Learning Tool for Deaf in Learning Science 1. MT as a Second Language Learning Tool In Thailand, deaf students are required to learn not only Thai sign language (TSL) but also Thai because Thai is an official language. Moreover, they are allowed to learn in an ordinary school, so that, they cannot avoid to communicate with other hearing students, also hearing teachers who may not know sign language. Since Thai and TSL are different in both syntax and semantics; thus, learning Thai is quite difficult for deaf students. Due to the differences between languages, learning process is limited. In the age of technological innovation, Machine Translation (MT) is widely acknowledged to be a technique that overcomes the language barrier. MT is about how to make a computer understand human language. The basic goal of computational linguistics as MT is to train computers to generate and comprehend grammatically-acceptable sentences for purposes of translation and direct communication with computers where the computer understands and generates natural language. A very simple example of computers understanding natural language in relation to second language learning is vocabulary drill exercises. The computer prompts the learner with a word on either the source or target language and the student responds with the corresponding word. The computer understands the input word by comparing it with a stored answer and gives feedback to the user. Cloze tests work on a similar principle, where the computer compares the words/phrases provided by the learner to a database of correct answers (Ten Hacken, 2003). In addition to helping students in learning second language, MT can improve reading/writing skill in learning language e.g. Thai language for deaf people, Thai sign language for hearing people who wish to learn sign language. In reading text, MT can be augmented with text editor to help in translating second language. It can be used as a grammar checker in writing process. Moreover, with MT, we can access
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MT in Learning Science information resources available in various forms such as printed material, hard copy, electronic copy widely published on the Internet. In this paper, we present T2S translator, a Thai to Thai sign language machine translation, which is used for translating from Thai text into Thai sign language. T2S translator was designed and developed as an assisted learning tool for deaf students in learning science. With T2S translator, deaf students are less dependent on a teacher and are capable to improve their knowledge by themselves. 2. T2S Translation Architecture 2.1 Differences between Thai and Thai Sign Language Sign language is a language that uses combinations of hand-shapes, orientation, movements, arms, body, position, facial expressions and lip-patterns (Waldron & Kim, 1995) to communicate without using sound. The two most common misconceptions about sign language are that they are “international,” and that they are mechanical versions of some spoken language. Just as thousands of distinct spoken language, there are many unique sign languages, none of which are based on spoken language. Sign languages used in different countries are different and standard. For example, American Sign Language (ASL), one of the most complete Sign systems in the world, is used by approximately one-half million deaf people in the United States and Canada (Lee & Kunii, 1992). British Sign Language (BSL) is used in England while Thai Sign Language (TSL) is used by approximately 3 millions deaf people in Thailand (Dailynews, 2002). TSL was acknowledged as “the national language of deaf people in Thailand” in August 1999 (Ministry of Education, 1999). It is a language as unique to Thailand as is spoken Thai. Moreover, TSL is also distinct and different from the spoken Thai and English language in syntax, semantic and orthography. In any spoken language, alphabets form a
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MT in Learning Science word while a TSL word is consisted of five parameters: handshapes, location, orientation, movement, and facial expression.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1. (a) sign “egg” (b) sign “chair” (c) sign “sit” All sign languages used in deaf communities have large vocabularies of signs, covering the full range of things, events, and abstract concepts of ordinary life. The information of Thai Sign Language have been collected about 8,000 signs, and over 3,000 are shown in (NADT, 1990). Like any other language, a sign language will have a large number of signs which are nearly synonyms, that is have similar meanings. Pronouncing a sign correctly is exactly like pronouncing a word correctly. Tiny differences in sign parameters can completely change the meaning of a sign, just as tiny differences in consonants or vowels or tones or intonation can completely change the meaning of a word. Anyone who wants to convey meanings precisely in sign language must take care to pronounce signs correctly. For instance, simply changing the orientation of the hands can completely change the meaning from “egg” sign (Figure 1a) to “chair” sign (Figure 1b), and with single instead of repeated movement, to “sit” sign (Figure 1c). The structure of Thai sentence is similar to that of English sentence in order of subject, verb, and object respectively. In most TSL sentences, an object will be expressed before the subject and verb. A negative sign will be expressed at the end of the negative sentence. The differences between Thai and TSL structure is shown in Table 1.
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MT in Learning Science Table 1. Comparison of TSL and Thai Syntax. TSL Syntax Thai Syntax Positive Sentence
Negative Sentence
Subject + Verb
Subject + Verb
Subject + Verb + Negative
Subject + Verb + Object
Object (Complement) +
Object (Complement) + Subject +
(Complement)
Subject + Verb
Verb + Negative
Subject + Verb + Direct Object +
Direct Object + Subject + Verb
Direct Object + Subject + Verb +
Indirect Object
+ Indirect Object
Indirect Object + Negative
2.2 Translation Process T2S translation is to translate from Thai text into Thai sign language (TSL). This approach borrows some idea from IT3STL (Dangsaart et al, 2008). It is composed of five steps: Sentence Treatment, Word Treatment, Sign Word Selection, Sign Word Ordering, and Image Generation as shown in Figure 2. Sentence Treatment consists of two steps: word segmentation and sentence synthesis. Since Thai language has no word boundary, Word Segmentation segments the Thai sentences into Thai words that can be translated into TSL by using any reliable Thai word segmentation approach. Sentence Synthesis analyzes the input sentence to determine whether it contains any conjunction such as “และ (and)”, “หรื อ (or)”, etc, then synthesizes the subsentences. Thai Sentence
TSL
Sentence
Word
Sign Word
Sign Word
Image
Treatment
Treatment
Selection
Ordering
Generation
Figure 2. T2S Architecture. Word Treatment generates sign words, which is a keyword linked to Image Generation module. It is divided into 3 steps: word constraint, word addition, and dictionary
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MT in Learning Science lookup. Word Constraint is applied to simplify sentence of the input sentence. The examples of constraints that are considered in the TST are classifiers, synonyms, demonstratives, etc. Some words that are necessary in the TSL, not only to retain the meaning of Thai, but also to make them grammatically correct, are added by Word Addition. Each noun relates to a specific pronoun; therefore, the pronoun relation was designed in the form of WordAsso (Naruedomkul & Cercone, 1999) to be used in selecting the appropriate pronoun for each noun. The corresponding pronouns are added before the dictionary lookup is performed. After all necessary words have been added, Dictionary lookup maps all corresponding words in the TSL to each Thai word. Since TSL words are expressed by gestures, sign codes are developed to represent them. We design a simply form of sign code, that is an abbreviation connected with the sequence of number. An output of this phase is as list of all possible corresponding words of Thai words in TSL with their WordAsso numbers. Thai word may be expressed in several TSL. Sign Word Selection selects the most appropriate sign codes that correspond to the meaning of sentence. The criterion for selecting sign words is the semantic relationship between sign codes which is a link between word association numbers (WordAsso). Sign Word Ordering consists of two steps: sign code ordering and sentence integration. After word selection is performed, Sign Code Ordering rearranges the selected words in grammatical order according to the ordering rules. The grammar of TSL differs from that of Thai. The typical Thai sentence contains subject, verb, and object, but in TSL object is moved to the beginning of sentence, in the order: object, subject, and verb. If Thai sentence is synthesized into simple sentences (SS), Sentence Integration is performed by connecting first SS with second SS. If SS has the same object, the WordAsso of subject in each SS is considered to select the most appropriate subject. An output of this phase is list of the grammatical order TSL sign words.
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MT in Learning Science Image Generation, in this step, sign words, represented by sign codes, is mapped with image file name of TSL. 3. T2S Implementation and Experiment 3.1 Implement In developing T2S translator, we focus on an effective and efficiency translation. The efficiency translation can be supported directly from the computer technologies. T2S translator was designed to be implemented on a personnel computer (PC) in use with minimum requirement specification. The effective translation here is T2S translator able to produce an accurate translation. The translation process and the user interface of T2S translator were implemented by Microsoft Visual C# 2005. The system was designed to be free platform, basically Windowsbased platform, and be less memory consuming. T2S translator exploits the performance of binary search tree in searching words and matching Sign images. In user interface design, since the user is deaf, we designed the interface with the focus on users’ experience, favor and interaction. The goal of T2S translator design is to make the users’ interaction as simple and efficient as possible. Since T2S translator was aimed at being a language learning tool for deaf people to learn Thai and TSL (in primary school), the interface then must be designed for their convenience, and is able to display clear information. Figure 3 illustrates the interface of T2S translator which is comprised of two main sections: input section (Thai language) and output section (TSL language).
Page 720
MT in Learning Science
Figure 3. User Interface of T2S Translator. 3.2 Translation experiment T2S translator was designed to be an assisted learning tool in learning science not only vocabularies but also simple sentences. It is able to translate a number of sentences from different styles such as affirmative sentences, negative sentences, interrogative sentences and imperative sentences. In the preliminary experiment, the developed Sign picture dictionary contains only 150 words (pictures), and expanded to 300 and 500 pictures, respectively. There has been no significantly increase in processing time when running T2S translator with the larger dictionary. The sample sentences were collected from different sources including textbooks, cartoons, bedtime story and academic books.
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MT in Learning Science 4. Evaluation The evaluation of T2S translator was divided into two parts: translation accuracy and user satisfaction. The translation accuracy was examined in terms of intelligibility and fidelity which is evaluated by linguistic teachers (hearing and deaf), deaf students, and TSL interpreters. All testers are from Deaf school in Ubonratchathani province, Thailand. The goal of accuracy measurement is to determine whether the system can generate a correct and reliable translation or not. The standard performance measures: accuracy, precision, recall and F-score were used to evaluate the intelligibility and fidelity (Dangsaart et al, 2008). The 225 sample sentences and phrases were used in this evaluation. The intelligibility and fidelity were evaluated from six measures: (1) correct grammar, (2) correct word usage, (3) inappropriate word usage, (4) incorrectly translated word, (5) convey the original meaning, and (6) convey the different meaning but can understand the original meaning. Table 2 shows the results of each measurement with the 94-95% accuracy, 100% precision, 94-96% recall and 96.91-97.96% F-score. Table 2. The intelligibility and fidelity evaluation Tester.
Accuracy (%)
Precision (%)
Recall (%)
F-score (%)
1
94
100
94
96.91
2
95
100
95
97.44
3
94
100
94
96.91
4
95
100
96
97.96
5
94
100
94
96.91
The goal of T2S translator is to satisfy the user in both translation and language learning. We evaluate the user’s satisfaction in terms of their thought and their preference via a questionnaire and interview. Some questions are used to determine whether the system’s interface is convenient to use, the user feels comfortable to use T2S translator to improve
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MT in Learning Science their literacy skill, the user enjoys using T2S translator. Sample questions are shown in Table 3. The questionnaires and interview were conducted at Deaf school. The evaluation results show that T2S translator is beneficial to the user as shown in Table 4. Table 3. Sample questions With T2S translator, students can concentrate on the study With TH-DeafTalk, students can exchange their knowledge easily and natural T2S translator assists students to get enthusiastic to learn more With T2S translator, students are interested and enjoy being the classroom T2S translator allows students to be freedom to think out of box T2S translator is suitable to be used for self-learning Students want teachers to use T2S translator to engage in learning language
Table 4. The user satisfaction evaluation (5-excellent, 4-good, 3-fair, 2-poor, 1-very poor) Simple and Convenient
Advantage
Need for User
Mean
4.35
4.25
4.15
S.D.
.587
.716
.745
Fair (%)
20.2
20.1
21.4
Good (%)
55.6
57.8
58.8
Excellent (%)
25.2
28.1
24.2
5. Concluding Remarks We present T2S translator, an alternative learning tool for deaf, which was designed to translate from Thai text into Thai sign language. Its translation process is comprised of five steps: Sentence Treatment. Word Treatment, Sign Word Selection, Sign Word Ordering, and Image Generation. The distinction between Thai and Thai sign language in both syntax and semantic is concerned in each processing step. The interface was designed to be used easily and conveniently for both deaf and hearing usage. The key features of T2S translator are
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MT in Learning Science simplicity, accurate, and user-friendly. T2S translator is beneficial on increasing deaf students’ interest and motivation, and being more engagement in the learning process. The initial experiment and evaluation indicates that the translation accuracy is acceptable and the system performance satisfies the users. 6. References Dailynews.
(2002).
Article
from
Dailynews
on
August
8,
2002,
Website:
http://www.dailynews.co.th, Retrieved on September 2008. Dangsaart, S., Naruedomkul, K., Cercone, N., & Sirinaovakul, B. (2008). Intelligent Thai text – Thai sign translation for language learning. Computers & Education, 51 (2008), pp. 1125-1141. Lee, J & Kunii, T.L. (1992). Visual Translation: From Native Language to Sign Language, In Proc. of 1992 IEEE Workshop on Visual Languages, 15-18 Sept.1992, pp.103-109. Ministry of Education. Promulgation for acceptance of Thai sign language as national language for deaf, August, 17th 1999. Naruedomkul, K., and N. Cercone. 1999. The Role for Word Association Numbers in Machine Translation, Proceedings of the Conference Pacific Association for Computational Linguistics (PACLING’99), Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, pp.379-392. Ten Hacken, P. (2003). Computer-assisted language learning and the revolution in computational linguistics. Linguistik online 17. The National Association of the Deaf in Thailand (NADT), The Thai Sign Language Dictionary, Revised and Expanded Edition, Thai Watana Panich Press co.,Ltd. Bangkok, Thailand, 1990. Waldron, M.B., and Kim, S. “Isolated ASL Sign Recognition System for Deaf Persons”, In IEEE Trans. on Rehabilitation Engineering, 3 (3), September 3, 1995, pp. 261–271.
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Conceptual Change – Still a powerful framework for improving the practice of science instruction
Reinders Duit IPN – Leibniz Institute for Science Education, Kiel, Germany
[email protected]
David Treagust SMEC, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia
[email protected]
Abstract Conceptual change perspectives of teaching and learning processes in science, and also in various other content domains, have played a significant role in research on teaching and learning as well as in instructional design since the late 1970. The bibliography “STCSE – Students‟ and Teachers‟ Conceptions and Science Education” (Duit, 2009)1, for instance, still shows a steady flow of conceptual change studies. Research findings indicate that conceptual change oriented instructional design may in fact be suited to improve the development of student cognitive and affective outcomes. However, such improvements are only to be expected if conceptual change perspectives are further developed – far beyond the “classical” perspective introduced in the 1980s. It is argued, that there are the following challenges for future research and development: Research on conceptual change needs (a) to take into account multiple epistemological perspectives of teaching and learning, (b) to give equal attention cognitive and affective student variables, (c) to embed conceptual change approaches into inclusive models of instructional planning, (d) to determine the necessary and
1
http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/aktuell/stcse/stcse.html Page 725
sufficient evidence for identifying conceptual change, and (f) to bring successful conceptual change teaching approaches to normal classes.
Introductory Remarks This is a position paper that draws on recent more elaborated reviews of the state of conceptual change conceptions in science education. The first review was written for a handbook on conceptual change (Duit, Treagust, & Widodo, 2008). The second review appeared in a special issue of the journal “Cultural Studies of Science Education” (Treagust & Duit, 2008a). This special issue includes two papers attempting to outline major features of the state of research concerning conceptual change (our paper) and social cultural studies (Roth, W.-R., Lee, Y.J., & Hwang, S.W., 2008). Both papers are commented by authors from the social cultural studies camp (our paper) and by conceptual change oriented authors (the paper by Roth et al.). Our response to the comments further clarifies the conceptual change view we hold (Treagust & Duit, 2008b). In the following we will summarize our views that are more fully outlined in the mentioned documents. Theoretical Developments in the Area of Conceptual Change Students’ conceptions – towards multiple conceptual changes Students come to science classes with pre-instructional conceptions and ideas about the phenomena and concepts to be learned that are not in harmony with science views. Furthermore, these conceptions and ideas are firmly held and are often resistant to change. Initially research in the 1970s focused on conceptions on the content level. While such studies continue to be produced investigations of students‟ conceptions at meta-levels, namely, conceptions of the nature of science and science processes (McComas, 1998) as well as metacognitive views of learning (Baird & Mitchell, 1986), have been given attention only in the
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late 1980s and 1990s. It turned out that usually multiple conceptual changes on all three levels are necessary. As the term “conceptual change” invites several misunderstandings it is necessary to point out that in “mainstream” conceptual change research this term has not been interpreted as “exchange” of ideas. Research has clearly shown that a simple exchange of students‟ preinstructional (“alternative”) conceptions is not possible: “Conceptual change is considered not as a replacement of an incorrect naïve theory with a correct theory but rather, as an opening up of conceptual space through increased meta-conceptual awareness and epistemological sophistication, creating the possibility of entertaining different perspectives and different point of views” (Vosniadou, 2008). Teachers’ conceptions – a major obstacle for efficient teaching Research starting in the 1980s has shown that many teachers hold conceptions of science concepts that are not in accordance with the science view and often are similar to students‟ pre-instructional conceptions described above. It became also evident that many teachers hold limited views of the teaching and learning process as well of the nature of science and science processes (Duit, 2009; Duit, Treagust & Widodo, 2008). Hence, teachers‟ conceptions of various kinds also need to undergo conceptual changes. Basically the same conceptual change frameworks for addressing students‟ conceptions have proven valuable to develop teachers‟ conceptions (Hewson et al., 1999). To further develop and hence change teachers‟ conceptions of various kinds is generally seen as a major issue in attempting to improve instructional practice (Anderson & Helms, 2001; Borko, 2004; Abell, 2007). The “classical” conceptual change approach Research on the role of students‟ pre-instructional (“alternative”) conceptions in learning science developed in the 1970s primarily draws on two theoretical perspectives (Driver &
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Easley, 1978): Ausubel‟s (1968) dictum that the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows and on Piaget‟s idea of the interplay of assimilation and accommodation. The “classical” conceptual change approach introduced by Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog. (1982), that may be briefly characterized by the quadriga of “dissatisfaction – intelligibility – plausibility – fruitfulness”, draws on Toulmin‟s metaphor of conceptual ecology, T.S. Kuhn‟s view of revolutionary and evolutionary changes of concepts in the history of science and also on Piaget‟s terms assimilation and accommodation. The “classical” approach clearly has been the most influential perspective in the domain of conceptual change. However, it has been further developed in various ways as will be outlined below. Affective variables The “classical” conceptual change approach – at least implicitly – includes affective variables as influential factors (moderating variables) in facilitating conceptual change. Pintrich, Marx, and Boyle (1993), therefore, overstated matters a little when accusing the classical approach being primarily or even totally cognitively oriented. They explicitly argued that affective variables are essential in fostering conceptual change. Drawing on their seminal paper the role of affective variables was more fully investigated in the 1990s (e.g. Tyson, Venville, Harrison, & Treagust, 1997). Usually, however, affective variables were primarily seen as variables needed to support conceptual change. But it appears that neglected affective variables, like interest or self-concept have to be deliberately developed during instruction. In a way, also these variables have to undergo “conceptual changes”. More recently, Zembylas (2005), who argues for the necessity of linking cognitive and emotional variables of science learning sees both variables of equal status in the learning process. However, the kinds of linking that are needed are still not clear. Further work, both theoretically and empirically, is needed.
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Constructivist views and conceptual change Conceptual change perspectives are closely linked to constructivist epistemological views. We have witnessed a development of constructivist views from initially (in the 1980s) radical constructivist views focusing on the construction of the individuals towards multi-perspective constructivist views more recently (Taber, 2006). These views include features of radical constructivism and social constructivist (as well as social cultural) origin (Phillips, 2000). More recent conceptual change views often are embedded in such multi-perspectives constructivist views – or at least should be based on these views. However, also here more work is needed. In which way the epistemologically different perspectives may be linked needs further theoretical considerations. So far, there is still a certain danger that a mere patchwork of epistemological perspectives is applied. It also has to be further investigated what it means that perspectives are complementary. The above-mentioned special issue of the journal Cultural Studies in Science Education may be seen as an attempt to address such questions (Tobin, 2008). Towards more inclusive conceptual change views The development of conceptual change views from the early 1980s to the present state may be characterized as a progression towards more inclusive views. On the one hand, these more recent views allow addressing the dynamics of teaching and learning processes more comprehensively than the initial views (like the “classical” view). However, the theoretical frameworks have become more and more complicated and may cause serious problems for teachers in regular classrooms to use them as will be argued below. Efficiency of Conceptual Change Oriented Instructional Design Usually, researchers who use a conceptual change approach in their classroom-based studies report that their approach is more efficient than traditional ones. Efficiency concerns
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predominantly cognitive outcomes of instruction. The development of affective variables during instruction is often not viewed as the outcome per se. Only more recent multidimensional conceptual change perspectives as outlined above consider both cognitive and affective outcomes (Tyson et al., 1997; Zembylas, 2005). With regard to cognitive outcomes, there appears to be ample of evidence in various studies now that these approaches are more efficient than traditional approaches dominated by transmissive views of teaching and learning. This seems to be the case in particular if more inclusive conceptual change approaches based on multi-dimensional perspectives are employed (Duit, Treagust, & Widodo, 2008). Recent large scale programs to improve the quality of science instruction include instructional methods that are clearly oriented towards constructivist conceptual change approaches (Beeth et al, 2003). A large spectrum of conceptual change oriented instructional methods has been developed the past decades (Widodo, 2004). A particular attention was given the cognitive conflict. Cognitive conflict plays a major role in Piagetian approaches such as the “learning cycle” (Lawson, Abraham, & Renner, 1898) but also in “constructivist teaching sequences” (Driver, 1989). Research has shown however, that much care is needed if cognitive conflict strategies are used for facilitating conceptual change. It is not only necessary to carefully ensure that students experience the conflict but also consider the role of specific, usually small scale, sudden insights within the long-lasting gradual process of conceptual change (Vosniadou & Ioannides, 1998). Embedding Conceptual Change into Models of Instructional Planning Beeth et al (2003) argue that the following three characteristics of quality development approaches are essential: (1) Supporting teachers to rethink the representation of science in the curriculum; (2) Enlarging the repertoire of tasks, experiments, and teaching and learning strategies and resources; (3) Promoting strategies and resources that attempt to increase Page 730
students‟ engagement and interests. They claim, that not only conceptual change based instructional methods need to be introduced in order to improve teaching and learning of science but that also the traditional science content structure needs to be changed. The term content structure includes the particular content elements and the relations of these elements. The content structure for instruction needs to be designed taking into account the actual knowledge of what we know about students‟ pre-instructional conceptions and learning processes from conceptual change studies. Interestingly, this issue seems to be neglected or given only little attention in many studies on conceptual change. However, it seems to be essential, to embed conceptual change studies in models of instructional planning that deliberately take into account the aims of instruction, and the student cognitive and affective perspectives when planning the content structure for instruction as well as conceptual change based instructional methods. It seems that the Model of Educational Reconstruction (Duit, Gropengießer, & Kattmann, 2005; Duit, Schecker, & Niedderer, 2007) provides such a theoretical frame. Within the framework of the model the following three tasks are intimately linked: (1) Clarification and analysis of science subject matter (e.g. in the field of evolution, energy or combustion), (2) taking into account student perspectives (cognitive and affective) with regard to the phenomena, and (3) design of learning environments that deliberately support student learning processes. Conceptual Change and Instructional Practice It seems that conceptual change ideas so far do not inform practice to a considerable extend. Anderson and Helms (2001) argued that teachers usually are not well informed about the recent state of research on teaching and learning and hold views that are predominantly transmissive and not constructivist. This is true not only for the domain of science education (Borko, 2004). Some studies providing information on teachers‟ views about teaching and learning also include findings on teachers‟ ways of teaching (Anderson & Helms, 2001).
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Lyons (2006, p. 595) summarizes interpretive studies on students‟ experiences in Sweden, England, and Australia in stating: “Students in the three studies frequently described school pedagogy as the transmission of content expert sources – teachers and texts – to relative passive recipients”. Video-studies on the practice of substantially large samples of teachers in science and math revealed basically the same findings. The seminal TIMSS Video Study on Mathematics Teaching (Stigler, Gonzales, Kawanaka, Knoll, & Serrano, 1999) compared the practice of mathematics instruction in the United States, Japan, and Germany. Instruction was observed to be primarily teacher oriented and instructional scripts based on transmissive views of teaching and learning predominated. The TIMSS Video Study on science teaching (Roth et al, 2006) investigated instructional scripts in Australia, the Czech Republic, Japan, the Netherlands, and the Unites Stated. Again the predominating impression was instructional scripts informed by traditional transmissive views of teaching and learning. However, instructional features oriented towards constructivist conceptual change perspectives, though not frequent, did occur in both studies to different degrees in the participating countries. A video-study on the practice of German and Swiss lower secondary physics instruction also revealed basically similar predominating instructional scripts (Duit et al., 2005; Seidel, Rimmele, & Prenzel, 2005). As part of a pilot study Widodo (2004) investigated teachers‟ instructional behaviour explicitly from constructivist perspectives and also analysed to what degree the practice could be seen as informed by conceptual change views of teaching and learning. Analysis of the data gained in these studies showed that most teachers are not well informed about key ideas of conceptual change research. Their views about their students‟ learning usually are not consistent with the state of recent theories of teaching and learning. Many teachers appear to lack an explicit view of student learning. Considerations about the content in question predominate teacher planning. Reflections about students‟ perspectives
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and their role in the learning process play a comparably minor role (Duit, Widodo, & Wodzinski, 2007). Conceptual Change and Teacher Professional Development As briefly mentioned previously, investigating teachers‟ views of teaching and learning science and the means to improve teachers‟ views and their instructional behaviour through teacher professional development has developed into a research domain that has been given much attention since the late 1990s (Borko, 2004; Harrison, Hofstein, Eylon, & Simon, 2008). Two major issues are addressed in these teacher professional development projects. First, teachers are made familiar with research knowledge on teaching and learning by being introduced into recent constructivist and conceptual change views and are made familiar with instructional design that is oriented towards these views. Second, attempts to link their own content knowledge and their pedagogical knowledge play a major role (West & Staub, 2003; van Driel, Verloop, & de Vos, 1999). The process of teacher professional development can be viewed as a set of substantial conceptual changes that teachers have to undergo. Learning to teach for conceptual change means “that teachers must undergo a process of pedagogical changes themselves” (Stofflett, 1994, p. 787). The conceptual change perspectives developed to analyze and improve student learning has also proven a valuable framework for teacher learning (Hewson, et al., 1999). Challenges for Future Research and Development Research on conceptual change in science offers several challenges for the furthering of this field of scientific and educational endeavour. These challenges are (a) conceptual - with the need to consider the usefulness of the term conceptual change; (b) theoretical – with the need to examine conceptual change from multiple perspectives, (c) methodological - with the need to determine the necessary and sufficient evidence for identifying conceptual change and (d)
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universally practicality - with the need to bring successful conceptual change teaching approaches to normal classrooms. Challenge 1. Is conceptual change still an adequate term to indicate its actual meaning? The above overview of the development of theoretical conceptual change perspectives shows that conceptual change has grown to one of the leading paradigms in research on teaching and learning. It is interesting to see a continuous progress since early conceptual change research occurred and to realize that the definition of what changes in conceptual change has changed substantially over the past three decades (Duit, Treagust, & Widodo, 2008). Initially, the term change was frequently used in a somewhat naïve way – if seen from the inclusive perspectives that have since developed. The term conceptual change was even frequently misunderstood as exchange of the students‟ pre-instructional (or alternative) views for the science view. The meaning of change in the “classical” conceptual change view (Posner et al., 1982), however, is somewhat far from the actual predominating view outlined, for instance, by Vosniadou and Ioannides (1998)2. They claimed that learning science should be viewed as a “gradual process during which initial conceptual structures based on children‟s interpretation of everyday experience are continuously enriched and restructured” (p. 1213). Taking into account that misunderstandings of the term conceptual change may be invited by various meanings of change in everyday language and considering the substantial changes of the initial meaning of conceptual change it may be timely to replace that term. We agree with Kattmann (2008) that his term “conceptual reconstruction” more appropriately indicates the actual meaning predominating as outlined above and recommend the future use of this latter term to indicate conceptual learning (Treagust & Duit, 2008b).
2
See also the above quote from Vosniadou (2008). Page 734
Challenge 2. Research on conceptual change needs to take into account multiple perspectives, including knowledge of the essential defining elements of the theoretical frame and affective variables As outlined above, the state of theory-building on conceptual change has become more and more sophisticate and the teaching and learning strategies developed have become more and more complex over the past 30 years (see also Limon & Mason, 2002 and Sinatra & Pintrich, 2003). Whilst these developments are necessary in order to address the complex phenomena of teaching and learning science more and more adequately, several demands are affiliated with these achievements: (a) On the theoretical plane: As briefly outlined above it is necessary to further investigate in which way the various theoretical perspectives brought together are linked and may constructively interact in a complementary way; (b) A particular attention has to be given the more recent notion that instruction should give cognitive and affective outcomes equal attention, i.e. that both have to be developed; (c) On the empirical plane: Research methods applied need to address the various perspectives (see below); (d) On the plane of improving instructional practice: Multiple perspectives are particularly demanding for the teachers who have to transfer the findings into practice (see below). In a nutshell, research on conceptual change has developed to a rich and significant domain of educational research since the 1970s. The theoretical frameworks and research methods developed allow fine-grained analyses of teaching and learning processes. The findings of
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research provide powerful guidance for the development of instructional design for science education that societies need. However, various demands still need to be addressed. Challenge 3. Conceptual change approaches of teaching and learning science need to be embedded in more inclusive models of instructional planning The focus of many studies in the field of conceptual change is primarily on improving the way science is taught. Conceptual change denotes in most studies to develop student preinstructional ideas towards the science point of view by conceptual change oriented instructional methods. However, it is necessary also to give rethinking traditional science content structures for instruction from the perspectives of the aims of instruction and the learners‟ perspectives the same attention as the instructional method side (Fensham, 2001). In other words, it is essential to embed conceptual change approaches into models of instructional planning that take into account the intimate interaction of all components of instruction, namely, the aims of instruction, the structure of the science content taught in instruction, and the instructional methods employed. In many conceptual change studies such an inclusive theoretical frame is not explicitly taken into account. Hence, it is necessary to further develop existing models, like the Model of Educational Reconstruction (Duit, Gropengießer, & Kattmann, 2005). Challenge 4. Determine the necessary and sufficient evidence for identifying conceptual change Typically researchers of students‟ conceptual change collect data from written tests, interviews and, less frequently, think-aloud protocols. However, reports of conceptual change often simply refer to changes in concepts, such as on a test, without any identifiers. We would argue that this is more developmental research than conceptual change research. In addition, it is often the case that more than one source of evidence – for example, classroom observations
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of a students‟ discussion with the teacher in addition to interviews - is needed to judge conceptual change. Even when a theoretical framework is clearly enunciated, there are often different interpretations of the data and oftentimes these decisions are not unambiguous. Research as outlined in the first lines of the above paragraph is often quite near the “classical” conceptual change perspective. As has been argued multi-perspective views are needed in order to address the complexity of teaching and learning processes more adequately. Therefore, a wider spectrum of research methods is necessary, e.g., including variants of learning process studies with a certain focus on discourse analyses. In other words, mixed methods studies including quantitative and qualitative data have to be further developed and applied. Challenge 5. Bring successful conceptual change teaching approaches to normal classrooms Successful teaching that has outcomes of students‟ conceptual change is perhaps the major challenge for researchers working in the field of conceptual change. As outlined above, a major contributing factor to the lack of successful implementation of conceptual change approaches to teaching in normal classrooms is that teachers usually are not well informed about actual views of efficient teaching and learning available from the research community. Most teachers hold views that are limited if seen from the recent inclusive conceptual change perspectives. Further, instructional practice is also usually far from a practice that is informed by conceptual change perspectives. Taking into account science teachers‟ deeply rooted views of what they perceive to be good instruction, it becomes apparent that various closely linked conceptual changes on the teachers‟ beliefs about teaching and learning are necessary to commence and set recent conceptual change views into practice. Consequently, it appears that the gap between what is necessary from the researchers‟ perspective and what may be set into practice by normal teachers has increased.
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Maybe we have to address the paradox that in order to adequately model teaching and learning processes, research alienates the teachers and hence widens the theory-practice gap. The message of the paper is that we should deal with this paradox by investigating all kinds of theoretical frameworks, research methods, and more efficient conceptual change instructional strategies. Interestingly, the frameworks of student conceptual change – being predominantly researched so far – may also provide powerful frameworks for teacher change towards employing conceptual change ideas. There are attempts to use this potential as discussed above. However, more research in this field based on the recent inclusive conceptual change perspectives is most desirable. An additional demand seems to be that closer cooperation of various groups working to improve instructional practice is needed. On the one hand, it seems that more recent conceptual change perspectives in fact take the necessity to improve student scientific literacy seriously into account – and research findings available provide valuable instructional methods to improve scientific literacy (Duit, Treagust, & Widodo, 2008, 636-637). On the other hand, the major “quality development” programs draw on instructional methods proposed by conceptual change research (Beeth et al, 2003). It is also most pleasing that such “conceptual change oriented” methods have proven to be more efficient than more traditional methods (e.g., Schroeder, Scott, Tolson, Huang, & Lee, 2007). However, closer cooperation could allow gathering the forces to better use the still limited research and development sources for improving practice. Finally, we would like to point out that research on instructional quality, has shown that usually a single instructional method (like addressing students‟ pre-instructional conceptions) does not lead to better outcomes per se. Quality of instruction is always due to a certain orchestration (Oser & Baeriswyl, 2001) of various instructional methods and strategies.
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Hence, conceptual change strategies may only be efficient if they are embedded in a conceptual change supporting learning environment that includes many additional features such as specially organized instruction based on models of teaching.
References Abell, S. (2007). Research on science teacher knowledge. In S. Abell & N. Lederman, Eds., Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp.1105-1165). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Anderson, R.D., & Helms, J.V. (2001). The ideal of standards and the reality of schools: Needed research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38, 3-16. Ausubel, D.P. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Baird, J. R., & Mitchell, I. J. (1986). Improving the quality of teaching and learning – an Australian case study. Melbourne: The Monash University Printery. Beeth, M., Duit, R., Prenzel, M., Ostermeier, C., Tytler, R., & Wickman, P.O. (2003). Quality development projects in science education. In D. Psillos, P. Kariotoglou, V. Tselfes, G. Fassoulopoulos, E. Hatzikraniotis, & M. Kallery, Eds., Science education research in the knowledge based society (pp. 447-457). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33, 3 –15. Driver, R. (1989). Changing conceptions. In P. Adey, J. Bliss, J. Head, & M. Shayer, Eds., Adolescent development and school science (pp. 79-104). London: The Falmer Press. Driver, R., & Easley, J.A. (1983). Pupils and paradigms: A review of literature related to concept development in adolescent science students. Studies in Science Education, 5, 6184. Page 739
Duit, R., Fischer, H., Labudde, P., Brückmann, M., Gerber, B., Kauertz, A., Knierim, B., & Tesch. M. (2005). Potential of video studies in research on teaching and learning science. In R. Pintó & D. Couso, Eds., Proceedings of the Fith International ESERA Conference on Constributions of Research to Enhancing Students’ Interests in Learning Science (pp. 829842). Barcelona, Spain: UAB. Duit, R., Gropengießer, H., & Kattmann, U. (2005). Towards science education research that is relevant for improving practice: The model of educational reconstruction. In H. Fischer, Ed., Developing standards in research on science education (pp. 1- 9). London: Taylor & Francis. Duit, R., Widodo, A., & Wodzinski, C.T. (2007). Conceptual change ideas – Teachers‟ views and their instructional practice. In S. Vosniadou, A. Baltas, & X. Vamvokoussi (Eds.), Reframing the problem of conceptual change in learning and instruction (pp. 197-217). Advances in Learning and Instruction Series. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. Duit, R., Schecker, H., Niedderer, H. (2007). Teaching physics. In S. Abell & N. Lederman, Eds., Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp.599-629). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Duit, R., Treagust, D., & Widodo, A. (2008). Teaching for conceptual change - Theory and practice. In S. Vosniadou et al. (Eds.), Handbook on conceptual change (pp. 629-646). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Duit, R. (2009). STCSE – Bibliography: Students’ and teachers’ conceptions and science education.
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Harrison, C, Hofstein, A., Eylon, B.S., & Simon, S. (2008). Evidence-based professional development in two countries. International Journal of Science Education, 30, 577-591. Hewson, P. W., Tabachnick, B. R., Zeichner, K. M., Blomker, K. B., Meyer, H., Lemberger, J., Marion, R., Park, H.-J., & Toolin, R. (1999). Educating prospective teachers of biology: Introduction and research methods. Science Education, 83, 247-273. Kattmann, U. (2008). Learning biology by means of anthropomorphic conceptions? In M. Hamman, M. Reiss, C. Boulter, & S.D. Tunniciffe (Eds.), Biology in context: Learning and teaching for the 21st century. London, UK: Institute of Education, University of London (in print). Lawson, A. E., Abraham, M., & Renner, J. (1989). A theory of instruction: Using the Learning Cycle to teach science concepts and thinking skills (NARST Monograph Number One). University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH: National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Limon, M., & Mason, L. (2002). Reconsidering conceptual change: Issues in theory and practice. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers Lyons, T. (2006). Different countries, same science classes: Students' experiences of school science in their own words. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 591-613. Oser, F.K., & Baeriswyl, F.J. (2001). Choreographies of teaching: Bridging instruction to learning. In V. Richardson (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th edn.) (pp. 10311065). Washington DC: American Educational Research Association. Phillips, D. C. (2000). Constructivism in education: Opinions and second opinions on controversial issues. Chicago, IL:The National Society for the Study of Education. McComas, W., (Ed). (1998). The nature of science in science education – rationales and strategies. Dordrecht: The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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Pintrich, P.R., Marx, R.W., & Boyle, R.A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 6, 167-199. Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211227. Roth, W.M., Lee, Y.J., & Hwang, S.W. (2008). Culturing conceptions: From first principles. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3, 231-261. Roth, K., Druker, S., Garnier, H., Chen, C., Kawanaka, T., Rasmussen, D., Trubacova, S., Warvi, D., Okamoto, Y., Gonzales, P., Stigler, J., & Gallimore, R. (2006). Teaching science in five countries: Results from the TIMSS 1999 Videostudy. Statistical Analysis Report. Washington, D.C.: NCES – National Centre for Educational Statistics. Seidel, T., Rimmele, R., & Prenzel, M. (2005). Clarity and coherence of lesson goals as a scaffold for student learning. Learning and Instruction, 15, 539-556. Schroeder, C.M., Scott, T.P., Tolson, H., Huang, T.Y., & Lee, Y.-H. (2007). A meta-analysis of national research: Effects of teaching on student achievement in the United States. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44, 1436 -1460. Sinatra, G. M., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). Intentional conceptual change. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Stigler, J.W., Gonzales, P., Kawanaka, T., Knoll, S., & Serrano, A. (1999). The TIMSS Videotape Classroom Study. Methods and findings from an exploratory research project on eighth-grade mathematics instruction in Germany, Japan and the United States. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Stofflett, R. T. (1994). The accomodation of science pedagogical knowledge: The application of conceptual change constructs to teacher education. Journal of Research in Science
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Teaching, 31, 787-810. Taber, K.S. (2006). Beyond constructivism: the progressive research programme into learning science. Studies in Science Education, 42, 125-184. Tobin, K. (2008). In search of new lights: Getting the most from competing perspectives. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3, 227-230. Treagust, D., & Duit, R. (2008a). Conceptual change: A discussion of theoretical, methodological and practical challenges for science education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3, 297-328. Treagust, D., & Duit, R. (2008b). Compatibility between cultural studies and conceptual change in science education: There is more to acknowledge than to fight straw men. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3, 387-395. Tyson, L.M., Venville, G.J., Harrison, A.G., & Treagust, D.F. (1997). A multidimensional framework for interpreting conceptual change in the classroom. Science Education, 81, 387-404. van Driel, J. H., Verloop, N., & de Vos, W. (1999). Developing science teachers‟ pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35, 673-696. Vosniadou, S. (2008). Bridging culture with cognition: A commentary on „Culturing conceptions: From first principles‟ by Roth, Lee and Hwang. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3, 277-282. Vosniadou, S., & Ioannides, C. (1998). From conceptual change to science education: a psychological point of view. International Journal of Science Education, 20, 1213-1230. West, L., & Staub, F.C. (2003). Content-focused coaching: Transforming mathematics lessons. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann / Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh. Widodo, A. (2004). Constructivist Oriented Lessons: The learning environment and the teaching sequences. Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang.
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Zembylas, M. (2005). Three perspectives on linking the cognitive and the emotional in science learning: Conceptual change, socio-constructivism and poststructuralism. Studies in Science Education, 41, 91-116.
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
ATTITUDE SCALE TOWARDS SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATTITUDE SCALE TOWARDS SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS
Demet Erol*, Ercan Akpınar**, Bülent Aydoğdu**, Can Öztürk**
* Özel Ege Lisesi İzmir-TURKEY
[email protected]
**Dokuz Eylül University, Education Faculty Department of Science Education 35160 İzmir-TURKEY
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
Abstract Science experiments have a central role in science education especially primary science education. Some studies have showed that science experiments help students to acquire science concepts in more meaningful way. The purpose of this study was to develop an attitude scale towards science experiments to investigate primary students’ (age 12-15) attitudes towards science experiments. To be able to identify items, the researchers reviewed relevant literature and a five-point Likert type scale which was consisting of 50 items was prepared. After taking science education experts’ views, some items were removed from the scale (10 items) and some items were modified or revised. The scale (40 items) was administered to 226 6th, 7th and 8th elementary school students. The construct validity of this scale was assessed by factorial analysis. In consequence of validity and reliability study, 5 items were omitted and 35 items remained in the scale. Cronbach internal consistency coefficient was found to be 0. 93. The results showed that the scale is a valid and reliable to measure elementary school students’ attitudes towards science experiments. Key words: Science experiments, science teaching, attitude.
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
The Development of an Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments Introduction In modern world, total information is beyond the capacity of students and the information is changing quickly. As a result of the quick change and development, raising people who have scientific thought is important (Alpaut, 1984). Therefore, provision of science teaching is necessary. An adequate science teaching encompasses teaching basic science concepts accurately and completely on primary school level since these concepts form a basis for further science concepts (Dykstra, 1986). In order to provide an effective-productive science teaching and to enhance the interests of students, it is important to raise the accession level of students and bring in terminal behaviors. Therefore, variables of science teaching and the scope of their effect on learning products should be set forth (Kaptan and Korkmaz, 2001). Realization of science teaching aims is related to teaching-learning activities alongside many other variables. Acquirement of cognitive, affective and kinesthetic attitudes is possible with student-centered education (Capel, Leask & Tunner, 1995). Therefore, the importance of experiment as a technique which appeals to many senses and enables students to set forth their creativity with their own experiences and cognitive skills, should be highlighted. Experiment provides active participation of students. Students acquire information with their own observations and develop their scientific process skills by performing an experiment (Yıldız, Akpınar, Aydoğdu & Ergin, 2006). Although experiments have an important position in science teaching, the benefits of attitudes as well as information and skills which can be acquired from experiments are ignored (Buckley & Kempa, 1971). Teachers perform experiments about the topics in the books and assist students during experiments. However only “assisting” students is inadequate for the realization of the aims. Because, pre-formed affective behaviors such as Page 747
Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
aspiration, and attitude of students about experiment affect experiment process and learning either positively or negatively. According to literature review, focal point of criticism about experiments is disuse of mental skills to comprehend the aim and method of experiments (Wellington, 1998). This situation can result from negative attitudes of students towards experiments. Therefore it is important to detect the attitudes of students towards science experiments. Attitude can not be observed, it is a preparatory action for behavior. Attitude points to pre-tendency of an individual about an issue. It dominates behaviors and causes bias in decision-making process. Attitudes have decision quality for the future (Tavşancıl, 2002). In this regard, detection of student attitudes can have a contribution to make interests and curiosity lively and increase the success of students. There are many different attitude scales for various fields in science teaching. For example, attitude scale towards science lesson (Geban, Ertepınar, Yılmaz, Atlan, & Şahbaz, 1994), attitude scale towards primary school science and technology lesson (Nuhaoğlu, 2008), attitude scale towards chemistry laboratory (Budak, 2001), attitude scale of biology teachers towards laboratory lesson (Ekici, 2002), attitude scale towards chemistry teaching (Şimşek, 2002), attitude scale towards physics laboratory (Nuhoğlu & Yalçın, 2004), attitude scale towards science lesson (Bilgin, Özarslan & Bahar, 2006), attitude scale towards physics (Reid & Skrybina, 2002). However there is not any attitude scale towards science experiments according to literature review. A scale was developed in order to investigate the attitudes of primary school students towards science experiments in the present study. Science experiments are the necessary and inseparable parts of the learning experiences in science lessons. Furthermore, experiments provide concrete experiences for students in order to learn science concepts and scientific method (Yıldız, Akpınar, Aydoğdu
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
& Ergin, 2006). Taking into these effects of science experiments on students consideration, it’s very important to determine the attitudes of students towards science experiments. Methodology This Literature review was made in order to develop Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments– ASTSE (Kaya, 2005; Nuhaoğlu, 2008; Tavşancıl, 2002; Yıldız, Akpınar, Aydoğdu & Ergin, 2006). Test items were written according to five-point Likert scale. The format of the Likert scale for each opinion is: “strongly agree (5 points), “agree” (4 points), “neither agree nor disagree” (3 points), “disagree” (2 points), “strongly disagree” (1 point). Test fifty items was broached to experts. After taking science education experts’ views, some items were removed from the scale (10 items) and some items have been modified or revised. Eventually, a scale composed of forty items was administered to randomly selected students of 6th, 7th and 8th grades (N=226) in a private school in İzmir, Turkey. The reason for selecting this school is the abundance of experiment equipments and experiment routine. The duration for administration of scale was forty minutes for each student. Analysis of the Data The data was analyzed by using SPSS 11.00 program. The construct validity of this scale was assessed by factor analysis. Eigenvalue and variance of the scale were analyzed and the scale has single factoral model. Total correlation of each revised item was examined for the validity of Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments. t values for these items (Top 27% and Bottom 27%) and Croanbach reliability coefficient were analyzed. Findings Convenience of the data for factor analysis was realized with Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett test prior to factor analysis. Tavşancıl (2002) indicates that Kaiser-
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test should be administered in order to detect the adequacy of data which is acquired from sample in factor analysis. The KMO value of the scale was 0.89. As this value is higher than 0.60, it indicates that it is convenient for factor analysis (Kaiser, 1974). Furthermore, Bartlett test was significant on 0.001 level [4057.057 (p<0.000)] and it is also an indicator of the convenience for factor analysis. Aim of the factor analysis is to detect the construct validity of the scale for different contents by examining correlation between items. Doğan (2002; cited in Kaya, 2005:226) points out that there are two conditions unidimensionality of the scale in social sciences. Firstly, variance rate of first factor should at least be 30% of the total variance and secondly eigenvalue of the first factor should be 3-3.5 folds of second factor. In the present study the variance rate of the first factor is 30.103% and eigenvalue of the first factor is 4.69 folds of the second factor according to analysis results. Results can be seen in Table 1. Table 1. Factor Analysis Results of ASTSE on 40 Items Factors
Eigenvalue
Variance Analysis
Total Variance Analysis
Rate (%)
Rate (%)
1
12.041
30.103
30.103
2
2.567
6.418
36.522
The scale was designed as single factoral because of the variance rate of the first factor (30.103%) and the rate between the eigenvalues of the first and second factor (4.69 folds). Then, total correlation of the 40 items was examined and five items (15, 16, 28, 35 and 38) whose total correlation is below 0.30 were excluded from the scale. Therefore a single factoral composed of 35 items. Item-total correlation of the 35 items varied between 0.31 and 0.72. Reliability coefficient (Cronbach ) of the 35 items was 0.93 (Table 2). This value indicates that reliability of the scale is high. To top 27% and bottom 27% average points were
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
analyzed for each item. According to t test results, there is a significant difference between top 27% and bottom 27% points. Table 2. Revised Item-Total Correlation of Each Item in ASTSE and t Values for the Items (Top 27% and Bottom 27%) Revised Item-
Item No
Expressions in the Scale*
Total Correlation
t Values for the Items (Top 27% and Bottom 27%)
1
I enjoy performing experiment.
0.6885
12.722
2
Performing experiment is boring.
0.7009
12.664
3
I think that performing experiment is unnecessary.
0.5470
16.428
4
I learn better during experiment.
0.6355
16.159
0.5189
26.582
0.4242
38.393
0.4434
25.046
0.3662
26.483
0.4718
27.082
0.4395
25.740
0.4458
31.146
5 6 7 8 9
10
11
Experiment enables me to build cause and affect relationship. I enjoy discussions with my friends during experiment. Performing experiment assist me in finding easier solutions for the problems in life. Making experiment reports is unnecessary. Making experiment reports enable met o understand a topic better Instructions for experiment should be written in experiment study paper. A problem should be set forth prior to experiment and student should design the experiment herself/himself.
12
I learn how to make use of the time well.
0.5851
21.348
13
The aim of experiment is to understand the topic better.
0.7090
14.655
14
Experiment can appeal to different learning fields.
0.4408
25.880
15
Experiment brings in high levels of thought skills.
0.6287
24.759
0.5825
14.286
0.4581
19.604
16
17
If I acquire the result of the experiment by myself, knowledge will be permanent. Knowledge about the topic will be beneficial prior to experiment.
18
Performing experiments is a waste of time.
0.6459
12.224
19
Performing experiment is boring at school.
0.6040
15.435
20
I can solve a problem by performing experiment.
0.3121
29.867
21
We can acquire diverse solutions by performing experiment.
0.6042
14.964
22
My creativity develops during experiment.
0.5966
17.823
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
23
I enjoy performing experiment in my spare time.
0.4468
33.000
24
Performing experiments disturbs me.
0.5946
22.324
25
Performing experiment frightens me.
0.5962
16.621
26
I do not forget new knowledge if I perform experiments.
0.5422
26.486
27
Experiment raises my self-confidence.
0.6771
26.643
28
Science cannot proceed without experiment.
0.3247
18.760
0.3491
24.701
29
Experiment provides cause and effect relationship between events.
30
I can observe events perceptibly during experiment.
0.5626
25.930
31
Experiments do not have an effect on learning.
0.5009
17.189
32
I design experiment at home if I have the possibility.
0.4419
39.837
33
Performing experiment attract my attention.
0.7284
15.720
34
I am happy while performing experiment.
0.6057
19.254
35
Experiments do not affect learning.
0.5150
25.199
*Negative items were scored by reversing.
Conclusion and Discussion The present study developed a scale in order to detect the attitudes of students towards science experiments. Students were in the 6th, 7th, 8th grades of elementary school. The scale was composed of 35 items. A construct composed of one lower dimension was acquired according to reverse main components analysis. This factor named “attitude towards science experiments”. Total reliability of the scale, internal consistency (Cronbach ) were 0. 93. There are many different attitude scales for various fields in science teaching except for attitude scale for science teaching. Some of the scales were single factoral like the present study and some are multi-factoral. For example, Nuhaoğlu and Yalçın (2004) developed an attitude scale for prospective physics teachers towards physics laboratory. The sample of the scale was composed of 318 prospective teachers. There were 19 positive and 17 negative, totally 36 attitude items in the scale. Internal consistency Cronbach of the scale was 0.8930 and single factoral analysis was determined according to reverse process with varimax factor analysis.
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
Ekici (2002) developed an attitude scale for teachers of biology towards laboratory lesson. The scale was firstly administered to 117 teachers of biology. There were 11 negative and 10 negative, totally 21 attitude items in the scale. According to analysis, KMO (KaiserMeyer-Olkin) value of the scale was 0. 88, value of BarleU Test was 3367.79. Cronbach value of the scale was 0. 93. Furthermore the scale was composed of enjoy aspect (Cronbach value 0.90), confidence aspect (Cronbach value 0.80) and importance aspect (Cronbach value 0.72). Nuhaoğlu (2008) developed a scale in order to detect the attitudes of students in 6th, 7th and 8th grades of primary school towards science and technology lesson. Sample of the scale was composed of 422 students in an elementary school. There were 10 positive items, 10 negative items, totally 20 items in the three-point Likert scale. Cronbach value of the scale was 0. 8739 following factor analysis. The importance of affective features brings out the need for scales and accuracy of the scales. The present study concentrates on attitude and developed an “attitude scale towards science experiments”. Experiments are one of the most effective techniques in science and technology lesson. The scale should be used in order to detect the attitude of students towards science experiments.
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
References Alpaut, O. (1984). Fen öğretiminin verimli ve işlevsel hale getirilmesi. Ankara: TED Bilimsel Toplantısı, 151. Bilgin, İ., Özarslan, M. & Bahar, M. (2006). İlköğretim 8. sınıf alan bağımlı ve bağımsız bilişsel stile sahip öğrencilerin fen dersine karşı tutum ve maddenin doğası konusundaki başarılarının karşılaştırılması. VII. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi, Ankara. Buckley, J. G. & Kempa, F. R. (1971). Practical work in sixth-form chemsitry courses-an enquiry. School Science Review, 53 (182), 873-877. Budak, E. (2001). Üniversite analitik kimya laboratuarlarında öğrencilerin kavramsal değişimi, başarısı, tutumu ve algılamaları üzerine yapılandırıcı öğretim yönteminin etkileri. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Capel, S., Leask, M. & Turner, T. (1995). Learning to teach in the secondary school. London and New York. Dykstra, D. (1986). Science education in elemantary school: Some observations. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 853-864. Ekici, G., (2002). Biyoloji öğretmenlerinin laboratuarı dersine yönelik tutum ölçeği (BÖLDYTÖ). Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22, 62-66. Geban, O., Ertepınar, H., Yılmaz, G., Atlan, A. & Şahbaz, O. (1994). Bilgisayar destekli eğitimin öğrencilerin fen bilgisi başarılarına ve fen bilgisi ilgilerine etkisi. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi I. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri Eğitimi Sempozyumu, İzmir. Kaptan, F. & Korkmaz, H. (2001). İlköğretim fen öğretmenlerinin bilişsel yeterlik düzeylerinin sınıf içi performans düzeylerine etkisi. Eğitim ve Bilim, 26(121), 24-31.
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Attitude Scale towards Science Experiments
Kaya, A. (2005). Çocuklar için yalnızlık ölçeğinin Türkçe formunun geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5 (19), 226–237. Kaiser, H.F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity, Psychometrika, 39, 31-6. Nuhoğlu, H. & Yalçın, N. (2004). Fizik laboratuarına yönelik bir tutum ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi ve öğretmen adaylarının fizik laboratuarına yönelik tutumlarının değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 5 (2), 317-327. Nuhaoğlu, H. (2008). İlköğretim fen ve teknoloji dersine yönelik bir tutum ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi. Ilkogretim Online, 7(3), 627-639. Reid, N. & Skryabina, E. A. (2002). Attitudes toward physics. Research in Science and Technology Education, 20 (1), 67-81. Şimşek, N. (2002). Kimya eğitimine yönelik bir tutum ölçeği hazırlanması ve buna yönelik çeşitli değerlendirmelerin yapılması. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Tavşancıl, E. (2002). Tutumların ölçülmesi ve SPSS veri analizi. Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Yıldız, E., Akpınar, E., Aydoğdu, B. & Ergin, Ö. (2006). Fen bilgisi öğretmenlerinin fen deneylerinin amaçlarına yönelik tutumları. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 3 (2). 1-18. Wellington, J. (1998). Practical work in school science: Which way now? London:Routledge.
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Information Literacy is Indispensable for Senile Resident Zhang Feng China Research Institute of Scientific Popularization
Abstract: In today's world, information literacy as an important component of scientific literacy has gradually become one of the basic literacy required. In our country, the overall level in information literacy of citizens and is not high, especially elderly residents‟ is lower, so they are in a weak position in obtaining and processing of information, as well as solving some problems of health and life with information. Shangjing community of Longgang District in the city of Shenzhen starts organizing "the older‟s computer classes" since 2005 which is welcomed by elderly residents of the community. After development of several years, they have accumulated much experience that is worth learning from in developing and enhancing information literacy of the public and particularly the elderly residents. Key words: scientific literacy; information literacy; the community; the elderly residents
Introduction The white-headed grandma is approximately 62 years old, while the teetered grandpapa is up to 80 years old, and when these senile residents with average 66 years old walk up the platform in computer training classroom, and gravely take their
Zhang Feng(1978- ), research assistant, China Research Institute of Scientific Popularization. The article is a part of research task on the practice research of improving civil scientific literacy presided by Zhai Liyuan researcher in the Chinese Graduate School of Scientific Popularization. Zhai Liyuan researcher put forward many amending advices for the article.
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certificates completing a computer training course from the cadres of science and technology bureau and science and technology association in the section，their self-confidence releasing from their hearts and their aspiration for improving own information literacy turn into brilliant smile in their faces immediately.
1. Connotation Of Information Literacy With the incessant progress of new technology, social production method，life style and intercourse manner have taken place profound change. People live in a era of information blast；information has deep effect on people‟s idea and behavior, and puts forward new desire for people‟s general literacy. In a word，information literacy education has been gradually the trend of social development. Above all, the concept of information literacy is developed from library‟s search skill. Paulzurkowski, the president of American Industry Association, firstly put forward the concept of “information literacy” in 1974.“information literacy is the technology and the skill which people make use of various information facilities to answer questions.” [1] In 1989, American Library Association thought in a report that information literacy could make people know when they need information, what information they need and be able to make the best of needed information. In 1998, American National Library Association and Education Spread and Technology Association constituted nine criterions of information literacy, which were expounded from information literacy, independent study and social obligation, thus enrich the connotation of information literacy. In our country, information literacy is usually defined an ability of searching, evaluating and using information from various information fountain, and a lifelong skill which the labor in the information society must master. With the development of social practice, our understanding on information literacy is richer and deeper. We think that information literacy is an ability which [1]
Gao Wenhua: 《Information Literacy Education And Innovated Person Cultivation》, GuangMing Daily, On 15,July, 2007.
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people use information facility, recognize when we need information, and availably find, evaluate and make use of needed information to resolve current questions. Information literacy education is not only the important part of school education, but also the base of forming “lifelong study”, building “studying society” [2] and one of important factors of various subjects, all studying conditions and the education of all kinds of levels. Especially， with the rising and development of information technology with electronic computer technology as symbol, information literacy is closely correlated with the development of network information-based technology. Social life is also affected， thus brings “a great number gulf fixed” problem. “a great number gulf fixed” refers to a phenomena including typical characteristics of three aspects: a great global gulf fixed refers to the gap of connecting network between developed countries and developing countries; a great social
gulf fixed refers to the gap between the people with affluent information and
the people with indigent information in every country; a great democratic gulf fixed refers to the gap among those who use and don‟t use number resource to engage in, mobilize and participate in public life.”[3] Learning information technology facilities as computer and network, collecting, obtaining, coordinating and using information to consider, judge and settle questions, and possessing a certain information literacy
have become gradually people‟s
basic require of work, life and intercourse， and
basic rights which every citizen can
equally enjoy(take) the welfare which information technology bring to the society. “Information literacy education is shaping „network citizens‟ who possess eligible information consciousness，information literacy and information ability in the 21st century. It shouldn‟t be only regarded as a supplement on the basic culture literacy education, but also a new definition on the education idea in the information era and new design and construction for education course.” [1] From a certain sense, information literacy has become one of important survival skill of the citizen in the
[1]
Fu Shaohong, 《The Discussion On The Chinese Information Literacy Education In The Contemporary Information Conditions 》 ， 《Information Transaction》 ，In April,2003.
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information society, an important factor constituting scientific literacy and an important part of civil literacy in the modern society.
2. Senile Resident’s Requirement Information literacy education of our country begins later than other countries, the whole level of civil information literacy isn‟t high, especially senile residents, as a special public, their information literacy is universally lower. The bringing and development of information technology makes more public be able to obtain information equally, but can‟t settle increasingly distensible “a great number gulf fixed” question. Nevertheless, senile residents are the key of this question, and they lie in weak status in obtaining, disposing, using information to settle health and life questions through information facility, so it is difficult to fit the development demand of modern information society. Learning information facility and making use of information to settle questions in life have become the universal desire of many old men. For example, many senile residents are suspicious of auto-machine on selling tickets which is used in the underground, while some senile residents hope to make their outgoing more convenient by searching the electron map on network. Facing ATM of the bank, some senile residents suffer to be swallowed card for operating slowly, and many people hope to learn network bank and be able to have fund and stock exchange quickly. On holidays, people may also follow the fashion. Sending a electron greeting card to own old friends and old colleague is the desire of many senile residents; however, it is more the desire of many senile residents that communicate one another the inarticulate feeling on telephone with their children in the far region by E-mail. Obtaining
information
from
network,
selecting
conformable
hospital,
understanding food security, doing oneself electron album and participating in community photography exhibition on network and culture festival and so on. Facts prove，the lower information literacy of senile residents has affected their living and survival conditions，improving their living and survival conditions is not
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only the universal desire of senile residents， but also social rights which old men should enjoy. In order to satisfy the foregoing requirements of senile residents， constantly improving their information literacy is indispensable. As a result，the scientific training relating to improving information literacy of community residents emerges as the times require. Computer learning class for old men in Shangjing community of Longgang section in Shenzhen gains the welcome of community senile residents，make senile residents be able to do. This has become a successful model which communities in our country cultivate and improve information literacy of the public，especially old men currently.
3.“Science”Training Emerging As The Times Require In order to fit the demand of social development and satisfy senile residents‟ requirement, from 2005 to now, at the help of science and technology bureau and science and technology association in the section，Shangjing community of Longgang section in Shenzhen adheres to have periodically “computer learning class” for old men and well-knitly cultivate old men‟ ability of obtaining and using information through computer and network so as to improve their information literacy by virtue of pertinent regulation of section council and section government. Systemic and perfect administrant system makes the operation of learning class be in an orderly way. Learning class is composed of equipment， management and teaching，which act one another，supply each other and form a organic system. First, self-contained equipment. Section government has invested a certain public fee to buy basic equipment and provided substance base for learning class. Second, constituting strict administrant system ensures learning class well-balanced. Community school takes charge of learning class, and carries out the system with responsibility for the schoolmaster. Four different administrant departments are responsible for daily management，have unambiguous distribution， and each answers for itself. The whole administrant system shows three characteristics ： first ， managers, who are composed of section governors, are pluralistic，however their duty is explicit. Second, administrant system, as daily
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administrant system and teaching scheme, adequately considers the particularity of old men, and embodies humanism solicitude. Third, administrant system constitutes clearer and stricter enrollment procedure and studying system. Third, teaching content is the center, teaching system has a unique style. Learning class adequately builds a looser and freer teaching atmosphere for students; self-compiles basic and applied teaching material; adopts the teaching method combining face-to-face school teaching with self-study. In addition, learning class constructs teaching and studying prompting mechanism, for example, periodically shows students‟ inventing fruit, builds intercourse platform among students and publishes newspaper and so on, which are favorable to enhance students‟ self-confidence and achievement feeling and create some opportunities which can fully bring forth their faculty for students so that they can realize own social value and self-value. Particularly noteworthy is the course suitable for the elderly created a model of science teaching. First of all, the characteristics for the elderly, using internal and external integration of the teaching model, that along with in-depth study, and gradually build two combined indoor and outdoor teaching. Classroom - face to face once a week. In addition two nights per week and the classroom, for self-study students, teachers, guidance work. Network - self-compiled video tutorials, via Internet telephony and e-mail every day of teaching a knowledge point. Each knowledge point of operation, both via e-mail feedback. Second, the self-compiled teaching materials suitable for the elderly, that is, under the "Do not seek the system, they talk about practical" principle, self-compiled two sets of materials: lecture 8 Teaching Primary Class Improve your spoken and video tutorials 50 speakers. Third, by demonstrating, advocacy, recognition and rewards and other means of training students participating in the implementation of a comprehensive incentive mechanism. Naokage start-up community computer classes, so that the residents got some older computers and networks associated with the basic knowledge and practical skills to enhance the quality of their information, their communication with the Page 761
community have opened up new avenues of communication, so that the real experience of elderly residents to a sense of worthiness. For example, a read only the second grade of the 64-year-old, life is full of legend, and she had long wanted to note down their experiences for posterity, but has not be realized. Less than a month in the school's computer, she took only 15 days (up to two hours a day writing time), wrote in tablet full of ups and downs of more than 30,000 words memoirs. When the teacher taught a simple layout with the word and art processing, computer drawing, send and receive e-mail, each student had set up their own e-mail, learned to compress and decompress files, so that it can send and receive mail using tutorials, submitting jobs, and conduct of feedback. A 65-year-old trainees to the teacher wrote in an e-mail: Xiao teachers, Hello! Pleasant to the ear from the computer you are teaching, has become a part of my life, and now classes ended, I seem to lose the same precious items, restless! I'll never be your student, I hope you still have lot of guidance and assistance in the future I am very grateful! The participants also learned how to use video communications. Any students at home on the Net, all installed Skype and QQ two kinds of video chat. 81-year-old students would often use old Sun video phone and the children working in the U.S. communications. Although the old couple with children separated by oceans, but in the first seven months saw a daughter-which goes a small Sun Sun video, the small guy to bite the toes of both hands and head, mouth bad naughty music moves them. Students also used the old Tao video phone and as far away as Singapore, the daughter of contacts. A result, with the QQ chat participants became an important part of life. Network for elderly residents has opened up a new world. Since to use computers, some students learned on the computer stocks. Some students try to search the information through the network, self-resolve their problems. Such as through the Internet to purchase discounted tickets; Qiujiao Sina "Love asked knowledge of people," solution "fridge insurance why sometimes water grid" and other life problems. Some students bring their own tape recorders, computer recording, and made into a simple audio file to send to a friend to share. Some participants learned to download and install popular software, such as "newspaper reader," the Page 762
country more than 400 kinds of time to read newspapers, free subscription e-magazines, watching network TV, but also often to download their favorite songs to enjoy. Some students learned a simple computer maintenance knowledge, such as how to set up personalized desktop, computer viruses can be periodically removed and so on. After computer training, to master a number of elderly residents in basic computer operation skills, we can use a computer typing, Internet, painting, send and receive e-mail, write his autobiography, communication, shopping, stocks, etc., which not only greatly enriched their spare time, also makes They have enhanced social self-identity and improve their life skills, enhanced confidence in their lives and inspire their passion for life, but also promoted communication between the elderly and the young people and exchanges have deepened mutual feelings.
5. The typical significance and Inspiration Longgang District, Shenzhen Naokage community's "old computer classes," senior residents in training and improving the quality of information has made great achievements, but also given us a profound revelation. First of all, information, knowledge and technology to the public should be based on the characteristics and needs of people, pay attention to, and use of community and culture, environmental factors and conditions, the creation of a certain model, using different information content and form, but also has a corresponding sound protection system. Second, have the necessary information, knowledge and skills, is to adapt to social development. Information literacy activities on people's behavior and way of life had an important impact, with the development of information technology, the use of information tools is increasingly becoming a basic quality of people. Cultivate the skills of the public information tools to enhance their ability to access and use information effectively to improve their lives, work, and learning is the development of modern information society, an inevitable trend. Third, information, knowledge and technology popularization should focus on vulnerable social groups, reflecting the Page 763
principles of social justice. "Information literacy is a basic human right of lifelong learning can be interpreted as people should enjoy equal rights to information literacy education in order to achieve the goal of lifelong learning" [1]. Everyone to enjoy the fruits of development of information technology, which reflects the benefit of science and technology development should be the highest value and goals of each individual request. Information quality training and development of older persons to enable them to enjoy the new achievements in scientific and technological development, not only their social survival and development needs, but also respect and uphold people's basic social rights of the embodiment is conducive to the promotion of social stability and development. Fourth, have the necessary information, knowledge and skills will change people's ideas and concepts that will help to improve people's working life dealing with problems encountered in capacity to enhance communication and exchanges between people, promote the information society, the realization of people's self-worth. References Gao Wenhua (15,July, 2007). Information Literacy Education And Innovated Person Cultivation, GuangMing Daily,. Zhai Liyuan, ( In April,2009). Practice Exploration On Civil Scientific Literacy Construction, Science Press, P70. Li Huibin, Xue Xiaoyuan. Globalization And Civil Society, Guangxi Normal University Press,P190. Fu Shaohong(April,2003). The Discussion On The Chinese Information Literacy Education In The Contemporary Information Conditions，Information Transaction. Sunping, Zeng Xiaomu(Auguest,2005).The Paper Outline Facing Information Literacy，Library Forum.
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Infusing Environment into School Curriculum
Infusing Environmental Education Elements into the Junior Secondary School Curriculum: A School-based Experience in Hong Kong
Leo Sun Wai FUNG
Hong Kong S.A.R. Education Bureau, Hong Kong S.A.R. Email:
[email protected]
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Abstract Teachers of two secondary schools tried to incorporate the elements of environmental education into the junior secondary science curriculum through introducing the activities of testings of water and air quality, and environmental issues-based teaching approach into their lessons. The paper describes a cross-school collaborative project jointly developed by teachers of two schools in different districts with a water channel running at their neighbourhood who adapted a school-based science curriculum with some daily-life related environmental issues. Field-trips and experiments were conducted to study the environmental effects and to test the water quality respectively. With the use of videoconferencing, students of the two schools could share among themselves the data found in the field-trips or information about their own water channel and could exchange their ideas on ways of improving the water quality. Surveys and feedback from both teachers and students showed the success of such kind of cooperation in enhancing the students‟ learning motivation and effectiveness. During the evaluation, students were reported to have acquired not only the knowledge of water quality or improvement methods, but also the skills in oral presentation imitated from their counterparts during videoconferencing. Their attitude and values on the care of the environment and the awareness of conservation were observed enhanced. With more environmental educational activities such as measuring of air pollution index in different areas and the use of issue-based inquiry methods, infusion of environmental elements into the school curriculum would be beneficial to the learning of science and must be encouraged among the secondary schools in Hong Kong.
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Infusing Environmental Education Elements into the Junior Secondary School Curriculum: A School-based Experience in Hong Kong Introduction With the implementation of the new academic system in the senior secondary curriculum in 2009, Hong Kong was seen to have undergone series of educational reforms in the near two decades. While there are new subjects introduced such as New Senior Secondary (NSS) Integrated Science and Liberal Studies, yet the curriculum of science for the junior secondary curriculum has not changed since 1998 (Curriculum Development Council, 1998). There has been growing concern on the practicability and daily-life relatedness of the subject content. Most science teachers complained about the curriculum content of the recent science subject being boring and out-dated from students‟ points of view. The preference of choosing commercial stream rather than science subjects among the senior secondary students can be attributed to the boring knowledge and inapplicable skills conveyed in the lower form Science. If the science curriculum still stays in the stage of conveying factual knowledge, and if science teaching has no hands-on experience or its content are still far from the daily life, more students will opt for social science or humanity stream in their tertiary studies. Thus the scientific development or research will stay put as no new blood added into the profession in the future. Rote learning is not a right way to learn science. Some districts such as Taiwan had tried to integrate science with technology subjects which will enlarge the learning space of students as theories can be applied to the reality. However, successful cases are rare because the testable science theories and laws are not so many especially at the secondary level. Hong Kong is trying another model in promoting science learning in primary school education. The subject of General Studies is a subject integration of Chinese History, Geography, Science and Technology. The compartmentalization of these four subjects,
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however, affects the learning effectiveness because of the poor organisation of the curriculum. In addition, neither experiment lesson nor laboratory in primary schools campus is lethal to the learning of science among the primary students. Reviewing Environmental Education in School Many research studies pointed out that environmental education is beneficial to students‟ development in many facets including reading, mathematics, science, critical thinking and leadership etc. (Ernst, 2007). With rising in the awareness of the concepts of environmental conservation in recent years, incorporating the elements of environmental science into the school curriculum seems another outlet of science learning in fundamental education. Formerly, the government has proposed to introduce a new subject called Environmental Studies in the secondary school in 1990s but in vain because of the overcrowdedness of subjects within the existing timetable. The addition of subjects of Putonghua and the Government and Public Affairs later on, however, was believed due to some political factors. According to a paper by Canadian government, responsible citizen must share the responsibility of helping on implementing various movement in environmental conservation (The Ministry of Environment, Canada, 1994). Thus the fostering of the environmental citizen and the learning of environmental knowledge is indispensible. The only solution to the introduction of environmental concepts to students can only be achieved through either hidden curriculum or integrating with other subjects. Science in the junior secondary level seems to be a good choice since such practice can bit two birds with one stone, edifying students with environmental concepts and making science more interesting and related to daily life. On the other hand, environmental science is a highly cross disciplinary subject involving environmental issues, science thinking, experimental data, inference and fair judgment. The problem, however, is how to incorporate those environmental elements into
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the school curriculum since the government has no central curriculum for the former subject? School-based curriculum, as its name implies, is the curriculum adapted from the central curriculum but developed according to the needs of the teachers and the ability of the students Aim of Study This paper aimed to share the experience of a school-based science curriculum in junior secondary level jointly developed by teachers of two schools each with a river running nearby their campuses. The cross-school collaborative project under the co-ordination of Hong Kong Education Bureau aimed to infuse the environmental elements into the curriculum with focus on testing water and air quality, and using environmental issue-base approach in teaching. This paper also evaluated how the collaborative project favoured the students‟ learning in both knowledge and skills in environmental science.. Background of Study Recently, the Hong Kong Education Bureau (EDB) promotes different learning experiences through life-long learning and cross-curricular activities. Science is one of them to make use the opportunity to integrate with other subjects to fulfil the above development. Within the curriculum developed on 1998, contents of each unit can be divided into core or extended part to cater for individual learning differences among the students. The central curriculum allows teachers to adapt, amend and delete in its curriculum content according to the students‟ ability and needs. This adapted curriculum is usually called school-based curriculum. Within the Hong Kong Education Bureau, there is a School-based Curriculum Development (Secondary) Section providing curriculum support to schools in science education, technology education, Mathematics education and Personal, Social and Humanity education . Schools in need must apply for the support service in April each year so that
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curriculum officers will support the school in developing the school-based curriculum according to the school needs. It happened that the two schools joining the scheme wanted to integrate science with other subjects, one with junior Liberal Studies and one with Integrated Humanity. Both of them had experience in conducting field trips in a river nearby and made use of the water quality to develop students‟ investigative skills. Curriculum Development Under the co-ordination of the curriculum officers, teachers of two partner schools jointly developed their junior science curriculum with the following principles: 1. 2. 3. 4.
providing systematic study on the environment we are living; using scientific method to study the system and process of this environment; integrating the knowledge of many subjects areas as a cross-curricular subject; using scientific thinking, experimental data to infer and to draw fair analysis and judgement which can balance the benefit and concern of different stakeholders; 5. employing critical thinking skills to understand environmental science.
Ways of infusing the concepts of environmental science into the formal curriculum They chose Unit 5 with the title of „Water: an wonderful solvent” from the recent curriculum guide of Science (CDC 1989) and develop the school-based curriculum in the extend part of water pollution. School A which integrated Science with junior Integrated Humanity planned to match the topic of “sustainable development” in the latter subject. They chose a nearby nallah called Kai Tak River as their main research site and Lam Chuen River which was a natural river near their partner school for comparison. The teaching approaches involved included experimentation, field trip, role play, group discussion and data analysis. They made up a booklet for the school-based curriculum which contained learning activities for both subjects. In order to integrate science with the junior Liberal Studies, teachers of School B also worked on the same topic: Sustainable development but they chose Kadoorie Farm, Lam
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Chuen River, Wetland Park to be their research sites for students to study the diversification of species and the water quality there. They would make use of their school laboratory to conduct all the tests and experiments. The planned learning activities included field trip, laboratory testing on water quality, observation of living organisms, data analysis. They also produced a booklet on the newly combined course with more emphasis on the field-trip skills and experimental techniques. Due to the limited manpower in taking care of the students during field students and project guidance, both school only chose one class of Secondary one students as research sample for the collaborative project., both of them called seed class. In order to have the same teaching progress, both schools had to reshuttle the order of teaching in Secondary One science. Both could start Unit 5 of water as a wonderful solvent on 20 March so that they could match the time for common learning activities. Videoconferencing as Information Exchange and Learning Tool Besides using cross-curricular activities to infuse environmental science elements into the formal curriculum, both schools agreed to use videoconferencing tools to conduct some on-line teaching and share among students, Students were expected to share their data on water pollution and ideas on how to improve the water quality of their own water channel, and later on their project work. In their plan, there should be 4 times of videoconferencing between the two seed classes. The first meeting on 20 February this year was a lesson on field trip technique in which another school with rich experience in conducting water ecology was invited as a guest speaker to share their work with the two schools. The second meeting on 26 March aimed to briefly introduce to each other partner school with the location, the history, the surrounding environment and the problems caused by their river in order to deepen
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students‟ understanding on both rivers. This meeting served to help them to formulate the research topic of their future project work. Field-trips were arranged between the second and third videoconference meeting. Data were expected collected from government departments, non government agencies, conservation groups, local inhabitants and other sources for the sake of the formulation of project title and methodology. Each school had arranged their own talks, visits and field trip under the guidance of the project leaders. The third videoconferencing was planned to take place on 21 May for the first stage of presentation. Each group of both schools must prepare their research title and methodologies and present to the classmates of their school and of the partner school at realtime. Besides that they had to ask questions and make suggestion on other‟s research methods as improvement and further development. Of course, the group being asked would ready to answer question and make amendments. For assessment purpose, students‟ performance during the videoconferencing would contribute to the processing part of the continuous assessment. Students were needed to write reflection logs after each learning activity. The fourth videoconferencing was planned in July as one of the post-examination activities in both schools. It was scheduled for the seed class students to present their final product of research project. According to last years‟ experience, there would be models, sketches, experiments and even animations as presentation aids in addition to the Powerpoint presentation.. Teacher Professional Development3 Previous experience showed that not all teachers were familiar with the water testing technique while others were not used to the testing reagents as the teachers involved were not major in science. The curriculum officers of EDB would organise two training sessions for
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the teachers of two schools to share their water testing experience among themselves. Guest speakers included a front-line science teacher who used to use the reagents purchased from the golden fish shops as a beginner and the technicians from Hong Kong Wetland Park. The testing reagents ranged from the ordinary grade to V.A. grade after series of testings were conducted. Some chemicals might be purchased on-line from the internet. These training sessions aimed to strengthen the confidence of the teachers in conducting the water quality testing experiments. Results As for the curriculum development part, everything went well because the teachers could catch up with the teaching schedule. The booklets for the school-based curriculum were well prepared. All the cross curricular activities were conducted as planned. Three videoconference meetings were successfully carried on except the fourth one. Due to the suddent outbreak of the Swine flu in School A, classes were suspended and all the academic and non-academic activities were forced to cancel. Both students and teachers of the two partner schools were disappointed. During the evaluation meetings, students‟ project work both semi-final and final products were shown. Together with their reflection logs, the videoclippings and pictures of both cross-curricular activities and videoconference meetings were displayed for evaluating the learning effectiveness of the curriculum initiative. Information on students‟ changes were observed by teachers as follows. Students’ Changes Secondary students in School A were observed to increase both in their knowledge and skills through the cross-curricular and cross-school collaborative project. Some reported that they had acquired the curriculum content of sustainable development through the multiple perspective analysis and were capable of viewing an issue from the angles of
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different stakeholders. As for skills, students‟ observation, independent thinking, analytical power, resilience and presentation skills were also fostered. The members of the seed classes claimed that their confidence and learning motivation were greatly enhanced after joining the learning activities. These abilities and skills were found transferrable into the classroom teaching and learning and appeared in their assignments. Teachers in School B reported that their students acquired the habit of active learning through interacting with their counterparts in the videoconferencing. Various lifewide learning activities not only widened students‟ perspectives but also raised their community concern and awareness which meant that the school-based curriculum was tied to the daily life and environment. The cross school videoconferencing could stimulate the competitiveness among students during the presentation part of the project learning. Of course, their project skills and water testing techniques had been greatly enhanced after repeated practices in conducting the same experimental procedures in different sites. Moreover, some of them were familiar with the processes of data interpretation when they had gathered groups of figures, graphs and tables showing data collected from different water channels. Teachers’ Gains During the evaluation, teachers of School B reflected that they were also one of the learners in this cross school collaborative project. After 4 months‟ work, they learned a lot from how to plan the students‟ activities more effectively. Before this, they had to manage the whole form of students, but now they had to take care of students from both schools when they had to share the teaching workload with colleagues on the other side of the videocamera. Besides, they also found their skills enhanced in organising students‟ learning activities after they had interflow with the teachers from their partner school. From the school level, they
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could observed the strengths of the students in other schools. To the Liberal Studies teachers, this was a good chance for them to practise their project guiding skills before they will meet their students again in senior form Liberal Studies for their independent enquiry studies. Problems Encountered Obvious, the workload of the teachers responsible for either the cross-curricular activities or the cross school collaborative project would inevitably increase as they needed to use extra time to compile the learning booklets, to co-ordinate the outdoor activities and the arrange for all the logistics. However, all these work were not easy though for a teachers who had regular teaching and non-teaching duties in a secondary school. Their problem was lack of time. No time slots were found to do the evaluation after each learning activity which affected the quality of the curriculum and the pedagogical method employed. Another great problem lay on the students who did not have enough time to do the assignments after each activity such as the preparation work and the reflection log, let alone the last assignment as a project learning to improve the water quality or the surrounding environment of the river area. Some minor technical problems were found during the videoconferencing sessions. Due to the unfamiliar use of the equipments in School B, teachers and technicians of School A had to monitor the operation of the devices in School B during the videoconferencing to ensure the quality of broadcasting. However, condition was improving with more and more practices for the technicians in School B. Conclusion and Development Using cross-curricular learning activities and cross school collaborating project to study the water quality through school-based curriculum was one of the ways of infusing environmental elements into the school science curriculum. The results showed that school-
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based curriculum jointly developed by the teachers of two partner schools was a success as both students and teachers were benefitted by the pilot scheme. All students involved, including both from seed and normal classes, acquired the knowledge of water pollution and skills in testing the water quality. They all understood man‟s effects on the environment through the on-site field-trip to different water channels. Both techniques in scientific process and water testing were improved as planned by the teachers which were referred as expected learning outcomes. However, their interpersonal skills and presentation skills were greatly enhanced through interaction with their counterparts during the videoconference sessions which were classified as the unexpected learning outcomes. All their outcomes proved that the objectives of the project were achieved. The ideas of environmental conservation were embedded into the mind of the students. Their awareness of conservation was shown on their concern on the water quality, the species diversification and the human activities around the river areas. Further Development This was only part of the work reported in the two schools in Secondary One. Actually, teachers of School A were beginning to develop their school-based curriculum in infusing environmental elements in Secondary Two level in that they tried to look at the air quality around their school campuses. This year, they tried to borrow some devices from tertiary institutes for measuring the carbon dioxide concentration and the total suspended particles as an indicator of the air quality at the road side and near the river. For further development, teachers tried to guide the students to find out the main cause of the poor air quality in Hong Kong. From that on, teachers would work on an issue called “proposal on banning idle vehicles with running engines”. Next year they are seeking more similar issues from the environment for the students to collect data, to study and to make argument as a
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pathway to prepare for the future learning mode in New Academic System in the new senior secondary curriculum.
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References Curriculum Development Council (1998). Syllabuses for Secondary Schools: Science (Secondary 1-3). Hong Kong : Hong Kong Government Printer. Ernst, J. (2007). “Factors associated with K-12 teachers‟ use of environment-based education”. The Journal of Environmental Education, 38(3), 15-31. The Ministry of the Environment, Canada (1994). A Primer on Fresh Water: The Environmental Citizenship Series, page vii (Introduction).
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Public Attitudes towards Science and Technology in China
Hongbin Gao, Wei He, Fujun Ren
China Research Institute for Science Popularization No.86 Xueyuannanlu Beijing 100081, China
[email protected] 86-10-88510558
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Abstract The paper presents some results of Chinese National Survey on Public Scientific Literacy carried out by China Research Institute for Science Popularization (CRISP).. The Survey addressed the major topics concerning the attitudes of Chinese public towards science and technology, opinion of Chinese public towards reputation of profession related to science and technology, expectation of Chinese public towards profession of their children, attitude of Chinese public towards various new technologies as well as new products, opinion of Chinese public towards environment impacts caused by utilizing technology, and attitude of Chinese public towards nature are analyzed. All these open windows for people to know the attitudes of Chinese public towards science and technology and provide scientific basis for China government to formulate science & technology policy.
Keywords: Chinese public, Scientific literacy, Attitude towards Science & technology, Science & technology policy
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Public Attitudes towards Science and Technology in China 1. Introduction The public understanding of and attitudes to science and technology(S&T) is of great significance for the national development of S&T. The public opinions contributed more and more to the government when formulating the corresponding public policies. The public also realize that it is their right to express their ideas and comments in the process of decision-making. There is a trend of the science popularization or science communication: the status of science popularization is gradually changed from transmission from the scientists to the public, to their mutual communication and dialogues. The public has the right to know not only what the scientists have done, but also the influences caused by the behavior of the scientists and the scientific research products.
In 1957, the United States of America (USA) took the first step to regularly investigate the public understanding of and attitudes towards S&T in the world. Since 1972, the national survey has been continuously carried out every two years. The main results of the survey were collected and published in Chapter 7/8 of Science and Engineering Indicators, entitled “Science and technology: public attitudes and public understanding” [1].
The Eurobarometer is one of the important survey institutions in Europe. The Eurobarometer did the first survey on the public understanding of and attitudes towards S&T development in 1992. The 2nd survey, performed during May and June 2001, was actually
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prepared for the “Science and Society Action Plan” (launched on December 4th, 2001) [2,3]. As for Japan, the survey has been conducted irregularly, and its contents and indicators are almost consistent with those in USA. However, because of the declined economy in recent years, Japan seems to attach great importace to the public opinions on the economic development [4]. Other countries such as Russia, Brazil and India utilized the modified questionnaires of USA or EU to value the public attitudes towards S&T.
The attitudes of Chinese public towards S&T are an important composition of the scientific literacy survey in China. In 1990, China designed the questionnaires and methods for survey according to the general international indicators set on the base of research related to international public scientific literacy system. Large-scale national public scientific literacy survey has been carried out for six times, namely in 1992, 1994, 1996, 2001, 2003, 2005, respectively [5−9].The 7th survey, initiated in 2007, is now at the stage of data analyses. There are three aspects included in the attitudes of Chinese public towards S&T: attitude towards S&T; attitude towards S&T-related professions; attitude towards the relationship between technology and environment.
In this paper, the main results about the attitudes of Chinese public towards S&T in the latest three public scientific literacy surveys (in 2001, 2003, 2005 and 2007) are introduced, and the analyses of the above-mentioned three aspects are demonstrated in detail.
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2. The Attitudes of Chinese public towards S&T The results of the latest four Chinese national-wide scientific literacy surveys showed that the majority of Chinese public held positive attitudes towards the development of S&T, while only a small number of people held negative or reserved attitude. Meanwhile, many people were overoptimistic about the development of S&T. Generally speaking, the proportion of people with the positive attitude was stable, while with the negative attitude declined gradually and with overoptimistic attitude dropped obviously. The data are shown in Table 1. 2.1 The majority of the Chinese public held positive attitude towards the development of S&T The survey in 2007 showed that 82% of Chinese public supported the statement of “S&T bring more and more development opportunities for our children”, with which 78%，88% and 88% of the public agreed in 2001, 2003 and 2005 respectively. For another statement “S&T bring benefits and the harmful results to our life, but benefits overweigh the harmful results”, approximately 70% of the public agreed with it in 2003 and 2005. As for “S&T make our work easier and happier”, the proportion of the supporters had a trend of decrease, i.e., from 81% in 2001 and 2003 to 70% in 2007.
With regard to “Although some scientific research could not bring benefits to us immediately, the scientific researches are necessary and government should support them”, the supporting rate was 74% in 2007. Paralleled with that, it was 9% lower than that in 2005 and 16% lower than that in 2001.
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2.2 A minor proportion of Chinese public held the reserved attitude towards the development of S&T Only 10% of the Chinese public agreed with “Even if there is no S&T, people could lead their lives well” in 2005, while the proportion in 2003 was 7% higher. “The development of S&T leads to alienation among people” was only supported by 13% of the public in 2005. Compared with 36% in 2003, there was a big magnitude of decrease. As for “We depend too much on science, not enough on faith”, 16% of Chinese public agreed with it in 2007, in contrast to nearly 50% of supporting rate in USA or EU. It was suggested that only a minor proportion of Chinese public held reserved attitude towards the development of S&T.
Table 1 The survey data of Chinese public attitude towards science and technology(S&T) in 2001, 2003 and 2005 Supporting rate (%) 2001 2003 2005 2007
Statements on S&T 1. S&T provide more and more development opportunities for our children. 2. S&T bring benefits and harmful results, but benefits overweigh the harmful results. 3. S&T make our work easier and happier. 4. In general, the efforts of scientists make our lives easier, simpler and more comfortable. 5. Even if some scientific researches could not bring benefits to us immediately, the scientific researches are necessary and the government should support them. 6. If there were no S&T, people could live well. 7. The development of S&T leads to alienation among people. 8. We depend too much on science and not enough on faith. 9. Because their knowledge and ability of changing the world, scientists are awful. 10. The continuing application of technology will in the end destroy the Earth we depend on to live.
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78
88
88
82
71
72
62
81
81
76
70
94
83
70
76
90
85
85
74
10 13 18
11
23
17 36 24
16
15
11
14
16
13
16
11. Science and technology could not solve any problems we face. 12. Only depending on science and technology, China could become strong rapidly in recent years. 13. S&T could solve any problems.
21
33
22
23
70
63
41
34
39
22
2.3 The negative attitude towards the development of S&T also held by a minor proportion of Chinese public Only 11 % of Chinese public supported the statement of “Because of their knowledge and ability in changing the world, scientists are awful” in 2005. Only 13% of people agreed with the statement “Continuing application in S&T would destroy the Earth we depend on for living in the end.” in 2005, and only 21.9% of the public showed their agreement with “S&T could not solve the problems we face” in 2005. The data discussed above are all lower than those in 2003, but higher than those in 2007. 2.4 Overoptimistic attitude towards S&T held by many Chinese public 34% of Chinese public supported “Only depending on S&T, China could become strong rapidly in recent years” in 2007, although obvious decrease could be seen in contrast to the data in 2001 (70%), 2003 (63%) and 2005 (41). There were still 22% of Chinese public who agreed with “S&T could solve all the problems” in 2005, which was 17% lower than that in 2003.
3. Professions related to S&T obtained the good reputation from Chinese public Based on the former statistic data, the professions of scientist, doctor and teacher always
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ranked among the most favorite three professions in both the reputation and expectation for the children. Engineer also was in the front rank (as shown in Table 2).
The profession of teacher ranked first, which was supported by 53.2% of Chinese public in 2007. The profession of scientist was supported by half of the public, ranked the second. Then it was followed by being a doctor with the rate of 38.4%. The engineer’s reputation ranked 7th followed the professions of official, judger, and entrepreneur. The result of 2005 and 2003 had little difference with that of 2007. Nevertheless, the profession of scientist ranked first with the rate of 53.0% in 2001. The professions of teacher and doctor took the second and the third position, respectively in 2001.
As for the most preferred profession that parents expected their children to be, the profession of teacher, selected by 43.2%, was the most favorite in 2007, which was followed by the profession of doctor, selected by 41.1%; and 40.0% of Chinese public selected the profession of scientist as their idea profession for their children. Furthermore, the data in 2007 illustrated that the professions of teacher, scientist, judger and athlete were selected by more people in the item of the best reputation than those in the item of expectation for the children among the 11 kinds of professions. By contrast, the professions of entrepreneur, layer, engineer and doctor were selected by more people in the item of expectation for the children than those in the item of the best reputation.
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Table 2 Position of the professions related to science and technology in the public’s mind Profession mostly expected Professions with the best reputation by Chinese Professions selected by the Chinese public（%） public for their children（%） 2001 2003 2005 2007 2001 2003 2005 2007 1. Teacher 47.6 57.5 57.2 53.6 42.6 46.5 47.5 43.2 2. Scientist 53.0 46.9 51.0 51.2 46.0 41.7 40.7 40.0 3. Doctor 49.8 42.0 44.1 38.4 51.5 43.4 46.2 41.1 4. Engineer 19.6 15.4 18.3 27.1 20.0 17.7 21.2 24.3
4. Nearly half of Chinese public look at the impact of technology to environment rationally
In 2007, 48% of Chinese public nodded the statement “Technology brings both good and bad impacts to the environment”; 25% agreed with that “Technology brings good impact to the environment”; 8% held the opinion of “Technology does not bring any impact to the environment”; only 2% selected “Technology brings bad impact to the environment”. In addition, there were still 18%of Chinese public did not know the answer. The result of 2003 and 2005 was similar to that of 2007.
5. “Respecting the rule of nature, exploiting and utilizing nature” agreed by a majority of Chinese public
The percentage of Chinese public who agreed with “Respecting the rule of nature, exploiting and utilizing nature” rose from 40% in 2003 to 67% in 2005 and to 71% in 2007, while the percentage of Chinese public who agreed with “Worshipping nature and obeying the Page 787
selection and arrangement of nature” obviously decreased from 22% in 2003 to 11% in 2005 and to 10% in 2007. “Asking for things from nature by maximum and conquering nature” was selected by 5% Chinese public in 2007, and the percentage was much lower than that in 2003 (26 %). As for the relationship between human beings and the nature, there were still 14% people had no idea about how to treat the nature in 2007.
The following characteristics could be outlined after the analyses of the data shown in Table 3. Concerning the statement “Respecting the rule of nature, exploiting and utilizing nature”, people with different background showed obvious different attitudes.. From the side of gender, the percentage of male (71 %) who agreed with the opinion is higher than that of female (63 %). The younger the group was, the higher percentage of people who selected it. 74% of the public at the age of 18 to 29 years old and 71%of the people at the age of 30 to 39 years old selected this item. The percentage dropped to 51% for the people at the age of 60 to 69 years old. The different educational attainment affected the result obviously. The proportion of people who got the college-level education reached 90%, while the proportion was less than 30% among the people who had little literacy. Occupation was also a factor to influence the result. The directors of some national offices or agencies and students had a high percentage up to 90%; professional technicians, principals of national or private companies and their employees had a percentage of more than 80%; home workers and peasants (workers in the fields of agriculture, forest, fishing and waterpower) had the lowest percentage as 51% and 59%, respectively.
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There was also difference between the urban and rural area. l.77% of people in the urban agreed what the 60% of people in the rural agreed. The different economic development status should also be taken into consideration. The data showed there was a decrease trend from the east (72%) to the middle (66%) and the west (63%). With regard to the selection of “Don’t know”, people who had little literacy were the majority (5 %); people at the age of 60 to 69 took the second place (31%); and the homeworkers followed with the proportion of 28%.
Table 3 The percentage of people who supported “Respecting the rule of nature, exploiting and utilizing nature” in the survey of 2005 Category Supporting rate（%） General situation 67 Male 71 Gender Female 63 Rural 60 Urban or rural Urban 77 18-29 74 30-39 71 Ages 40-49 63 50-59 59 60-69 51 No or little literacy 29 Primary school level 53 75 Education Junior middle school level background Senior middle school level 88 Junior college level 92 College or university level 95 In the east of China 72 Geography In the middle of China 66 area In the west of China 63 Directors of 93 administrations Students 92 Occupation Professional technicians 88 Homeworkers 51 Peasants 59
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Conclusions
Through the analyses and comparison, the attitudes of Chinese public towards S&T were summarized as follows.
A. A majority of Chinese public held positive attitude towards the development of S&T, only a minor proportion of the public held the reserved or negative attitude. Meanwhile, there was a substantial proportion of the public with the overoptimistic attitude. Generally speaking, the percentage of the people with positive attitudes was comparatively stable; the percentage of the people with reserved or negative attitudes dropped gradually; and the percentage of the people with overoptimistic attitude had an obvious decrease. B. The professions of scientist, doctor and teacher ranked the first three positions in the aspects of both the best reputation and the expectation for children. The professions of teacher and scientist had higher selection rates in the item of the best reputation than in the item of expectation for their children, while the profession of doctor was reverse. C. Nearly half of Chinese public could properly evaluate the impact of technology to the environment. About one fifth public did not know how to evaluation the impact. D. A majority of Chinese public agreed with the statement “Respecting the rule of nature, exploiting and utilizing nature”, but there were obvious differences concerning age, occupation, living area , etc.
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank Profs. Xu Shanyan, Cheng Donghong, Li Daguang and Dr. Hu Junping for their help. This work was supported by China Association for Science and Technology (CAST).
References
[1] National Science Board, “Science and Engineering Indicators 2002, ” Washington: US Government Printing Office, 2002. [2] Pardo R. and Calvo F., “Attitudes towards Science among the European public: a methodological analysis ,”Public Understanding of Science, 2001, 11(2) ,pp. 155-195. [3]
The European Opinion Research Group EEIG, European Commission Publications Office, “EUROBAROMETER：Europeans’ Science and Technology, ”2001.
[4] S. OKAMATO, F, NIWA, K. SHIMIZU, et al. “NISTEP RRPORT No. 72,” The 2001 Survey for Public Attitudes Towards and Understanding of Science & Technology in Japan, 2001. [5] Ministry of science and technology of the People’s Republic of China, “Chinese science and technology indicator (yellow book), 2002”, Beijing: Science and technology documents press, 2002,pp.149-168. [6] Ministry of science and technology of the People’s Republic of China, “Chinese science and technology indicator (yellow book),2004”, Beijing: Science and technology
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documents press, 2004,pp.121-136. [7] Ministry of science and technology of the People’s Republic of China, “Chinese science and technology indicator (yellow book),2006”, Beijing: Science and technology documents press, 2006, pp.121-136. [8] The group of Chinese national survey on public scientific literacy affiliated to China association for science and technology (CAST), “Report of Chinese national survey on public scientific literacy, 2001 ”,Beijing: Popular science press, 2002,pp.121-180. [9] The group of Chinese national survey on public scientific literacy affiliated to China association for science and technology (CAST), “Report of Chinese national survey on public scientific literacy, 2003 ”,Beijing: Popular science press, 2004,pp.71-106.
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Science Teaching and Learning
PRIMARY SCIENCE INQUIRY PACKAGES
Investigating Teaching and Learning with Lesson Package Designed Using BSCS 5E Instructional Model
Goh Su Fen, Chin Tan Ying and Susan LeAnne Sim Ministry of Education Singapore
Jalela Bte Atan Tampines Primary School Singapore
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Science Teaching and Learning
Abstract The thrust of science education in Singapore is to prepare our students to be sufficiently adept as effective citizens able to function in and contribute to an increasingly technologicallydriven world. The role of science in the 21st century extends beyond knowledge dispensing to provision of engaged learning so as to nurture independent lifelong learners. In an effort to empower teachers as leaders of inquiry and students as inquirers in the classroom, Tampines Primary School collaborated with Ministry of Education in designing lesson packages using the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) 5E instructional model - Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate. This provides teachers a structure in designing and conducting science lessons.
A group of science teachers worked together and went through a process of designing a science lesson package on the topic of “Cell system” using the BSCS 5E instructional model. The study was conducted with primary five students in five classes, with the classes randomly assigned as control and experimental groups. This paper investigates how teachers make use of the lesson package and how the lessons designed in the lesson package were evaluated on their usefulness for both teachers as well as students.
Data were collected using pre and post-tests to find out students’ understanding. Students were also administered a delayed post-test to find out the retention of concepts learnt in the topic. Teachers reflected after each lesson taught and the information obtained from these reflections as well as surveys completed at the end of the study revealed how they benefited from the use of the lesson package.
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Science Teaching and Learning
Investigating Teaching and Learning with Lesson Package Designed Using BSCS 5E Instructional Model Introduction In many nations around the world, science education is currently going through a process of change so as to better prepare future citizens to understand science and technology issues in a rapidly evolving society (Millar & Osborne, 1998). Similarly, in Singapore, the current primary science education stresses the importance of students developing a deep understanding of core scientific knowledge and the methods of science so as to better prepare our students to function and contribute in an ever increaingly technologically-driven world (Science Syllabus Primary, 2008).
Central to the curriculum framework in the primary science syllabus is the inculcation of the spirit of scientific inquiry. The curriculum design seeks to enable students to view the pursuit of science as meaningful and useful. Inquiry is thus grounded in knowledge, issues and questions that relate to the roles played by science in daily life, society and the environment.
Scientific inquiry may be defined as the activities and processes which scientists and students engage in to study the natural and physical world around them. In its simplest form, scientific inquiry may be seen as consisting of two critical aspects: the what (content) and the how (process) of understanding the world we live in. The learning must encourage students to think and talk more like scientists. The teaching of science would need to be more than the
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teaching about the content of science, it also had to be about science as a way of thinking and investigating.
With the science education scene in Singapore evolving with a greater emphasis on experiential learning and engaging students cognitively through leveraging on curiosity, there is a greater urgency for teachers to be better leaders, facilitators and role models of inquiry. They are expected to be able to leverage on various strategies to incorporate the essential features of inquiry which includes questioning, collecting evidence, explaining the evidence, connecting with other sources of knowledge and communicating explanations in a logical way. There is greater demand placed on teachers both in content knowledge and in effective facilitation of inquiry.
Schneider, Krajcik and Marx (2000) highlights that one of the focuses in the many reform efforts made in science education is for teachers to utilize inquiry based, student centered instructional practices that will facilitate students’ construction of knowledge. Curriculum materials can serve as cognitive tools and may help especially beginning teachers develop confidence and competence in science teaching (Davis & Smithey, 2009). To better support science teachers in their teaching, the Ministry of Education has collaborated with Tampines Primary School in designing science inquiry lesson packages. One of the lesson packages that the group of science teachers designed was on the topic of “Cell system” using the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) 5E instructional model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate) and they taught their students using the lesson package which they had designed.
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This purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of this lesson package which was designed for both teachers as well as students. The paper will include the articulation of the theoretical framework that guides this study leading to the objectives of this study. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework underlying this study is social constructivism, which focus on the importance of the interplay between language and action as students learn in social settings as explained by Vygotsky (1978). With respect to the learning of science, Vygotsky’s theory suggests that social interaction is essential as learners internalise new or difficult understandings, problems and processes. Because active and thoughtful language is the vehicle by which learners negotiate the meaning of their experiences, it is therefore important to provide instruction in a way which encourages its use. The BSCS 5E instructional model with its structured approach where learning experiences take into consideration cooperative learning, is one model that may allow for the “hands-on” and “minds-on” approach to the learning of science (Bybee, 1997).
The BSCS 5E instructional model uses the work of Jean Paiget (Piaget, 1975) and its underlying theory is that learning is dynamic and interactive. Students interact with their environment, other individuals or even both and through this interaction, they go through processes where they redefine, reorganise, elaborate, and change their initial concepts. The construction of knowledge for students can be assisted by using a sequence of lessons structured in a manner which will challenge students’ current conceptions and through the provision of time and opportunities, allow for reconstruction of concepts to occur.
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The BSCS 5E instructional model sequences learning experiences through 5 stages, ensuring that students have opportunities to construct their understanding of a topic over time. The 5 stages are engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate. The following table below shows a brief desciption of the purpose of each stage. Table 1: Summary of the BSCS 5E Instructional Model Phase Summary Engage Teacher activates and assesses student prior knowledge to inform instruction. Explore Teacher provides a common experience for students to begin developing an understanding of key concepts. Explain Students connect previous experiences and begin to make conceptual sense by developing an explanation. Elaborate Students apply or extend the concepts in new situations and relate their previous experiences to new ones. Evaluate Both the teacher and the students assess conceptual development.
This provides a structure which moves students through an active learning process that starts with activating students’ prior knowledge and ends with assessing students’ understanding. It is important to also ensure that the learning experiences that is designed and delivered within each phase of the model allows for students to gain scientific literacy. A result of the emphasis on constructivist theories of learning has therefore been a corresponding emphasis on constructivist teaching; that is, on ways of teaching informed by constructivist theory (Glasson & Lalik, 1993, Hewson & Hewson, 1983).
Teachers play an important role in developing students in scientific literacy. There has been much work done in the areas relating to the teaching of science as inquiry through the years. As early as the 1960s, Schwab (1962) urged science educators to stress the conceptions of science and how they change over time. He placed a premium on how scientists view the ideas (content) they are developing and how these ideas shape what scientists do and say about the data they collect. Since then, science educators have been recommending that
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learning with inquiry be placed at the core of science instruction to actively engage learners in the processes of science (DeBoer, 1991; AAAS, 1993; NRC, 2000).
Teaching science as inquiry must therefore go beyond merely presenting facts and the outcomes of scientific investigations. Students need to show how the products of scientific investigations were derived by scientists and be provided with opportunities to: ask questions about knowledge and issues that relate to their daily lives, society and environment; be actively engaged in the collections and use of evidence; formulate and communicate explanations based on scientific knowledge.
To help primary science teachers in understanding and implementing inquiry based science instruction into their classrooms in a comprehensive and yet manageable way, they were introduced the 5 essential features of inquiry-based teaching from the Standards (NRC, 2000) where students:
are engaged by scientifically oriented questions.
give priority to evidence, which allows them to develop and evaluate explanations that address scientifically oriented questions.
formulate explanations from evidence to address scientifically oriented questions.
evaluate their explanations in light of alternate explanations, particularly those reflecting scientific understanding.
communicate and justify their proposed explanations.
Inquiry based learning may be characterised by the degree of responsibility students have in posing and responding to questions, designing investigations, and evaluating and communicating their learning (student-directed inquiry) compared to the degree of
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involvement the teacher takes (teacher-guided inquiry). Students will best benefit from experiences that vary between these two inquiry approaches.
Through inquiry learning, students will be able to acquire knowledge and understanding of their natural and physical world based on investigations, apply the skills and processes of inquiry and develop attitudes and values that are essential to the practice of science. However implementing inquiry in the classroom requires a shift in how teachers typically teach science in the classroom. It is important to not only provide teachers with professional development but also it is necessary to support them with materials as there are teachers who have yet to embrace this mode of learning where students begin to think scientifically (Fradd & Lee, 1999).
Research Questions We would like to find out how teachers’ teaching and students’ learning are impacted by the type of curriculum materials used. We can apply the results of this study and feed forward on how teaching and learning of science can be improved in the classrooms.
The aims of the study are: 1.
What is the impact on students’ learning with the use of lesson package designed using the BSCS 5E instructional model?
2.
How do teachers benefit from the use of the lesson package designed using the BSCS 5E instructional model?
3.
What challenges emerge for teachers as they implement the lessons using the BSCS instructional model?
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Methodology In order to see the impact of the use of the lesson package on teachers and on students, we decided to observe it in practice. We worked with a group of 5 teachers from Tampines Primary School to design the lesson package on the topic on “Cell system” based on the BSCS 5E instructional model. These group of teachers were specially selected by the school leaders of the school based on their interest in science. The team of teachers were first immersed in a workshop to be introduced the features of the 5Es at the start of the project so as to get them familiarised with the spirit and the intent behind each E. The team was guided during the process of the lesson design to write the learning experiences which will give the learners a reason to want to learn. Various strategies were also used to engage students in meaningful learning experiences during the instruction and assessment of the topic. This was to cultivate their interest and curiosity in science and also expose them to the learning of science as inquiry where they would have opportunities to question and explain their thinking as they connect to real-life experiences.
In the lesson package, a conceptual flow diagram was included at the beginning to provide an overview of the overarching concept and the key ideas of the topic to help teachers using the lesson package understand the organisation and the flow of concepts. Linking questions were also included to show the connection between key ideas in the topic across the 5Es. The lesson package consisting of a total of 5 lesson plans with each lesson plan consisting of the following:
purpose of the lesson to establish the intent of the lesson;
syllabus learning outcomes (Knowledge, Skills and Processes, Attitudes and Ethics) to highlight the expected student outcomes;
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Science Teaching and Learning
guiding questions and assessment indicators to focus instruction and assessment
material list to facilitate teacher preparation
information for teachers to provide background information on related concepts and appliations in various contexts in everyday life; and
step by step learning experiences to guide teachers in carrying out the lesson and facilitating instruction and assessment.
performace based task with rubric for studens to apply concepts, skills and self/peer evaluate
The lesson package was disseminated to the science teachers teaching the primary 5 level. Teachers were also guided through on the features of the 5E instruction model so that they would be able to deliver the lesson with the intent of the E which it was written according to. During the period where the topic was to be taught to the students, 3 out of the 5 classes were taught using the the lesson package designed using the BSCS 5E instructional model. The control group made up of the other 2 classes were taught using the usual resources used by the school.
In order to find out students’ understanding of the topic, students of all the 5 classes were administered a pre-test before the teaching of the topic. Immediately, after the end of the topic, all the students were administered a post-test and a delayed post-test was also administered to all the students 2 months after the post-test was administered to find out the retention of concepts learnt in the topic. The same set of questions which assesses the learning outcomes for the topic on “Cell system” were used in the pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test.
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At the end of the study, teachers who had made use of the lesson package completed a survey as well as to go through a focus group interview to find out how they had made use of the lesson package and their thoughts on it. The data collected helped to reinforce the role of the lessson package not only for students, but also for teachers. Collecting data through the focus group interview allows for the triangulation of data collected from the survey. The use of focus group also enabled the gathering of rich data from the teachers as one person’s ideas within the group may bounce off another’s, creating a chain reaction of informative dialogue (Anderson, 1998, p. 200). In addition, this platform allows the teachers to clarify their views or perceptions. Thus, through focus group, we hope to elicit an in-depth source of data which may not be possible to be obtained through any other means.
Findings Impact of lesson package on students The results in Table 2 below showed that all students had gained an understanding of the topic on “Cell system” regardless of the curriculum materials used to teach them. This was reflected in the gain of the mean score in the post-test as compared to the mean score in the pre-test for all the 5 classes. The results also showed that students in all the 5 classes had understood and retained the concepts taught from the gain in the mean score in the delayed post-test as compared to the mean score in the post-test. However, as the scores from the delayed post-tests were further examined, it was found that the percentage of students who maintained or made an improvement in the delayed post-tests from the post-tests was higher in the experimental classes which had been taught using the lesson package designed
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according to the BSCS 5E instructional model as compared to classes who were taught using the usual materials. Table 2: Analysis of results from pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test
Pre-test
Post-test
Delayed post-test
Experimental Class 1 Experimental Class 2 Experimental Class 3 Control Class 1
9.9
13.9
14.2
Percentage of students who maintained or improved in delayed posttest 84.2
7.5
11.3
13.1
85.7
5.4
10.2
11.1
75.0
6.9
12.4
12.7
67.7
Control Class 2
4.4
8.7
9.3
66.7
Mean Score Class
Impact of lesson package on teachers It was heartening to see how the teachers came out of the whole cycle of the study with them first understanding the features of the BSCS 5E instructional model to how they could effectively bring out these features as they deliver the lessons in the lesson package within the classroom. They felt more competent of their teaching skills and shared that they are more confident of delivering a more effective lesson. All the teachers who made use of the lesson package designed using the BSCS 5E instructional model completed a survey and 100% of them either strongly agreed or agreed that the lesson package:
is useful in supporting them teach the topic;
has encouraged teaching and learning of science as inquiry;
includes usful teaching strategies;
has helped their students understand concepts better;
is user-friendly.
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Science Teaching and Learning
All of them felt that the lesson package would be useful to other teachers and they would encourage the use of the lesson package by sharing it at other platforms if they have the opportunity to. The following shows segments extracted from the focus group interview on the teachers’ views on the lesson package.
With respect to how the lesson package has helped in their students’ learning, the teachers felt that “The lessons are very pupil-centred” and by going through the activities in the lesson package, students were “able to explain concepts”. The teachers also shared that the various learning experiences that were provided enabled students to master concepts of the topic in a fun way. Students were “very involved in model making” and “They liked the rap a lot!”
The teachers also felt that “the students could meet the demands of the lessons…except for the microscope part where they have to master the skill of using the microscope and view the slides – this would involve more skills and it is more challenging. Rap is also more challenging but does not mean that they can’t do it.” They also felt that the students also had enjoyed the lessons as their students told them to “make time” for the lessons as they liked it “very much”.
The teachers also commented on how the lesson package has helped them in their teaching of the topic. They shared that “The strength of this package is that concepts are welllinked and students are able to understand it very well.” The lesson package being “very structured makes it very easy for teachers, like I know what’s next.” We can hear from teachers that how the lesson package is sequenced and designed “allows inquiry right from the start. It is a systematic and powerful way to teach science.” The structure also allows Page 805
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them to “find out what that students know or not know first…go through the activities before they explain ..letting them explore first before doing the explanation is better as it is more systematic…finally to evaluate the understanding of concepts.”, “making sure that all the learning outcomes are covered and linked in a meaningful way.”
Besides sharing on how they felt that their students had benefited from the use of the lesson package and how they themselves had gained from the use of it, teachers also raised concerns that they had faced in the use of the lesson package when they were delivering the lessons in class. They shared that there were, “some activities in the Elaborate that are too long.” Some teachers also shared that they faced some restrictions in the use of the lesson package as they felt that they may not be able to carry out the lesson according to the spirit of the phase which it was intended: “I was wondering about the feature in Engage….if students know a lot already…do we still need to go through everything or is it alright to skip some things.”
In conclusion, the teachers shared that they “like the fact that it (lesson package) is based on 5E as it very sound.” and most importantly, “it is very activity-based and my students are very engaged”. Overall, they “like that”. Discussion This study highlights that the lesson package designed using the BSCS 5E instructional model has helped students in their learning. All the teachers who made use of the lesson package designed using the BSCS instructional model were more successful in getting a higher percentage of their students retain concepts that were taught over a longer period of time. Our study shows that a carefully thought out approach needs to be taken into
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consideration when writing the lesson experiences as this will impact how students achieve content mastery.
One of the limitations in this study would be the implementation of only one topic during the study. The results would have been more conclusive if the study had involved more topics designed using the BSCS 5E instructional model rather than limited to one topic or the study had been replicated in other forms with similar results reported.
Analysis of the results also revealed that teachers benefited from the lesson package as they used it in their teaching. They were not only able to engage their students more through hands-on, they were also able to cognitively engage their students mentally through the activities provided in the lesson package. It was encouraging to hear from the teachers that they valued inquiry and they felt that the lesson package had guided them in teaching science using inquiry.
One of the strengths in the use of the focus group interview process involves interaction between the principal researcher and the teachers involved in the study and one of the strengths of this method is that allows for in-depth analysis and pursuit of details (Anderson, 1998, p. 168). Teachers who had gone through the whole cycle which included the process of designing and development of the lesson package to the delivering of the lesson package in the classroom shared at the end of the study during the focus group interview that they felt that they had been developed professionally.
The findings from this study affirms us the potential of using the BSCS 5E instructional model as a model in structuring instruction as well as classroom delivery. Page 807
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During this study, teachers who made use of the lesson package did not make any modifications to it. Moving forward, it may be worthwhile to encourage teachers once they are familiarised with the lesson package and the structure in which it was designed, to attempt to adapt these high-quality curriculum materials to better support their own students’ learning (Barab & Luehmann, 2003). In addition, the basis of these lesson packages designed could also be further enhanced by including in features that would also be able to support teachers’ learning.
This study may form as a springboard for further studies of similar nature to be implemented so as to assess the impact of usefulness of the lesson packages designed. However, there is also a need to be mindful to look into the professional development of the science teachers who would be using the lesson packages. It is important that they would be trained in the use of these lesson packages so as to ensure that the intent in which the lesson packages were designed is met.
Acknowledgements We would like to thank Ms Deb Jordan and Dr Brooke Bourdelat-Parks from Biological Sciences Curriculum Study who have contributed their invaluable guidance and ideas during this study.
This study was also made possible with the help of Mrs Wong Bin Eng, Ms Audrey Liaw, Mr Desmond Tan, Mrs Goh Ivy and Mdm Siti Aishah from Tampines Primary School who have so very generously taken their precious time to walk this journey together with us.
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References American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Anderson, G. (1998). Fundamentals of educational research (2nd ed.). Bristol, PA: Falmer Press. Barab, S., & Luehmann, A. (2003). Building sustainable science curriculum: Acknowledging and accommodating local adaptation. Science Education, 87(4), 454-467. Bybee, R.W. (1997). Achieving Scientific Literacy: From purposes to practices. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Davis, E. A. & Smithey, J. (2009). Beginning Teachers and Elementary Science teaching. Science Education, 93, 745-770. DeBoer, G.E. (1991). A history of ideas in science education: Implications for practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press Fradd, S. & Lee, O. (1999). Teachers’ roles in promoting science inquiry with students from diverse language backgrounds. Educational Researcher, 18, 14-20. Glasson, G.E., & Lalik, R.V. (1993). Reinterpreting the learning cycle from social constructivist perspective: A qualitative study of teachers’ beliefs and practices. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30, 187-207. Hewson, M., & Hewson, P (1983). Effect of instruction using students’ prior knowledge and conceptual change strategies on science learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 731-743. Millar, R., & Osborne, J. (Eds.) (1998). Beyond 2000: Science Education for the future. London: King’s College.
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National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington DC: National Academy Press. Piaget, J. (1975). The Development of Thought. New York: Viking Press. Primary Science Syllabus 2008. Curriculum Planning and Development Division, Ministry of Education, Singapore Schneider, R.M, Krajcik, J., & Marx, R. (2000). The Role of Educative Curriculum Materials in Reforming Science Education. In B. Fishman & S. O’Connor-Divelbiss (Eds.), Fourth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 54-61). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Schwab, J.J. (1962). The teaching of science as enquiry. In J.J. Schwab & P.F. Brandwein (Eds.), The teaching of science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univeristy Press.
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Environmental Awareness Primary
RUNNING HEAD: INCULCATING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG PRIMARY PUPILS
INCULCATING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS
James Han Jamilah Yacob Abdul Latiff
St Anthony’s Primary School 1, Bt Batok St 52, Singapore 659321 Telephone: 65690822 Fax: 65690811
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Abstract: Educating for the environment should start from young, as it is the young that shape that future. This paper presents the environmental education programme undertaken by St Anthony‟s Primary School, ENVIRRRO. ENVIRRRO seeks to inculcate positive attitudes towards the environment in our pupils. Previous research has shown that Singaporean pupils hold a utilitarian view towards the environment, and pay more attention towards resource use rather than resource conservation. In the acknowledgement of this current mindset, our school has designed an environmental education programme, which has evolved and adapted over its four year implementation.
This paper presents ENVIRRRO in three aspects, namely, its structure, its partners and its future plans. ENVIRRRO‟s structure has three elements, the infrastructural element, the curricular element and the teacher preparatory element. The school has also collaborated with governmental organisations, (GOs), non-governmental organisations, (NGOs) and corporate partners. We have to teach for a sustainable future, in order to prepare our pupils for it. Future plans such as proposed urban agricultural roof gardens and micro-organic algae removers are some of the future plans for the ENVIRRRO programme. Finally, ENVIRRRO will be discussed upon in light of previous research on Singapore‟s environmental education landscape and some suggestions are proposed to help improve similar programmes in other schools.
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INCULCATING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS Background: It has been commonly quoted by environmental activists, that the legacy we leave to our future is one without hope, if we continue to damage, degrade and deplete our environmental resources at our current rate. We need to educate our young to be aware of the environmental impact that their current and future activities will incur and how to reduce this impact. This is a global need that we have to address, and the importance of it is highlighted by the decade of Sustainable Development earmarked by the United Nations, beginning in 2005.
However, previous research has shown that Singaporean pupils often hold an environmental worldview that emphasizes human development over resource conservation. Wee et al (2006) found that Singaporean children often valued the environment primarily because it met human needs and they emphasized the use, rather than conservation of, natural resources. Savage and Lau (1993) found that secondary school students in Singapore had low levels of environmental awareness and demonstrated little commitment to proactive environmental actions. Tan et al. (1998) discovered that while some high school students did possess a relatively high level of environmental knowledge, it consisted of “learned responses” and did not accurately represent students‟ concern for the environment. Although there has been environmental education programmes over the years, both in the formal and informal
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curriculum, they have not had much effect in changing the mindsets of Singaporean pupils. In Singapore, environmental education is not a stand-alone subject, but is infused into mainstream disciplines, especially in Science and Geography, which are frequently used as “content-vehicles” for environmental education lessons. This approach exposes students to environmental education, but the wide and often random dispersal of environmental topics across the curriculum makes it school curriculum and their experiences in the real world. (Wee, 2008) Kong et al. (1999) posited that environmental education has not been successful in Singapore schools because curriculum and instruction is typically geared toward performance outcomes in high-stakes standardized tests. Since environmental education is not a stand-alone subject, let alone an exam subject, it makes little sense for teachers to devote time to it. Another reason could be a lack of professional development in the area of environmental education for Singaporean teachers, as it is not a tested subject.
In 2006, St Anthony‟s Primary School, sensing our pupils‟ nonchalance towards environmental issues, decided to embark on an environmental education programme, ENVIRRRO, designed to raise the pupils‟ awareness and environmental values. The programme was started by a senior teacher and began with pilot projects. Four years later, ENVIRRRO has evolved into a school-wide approach, involving many areas of the school administration and curriculum. This paper reports on the design of ENVIRRRO in 3 aspects, its structure, partners and future. A pictorial representation of ENVIRRRO can be seen in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1: Diagram showing ENVIRRRO’s Design
ENVIRRRO Programme Design
School Elements
Outside Partnerships
Future Plans
School
Curricular
Teacher
Government
Non-
Corporate
Revisiting
Adopting
Sharing of
Infrastructures
Elements
Preparation
Organisations
Governmental
Partners
Past
Green
Good
Practices
Technologies
Practices
organisations Elements Teacher
Teacher
Leader
Training
Co-Curricular
Everyday
School
Activities
Lessons
Events
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Chapter 1: Structures and Curriculum to Inculcate Environmental Awareness among Primary School Pupils ENVIRRRO first started out as a series of trial lessons by a senior teacher, to concretise the teaching of environmental education to pupils. Prior to ENVIRRRO, environmental issues were taught in an ad-hoc manner, often relying on the Science syllabus to provide the direction of the knowledge to be imparted. This resulted in the prioritization of academic knowledge at the expense of environmental issues, which then created a gap in the pupils‟ knowledge of environmental issues. Thus, ENVIRRRO was born as a result of a need to identify and provide a structured approach to the teaching of environmental issues to our pupils.
Our school‟s vision of Caring Hearts, Inquiring Minds and Passionate Learners lend credence to the need to nurture care for the environment to our pupils starting at a young age. We aim to integrate our environmental education into the school curriculum by providing the infrastructure, the curricular activities and the pedagogical content knowledge for the teachers to effectively nurture a sense of care for the environment in our pupils. This chapter showcases the current programme structures in ENVIRRRO and their purposes.
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1.1 Infrastructure Children‟s perceptions of the natural environment are different from adults‟ perceptions of the natural environment Although Gardner theorizes that there is a naturalist intelligence found in varying degrees in all of us, children perceive the environment around them in a concrete and realistic manner, while adults generally are more detached in their perceptions. Hyun (2005) suggests that children‟s learning about nature and the environment should be based on their curiosity-centered intellectual processing, and this should be reflected in exploratory pedagogical practices in early childhood education settings. Since children are inquisitive and are more immersed in the natural environment than adults, they learn better when they are immersed in exploratory environments such as open spaces and gardens. Thus, we have to create such environments within the school‟s infrastructure.
A school garden is often the most commonly found environment to provide authentic learning experiences in environmental education lessons. However, the set-up and maintenance of the school garden may be environmentally unfriendly. It is important to ensure that environmental awareness begins at home, or in our case, at school, where the pupils spend a lot of time in. At our school, we have created a Science Learning Hub for the teaching of environmental science through the use of the school gardens and open spaces around them. In our learning hub, three forms of environmental preservation concepts take place, which are the use of renewable energy resources, the conservation of water and the protection of biodiversity.
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To teach about renewable energy resources, a solar panel has been installed to power a motor. The motor will run a pump, which will pump water to move a water wheel. This helps to show the conversion of the forms of energy, which is often a difficult abstract topic for pupils to understand. In the learning hub, there are two Science gardens. To teach about water conservation, one Science garden has been installed with a drip irrigation system. The drip irrigation system utilises a timed water dripping method to water the plants, which ensures that the water goes directly into the topsoil and to the roots, rather than sprinkled onto the leaves. This reduces water wastage via evaporation. The irrigation system also has a rain sensor to stop the provision of water to the garden during rainy days. In the other garden, used water from the aquariums is channelled to water the plants. The nutrient-rich water is suitable for watering the food crops grown in that garden and helps the pupils to understand the organic elements of agriculture.
Finally, to teach pupils about the importance of biodiversity, an orchid hybridisation laboratory has been set up. Courses are run on teaching pupils about tissue culture reproduction, which is seen as an alternative method of plant reproduction. The pupils learn about the genetic modification of orchids to make them more pest resistant, hence reducing the amount of chemicals used to grow them and helping to save the environment. Finally, the learning hub is aesthetically pleasing, with scientific factual knowledge reproduced in information signboards to immerse pupils in the learning of
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science and environmental concepts. Table 1.1 shows a summary of the infrastructural elements in the Science Learning Hub. Table 1.1: Summary of Infrastructural Elements in the Science Learning Hub Elements of the Environmental Learning Hub
Brief Description
Science Garden (with School Pond)
The garden showcases ornamental plants in terraces. The plants are irrigated by a drip irrigation system which reduces water wastage. The school pond has a solar panel installed to move a water wheel, which explains how solar power works.
Science Garden (without School Pond)
This garden showcases local food crops and is watered at times with used water from the aquariums in the school.
Learning Corridor
Open Science Classroom
Orchid Tissue Culture Laboratory
This is a school corridor which has science facts and drawings to showcase various topics about life sciences. The corridor is designed to immerse pupils in an aesthetically pleasing, yet informative environment.
This is an open classroom linking both Science gardens, providing a space for teachers to conduct exploratory or investigative Science lessons in the learning hub.
This is a laboratory for the cultivation of orchids using tissue culture. It has two laminar air flow cabinets to provide an authentic working environment for pupils to learn about plant reproduction using basic tissue culture technology.
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1.2 Curricular Activities Although the infrastructure may be suitable for environmental learning, without the curriculum to drive learning, any installed settings will be put to waste. Hence, the curricular activities that take place are important to ensure that the installed school settings are used in a manner designed to encourage active learning, so as to ensure that the values imparted are retained in our pupils. Sandell (2005) described three traditions of environmental education and the types of learning that go on in them. They are the fact-based tradition, the normative tradition and the pluralistic tradition, and are described briefly as follows.
The fact-based tradition was formed during the development of environmental education in the 1960s. Pupils are taught that environmental issues are ecological, based on a lack of knowledge and can be solved by science. There is an assumption that if teachers teach scientific knowledge to everyone in schools then environmental problems caused by human activities will disappear more or less automatically. The natural world is considered to be separate from humanity. Teaching is focused on the subject knowledge needed to solve the current problems and the pedagogic task is to teach students the right knowledge and true knowledge. This knowledge then is assumed to make it possible for students to take proper decisions and make right actions. Students tend not to get any opportunities to practice such actions during the conduct of teaching because it is often taken for granted by the teachers that such active competence follows automatically from knowing science. Students do not
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participate in lesson planning, which implies that teachers take account of earlier observations of student attitudes and opinions in their planning of future lessons.
The normative tradition emerged during the societal debate about environmental issues in the 1980s. Pupils are taught that environmental issues are primarily a question of values where people‟s lifestyles and their consequences become the main threats against the natural world. Scientific knowledge is understood to give hints about the best ways of living and is regarded as normative and prescribing in decision-making. The development of an environmentally friendly society is obvious and unambiguous. According to the teachers of this tradition, the acquisition of the right knowledge is assumed to automatically lead to better values, which makes people want to behave ecologically correctly. From an ethical point of view, humans are seen as an indispensable part of nature and should therefore adapt to its conditions. Teaching content is partly organized in a thematic way, and this requires content from disciplines other than science. In order to ensure that the lessons achieve their intended objectives, extra attention is given to the use of students‟ experiences and attitudes in forming teaching examples and tasks.
The pluralistic tradition developed during discussions in the 1990s in connection to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Increasing uncertainty on environmental issues and the growing number of different opinions in environmental debates are important points of departure for this tradition. Pupils are taught that environmental
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issues should be viewed as both moral and political problems, and environmental problems are regarded as conflicts between human interests. Science does not provide guidance as to any privileged or preferable way to act when it comes to environmental issues. In this tradition, environmental education includes the whole spectrum of social and economic development, and everyone‟s opinion is regarded as being equally relevant when settling the course of action within environmental and developmental issues. Students develop their abilities to engage in democratic discussions concerning developing a sustainable society or a more sustainable world.
Regarding the administration of the curricular aspects, the Science department of our school has taken on the responsibility of integrating explicit curricular lessons in environmental education. Littledyke (2008) agrees with using Science education to spearhead the teaching of environmental education. He writes that although environmental education is essentially cross-curricular in nature, science education has an important part to play in developing understanding of the scientific principles that underpin environmental issues. The imparting of environmental awareness in our pupils takes three-pronged approach. The first prong is the setting up of a Science and Environment Club, which is a Co-Curricular Activity (CCA) club in the school. The programmes of the club are planned to impart environmental awareness in various forms, notably in recycling and waste reduction measures. The pupils in the Science and Environment Club are then trained to be school environmental ambassadors.
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The next prong would be the dissemination of information through school-wide events. School events are held throughout the year, such as assembly talks and school competitions. The school-wide events have a broad focus, and often focus on recurring themes throughout the year. One recurring theme that we have consistently used is on recycling, as we want to impart the values of waste re-utilisation and reduction in an authentic manner to our pupils.
The third prong in the curricular aspect of ENVIRRRO is in the teaching of environmental awareness in the syllabus. Although the current Science syllabus already includes environmental lessons in its syllabus guides and textbooks, it is important that we follow-up on these lessons and not allow them to become stand-alone lessons. We include authentic learning experiences in order to build on the content knowledge that the pupils have gained, These authentic learning experiences would come in the form of field trips, learning days and as well as specifically designed activities to complement the taught syllabus.
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1.3 Teacher Preparation In every class, the key transfer of knowledge comes from the interaction between the teacher and the pupils. Teachers who are enthusiastic about environmental preservation will transfer this enthusiasm to their pupils, while teachers who are nonchalant about environmental degradation will transfer this nonchalance to their pupils. Often we see and hear teachers teaching about environmental preservation, but yet model inappropriate environmental actions. Littledyke (2008) surmises that teachers should use developmentally and culturally meaningful approaches to teach environmental education. This includes teachers helping pupils to make meaningful connections with what they want to know and how they wish to make meaningful experiences (Hyun 1998). Teachers, therefore, need to demonstrate a love for the environment and support children‟s natural curiosity of nature in interacting with children in order to enhance their environmental reasoning. This applies to how teachers interact with children of all ages so that they develop positive attitudes to the environment and behaviour is informed by understanding. As environmental education is taught often through Science lessons, the Science curriculum needs to be compatible with naturalistic attitudes to the environment. It is understood widely that as teachers‟ attitudes to learning can influence children‟s responses, the models teachers present are very important. Teachers should also foster children‟s positive scientific and environmental attitudes to learning, which include: curiosity, interest, enjoyment of learning; confidence, creativity; criticality, understanding of uncertainty; awe and wonder, understanding of interconnectedness of living things; empathy/care
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of self, others and environment. Stevenson (2008) reminds us that although environmental educators cannot change their pupils‟ environmental behaviors, they can influence their pupils‟ opportunities to gain knowledge, form positive attitudes about the environment, and practice action skills.
Teacher leaders and teacher preparation programmes are therefore needed to ensure that any environmental programme works the way it should. Teacher leaders should model the behaviour for their colleagues to emulate and be ready to help their team carry out the teaching strategies prescribed by the department or level. They should also pilot new lessons before sharing with their teaching team or level the successes and areas for improvement so as to ensure that the lessons will be successful for the other teachers. Success breeds success and this will ensure that the environmental education lessons are not taken as just another lesson to teach and get over with.
Teacher preparation programmes help to prepare teachers to impart the right values to their pupils. It is important for teachers to know or have the right resources at their fingertips so as not to discourage pupils with their ignorance. Teacher preparation can come in the form of professional sharing sessions, fieldtrips and training workshops. Sund & Wickman (2008) suggests that a way of developing environmental education is to include both teachers‟ and students‟ learning into the learning perspectives. The role of the teacher is not just the role of an expert, but also one of seeking out interesting real life problems and framing questions around personally discerned Page 825
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needs in collaboration with students.
1.4 Pupil Programme Evaluation Finally, it is pertinent to evaluate programmes at the end of each implementation to ascertain the successes and failures experienced. We need to learn from what worked and what did not work, and the key stakeholders of the programmes who can provide a wealth of this information are our pupils, who have gone through the programme. Hopwood (2007) suggests that it is important to include pupil feedback and they often interpret environmental learning experiences in terms of their own agendas, prioritizing those aspects they feel are most important. Pupils may have different ideas about what (if anything) environmental education is for, and how it meets its aims. The variance in the participants‟ interpretations of the same environmental lessons in Hopwood‟s study tells us that policy and curriculum documents, schemes of work and teaching approaches cannot fully account for how pupils experience environmental education. If we are to understand how environmental learning takes place, and what its outcomes are, we must pay greater attention to the role of the learner as an active agent in environmental education. Pupils themselves can imbue learning experiences with an environmental significance where none was intended. Thus, teachers should be careful in making assumptions about which learning experiences are environmental and which are not. After all, learning experiences are provided for learners, and it is what learners take from those experiences which should be our ultimate concern.
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In light of this, the evaluation of the ENVIRRRO programme was conducted by having the pupils carry out an environmental awareness audit to assess the level of „green-consciousness‟ in the school. This pupil driven data collection is then used to review the programme as well as qualify the programme according to the national benchmarks.
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Chapter 2: Paper Presentation 2: Community Involvement and Industry Partnerships to Support School Wide Programmes Real environmental education should not just wholly include school-based activities, but should incorporate a range of activities that take place outside the school context. It is paramount that pupils understand that environmental preservation is not a solo effort, but requires the co-operation of many different societal elements for it to be successful. Littledyke (2008) identifies 3 elements of awareness that pupils need to have. They are the Intra-relations, Inter-relations and Eco-relations elements of awareness, described as follows. The Intra-relation element refers to one‟s self awareness. It looks at how one‟s actions and lifestyle choices impact the environment. The Inter-relations element looks at one‟s social awareness. This refers to how people interact socially to influence individual choices, which in turn affects the environment. The Eco-relations refers to one‟s environmental awareness. It looks at how one‟s society impacts on the environment through social, economic and political choices. These multiple elements of awareness that pupils ought to possess should be developed with authentic work with the relevant organizations. Partnerships with governmental organisations, non-governmental organisations and corporate entities are essential to provide a rich and authentic interplay of elements to bring across this understanding. This chapter showcases the partnerships that St Anthony‟s Primary School has cultivated with other organisations in the ENVIRRRO programme.
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2.1 Governmental Organisations Two of the key government organisations every school should work with to ensure the success of their environmental education programmes are the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Environment. It is important that whilst imparting knowledge and inculcating values, the environmental education lessons fall within the curriculum guidelines specified by the Ministry of Education. Curriculum specialists and consultants may be consulted on the suitability of the environmental content and activities to be carried out in line with prescribed curriculum standards.
Although environmental education is often conducted within Science lessons, it is important to understand its cross-curricular nature. Hence in our school, we do integrate environmental education concepts into other curricular subjects. For example, the teaching of the English language allows the use of authentic texts such as newspapers and information reports to be used. By selecting appropriate texts with an environmental theme, we integrated environmental concepts into our language lessons. We need to show students how they can apply their disciplinary knowledge to understand authentic and current environmental issues.
It is a global responsibility to preserve our environment for the future, and every government would have organisations to spearhead the message of environmental preservation. It is thus important to work with these organisations so as to be
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constantly updated of the latest initiatives, pre-prepared lesson packages, nation-wide competitions as well as suitable areas for outdoor learning, just to name a few. Our school has collaborated with the National Environment Agency (NEA) and National Parks Singapore (Nparks) to carry out parts of the ENVIRRRO programme. The school has benefited much from the collaboration and the ENVIRRRO programme is kept up to date with the latest initiatives.
2.2 Non-Governmental Organisations In addition to government entities, the school has also worked with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in order to expose the pupils to such networks. As NGOs are often run by volunteers, the enthusiasm generated by the act of volunteerism helps pupils to understand that every individual has a choice to make in the preservation of the environment. NGOs help to spread the environmental education concepts to our pupils through talks, events, competitions and their activities. For example, prior to collaborating with an NGO involved in recycling, some pupils had the misconception that only a few types of materials should be recycled, namely glass, plastic and paper. However, after the collaboration, the pupils learnt that electronic gadgets have important metals in them that can be recycled. The pupils participated in the sorting of materials to be recycled and learnt about the products that could be made from recycled materials.
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2.3 Corporate Entities Finally, to help pupils understand that responsibility for the environment belongs to everyone, schools should work with corporate entities to promote social responsibility. Corporate Social Responsibility is a growing phenomenon with many companies now taking up the responsibility for the impacts to the environment caused by their corporate activities. Offsetting carbon credits, using environmentally friendly packaging are some commonly seen corporate activities. Our pupils should be aware of the environmental responsibilities that corporations take up to help them be aware of the complexities of environmental issues. With the pluralistic nature of education gaining popularity, pupils should understand the tensions behind economic growth and environmental responsibility and eventually, their part in it as citizens and consumers. One way of guiding pupils along this understanding is to work with a corporate entity in the school‟s environmental programme. There are many current corporate initiatives that a school can choose to participate in. For example, our school has been adopted by Merck, Sharp and Dohme since 2006 and this partnership has provided the school with the funding to develop much of the schools‟ infrastructural and resource elements of the ENVIRRRO programme.
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Chapter 3: Educating for a Global and Sustainable Future As educators, the future is in our hands, when we shape and mould young minds. Inculcating a sense of environmental awareness serves to prepare our pupils for a more sustainable future. We as educators need to teach for the future. Hicks and Holden (2007) suggests that the need for children to think more critically and creatively about the future is currently both under-theorized and as yet under-developed. The value of key concepts from futures studies, such as probable and preferable futures, scenarios, envisioning, can fruitfully be employed in the classroom to help students develop perspectives for the future. This involves the practice of foresight, consideration of more sustainable and ethical futures, whether personal or global, and development of a sense of present and future agency.
As we prepare for the future, our environmental education programmes have to be constantly updated for the latest technologies and initiatives. Too often, we find the main emphasis of environmental programmes centred around tried and tested methods, such as recycling and water conservation. While it is important to reinforce the objectives behind the traditional environmental education curriculum subjects, it is also important to revisit and innovate past practices, trial or implement the use of new green technologies and share the knowledge and good practices that have evolved throughout the programme. The three aspects of ENVIRRRO‟s planning for the future will be explored in this chapter.
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3.1 Revisiting Past Practices It is a paradoxical human fallacy that we often tend to tinker with what is not broken, replace what is broken and ignore what is breaking till the day it breaks. This holds true for our environment as well. With the advent of the Industrial Age and the Knowledge Economy, progress has often superseded the need to preserve the environment. In developed nations, past practices that have been proven to be effective have often been discarded in favour of newer practices, in the name of change, while in developing countries, destructive practices still remain in place, without the introduction of newer and better practices. For example, bottled water in developed countries where one can drink from a tap is commonly found, and contributes to much of the plastic waste, while clean drinking water is scarcely found in developing countries, with air and water pollution caused by agricultural and industrial activities.
We have to teach our pupils to understand the rationale and purpose of the activities they are undertaking. By revisiting past practices, and exploring their pros and cons, pupils can understand them better and innovate to make them better, rather than coming up with entirely new methods. For example, most pupils understand recycling as the traditional three “R”s, Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. At St Anthony‟s Primary School, we have added another two “Rs”, Repair and Refuse to help students in understanding that much waste can be reduced by repairing what is broken and refusing what is not needed. This understanding will be extended again in future Page 833
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lessons when we explore how to reduce environmental degradation through the reduction of waste and more “R”s may be added to help facilitate this understanding.
3.2 Trialling Green Technologies While it is important to revisit and innovate past practices, some practices are best discarded for better ones. For example, pupils ought to understand that slash and burn agriculture harms the environment, and there are sustainable ways of agriculture, such as aeroponics, hydroponics and permaculture that help preserve the environment. To help pupils reach this understanding, we have to provide concrete learning experiences by piloting, trialling or implementing green technologies.
Two future scenarios that we would be trialling in our school would be the creation of a roof garden demonstrating urban sustainable agriculture and the use of biotechnology in the removal of algae. The creation of the roof garden works on the premise that rural agricultural land is limited and with the population explosion, urban agriculture is a viable alternative food source. Our school plans to recreate a model urban roof garden with the organic growing of food crops. Our pupils will have a chance to participate in organic urban agriculture and in the process, learn more about Science and the environment through exploratory and investigative activities. Our second trial will be to pilot the use of micro-organisms in the cleaning of water sources. After identifying the problem of algae in our pond, we have decided to utilise
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this teachable moment with the trial of micro-organic algae removal agents. The use of this bio-technology will be shown to our pupils to help them understand that chemical technology which harms the environment is a thing of the past, while environmentally friendly bio-technology is a sustainable method in the near future.
3.3 Sharing of Knowledge and Practices Knowledge should be shared in the global context of environmental education, since the Earth belongs to all of us. As we learn and evolve from past practices, as we did at our school, we share with others our successes and good practices. The sharing of successes and good practices helps to spread them around schools, organisations and even nations, and when these practices are adopted in other institutions, our pupils will be proud of their learning and achievement. There are many platforms to share at, starting from the sharing within the school context and stretching to share at international contexts. To facilitate the sharing of knowledge, action research will be conducted on various components of the programme, such as pupils‟ perceptions, teacher perceptions and so on. The findings from these case studies will aid in the refinement of the programme over time, as well as provide a base of knowledge for us to exchange ideas with the good practices of other organizations.
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Chapter 4: Discussion: This paper has proposed an environmental education programme structure used by our school, which has evolved over four years in the teaching of environmental education. In our programme, we plan to engage our pupils affectively and cognitively to match the pupil‟s learning to the reality presented in environmental education. We want to use the curriculum and a variety of teaching methods involved in environmental education to support learners in developing positive views about it. We want to connect our pupils‟ environmental knowledge to their experience. We plan to empower pupils in their learning and teachers in developing the curriculum and to link these with environmental issues. (Littledyke, 2008)
Over the past four years, ENVIRRRO has evolved from a single teacher‟s structured lesson to a school-wide approach. The evolution of ENVIRRRO into a school-wide approach has also taken the problems of environmental education into consideration. In their study, Filho and Pace (2006) highlighted some problems by identifying contradictions within formal education systems that impact negatively on environmental education. They feel that pupils are often confused, alienated and are taught irrelevant material in the imparting of environmental knowledge. The pupils‟ confusion often emerges from an excessive use of technical terminology and concepts that do not connect with experience. The pupils are aliened when they are not given opportunity to connect their experiences with the curriculum. Teachers are often relegated to a technician‟s role that actively excludes them from curriculum
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development. Pupils often feel that the learning gained in environmental education is irrelevant as they see no explicit connection within the curriculum to an environmental ethic or when the practices of an institution are incongruous with sustainability. By designing our programme to avoid or resolve these problems, our current structure of ENVIRRRO has evolved and gone through various adaptations.
In conclusion, we propose using Chawla and Cushing‟s (2007) table, shown in Table 4.1, as guidelines to designing environmental education programmes. We have tried to apply these research findings in our programme design and found that they increase the positive effects of our environmental education programme, ENVIRRRO, on our pupils. However, more research would be needed to present these findings in more detail. It is important to note that changes in mindsets take time, and environmental education programmes would need time to evolve and adapt according to the goals and aims of the organization, in view of current environmental issues.
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Table 4.1 Practical application of research findings for environmental educators
Role models and mentors
Everyday life experiences
Participation in organizations
Discussion Achieving success Social network
Age–appropriate initiatives
Development of action skills Personal significance
Practical Applications for Environmental Educators Engage both peers and adults as role models. Create opportunities for peer group exchanges. Encourage role models to practice instructive modeling by demonstrating skills of graduated difficulty and verbalizing strategies for success. Make time for children to experience nature, individually and as a group, enabling them to develop bonds with nature. Practice democratic decision-making in the classroom. Provide opportunities for everyone‟s voice to be heard and valued. Build club and organization activities around the shared values of the group and personal interests of individual participants. Make time for the discussion of environmental issues. Help participants set goals and sub-goals that will provide opportunities to taste success. Create a supportive social network for children and youth to build trust in others and have fun during the process. Determine the scope of environmental activities based on the developmental stage of the child, with a focus on the nearby environment with younger children, expanding to the local community by middle childhood and eventually global connections. Enable children and youth to test their environmental action skills, applying the principles of guided practice. Provide opportunities for children and youth to initiate environmental actions themselves.
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References Chawla, L. and Cushing, D.F. (2007) Education for Strategic Environmental Behaviour Environmental Education Research 13(4) 453–465 Filho, W.L., and Pace, P. (2006) The UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development: Meeting the Challenge or Another Missed Opportunity? Thrace: Department of Forestry and Management of the Environment and Natural Resources, Democritus University of Thrace. Gardner, H. (1999) Are There Additional Intelligences? in: J. Kane (Ed.) Education, information, and transformation Englewood, NJ, Prentice Hall, 111–131. Hicks, D. and Holden, C. (2007). Remembering the Future: What do Children Think? Environmental Education Research 13(4), 501-512. Hopwood, N. (2008) Environmental Education: Pupils‟ Perspectives on Classroom Experiences Environmental Education Research 14(2), 145–163 Hyun, E. (1998) Making Sense of Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice (DCAP). New York: Peter Lang. Hyun, E. (2005) How is Young Children‟s Intellectual Culture of Perceiving Nature Different from Adults? Environmental Education Research 11, 199–214. Kong, L.; Poh Ai,I.T.; Gusti Tisna, P.I.; Remorin, P.; Suwannatachote, R.and Lee, W. (2000) Unity and Diversity: Southeast Asia in D. Yencken, J. Fien and H. Sykes (Eds.), Environment, Education and Society in the Asia-Pacific, Routledge, 2000, pp. 113–134.
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Littledyke, M. (2008) Science Education for Environmental Awareness: Approaches to Integrating Cognitive and Affective Domains Environmental Education Research 14(1), 1–17 Savage, V.R.and Lau, S. (1993) Green Issues: Official Policies and Student Awareness in Environmental Issues in Development and Conservation, Singapore: SNP Publishers,13–28. Stevenson, R. B. (2008) Schooling and Environmental Education: Contradictions in Purpose and Practice Environmental Education Research, 13(2), 139–153 Sund, P. and Wickman, P. (2008) Teachers‟ Objects of Responsibility: Something to Care about in Education for Sustainable Development? Environmental Education Research, 14(2), 145–163 Tan,I.; Lee, C.; and Goh, K.(1998) A Survey of Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and Behavior of Students in Singapore International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 7(3), 181–194. Wee, B.; Harbor, J., and Shepardson, D. (2006) Multiculturalism in Environmental Science: A Snapshot of Singapore Multicultural Perspectives, 8(2). 10–17.Wee, B. (2008) Moving Toward Sustainability? The Face of Environmental Education in Singapore, Green Teacher (83) 35-38
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Spaceward Bound for Development of Cross-Curricular Programs in Middle School
Nicolette Anne Hilton The Armidale School, Armidale NSW AUSTRALIA
Abstract The Spaceward Bound experience was influential in the development of cross-curricular middle school programs with a basis in space science at The Armidale School. As stated by Coe, Heldmann, McKay (2007), Spaceward Bound is an educational program developed by NASA Ames Research Centre that involves students and eductors in investigation being conducted by scientists in scientifically interesting, but remote and extreme environments on Earth as analogs for human exploration on the Moon and Mars. The activities conducted during Spaceward Bound and the support offered by skilled and knowledgeable scientists from NASA and a number of Australian universities enabled the vast amounts of information shared during the expedition to be transferred to the classroom.
Key words: space, science, cross-curricular, education
Middle schools are educational facilities that aim to bridge the gap between Junior/primary School and Senior/secondary School by reducing the number of teachers and amount of movement students have between subjects. Many of these facilities also offer pastoral care specific to the needs of early adolescence. It has been noted that linking different subjects through topics enables explicit concepts and theories to become
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more accessible to students and is particularly beneficial in teaching for a differentiated classroom (Brown, Collins & Newman, 1989). Cross-curricular teaching provides a meaningful way in which students can use knowledge learned in one context as a knowledge base in other contexts in and out of school (Brown, Collins & Newman, 1989).
Children have a natural curiosity for space and using this as a base topic acts as an excellent motivator. Many students are intimidated by science, but teaching through space science means that many students are more willing to become active in the pure sciences. Having science as a base subject gives students a better understanding of Earth and it’s connection to the universe. In this way students have the knowledge to make informed generalisations about the nature of the universe.
Spaceward Bound Australia was conducted in the Arkaroola region of South Australia, including the desert regions near Marree and Lyndhurst (Fig 1). Scientists from NASA and a variety of Australian universities were involved in investigations which aimed to assist in the prediction of possible biological findings and field techniques for collecting samples on the Moon and on Mars. Planetary scientists, geologists, astrobiologists and microbiologists all conducted field work during the expedition.
The geologists identified geological formations which were likely to be of significance to the planetary scientists, microbiologists and astrobiologists. In this way educators were
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able to witness the amalgamation of skills, knowledge and understanding from scientists of varying scientific background to reach a common goal.
The micro-organisms collected by the astrobiologists and microbiologists varied from; chemosynthetic microbes found beneath the soil surface, producing energy by utilising chemicals in the surrounding soil and atmosphere due to their inability to photosynthesise, to desert crusts, held together by primitive bacterial forms and hypolithic algae found beneath quartz that are able to photosynthesise with the small amount of light that penetrates through the rock.
Figure 1 – Sample Sites
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Teachers were involved in the collection of all of these samples in the field, laboratory work and analysis of results. Dr. Elaine Bryant, a microbiologist invited me to return to my classroom with count plates containing chemosynthetic bacteria. It was then the responsibility of my Middle School year 7 class to count the number of bacteria on each plate and classify the colonies according to colour and size. This information was then transferred electronically to NASA for further analysis and utilisation in their preparation for Martian exploration. The responsibility that came with completing work for NASA inspired and influenced the class in the area of space science and I was able to use this simple task to introduce concepts across a variety of subjects. The bacteria on the count plates had to be diluted in the temporary laboratory in the field, thus the plates were named in accordance to their level of dilution (Fig. 2).
Figure 2 - Count Plate from Arkaroola
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Introducing the students to the count plates inspired the development of an intensive cross-curricular program with a basis in contemporary space science. In mathematics students learnt about multiplying and dividing by factors of ten, so that they were able to grasp how and why the bacterial samples were diluted, scaling, as they completed calculations to develop comparative results, graphing and analysis of data.
During science students learnt about the concept of dilution and concentration, singlecelled organisms, chemosynthetic organisms, soil composition and atmospheric composition on Earth and Mars, in this way a number of pure sciences were addressed under the umbrella of space science, making each of these explicit concepts more accessible to a greater number of students.
In geography students learnt about deserts and compared these extreme environments and their characteristics to those of Mars, promoting discussion on why scientists would need to access these environments. Design and technology saw students deign a space habitat that complied with NASA specifications and we discussed the kinds of technologies used by the scientists in the South Australian desert and how these technologies would function on Mars.
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Figure 3 – Student Display Describing Work Completed for NASA
All concepts were taught explicitly before being utilised as an instrument for increasing understanding of space science and the work currently being completed by NASA scientists. I noted, on a basic level, that students were able to demonstrate the skills and concepts learnt during this cross-curricular unit more effectively as a result of having them linked to a relevant and recent phenomenon.
Spaceward Bound was a most valuable professional development experience to me as an educator and mentor, and to my students as learners and future leaders in space exploration. I hope that Spaceward Bound continues not only in Australia, but is able to become a source of professional development world wide to inspire and influence more educators and their students.
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References
Brown. J.S., Collins. A. and Newman. S.E., (1989) Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Crafts of Reading, Writing and Mathematics, Knowing, Learning and Instruction, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers, New Jersey USA
Coe. L., Heldmann J.L. and McKay C.P. (2007) Spaceward Bound:
Training and
Inspiring the Next Generation of Space Explorers, NASA Ames Research Center, USA
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Using discrepant events
Running head: USING DISCREPANT EVENTS
Using discrepant events with questioning and argumentation to target students’ science misconceptions
Kelvin Ho Junyuan Primary School
Christine Chin National Institute of Education, Singapore
Paper presented at the International Science Education Conference (ISEC 2009) Singapore, 24-26 November 2009
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Using discrepant events
Abstract Students come into the classroom with many of their preconceived ideas. To help our students learn better, teachers need to have a better appreciation of students’ conceptual understanding so that they are better able to tackle students’ misconceptions and knowledge gaps. At the same time, students also have to be engaged to learn actively to reconcile any discrepancies in their understanding of science concepts. This study examined how discrepant events, together with other scaffolding tools, could be used to promote discussions, questioning, and argumentation among students so as to drive their learning, foster critical thinking and surface their misconceptions. The teacher carried out demonstrations of these events and the students, working in small groups, put up their ideas for questioning and critical review. Through the lively discussions triggered by the discrepant events, the students evaluated their own and each others’ ideas. Data were collected through students’ written work and audio-recording. Students' questions and assertions pertaining to concepts demonstrated in the discrepant event provided insight into what and how the students were thinking. It was found that through proper scaffolding, students’ misconceptions could be elicited and dialogic discussions and argumentation could be encouraged to take place. By drawing on each others’ ideas, students’ discussions were rich as students found themselves having to defend what they believed in.
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Using discrepant events
Using discrepant events with questioning and argumentation to target students’ science misconceptions
Introduction Science misconceptions are common among students. As teachers, we need to elicit these ideas from students so that we are able to address them during our lessons. If we were to ignore the ideas of these students, this could end up hindering their learning processes. There are many ways to draw out misconceptions from students and using discrepant event is one possible technique. Using discrepant events in science lessons is not new and has been advocated since the 1980s. Generally, a discrepant event refers to the physical experience that provides students with novel evidence that contradicts their existing conceptions (Kang, Scharmann and Noh, 2004). Previous studies (Pheeney, 1997 and Friedl, 1986) on discrepant events have provided reasons for using discrepant events and how to set them up in a classroom context. However, their focus was on the benefits of using discrepant events to arouse students’ curiosity and provoke their thinking process. Not many studies on discrepant events have emphasized the follow-up. In fact, little has been reported on how teachers can use discrepant events to bring about conceptual change in students after demonstrating them. According to Thompson’s (1989) observation, many teachers often deem discrepant events as fun activities and do not use them for illustrating science concepts and principles. While discrepant events that are presented in this way might grab students’ attention, such activities would do little to enhance our students’ understanding of scientific concepts. Hence there is a need to know how we can use discrepant events more effectively.
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Using discrepant events
The challenge for teachers lies in how best to address students’ misconceptions so that students are aware of their misconceptions before proceeding further. This is where questioning and argumentation can help. Questioning is an important part of science inquiry and the ability to self-question can promote reflective thinking (Chin, 2006). At the same time, argumentation offers a platform to engage students in their thinking and reasoning (Newton, Driver, & Osborne, 1999). Questioning and argumentation have been found to result in conceptual change and help students to internalize concepts well (Nussbaum, 2005). Because questions are generated by the students themselves, it also increases students’ personal motivation in answering their own questions (NRC, 1996). Such relationships gave rise to the possibility of deploying questioning and argumentation as follow-up tools to discrepant events. Hence, if we were able to structure discrepant events well and follow up with proper students’ questioning and argumentation, we could provide students with the opportunity to foster their own critical thinking process and facilitate their science misconception correction process. While previous studies (Watts & Alsop, 1995 and Watts, Gould, & Alsop, 1997) have stated the importance of questions in learning science, the aim of this study was to explore the possibility and effectiveness of questioning and argumentation in a group setting to surface students’ misconceptions of science, as well as using discrepant events and concept cartoons (Keogh & Naylor, 1993) to trigger discussions. At the same time, through this research, it is hoped that this would help teachers to identify certain pedagogical skills and structures that will (i) promote “argument” and questioning strategies amongst students, (ii) facilitate their discussions effectively and (iii) address students’ misconceptions more effectively.
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Using discrepant events
Methods Classroom Setting and Participants This study was carried out in two primary 6 (aged 11-12 years old) classes in the school. Each class has 20 students. Students from both classes were middle to high ability and were evenly matched in terms of academic performance. In their primary 6 Term 1 class test, the mean science score of class A was 71.2% while class B scored 69.8%. All sessions were conducted by the first author (who was their science teacher) and students worked in groups of four to six. There were 4 groups in each class and for most of the activities, the students were in the same groups for all demonstrations. The study was carried out over three sessions for each Primary 6 class. Each session lasted about 3 periods or 1.5 hours. Instructional Procedure and Materials Used During the study, discrepant events, as a trigger to elicit students’ misconceptions and argumentation about the science concepts, were used to kick off all lessons for both classes. Three discrepant events were used in this study. All of these discrepant events were related to the topic of heat transfer and energy conversion. In selecting these discrepant events, extra care was taken to ensure that each of them had the potential of provoking students to give different claims and explanation about an observed phenomenon. Details of one of the discrepant events (Fire & Balloon) will be discussed in greater detail in the Results section. At the start of each lesson during the study, students were given their worksheets before the teacher explained the demonstration set-up and posed the problem related to the discrepant event. This provided students with the necessary context of the discrepant event and allowed them to pose relevant questions about the set-up and make predictions about the outcomes before they observed what really happened. Once students had listed out their questions and predictions individually, they got into their groups to discuss what they thought might happen. Page 852
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After 15 minutes, the teacher demonstrated the discrepant event and gave students sufficient time to describe individually what they had just observed. During this demonstration, students were more than welcome to list down any questions that may come to mind. After the demonstration, students had to explain the observed phenomenon on their own. They also had to also pose any questions that they had at this time and to indicate whether their observation turned out as predicted. The first part of the individual worksheet follows the sequence of the Predict-Observe-Evaluate (POE) model and aimed to engage students’ in the thinking process before and after observing the discrepant event. Once completed, students got into their groups again to discuss their ideas. If possible, students were placed into groups where half of their group members had opposing views. If that was not possible, the teacher arranged to have at least one student with opposing view in the group. This was to ensure that there would be the possibility of discussions and argumentation among the students. As a group, students shared and recorded their ideas and thoughts on their concept cartoon sheet. Students who shared the same ideas would record their ideas in the same speech bubble. Separate speech bubbles were used for different explanations. To prevent students from being swayed by different arguments, all members in a group had to present their views before any one could be challenged. After this, students could choose to challenge any of their peers’ idea in their group by posing questions or counter-arguing the points they made. To help students articulate their ideas and thoughts, various scaffolding tools were used. These tools, which included concept cartoons, worksheets and graphic organizers, served to document students’ ideas for further analysis. The individual worksheet guided students through the various activities during the lesson. Concept cartoons were used to help surface common students’ misconception for discussions while the argument/counterargument sheet served to facilitate students’ discussions in small groups and allowed them to Page 853
Using discrepant events
record their reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the various alternatives for the outcome of the discrepant event. Other strategies like cooperative learning strategies and teacher questioning were deployed to enhance the quality of discussions. Group activities were carried out using cooperative learning strategies such as “Roundrobin” and “Roundtable” (Kagan, 1994). Student took turns to present their ideas orally during the Roundrobin. After each student’s sharing, the other students in the group wrote what they agreed or disagreed with the presenter’s ideas, using the Argument/Counter-argument Sheet. Once everyone had completed their presentation, students passed their sheet in a Roundtable format for further comments. This ensured that all students in the group contributed to the group’s discussions. Some of the group discussions were facilitated by teacher questioning. During these discussions, teacher joined the group discussions to prompt and provoke students’ thinking and questioning.
Results This section presents findings from the use of one of the three discrepant events that is related to the topic of heat transfer. Pseudonyms have been used in place of the students’ names. Fire & Balloon This discrepant event tested students’ ideas about heat and required them to explain why a balloon filled with water could continue to be heated by a candle without bursting, while a balloon filled with air would burst.
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Using discrepant events
Balloon (with water)
Candle
For this activity, students’ responses were collated mainly through their written responses and the audio-recording of their group discussion with the teacher. Students’ ideas in this activity included: •
Air expansion is what causes the air-filled balloon to burst.
•
Water will evaporate from the sealed balloon.
•
Rubber is a poor conductor of heat and that is why both balloons will not burst.
•
Air a good heat conductor and will make air in the balloon expand faster.
This is a tricky misconception as the reason why an air-filled balloon will burst is because the rubber of the balloon softens as it is heated. When the rubber becomes too weak to withstand the pressure of the air in the balloon, the balloon bursts. Similarly, in a waterfilled balloon, water has a higher heat capacity compared to the rubber and as such, it requires more heat to raise its temperature. Water absorbs most of the heat energy of the flame and slows the increase of temperature. As such, the rubber is prevented from becoming too soft to withstand the internal air pressure and hence the balloon did not burst. During the audio-recording, it was found that students were responsive to their peers’ ideas. The excerpt below from a post-observation discussion shows that Jason from a group in Class A suggested how water, being a heat insulator, prevented the water-filled balloon from bursting. Heng proposed that the balloon did not burst because heat could travel through
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Using discrepant events
water. Ken suggested that the balloon would burst as it would contain air spaces which would cause the balloon to expand further. At this point, Jen asked if the heat absorbed by the water would cause it to evaporate. Heng rebutted her suggestion. There was evidence of extended thinking when the students suggested scenarios beyond the discrepant event. The students in this group did not change their ideas even after their discussions. It is likely that this group of students believed their explanations were able to explain the observed phenomenon correctly.
Jason:
I think that the balloon filled with air will burst but not the one filled with water [claim 1]. This is because the air will expand but the water is an insulator of heat [reason 1].
Jen:
How can? The balloon will also expand [rebuttal to reason 1].
Jason:
The balloon filled with water is cooler [backing to reason 1].
Heng:
The balloon filled with water will not explode [claim 2] because the heat travels through water and water won’t explode [reason 2].
Ken:
How can water explode?
Jason:
Can.
Ken:
Anyway, there is also a little bit of air space so it will burst [rebuttal to reason 2].
Jason:
But the balloon is filled with water [counter rebuttal].
Ken:
Yeah but it is not all.
Jason:
The balloon is totally filled with water. So how can it expand further [counter rebuttal]?
Ken:
Can.
Jason:
But the water will absorb the heat [backing to reason 2].
Jen:
So the water will evaporate? Page 856
Using discrepant events
Heng:
No. It is sealed so water cannot even evaporate.
Jen:
But it can condense.
Ken:
What happens if it is a hot day and it can’t condense?
Heng:
But even when it condenses, it doesn’t come back (in)to the water (balloon).
Ken:
Fire is hot so what happen if the water boils?
Heng:
Fire is so small. How can?
Jen:
If it boils, the balloon will burst because the water (balloon) is already full.
The excerpt above shows the students questioning and challenging each others’ ideas in their attempt to make sense of the observed phenomenon. Below is an example of how the teacher drew out students’ ideas and stretched their thinking through questioning during their group discussion in Class B. The questions built on students’ previous ideas and by getting students to respond to them, students’ thinking advanced step-by-step. Zen:
What does absorb heat mean?
Jay:
It means that the water takes in the heat.
Aaron:
So you mean that the water takes the heat away from the fire?
Shin:
Not all. Some of it is taken by the balloon and that is why there is a black mark. Most of the heat is taken by the water.
Aaron:
Does that mean that the water will be hot?
Shin:
No the water will still be quite cool.
Teacher: What do you mean by quite cool? Is it higher or lower than room temperature? Or the same? Shin:
Same as the room temperature.
Teacher:
Even after some time?
Shin:
After some time, it may go above room temperature but not so much. Page 857
Using discrepant events
Nick:
I think the water will cool the balloon first before it burst [claim].
Teacher:
How does the water cool the balloon?
Aaron:
Er… because heat travels to a cooler place [reason] so the heat will travel to the balloon. The water will bring heat to some other place.
Teacher:
What place?
Aaron:
Inside the balloon.
Teacher:
So you mean that heat will move inside the balloon through the water?
Shin:
So you mean that the water will transfer the heat?
Aaron:
Yeah.
Teacher:
How does heat circulate?
Aaron:
Er…
Many misconceptions or contradictions in ideas made by students in the midst of their reasoning and explanation were picked up and pointed out by their peers. This helped somewhat to moderate the discussions. One such example is given in the following excerpt. Here a student in class B, Ru, believed that both balloons (air filled or water filled) will not burst but would become smaller. She was rebutted by Nic who pointed out that when air is heated, air will expand. Ru thought for a while before she decided to change her idea. Ru:
I think that both balloons (air filled or water filled) will not burst [claim] because the heat is heating above them (heat source is below the balloons) [reason] but they will become smaller.
Nic:
When air is heated, air will expand and balloon will get bigger [rebuttal].
Teacher:
Any response to that? (Pause; Ru pondered and was quiet) Do you want to change your idea? (Ru nodded)
However, while students can help moderate the discussions, the role of teacher continues to be crucial as there were some misconceptions that were not picked up. The Page 858
Using discrepant events
teacher had to move around the groups and helped to facilitate the discussion to bring the group back on track. After the group discussions, the teacher brought the students together in a whole-class discussion to consolidate the key group discussions. The following is an excerpt from the classroom talk in Class B.
Jay:
I think that the balloon filled with air will burst but not the one filled with water [claim] because when the balloon filled with air touches the fire, [it] will expand and burst [reason]. But the balloon filled with water will not burst [claim] because the water inside is a poor conductor of heat [reason].
Teacher:
Any question? So we all agree that when heated, the air in the balloon will expand and cause the balloon to burst. But the water in the water balloon is an insulator of heat? How is that related to expansion? Does that mean that a heat insulator does not expand?
Jay:
Expand slowly.
Teacher:
Are you saying that if I put the water balloon long enough, the water will expand and cause the balloon to burst?
Aaron:
I disagree as I think the fire will burn the rubber first [rebuttal].
Jay:
I think the water balloon did not burst [claim] as water absorbs most of the heat [2nd reason].
In the above excerpt, we see that although Jay did not have an accurate idea about water expansion, the teacher did not correct what was said during the class discussion. Instead, the teacher took the opportunity to probe further into Jay’s reasoning.
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Using discrepant events
Discussion Besides the typical approach of using discrepant events to elicit students’ misconceptions, discrepant events can also be used to promote questioning, discussion and argumentation among students. Using discrepant events in such a way provides teachers with a better understanding of what conceptual understanding students have and allow teachers to better tackle students’ misconceptions and knowledge gaps. Students' questions and assertions related to concepts demonstrated in the discrepant event also provide insight into what and how the students are thinking. For students, the scaffolding tools that supported the discrepant event provide a platform for them to articulate their thoughts and challenge their peers' ideas. By stimulating dialogic talk among students, it has also allowed students an opportunity to construct their own scientific knowledge. A limitation of this study is that it involves a small group of average to high ability level students (n=40) in my school and as such cannot be generalized to all Primary 6 students in Singapore schools or even the Primary 6 students in my school. Also there are many other factors that affect the outcomes of the lessons such as the students’ group dynamics and teacher’s facilitation skills. After conducting the study, we offer the following suggestions that we believe would enhance teachers’ pedagogical practices.
How can we make use of discrepant events to promote debate and questions among students? What kind of discrepant events would be more suitable for such a purpose? To promote debate and questions among students, discrepant events cannot stand
alone. Scaffolding tools need to be provided to students so that students’ thoughts can be unpacked and their ideas can be articulated clearly for their peers to understand. At the same time, a safe classroom environment must be provided so that students are more likely to share their ideas willingly. Discrepant events for such a purpose should: Page 860
Using discrepant events
→ Have a clear and fast outcome (most physical science demonstrations should fit this bill easily) so that students are able to observed the outcomes of the effects and that discussions can continue in class; → Be related to concepts which the students have already learnt or at least have connections to students’ daily lives so that students have the necessary vocabulary to explain the observed phenomenon; → Encourage different students to come up with different explanations.
How can questioning and debate be used to expose students’ science misconceptions in my class? As seen in the results section, as students discussed what they thought could have
caused the observed phenomenon, science misconceptions were revealed. Most of the times, these were picked up by their peers and discussed further. Contribution to the Learning of Science In this study, it was found that the activity sheet, argument/counter-argument sheet and concept cartoon provided a structure for students to carry out their discussion about the discrepant event. It guided students in questioning what they see, expressing their thoughts, coming up with explanations and challenging others. Analysis of the audio recording showed that students do build on their peers’ ideas and provide responses that stretch the group’s original thinking. By writing their responses first before they present to their peers, it allowed them to think through what they are thinking about and gave them something to refer to during their group discussion. This helped to boost the confidence level of students, especially the quiet ones in sharing. Even when they do not have the definite answers, students are found to be more willing to come up with possible explanations to justify their claims.
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Using discrepant events
Having to defend their viewpoints following their peers’ questions might have deterred some students from speaking. However, it also encouraged many students to think twice before they spoke. One common observation is that most students who began their group discussions had a lengthier explanation and often these students would pause halfway through their verbal responses and tried to recollect their thoughts in their attempt to give a complete explanation of what they had observed. As such, they were deemed to be more thoughtful in their answers. Overall, the students were more confident in expressing themselves and reflective in their thoughts and the group and class discussions were much richer. Conclusion This study showed how discrepant events, together with the use of other scaffolding tools, can be used to support students’ learning and how teachers can support students in their quest to evaluate their knowledge claims and to communicate them to others. Such critical thinking and communication skills are important as they are part of the 21st Century skills (http://www.21stcenturyskills.org) which our students should have. To enhance the use of discrepant events in teaching and learning science, teachers cannot just depend on the cognitive dissonance generated by discrepant events. Instead, teachers need to design classroom routines and structures to stretch students’ thinking and provide opportunities for collaboration so that the full benefits from discrepant events can be harnessed.
References Chin, C. (2006) Using self-questioning to promote students’ process skills thinking, School Science Review, 87(321), 113-122 Friedl, A.E. (1986) Teaching science to children: An integrated approach. New York: Random House Kagan, S. (1994) Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, California: Kagan Publishing. Page 862
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Kang, S., Scharmann, L.C. and Noh, T. (2004) Reexamining the role of congnitive conflict in science concept learning. Research in Science Education, 34, 71-96 Keogh, B. & Naylor, S. (1993) Learning in science: another way in. Primary Science Review, 26, 22-23 National Research Council. (1996) National Science Education Standards, Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 31 Newton, P., Driver, R., Osborne, J. (1999). The Place of Argumentation in the Pedagogy of School Science. International Journal of Science Education, 21(5), 553-76 Nussbaum E.M., (2005) The effect of goal instructions and need for cognition on interactive argumentation, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(3), 286–313 Pheeney, P. (1997) Hands-on, minds-on: Activities to engage our students. Science Scope. Sept. 1997, 30-33 Thompson, C.L. (1989) Discrepant events: What happens to those who watch? School Science and Mathematics, 89(1), 25-30 Watts, M., & Alsop, S. (1995) Questioning and conceptual understanding: The quality of students' questions in science, School Science Review, 76(211), 91-95 Watts, M., Gould, G., & Alsop, S. (1997) Questions of understanding: Categorising students' questions in science. School Science Review, 79(286), 57-63.
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Learning Performance
Running head: the impact of Achievement motivation on learning Performance
Exploring the Impact of Achievement Motivation on Learning Performance
Jon-Chao Hong, Jiann-Yeou Chen, Ming-Hsien Li
Department of Industrial Education College of Technology National Taiwan Normal University 162, He-ping East Road, Section 1, Taipei 10610, Taiwan
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Learning Performance
Abstract Project-based learning (PBL) is a comprehensive approach to engage students in investigating problems. Nowadays, science education considers project-based science learning (PBSL) as an effective approach for students to construct knowledge in problem solving by identifying variables, analyzing data, and verifying hypotheses. This project examined the effect of achievement motivation on learning performance. Two hundred and fifty four students aged from first grade to twelfth grade were involved and surveyed by achievement motivation questionnaires. A t-test and ANOVA were performed to identify different levels of intrinsic achievement motivation among gender, location of school, and level of education. A Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient was used to examine the relationship between the performance of scientific invention competition and achievement motivation. The findings indicated that high intrinsic-oriented students can be expected with better project-based learning performance in the competition and different locations of schools and levels of education lead to the different levels of achievement motivation. The scores of final competition and innovation history of wood robot are positively correlated with the level of intrinsic achievement motivation especially in self-efficacy and competency.
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Learning Performance
Exploring the Impact of Achievement Motivation on Learning Performance Introduction Increasing learning performance is the main concern to be investigated for this study. Many studies investigated ways of improving learning performance in order to help learners build competency. Dewey (1938) said, accumulating experiences is quite essential for learners to improve performance. Hmelo-Silver (2004) also stated that experiences employed as identifying and solving problems can help build student’s competency in acquiring knowledge. Additionally, psychological research and theory claimed that students learn not only the context of subject but also the thinking strategies by project-based learning. Hence, project-based learning served as the thinking strategies with intrinsic motivation to improve learning performance. The project-based learning is also known as a problem-based learning. It has great influence on subject knowledge acquiring. Most importantly, it provides learners an information-enriched environment to engage themselves in problem investigation. Wood (2000) said, problem-based learning helps learners to gain needed capability to make management change, build up teamwork, resolve conflicts, and solve problems. In this study, it is essential to identify factors which lead to high intrinsic motivation and formulate the equation of intrinsic motivation to predict the performance in the competition. Literature Review Achievement McClelland (1958) defined that achievement motivation was a need of achievement. It represents different levels of desire or preference ranged from biological needs to survival or reaching success under the competitive condition under the condition of competition (Cassidy & Lynn, 1989; Harackiewicz, Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot, 1997; Rabideau, 2005) Even
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with a clearly definition of achievement motivation, it is still a controversial issue about the content of achievement. Researchers agree that achievement motivation is a complex and multidimensional context (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Vroom (1964) proposed the expectancy theory of motivation in which achievement motivation was only activated by the well-built relationship among expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. As for this theory, the first component of relationship, expectancy, is able to be explained that people believe their efforts and performances are positively correlated. In Second part of relationship, instrumentality, people have the belief that the valued outcome will be received following good performances. Lastly, the received outcome is importantly concerned by the receiver. When all three components are established, the achievement is able to be made. Moreover, in Cassidy and Lynn research study (1989), seven factors were applied to measure assessed magnitude of achievement motivation. Those factors are work ethic, acquisitiveness for money and material wealth, dominance, pursuit of excellence, competitiveness, status, and mastery. However, Ryan and Deci (2000) argued against the multi-factorial concept of achievement motivation that they suggested all factors can be integrated into two aspects which are intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Autonomous motivation (intrinsic factor) and controlled motivation (extrinsic factor) were proposed by them (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Story and his colleagues (2009) suggested a two-factor theory to evaluate the achievement motivation. They categorized seven factors, Cassidy and Lynn achievement motivation scale (CLAMS), as two categories which were intrinsic achievement and extrinsic achievement. Work ethic, pursuit of excellence, and mastery were accounted for intrinsic achievement motivation. Then, acquisitiveness, dominance, competitiveness, and status aspiration formed to examine extrinsic achievement motivation. The result showed intrinsic factors had better prediction for achievement related factors then extrinsic factors.
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Achievement has been associated with academic performance especially (Rabideau, 2005; Major, Turner, & Flectcher, 2006) According to Hansford and Hattie (1982), achievement was averagely correlated with performance measure. Regarding to two-factor theory of achievement motivation, more researches report that intrinsically motivated students have better academic performances than the extrinsically motivated students ( Harackiewicz, Barron, Carter, Lehto, & Elliot, 1997; Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, & Elliot, 2002). Researchers also found that intrinsic motivation has a positive correlation with achievement-related factors such as generalized expectancy for success, need for cognition, and self-reinforcement (story et al., 2009). Therefore, this project tends to construct the context of intrinsic motivation and identify the factors for better prediction of achievement motivation. Intrinsic motivation can be defined as an internal evaluation procedure which people apply to value the activity for their degree of involvement. Intrinsic motivation involves cognitive and self-regulatory processes (Story, Hart, Stasson, & Mahoney, 2009). Students with internal achievement motivation pay more attention on mastering and learning the material. They are likely to perform high level strategies, persistence and involvement in the classroom and competition situations (Nolen, 1988). The intrinsic orientation students are also regarded as having more chances to be succeeded and have the self-efficacy which lead them to be competent during the competition (Gottfried, 1985). Li and his colleagues (2005) found that participates with high intrinsic motivation tended to persist longer during the task learning and present better performance in the final skill test. Besides, the degree of intrinsic motivation has been found to be correlated to educational level. Story (2008) stated different effects of intrinsic motivation on medical students. He found that there was a positively trend between academic achievement and mastery goal and self-efficacy in premedical students. However, for first-year students, the academic performance only correlated with mastery Page 868
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goal. Regarding to the third-year students, self-efficacy was the only predictor for the academic performance. It seems that intrinsic motivation is multi-dimension and influence students with different aspects. Nowadays, majority of researches apply free-choice phase and puzzles to measure intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005; Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996). Most of them focus on academic performance such as science and mathematics (Meece, Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H., 2006). However, few researches examine the intrinsic motivation in project-based situation. Therefore, this paper is going to discuss the intrinsic motivation in project-based learning (PBL) condition. Project-based Learning Project-based learning is a comprehensive approach to learn subject knowledge. It provides an information-enriched environment to engage learners in problem investigation and help learners to build the abilities in changing management, building up teamwork, resolving conflicts, and solving problems (Wood, 2000). The gaining of practical experience is crucial to learning (Kilpatrick, 1921; Dewey, 1938). Psychological research and theory claimed that students learn not only the context of subject but also the thinking strategies by project-based learning. Such experiences as identifying and solving problems can help build student’s competency in acquiring knowledge (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Currently, the science education places emphases on project-based learning (PBL), in which learners can engage in the process of identifying variables, analyzing data, and manipulating hypotheses (Blumenfeld et. al., 1991). To enhance the effectiveness of learning, educators reform and implement the PBL into classrooms (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996). Not only classroom situation is, but a science and technology contest also is a way of promoting PBL in secondary education (Wood, 2000).
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Science contests comprise of hands-on learning activities, which are the critical components of science inquiry, which is defined as a process in which learners apply scientific inquiry methods into reasoning, problem-solving, prediction-making, and theoryverification to reflect on cognitive change or knowledge acquisition (Koslowski, 1996; Kuhn & Franklin, 2006; Wilkening & Sodian, 2005). Learners will be inspired to question and investigate through the personal involvement. These hands-on activities can facilitate individual understanding of subjects (Ridgeway & Padilla, 1998). The role and tasks of students in these hands-on activities can be clearly identified in these hands-on activities, so that they will be encouraged for active participation. In addition to have better understanding of subject content, learners can conduct a sense of belonging and responsibility to the tasks and teams (Oetinger & Hickel, 1997). Unlike traditional instruction method, science contests can practically embed the scientific problem-solving ability in learners not only in terms of cognitive development, but also in aspect of intrinsic motivation as well as the attitude toward the science (Gottfredson, 2003). The purpose of this study is to investigate the context and impact of intrinsic motivation on project-based performance via a science contest. Methodology Sample Population According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), there should be a minimum of 152 respondents selected at random from a population of 253 to represent a total population. Students (N=253) aged from 9 to 15 were recruited from the PowerTech, a science contest hosted in Taipei. In this study, they were classified by certain criteria including gender, school location, and educational level. The sample comprises 66% of males and 34% of females; 74% of students study in the metropolis, 4% of students study in the suburb, 16% of students studying in country, and 4% of students studying in far-end. One hundred and
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twenty-five students were educated in elementary school and 128 students were educated in junior high school which include from seventh grade to thirteenth grade. Instrumentation The tailor-made survey instrument that was developed based on the review of related literature was comprised of four parts and 32 items: self-efficacy, competency, persistence, and expectancy. Students were invited to respond to items such as “ I would like to spend extra time and make efforts to achieve the goal.” and “ I tend to carry out challenging tasks, even I know it would take me more time and effort to do so.” A five-point Likert scale was used (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Fifty copies of questionnaires were delivered for the purpose of pilot study. Later, we reduced the questionnaires from 32 to 27 items. The Cronbach alpha is a general form of the KR20 formula measuring internal reliability of items and Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was r=.96; in the present study, alpha was r=.93. For the factor analysis, four factors emerged from a principle component factor analysis with varimax rotation, yielding 12 items for self-efficacy, seven items for competency, five items for persistence, and three items for expectancy to success. The total variance is 60.3% and the average factor loading for each item was above 0.5. Survey instrument was also developed for the projected performance. The Power Tech, a science contest, was provided for building up a PBL environment. The Power Tech contestants competed with their mechanic inventions. The mechanic inventions in the competition include crawling bugs for the elementary teams and fighting beasts for the junior teams. These inventions were arranged to run the speed running race and war-of-tug. The grading criteria consisted of project competition (speed racing and war-of tug), form design, and innovative journal. Those who have the highest overall scores based on these three criteria are the winners.
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In the Power Tech contest, contestants were required to complete individual work alone. Instructors and parents could not intervene in the process of assembling and project competitions. Any violation would cause disqualification. However, the instructors and parents played a critical role before attending the contests. Data Collection and Analysis Questionnaires were handed out when students registered for the PowerTech. They were invited voluntarily to fill in the questionnaires during the lunch break and submit them back after the contest. Two hundred and fifty-three out of 700 copies were collected and respondents’ participation was held in privacy and no specific data were revealed without permission. The data collected from the sampling population of this research were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The analysis of Pearson ProductMoment Correlation was performed for exploring the relationship between intrinsic motivation and project performance and t-test and ANOVA were used to test the intrinsic motivation on factors such as gender, education levels, and school locations. The significant level of confidence interval used the 95% level of confidence intervals. Then, multiple comparison procedures were conducted typically to assess pair-wise differences among means. The missed data were not excluded but replaced by the average score. Research Findings The analysis of Pearson correlation was conducted for determine whether there is the correlation in the population between project-based performances and intrinsic motivations. In table 1, intrinsic motivation were highly positive correlated with innovative overall score r(253)=.15, p<.05. The greater positive correlation was found between the intrinsic motivation and innovative journal r(253)=.21, p<.01. The results support that high intrinsic-
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oriented student can be expected with better project-based learning performance in the competition.
Table 1 Correlation between Intrinsic Motivation and Innovative Journal Innovative Journal Overall Score Intrinsic Pearson Correlation .21** .15* Motivation Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .034 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
A t- test was performed to notice the gender difference between intrinsic achievement motivation and education level. The result indicated that there was no intrinsic motivation difference between male and female. However, it was significantly different between elementary school students and junior high school students on intrinsic motivation, t(205) =2.94, p=.004. Especially in self-efficacy and expectancy to success, educational level were found statistically different in intrinsic motivation t(222)=3.39, p<.01; t(234)=2.05, p<.01.
Table 2 Gender
Usefulness
Equal Variances not Assumed
Levene’s Test of Equal Variances
t Test for Equality of Means
F
p
t
df
p
4.108
.43
-.742
195
.459
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Table 3 Educational Level
Intrinsic Motivation
Equal Variances not Assumed
Levene’s Test of Equal Variances
t Test for Equality of Means
F
p
t
df
p
2.16
.26
2.938
205
.004
We examined the difference on the intrinsic orientation in a variety of school location by using one-way ANOVA. The result indicated that there was a significant difference in school location, F (3, 201) = 8.18, p=.00. Students from metropolitan areas were reported to have higher level of intrinsic motivation than those from the countryside and far-end (p<.05). Also, differences were also found in comparison of the countryside and far-end students (p<0.5). Students who study in the countryside tended to show stronger level of intrinsic motivation than his or her counterparts. However, students who study in the suburb had found no significant difference in places on the level of intrinsic motivation.
Table 4 Analysis of Variance for Intrinsic Motivation in a variety of school Location Sum of Squares
Source Between Groups
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
8.178
.000
14.801
3
4.934
Within Groups
121.258
201
.603
Total
136.059
204
Multiple Comparisons Intrinsic motivation Scheffe (I)school (J) school location location
Mean Difference (I-J)
95% Confidence Interval Std. Error
Sig.
Lower Bound Upper Bound
metropolis Suburb
.53457
.24230
.185
-.1486
1.2177
country
.45744*
.15484
.036
.0209
.8940
far-end
1.07599*
.28156
.003
.2822
1.8698
metropolis
-.53457
.24230
.185
-1.2177
.1486
country
-.07713
.27377
.994
-.8490
.6947
Suburb
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far-end country
far-end
.54142
.36090
.523
-.4761
1.5589
-.45744*
.15484
.036
-.8940
-.0209
Suburb
.07713
.27377
.994
-.6947
.8490
far-end
.61855
.30906
.264
-.2528
1.4899
-1.07599*
.28156
.003
-1.8698
-.2822
Suburb
-.54142
.36090
.523
-1.5589
.4761
country
-.61855
.30906
.264
-1.4899
.2528
metropolis
metropolis
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Regardless of school location and its influence on intrinsic motivation, the result revealed the difference among four factors of intrinsic motivation which were self-efficacy, competency, persistence, and expectancy to success. Except from the expectancy to success, students from metropolis, country and far-end were found significantly different levels of intrinsic motivation including self-efficacy, competency, and persistence (p<.05).
Table 5 Analysis of Variance for Self-Efficacy
Selfefficacy
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
20.040
3
6.680
9.543
.000
Within Groups
152.596
218
.700
Total
172.635
221
Between Groups
Sum of Squares
Table 6 Analysis of Variance for Competency
comp
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Between Groups
19.845
3
6.615
Within Groups
177.959
234
.761
Total
197.804
237
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Sig. .000
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Table 7 Analysis of Variance for Persistence
Persistence
Between Groups Within Groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
16.871
3
5.624
207.552
227
.914
224.423
230
F 6.151
Sig. .000
Table 8 Analysis of Variance for Expect to Success
Expect to Between success Groups Within Groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
10.370
3
3.457
179.662
230
.781
190.032
233
F 4.425
Sig. .005
Conclusion The following conclusions were a result of this study: 1. Learners’ intrinsic motivation is highly positive correlated with innovative journal. This result support that high intrinsic-oriented student can be expected with better projectbased learning performance in the competition. 2. There is no intrinsic motivation difference between male and female. It indicates the gender has no influence on intrinsic motivation. 3. There is a difference between elementary and junior high school students in selfefficacy and expectancy to success on the topic of intrinsic motivation. 4. Students from metropolitan areas have higher level of intrinsic motivation than those from the countryside and students who study in the countryside tended to show stronger level of intrinsic motivation than his or her counterparts.
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5. Students from metropolitan schools have higher level of self-efficacy, competency, and persistence of intrinsic motivation than those from country and far-end. Discussion For this study of the Power Tech Contest case, intrinsically motivated students tend to produce better performance than low intrinsically motivated counterparts. It suggests that intrinsic motivation is able to account for not only the academic performance but also the achievement of project-based learning. This is consistent with Nolen’s (1988) the statement that students with internal achievement motivation are likely to apply high level of strategies, remain persistence, increase involvement in competition situations. Story and his colleagues (2009) also agreed that intrinsic motivation is an internal evaluation procedure which people apply to value the activity for degree of involvement. Intrinsic motivation involves cognitive and self-regulatory processes. Moreover, intrinsic motivation consisted of four main factors which were self-efficacy, competency, persistence, and expectancy to success. Among those factors, self-efficacy was the most powerful factor which accounted for approximately half variance of explanation. As to the individual differences, gender had not found differences regarding the level of intrinsic motivation. Also, gender differences showed no difference on both overall score and innovative journal of contest. However, different education levels contributed the disparity of intrinsic motivation. Students in elementary school showed higher intrinsic motivation compared to junior high school students, especially in self-efficacy and expectancy to success. Different school locations and the level of education contributed to the difference of intrinsic motivation. Only the students studied in metropolis presented stronger internal motivation than students in country, especially in competency, persistence, and expectancy to success.
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Reference Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Ronald, W. M., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26, 369-398. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. J., & Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn. Washington, DC: National Academy press. Cameron, J., Pierce, W. D., Banko, K M., & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 641-655. Cassidy, T., & Lynn, R. (1989). A multifactorial approach to achievement motivation: The development of a comprehensive measure. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62, 301-312. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological wellbeing across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14-23. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. MacMillan, New York. Elliot, A. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461-475. Elliott, A. J., Shell, M. M., Henry, K. B.; Maier, M. A. (2005). Achievment goals, performance contingencies, and performance attainment: An experimental test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 630-640. Gottfredson, L.S. (2003). Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and evidence. Intelligence, 31(1), 343-397.
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Gottfried, A. E. (1985). Academic intrinsic motivation in elementary and junior high school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 631-645. Greeno, J. G., Collins, A., & Resnick, L. B. (1996). Cognition and learning. In Berliner, D. C., & Calfee, R. C. (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp.15-46). New York:MacMillan. Hansford, B. C., & Hattie, J. A. (1982). The relationship between self and achievement/performance measures. Review of Educational Research, 52, 123-142. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Cater, S. M., Lehto, A. T., & Elliot, A. J. (1997). Predictors and consequences of achievement goals in the college classroom: Maintaining interest and making the grade. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 12841295. Harackiewicz. J. M., Baron, K. E., Tauer, J. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2002). Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 562-575. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 3, 235-266. Kilpatrick, W. H. (1921). The project method, Teach. Coll. Rec. 19, 319-335. Koslowski, B. (1996). Theory and evidence: The development of scientific reasoning. Cambridge: MIT Press. Kuhn, D., & Franklin, S. (2006). The second decade: What develops (and how). In W. Damon, R.M. Lerner, D. Kuhn & R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Cognition, perception and language (pp. 953-993). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Li, W., Lee, A. M., & Solmon, M. A. (2005, April). Effects of Ability conceptions and intrinsic motivation on persistence and performance: An interaction approach. Poster Page 879
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session presented at the 2005 AAHPERD National Convention and Exposition, Chicago, IL. Major, D. A., Turner, J. E., & Fletcher, T. D. (2006). Linking proactive personality and the big five to motivation to learn and development activity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 927-935. McClelland, D. C. (1958). Methods of measuring human motivation. In J. W. Atkinson (Eds.), Motives in fantasy, achieving society, Princeton (pp.12-13). NJ: D. Van Nostrand. Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006) Classroom Goal Structure, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 487-503. Nolen, S. B. (1988). Reasons for studying: Motivational orientations and study strategies. Cognition and Instruction, 5, 269-287. Oetinger, H., V., & Hickel, A. (1997). Launching student interest. The Science Teacher, 2428. Rabideau, S. T. (2005). Effects of achievement motivation on behavior. Retrieved from http://www.persnoalityresarch.org/papers.html Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L., (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. So, Y. (2008). The effects of achievement goal orientation and self-efficacy on course interests and academic achievement in medical students. Korean Journal of Medial Education, 20, 37-49. Story, P. A., Hart, J. W., Stasson, M. F, & Mahoney, J. M. (2009). Using a two-factor theory of achievement motivation to examine performance-based outcomes and self-regulatory processes. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 391-395. Page 880
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Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley. Wilkening, F., & Sodian, B. (2005). Scientific reasoning in young children: Introduction. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 64, 137–139. Woods, D. R. (2000, December). Helping your students gain the most from PBL. Paper Presented at the meeting of Asia-Pacific Conference on PBL. Dec 4-7. Singa
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Running head: The Power Tech
The Innovative Approach of Science and Technology Learning: A Case of POWER TECH Contest
Jon-Chao Hong, Tien-Hao Wu, Jiann-Yeou Chen, Ming-Hsien Li
Department of Industrial Education College of Technology National Taiwan Normal University 162, He-ping East Road, Section 1, Taipei 10610, Taiwan
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Abstract Unlike traditional pedagogy, many studies indicated that by using inquiry learning can facilitate learners to develop and construct science knowledge (Vosniadou, 1994; Chi, Slotta & de Leeuw, 1994). In the process of inquiring, the existed cognitive structure of a learner has interaction with new concepts, which can cause perception change and form a new conceptual structure. Meaningful learning can accordingly occur during this process (Ausubel, 1963). Active Learning through activities to create meaningful learning has become a critical way for scientific knowledge inquiring (Kuutti, 1996). Learners may behave differently in response to the contexts when involving in the same activities, and vice versa. The conceptual change during activities gradually influences cognitive structures of learners. Nowadays science education emphasizes that students can learn through identifying variances, analyzing data, and verifying hypotheses (Mestre & Lockhead, 1990). This approach can be regarded as project-based science learning (PBSL). A science contest is a kind of PBSL, in which learners can investigate and study science and technology in a realistic context instead of a laboratory. Holding science contests can inspire creative invention, extend width and depth in invention, and provide opportunities in exchanging experiences in invention between young students. In addition, science contests can attract faculty and parents’ attention toward the application of science and technology. The purpose of this study is to practically improve science and technology learning for secondary education students by holding a science contest in Taiwan. It can exemplify how a science contest functions so that other educators can take advantage of this case in designing science courses. In addition, participants can adjust their mindsets and perceptions of science education after understanding the rules and
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roles of this contest. Experiences and hints from this case are extracted for further application. Literature Review 1. Project-based Learning Project-based learning (PBL), as similar but fundamentally different from problembased learning, is a learning method that embodies the ideals of a constructivist approach to learning. PBL includes four principal elements such as guiding questions, project development, collaborative learning, and using technology as a tool (Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, & Soloway, 1994). From the technology project-based approach, students are given an open-ended challenge in which constraints (e.g., a set of materials) are defined. The teacher provides limited guidance while students use their own abilities to complete a design such as a flying toy or a windmill. Project-based learning is aimed specifically at addressing learners’ abilities to apply knowledge. Project design given to students should inspire their thinking in the application of science concepts (Zubrowski, 2002). Through project design, PBL offers many opportunities for inquiry under the continuing challenge to improve the quality and function of a design (Lewis, 2005). Consequently, PBL can be considered as a fundamental attribution of creative teaching through problem solving in technology education (Doppelt, 2005). According to the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China (Taiwan) (2001), the competence indicators of the science and technology learning areas encompass: 1)Skills development in the process, 2)An understanding of science and technology, 3)Development of inquiry and problem solving skills, 4)Team collaboration, and 5)Hands-on design skills in production.
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PBL is a comprehensive approach to learn subject knowledge. It provides an information-rich environment for learners to engage in investigation and enhance the abilities in management change, teamwork buildup, conflict resolution and problem solving (Wood, 2000). Acquisition of practical experiences is crucial to learning (Kilparick, 1921; Dewey, 1938). Psychological research and theory claimed that students learn not only the context of subject but also the thinking strategies through the project-based learning. Such experiences as identifying and solving problems can enhance students’ competency in knowledge acquiring (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). PBL is one of the most practical approaches for incorporating all the above competence into the curriculum of technology education. In addition, it should also be taken into consideration how to enhance the learning effectiveness of project-based learning for both genders.
2. Scientific Thinking and Science Contests Increasing the intersection of cognitive development and science education can help students to be better science learners and literate adults (Zimmerman, 2000). Many education practitioners and instructional designers started to concentrate on the development of scientific thinking for children. Some researchers in America helped design and develop K12 level of science courses for schools based on results in empirical studies (Miserandino, 1996; Mestre & Lockhead, 1990). Thus, scientific thinking became a hot issue for psychologists and educators. Scientific thinking can be defined as a process in which learners apply scientific inquiry methods in reasoning, problem solving, conducting prediction, and theory verification to reflect on cognitive change or knowledge acquisition (Koslowski, 1996; Kuhn & Franklin, 2006; Wilkening & Sodian, 2005). Developmental psychologists have accumulated wellPage 885
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rounded research outcomes of this aspect in terms of conceptual change and formation, reasoning and problem-solving development, and coordination skills of cognition and metacognition. In addition, educational practitioners and cognitive psychologists argue that the enhancement of scientific thinking can improve the learning in science. Scientific contests can be an appropriate method for invigorating scientific thinking, especially in terms of critical and creative reasoning (Thompson & Jorgensen, 1989). It is a kind of active learning which students can positively involve in a meaningful and realistic context. During the process of the interaction, learners can reflect on and construct critical thinking to test and modify knowledge. After internal transferring, learners can construct their own concepts or knowledge (Schomberg, 1986). Learner’s creativity can be also enhanced through the process of information exploring or knowledge applying (Rogers & Price, 2004). Science contests focus on hands-on learning and activities which are the critical components of science inquiry. Learners will be motivated to question and investigate via the personal involvement. These hands-on activities can facilitate individualized understanding of the subjects (Ridgeway & Padilla, 1998). The role and tasks of students in these hands-on activities can be identified clearly in these hands-on activities so that they will be encouraged for active participation. In addition to having better understanding of subject content, learners can feel a sense of belonging and assume responsibilities toward tasks and teams (Oetinger & Hickel, 1997). Some drawbacks of hands-on activities could be caused by not well-organized in instructional design. Sumrall (1997) indicated that this approach could cause learning overload due to heavy workload. In comparison with traditional instruction, it might be more time-consuming and chaotic. Faculty might not have sufficient scientific knowledge and be unfamiliar with activity material. In addition, learners might not have lab experiences as Page 886
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abundant as faculty to identify and implement the cues in these activities which are deemed apparent and easy for faculty to do. Faculty and students have to adjust mind toward teaching and learning so that they know how to interact in learning and figure out scientific connotation behind these hands-on activities (Ridgeway & Padilla, 1998). Generally speaking, science contests aims at fostering learner’s skills and thinking in scientific invention. The hands-on tasks will increase learners’ competence in organizing, imagining, analyzing, and so on. Meanwhile, the teamwork can trigger group creativity, enhance efficiency, and maintain quality control. Unlike traditionally instructional method, science contests can not only build learner’s scientific problem-solving ability in terms of cognitive development in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, but also change the attitude toward the science (Gottfredson, 2003). Case Review The participants in Power Tech contest competed with each other in mechanic inventions. In the preliminary contest, the elementary teams made rolling ants, while the junior teams build jumping ducks. These inventions were arranged to run the speed-running race and the war of tug. The winners of the preliminary contests could advance to the final. The mechanic inventions in the last stage include crawling bugs for the elementary teams and fighting beasts for the junior teams. The grading criteria of the final consisted of project competition (speed-racing and war-of tug), best form in design, and innovative documentation. Those who have the highest overall scores based on these three criteria are the winners. In the Power Tech contest, contestants were required to complete work independently. Instructors and parents could not intervene in the assembling process and project
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competitions. Any violation would lead to disqualification at the discretion of the hosts. However, the instructors and parents did play a critical role before attending the preliminary and final contests. The following sections comprise four parts of the Power Tech contest which provide the details of regulations and process explanation:
1. Instruction for Project Preliminary Competition (1) Competition Regulations: In order to ensure that the contest proceeds smoothly, teams are asked to read contest rules. A. Participants that violate any of the following rules and continue to do so after being asked not to, will be disqualified. B. Parents, teachers, or anybody else not on the team found to be intentionally providing directions (including oral guidance) to a team and during production of projects and the contest. C. During the period time of competition: Anyone who violates the following rules and continues to do so after receiving a warning will be disqualified. Causing obvious damage to tables or chairs due to failure to use equipment in the protection of tables and chairs during the competition will be disqualified. Teams bringing restricted tools or materials which are not permitted by the staff into the contest area will be disqualified. Teams that do not clean up the area after finishing projects and before 12:10 D. During the period time of the competition: The authority has the right to cancel the qualification of participants if the following situation is met. Participants do not arrive in the waiting zone after their names are called three
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times. Participants refuse to accept judges’ decisions during the contest. Participants don’t wear competition pass even after being asked to so. Participants are not permitted to touch projects, even to replace loosing wires or batteries, during the contest. Participants start to work on projects in advance after being asked not to do so. Participants use (semi-) finished products (processed functioning components, including any functioning components, pre-cut materials, gear components, axels, etc.) even after being warned not to do so. Participants whose projects do damage to competition area or cause any injury toward judges. (2) Rules for the use of the tools We made the following rules in terms of resources and skills available with a view to promote the cooperation and the ability to work individually between teams in this competition. A. No electrical or pneumatic tools can be used. B. Any kind of glues is allowed to bind materials. C. For safety’s reason, please be careful when using hand tools. D. For the sake of the environment, the hosting organizer asks participants to use rechargeable batteries. (3) The explanation for Preliminary Competition After finishing the designed projects of preliminary contest within the time, competitors of rolling antes must take part in two stage of preliminary contest. Because of different
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competition items, the requirement for craftsmanship will be considered as different. To fulfill the requirement of craftsmanship during the competition, each team will face the challenge of finding out the break-even point to gain scores. The competition items of preliminary contest are illustrated as the follows: A. First Part: Speed-running race
Finishing
The fundamental requirement after finished the work is to have
Line
it move forward smoothly. In order to reach to the optimal condition of finished work for the contest, there are several factors
170cm
such as the friction, gravity, torque, moment, and distribution of Starting Line
weight all elements needed to be considered. Therefore, the design
40c
of time-attack race is used as the measurement of competitor’s 25cm
performance which described as follows: Competition Area: Shown as Picture Two. Area material: NUDU Board Time Limits: 120 seconds Ways of Competition: Scores accumulated. Several teams competed at one time. Standards of judging: in the beginning and at the end of each competition will be determined by the forward most front leg of each project. Competition procedures:Team representative stands at designated location→prepare(turn on power and wait for whistle)→when hearing the whistle, representative starts. Proceeding to next level: Speedrunning race’s score and tug of war Page 890
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accumlulated scores, 70% of all participants will promot to the final competition. The preliminary contest scores will be counted as a 10% of the total scores at the final contest (Which includes 20% of the design form, 10% of innovational record,10% of preliminary ranking, 60% of final competition). B. Second Competition: tug of war C. After a straight-line speed racing for all competitors, then go on to the next part of the competition, a tug of war. It is a rule of thumb for all competitors to know the fact that the individual work performance of low torque and high is highly recommended in this competition. During the straight-line racing, all competing teams will place great emphases on minimizing the friction derived from the movement of work-of-art and runaway with a view to increase the speed of the projected work. However, competitors will try to find ways to have individual art-of-work produce maximum amount of tension as a result of having maximum amount of torque and static friction in the course of a tug of war contest. Therefore, we add one more contest, tug of war, after straight-line speed racing to test the required performance of all competing works. The detailed information is shown as follows:
Competition Area: Shown as Figure Four.
ime Limit: 15 seconds
Promoted to next level: Speed running race’s
25cm
Point line
score and Tug of War accumlulated scores,
15cm
Middle
then promoted to final competition.
Rope of Tug of War：Shown as Picture Five
Total length of rope of Tug of War 30cm±1cm，
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Red Middle spot place onto the middle. External diameter 2.2cm，Middle Diameter 0.3cm。
Before the tug of war，Judge use finger to touch the rope。
２cm
(4)
Competition
Rope of tug of war30cm±1cm
procedure:
Preparation: Team representative stands at designated location →prepare (turn on power and wait for whistle)→at the sound of the whistle, representative starts.
Tug of war competition: Two teams compete in each contest. The team that pulls its competitor to the designated line within the allotted time wins.
Competition details: The competition will be held on a best two out of three basis. If after three matches there is no clear winner (Note 5), two more matches can be carried out. If a winner still cannot be determined, then a winner will be decided by drawing lots. For contests in which contention over
lings arise, the judging committee will meet and make a decision.
Pic 6 tug of Middle
15c Point
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2. Innovation Documentation Instructions During the process of technological invention, it is obligatory to make improvements. With a view to eliminate the shortcoming of invented works, it is required to make appraisal on mechanic functions from the beginning of the design and decision to the final integration of the organization. After repeating actions or processes, we keep the quintessence to promote the progression. To understand the process of how students create some things new, we crank out a special form to record the process of how students make inventions for the purpose of keeping tracking all problems encountering. The following description indicates details with respect to the record of all processes of invention. (1). Judging method A. Project documentations to be accessed by the judging committee on 31 October, 2007 according to judging standards (As shown in Item B) and will comprise 10% of the overall score. B. Project submission: Jumping Ducks (Junior) / Rolling Ants (Elementary) (2) Judging standards Fill in each area of the innovation documentation as completely and accurately as possible. (Project Design Table, Production Documentation, Record of Ideas, Problem Resolution Chart) (3) Evolutional Chart The major content of Creativity Journals should be text supported by drawings and photographs. The purpose of these charts is to clearly and comprehensively explain the significance of each project. (4) Downloading related information
3：Final competition-Crawling Bugs(Junior)/Fighting Beast(Elementary) Creative Production Instructions
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After going through with first-round competition, outstanding teams can obtain the qualification into the final. In the final, competing teams will be required to integrate the linkage mechanism into the original work instead of direct horsepower output with following the same rules in the beginning. As for the crawling bug and fighting beast, the application all belong to the basic form of linkage mechanism that require canker-rob linkage to generate the power. Under normal operating circumstance, any work with a longer crank handle leads to an increasing magnitude of velocity; on the contrary, any work with a shorter crank handle leads to intensive strength of tension. Therefore, a straight-line running race and a tug-of-war are included in the final contest. The following information is described as: (1) Method of Competition A. Straight-line running race: all participants in the final must take part in a straight-line running race in advance. After the race, sixty-four teams are selected from all competitive teams based on the ranking scale in scores and time consummation. B. Tug of war competition: Two teams compete in each contest. The team that pulls its competitor to the designated line within the allotted time wins. C. Competition details: The competition will be held on a best two out of three basis. If after three matches there is no clear winner (Note 5), two more matches can be carried out. If a winner still cannot be determined, then a winner will be decided by drawing lots. For contests in which contention over rulings arise, the judging committee will meet and make a decision. Note 5: In the event that after three matches a competition begins with one win and two ties and one loss and two ties, then the team with one win and two ties will go on to the next stage of competition.
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(2) Judging wins and losses: Judging standards (1): Projects that pull competitors to the designated point line within the allotted time win (If time runs out, the winner shall be the project that pulled its competitor the furthest distance). Judging standards (2): Any project that does not work properly for whatever reason after being brought into the competition area (projects that can move but are unable to move forward will be viewed as not working), will be viewed as losing. In the event that both projects stop working, the project that stopped working last will be viewed as the winner.Judging standards (3): Any project that falls off the rails during the competition will be considered as having lost that round of the competition.
4. Instructions for Best Design Competition The best design competition will be held in the day of the finals competition. Notes for the competition are as follows: (1) Judging methods A. Judging methods: Project designs are to be judged on five points as shown in Drawing 5 and will be judged by the judging committee on the day of the finals competition. B. Performance judging: Projects participating in the best design competition must be operating normally. Projects that are not operating normally will not be scored for design. C. Judging standards:
Jumping Ducks(Junior)/Rolling Ants(Elementary):To be judged on ability to move in a straight line.
Crawling Bugs (Junior)/Fighting Beasts(Elementary):To be judged on ability to move in a straight line.
(2) Instructions on Best Design in Preliminary/Finals Competition
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A. Project submission:
Jumping Ducks(Junior)/Rolling Ants(Elementary):Team representatives are to submit projects by 09:00.
Crawling Bugs(Junior)/Fighting Beasts(Elementary): Team representatives are to submit projects between 12:00~12:15.
B. Picking up projects:
Jumping Ducks(Junior)/Rolling Ants(Elementary): Projects are to be picked up on site following the 18:00 closing ceremony. They will available for pick up afterwards.
Crawling Bugs(Junior)/Fighting Beasts(Elementary): Projects are to be picked up after team captains meet at 13:00 and are to be placed into the Project Competition.
Note: projects that awards for project and design are to be handled in accordance with the Guidelines for Scoring and Prizes (Please see Appendix 1).
C. Instructions for completing project description:
Size: 15cms high, 10cms wide—about the size of a 4°6 photograph. Please laminate description card.
Content: Clearly write team’s number, name, school, and an explanation of the concept behind the design.
There are no restrictions as to how the text should be written.
Please affix the card securely to the front side of the project.
Please point out how your project is special (e.g., the position of the special effects switch).
Please point out any special functions that your project possesses (e.g., keeping time). Conclusion
The following conclusions were a result of this study: 1. Unlike traditional way of science teaching, this study encouraged project-based learning in terms of holding a competitive contest such as the Power Tech. Science educators placed more emphasizes on project-based science learning (PBSL), which learners engage themselves in the process of identifying variables, analyzing data, and verifying hypotheses.
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2. This study helped learners enhance science literature. In order to win the championship, participants had to pass the preliminary contests hosted in the north, middle, and south areas from the mid October to early November. After going through with all contests, participants achieve more in gaining science knowledge. 3. This study promoted collaborative mind sets between contest participants. The learning styles for participants changed in both cognitive and affective ways through the process of collaborative learning. 4. This study inspired independent thinking in terms of fostering positive attitude in learning. The Power Tech contest helped develop positive attitude toward the learning process with a view to have participants think critically. 5. From the social cognition perspective, this study helped create an atmosphere in making more scientific invention. Holding the Power Tech contests will help create an atmosphere in a creative way for invention. Discussion This section offers a discussion of the relevant findings and conclusions emerging from the study: In Taiwan, Power Tech has gained nationwide reputation in science contests since 2000. From educational perspective, it sets a good example to demonstrate the process and rules of the project-based learning so that faculty and staff in some schools can adopt this model into practical contexts. This demonstration of project-based learning is consistent with the work of Wood (2000) that project-based learning is a comprehensive approach to learn subject knowledge. Additionally, The Power Tech not only encourages creative invention in juvenile, but also increases science literacy among them. This finding is consistent with Zubrowski’s
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(2002) study of application of project-based learning that Project-based learning inspires individual thinking when learners apply science concepts into project design. The case finding of this study indicated that learning styles for participants changed in both cognitive and affective ways through the process of collaborative learning. This is consistent with Gottfredson’s (2003) study of dissecting practical intelligence theory that science contests can not only build learner’s scientific problem-solving ability in terms of cognitive development in the aspect of intrinsic motivation, but also change the attitude toward the science. In the Schomberg’s (1986) study of project-based learning that it is a kind of active learning which students involve in a meaningful and realistic context and learners can reflect on and construct critical thinking to test and modify knowledge. Thompson and Jorgensen (1989) also stated that scientific contests can be an appropriate method for invigorating scientific thinking, especially in terms of critical and creative reasoning. Both statement is consistent with the finding of this study that the Power Tech inspired independent thinking in terms of fostering positive attitude in learning and helped develop positive attitude toward the learning process with a view to have participants think critically. References Ausubel, D. P., (1963). The psychology of meaningful verbal learning, New York: Grune & Stratton. Chi, H. T. H., Slotta, J. D., & de Leeuw, N. (1994). From things to processes: A theory of capital change for learning science concept. Learning and Instruction, 4, 27-45. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. MacMillan, New York. Doppelt, Y. (2005). Assessment of project-based learning in a mechatronics context. Journal of Technology Education, 16 (2), 7-24.
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Gottfredson, L.S. (2003). Dissecting practical intelligence theory: Its claims and evidence. Intelligence, 31(1), 343-397. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review. 16, 235-266. Kilpatrick, W. H. (1921). The project method, Teach. Coll. Rec. 19, 319-335. Koslowski, B. (1996). Theory and evidence: The development of scientific reasoning. Cambridge: MIT Press. Krajcik, J. S., Blumenfeld, P. C., Marx, R. W., & Soloway, E. (1994). A collaborative model for helping middle grade science teachers to learn project-based instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 94(5), 483-497. Kuhn, D., & Franklin, S. (2006). The second decade: What develops (and how). In: W. Damon, R.M. Lerner, D. Kuhn, & R. S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Cognition, perception and language (pp. 953-993). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Kuutti, K. (1996). Activity theory as a potential framework for human-computer interaction research. In: B.A. Nardi (Eds.), Context and consciousness: Activity theory and humancomputer interaction (pp.17-44). Cambridge, MA: MIT press. Lewis, T. (2005). Coming to terms with engineering design as content. Journal of Technology Education, 16(2), 37-54. Mestre, J. P. & Lockhead, J. (1990). Academic preparation in science. N.Y.: The College Board. Miserandino, M. (1996). Children who do well in school: Individual differences in perceived competence and autonomy in above average children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 397-407.
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Oetinger, H., V., & Hickel, A. (1997, September). Launching student interest. The Science Teacher, 24-28. Ridgeway, V. G., & Padilla, M. J. (1998). Guided thinking. The Science Teacher, 18-21. Rogers, Y. and Price. S. (2004). Extending and augmenting scientific enquiry through pervasive learning environments. Children, Youth and Environments. 14, 2. 67-83. Schomberg, S. (1986). Strategies for active teaching and learning in university classroom. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota press. Sumrall, W., J. (1997, January). Why avoid hands-on science? Science Scope, 16-19. Thompson, J., & Jorgensen, S. (1989). How interactive in instructional technology: Alternative models for looking at interactions between learners and media. Educational Technology, 29(2), 24-26. Vosniadou, S., & Verschaffel, L. (2004). Extending the conceptual change approach to mathematics learning and teaching. Learning and Instruction, 14 (5), 445-451. Wilkening, F., & Sodian, B. (2005). Scientific reasoning in young children: Introduction. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 64, 137–139. Woods, D. R. (2000, December). Helping your students gain the most from PBL. Asia-Pacific Conference on PBL. Dec 4-7. Singapore. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective. In Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P., & Zeodmer, M. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation. Academic Press.
Zubrowski, B. (2002). Integrating science into design technology projects: Using a standard model in the design process. Journal of Technology Education, 13(2), 47-70.
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Running head: Science Argumentation and Situated Learning
Science Argumentation in Situated Blended Learning
Jon-Chao Hong, Jiann-Yeou Chen, Ming-Hsien Li
Department of Industrial Education College of Technology National Taiwan Normal University 162, He-ping East Road, Section 1, Taipei 10610, Taiwan
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Abstract In inquiry-based science classrooms, lots of emphases are placed on the role of students to negotiate understandings (Crawford, 2005; Polman, 2000). The question that guides our analysis considers how students explore science to further their participation in scientific practice. We then design a game-like situation which students can inquiry the science knowledge through argumentation in problem solving that its elicitation is possible and beneficial for learning. By focusing on the interactions between students, we designed a blended learning platform which incorporated three major problems: airplane cannot take off, airplane being blown away and crashing in landing for K 5 and K 6 students to figure out the right way. The results of this study indicate that students would learn much more actively as they engage in science argumentation.
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Science Argumentation in Situated Blended Learning
Introduction Dialogic argumentation has long been of broad interest to learning psychologists, particularly those who regard social collaboration as central to cognitive development (Moshman, 2005; Rhodes, & Gelman, 2008). According to Piagetian tradition, the concepts of the cognitive conflicts lead children to seek equilibrium. Such conflicts may be resulted from pairing students with different opinions or expertise (Azmitia & Perlmutter, 1989; Ellis, Klahr, & Siegler, 1993). Consequently, arranging people together with different opinions to solve a problem furnishes with opportunities for learning. Learning is the result of certain social settings that force the elaboration and justification of various positions (Rogoff, 1998, p. 408). Rogoff (1998) states, ‘‘it may be not the conflict but the processes of co-elaboration which support cognitive progress, as several major points of view are examined and modified to produce a new idea’’ (p. 717). Children’s collective process of argumentation with peers has been claimed to be a basically developmental process where the coordination of arguments bring participants into sets of collectively valid, objective and coherent statements (Miller, 1987). Hence, many studies associated with cognitive development in peers have pointed to the advantage of cooperative learning in terms of acquiring skills in academic (Huber & Eppler, 1990; Shahar & Sharan, 1995). Learning through dialogue has been an object of research in different contexts in the 1990s (Darbyshire 1995). Several researchers attempt to study the role of argumentation in reasoning and knowledge construction (Hershkowitz & Schwarz, 1999; Resnick, Salmon, Zeitz, Wathen, & Holowchak, 1993). In many studies, argumentations are regarded as verbal and social activities of reason planning to increase (or decrease) the acceptability of the controversial standpoints (Van Eemeren, Grootendorst, & Snoeck Henkemans, 1996). Researchers have recognized that
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argumentation on scientific issues is difficult to sustain and rarely occurs (Baker, 2003). The question that guides our analysis considers how students discourse about science to their participation in scientific practice through computer software. The focus of educationally oriented research on argumentative discourse has been on devising scaffolds (typically computer software) to support the argumentation process (Andriessen, 2006; Andriessen, Baker, & Suthers, 2004; Chinn, 2006; Clark & Sampson, 2005; Glassner & Schwarz, 2005; Nussbaum, 2005). We then design a game-like situation in which students can inquiry the science knowledge through argumentation in problem solving that its elicitation is possible and beneficial for learning. By focusing on the interactions between students, we may expect contribute to research on science instruction that views students as more active contributors to their learning.
Literature Review From a pragmatic perspective, arguments can only be judged based on some specific goal with in consideration of the tools and resources available. An argument may be great, because it explains the most evidence and persuades the listener to solve a problem, all these outcomes may be considered as equally valid and arguments that achieve them equally good (Hagler & Brem, 2008). Baker (2003) defined argumentation as ‘‘A type of dialogical or dialectal game that is played upon and arises from the terrain of collaborative problem solving, and that is associated with collaborative meaning making’’ (p. 48). Baker further claims that ‘‘interpersonal and interactive pressures imposed by the necessity to deal with conflicting views are particularly conducive to collaborative sense making which is beneficial for learning’’ (p. 48). The collaborative situation is realized through a task that affords symmetry of action and co-working, and instructions given by an experimenter to maintain the common goal of accommodating (divergent) views and understanding (Schwarz & Linchevski, 2007).
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As for peer interaction, prior knowledge cannot be considered in isolation but as what Andriessen, Baker, and Suthers (2003) have called, confronting cognitions, the relations between the cognitions of the peers influences others who have prior knowledge to deploy in the interaction. Peers may disagree on the solution to a problem as a consequence of their previous different knowledge and accommodate their divergent views to elaborate on new knowledge. They may coelaborate new knowledge through collaboration if their previous knowledge does not engender contradictions. According to Baker (1999, 2003) who defines an argumentative situation as one which a group of interlocutors cooperate in solving a particular problem, which a number of different solutions to that problem are proposed and in which the different interlocutors feel obliged to choose between solutions which are perceived as having different epistemic statuses (more or less plausible, acceptable, etc.). Asterhan and Schwarz (2005) used these ideas to propound the following categorization: 1. Two-sided argumentation: The dialogue contains more than one solution which students feel obliged to choose from, or the dialogue contains a single proposed solution which is both contested as well as defended. Note that this interaction may have been adversarial in nature, or not. 2. One-sided argumentation or reasoning: The dialogue contains only one proposed solution and students provide justifications and explanations for the reason why this solution is correct according to them. 3. No argumentation: Students who put forward a solution without providing any justification or reason for it are considered to be correct or incorrect. Language and Thought From a Piagetian (1985) viewpoint, the egocentrism is pivotally defined as the tendency of children’s logic and thought to perceive, understand and interpret the world in terms of the self. In his theory, direct thought is considered at stage of cognitive development as conscious, which means
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that it is adapted to the reality and have an effect on others, it also recognize True or False through logical reasoning. When directed thought develops, it will be significantly affected by someone’s experience and logic as social interactions taking place. Unlike direct thought, “Autistic thought is subconscious, which means that the problems or issues that it aims to solve are not presented under consciousness”. Further, “autistic thought is not adapting into the reality and it constructs a dream world for imagination” (Vygotsky, 1986, pp. 15-16). Therefore, autistic thought, on the other hand, is individualistic to obey a set of special laws of its own (Vygotsky, 1986). From the cognitive perspective, social interactions are pivotal to the processes of cognitive elaboration (Dekker, ElshoutMohr & Wood, 2004; O’Donnell & King, 1999). Language serves the purpose of explaining, reasoning, questioning, thinking and developing knowledge (Mercer, 2000; Wegerif, Mercer, & Dawes, 1999). Specifically, the concept of dialogic learning evolved from the investigation and observation of how people learn double faced of organizations and deems as a potentially adequate instruction strategy for value-loaded critical thinking of stimulation. Also, it spurs students on processing beyond the great of knowledge telling (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). In this study, questions that the other participants ask facilitating further thinking and add other (moral) perspectives to the issue at hand and critical thinking and dialogue are often linked. Paul (1992, 1994) considers fostering dialogue as one of critical thinking methods. Thus, dialogues can make it possible to take others’ perspective into consideration, which is necessary for the assessment of truth claims. If students can process critical dialogue based on logic thinking, their thought will be more realistic toward the truth.
Methodology Factors influencing scientific argumentation 1. General reasoning skills: Brickell, Ferry, and Harper (2002) define reasoning as a
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comprehensive term that is usually applied to a statement in justification or explanation of a thought or action that has transpired. In its application to solving problem, reasoning may be considered to be the cognitive processes concerned with the drawing of conclusions or inferences that support a particular plan of action undertaken to receive training. The most critical skills identified in this study are: posing questions, evaluating and justifying predictions, evaluating observations, identifying patterns, drawing conclusions, framework models, inferring, identifying relevant information, comparing and contrasting evidence, and discussing concept meaning. 2. Prior knowledge and current resources: Prior knowledge and current resources can also have a significant effect on types of argument that people produce intentionally or unintentionally. Brem and Rips (2000) found that people who are capable of producing structurally sound arguments in adaptation of strategies considered structurally weak in the absence of evidence, and judged arguments lacking of evidence more favorably when debaters have insufficient information to go upon. Questions of this study Since the 1960s, inquiry-based teaching approaches have been advocated among science educators to help promote students’ logical thinking, knowledge understanding and scientific reasoning abilities (Cavallo et al., 2004). In inquiry-based science classrooms where great emphasis is placed on the role of students negotiate understandings (Crawford, 2005; Polman, 2000). In this social interaction, the contributions of students directly affected the architect in the vanguard of scientific advance. This analysis builds on research that draws attention to students’ contributions to science instruction. Therefore, the scaffold conditions of this study were set out in an in-class environment. During the experiment section, students are given opportunities to justify their reasoning skill through observations from multiple hints provided from the interactive computer system. Students also expected to engage in scientific thinking and anticipative with experiment through the scientific knowledge. Page 907
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The following are the basic principles guiding the control condition: (1) Critical thinking training for reasoning orientation. (2) The contexts are meaningful, rich, and creatively domainspecific subjects. (3) The learning to think realistically takes in literate. And most import, the principle was applied only in the argument condition. Thus the following hypotheses are placed to guide the study: 1. Will the two side argumentation have a more positive effect than the single side and nonargumentation on students’ fluency of reasoning? 2. Will the two side argumentation have a more positive effect than the single side and nonargumentation on their attitude toward dialogic learning? 3. Will the two side argumentation have a more positive effect than the single side and nonargumentation on developing realistic reasoning instead of autistic reasoning with the content knowledge? Design of Science Inquiry Lesson Driver, Squires, Rushworth, and Wood-Robinson (1994) describe the design of science inquiry lesson for students as making sense of phenomena, science events and experiments as alternative frameworks or exploratory talk. Various researchers have asserted that teachers must draw on and acknowledge students’ exploratory talk, then inculcate students in more rigorous discourse of scientific disciplines. In case, teachers must be aware of scientific interactions with a view to provide the area of discourses for students to discuss based on events and the formation of discourses (i.e., ways of communicating) that are peculiar to situated science events. When individuals face with outcomes that bring forward opposing opinions toward the conclusions, they are generally not able to capitalize on contradictions that come from hypothesis testing for conceptual change (Tolmie & Howe, 1993).Then, argumentative design should be associated with the presence of a testing device for making hypotheses. However, if tasks are
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designed to lead students to response toward certain strategies and conclusions, the confrontation of their cognitions leads also to better predictions and influence of initial cognitions on subsequent learning (Schwarz, Neuman, & Biezuner, 2000). Empirical studies of argumentative science education focus on students’ thinking skills, namely, identify assumptions and valid information sources and draw valid conclusions (Kuhn & Udell, 2003; Osborne, Erduran, & Simon, 2004; Zohar & Nemet, 2002). The purpose of this study aims to study the effect of several aspects of argumentative design on conceptual knowledge, which not only focuses on testing newly conceptual framework, but also gives a guideline toward the interactive process. The designed framework is concerned with scientific reasoning and trying to facilitate the choice of task and the identification of learning outcomes. However, more detailed analyses of the required skills and desired learning activities are made for the design of the effective learning environment. This study is going to take place by utilizing the supporting courseware that is specifically developed to guide students to gain experiences to realize abstract science concept such as “The Bernoulli’s Principle”. The game used in this study is “The Wrights”; this software game will focus on the basic aeronautics knowledge issues and it included three steps learning in situations. The mission one is to help a plane to takeoff, the second missions is how to maintain a plane from crosswind, and safely landing on the ground. For each mission comprises three or four categories of options, including airplane material, airfoil width, wind direction, location of tire, and so forth. (The Appendix 2 provides the screenshots of this game.) In addition, this game allows players to share their experiences in the web conference room. Participants can create virtual dialogues to increase learning experiences. In order to improve players’ knowledge of aviation, some hyperlinks are available for the access of relevant concepts or information. Also, this game is capable of facilitating players to construct their knowledge during the process of the play. During the game, students will immediately get feedbacks and responses of their
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chosen options, thus, if the function setting was unsuccessfully, players will modify their initial setting and re-challenge the same question again by trying out for another solutions. Players participate not only in the learning process, It is also in design the story as they go through the storyline by choosing between events, deciding upon characters and behaviors. This active engagement and empowerment is an example of constructive learning (Dettori, Giannetti, Paiva, & Vaz, 2006). Data Collection Scientific reasoning involves in intentional, strategic and meta-strategic processes. Sodian and Bullock (2008) quote other researchers’ findings of three key components of mature scientific reasoning: (1) “the ability to reason about multiple causal effects from the outcome, rather than the effects of single variable, (2) the development of constructing understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge,(3) the ability with consummate scientific argumentation” (p.431). Toulmin (1958) presented a model of arguments composed of claims connected to backing, or data, through warrants; arguments can be further shaped through the use of qualifiers and modifiers. Various psychological models adapt Toulmin’s account (primarily the identification of claims, backing, and warrants) to generate descriptive and normative analyses of arguments. The structural argument model can also be implemented in a more qualitative way, identifying claims, counterclaims, rebuttals, and so on; the key element is that these labels can be applied across domains by the purpose of discourse. Another concern is to explore the argument effectiveness; the stages of analysis by Frijters, Dam, and Rijlaarsdam (2008) would be used for this study. Those stages of analysis in argument are: Stage I: Are the participants really discussing the same thing content? Stage II: Analyzing five levels of argument skills: (1) Being able to share personal opinions with fellow students; (2) Being able to form one’s own opinion in a dialogue, utilize the input of fellow students; Page 910
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(3) Being able to contribute in a dialogue to the opinion forming of fellow students (coconstruction of opinions (standards and values) and to contribute to clarification of fellow students’ opinions (standards and values) ; (4) Being able to validate/appraise one’s own opinion from the perspective of justice and respect; (5) Being able to validate/appraise the opinions of others from the perspective of justice and respect. Stage III: Stage of individual realization; investigating the ability to discuss situations. When making analyses of learning in dialogue, the data were collected by videotaping the planning of the course, its implementation, and the process of analysis as a whole. The main advantage of videotaping is that several people can be observed at the same time without losing the richness of interaction. Video is a useful tool in analyzing whether players act and talk logically. In this study, observation is the primary data collection method. It directly targets the first-hand information of the topic based on the insights from the children. During the experiment, students were required to play the Wrights game twice. In the first attempt, they were instructed to play without any guideline or instruction. After they finished the game for the first time, they were gathered to share their experiences. Teachers helped them to organize questions and leaded them into group discussion. After 30 minutes of group activities, the students were asked to play the game again and the cameras were set up to videotape the entire processes. Data Analysis One of the most frequently for analysis process is “Coding”; It is the process of categorizing or referencing the collected conclusive data into text file with codes and print out sequence to indicate logs and meanings (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2006). This analytical tool used in this study is to reduce effectively the data into a manageable form as well as identifying the similarities among the participants’ responses, which were recorded and processed in to reports. When reporting on the
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texts, researchers’ used the open coding technique to identify potential themes by pulling out examples or incidents from the text data (Langenbach, Vaughn, & Aagaard, 1994; Ryan & Bernard, 2003). After marking texts, researchers could reduce issues or index the text segments, because they could locate keywords or repeating phrases in text (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The constant comparison method was the common technique to link the emergent themes in theoretical models (Dye, Schatz, Rosenberg, & Coleman, 2000; Bailey, 2007). The researchers compared each incident in theme. After refining the properties of themes, researchers used the axially coding technique to integrate codes around the axes of the central categories. (Ezzy, 2002; Miles & Huberman, 1994). Credibility The perspective of credibility has been considered to evaluate the scientific value of qualitative research since they required qualitative standards and criteria (Sandelowsky, 1993). Verifying qualitative text involves in two things: credibility and trustworthiness. On one hand, it is almost impossible for researchers not to add any subjective perspective to the phenomena under study. But on the other hand, the researcher must let the text talk and not imply meanings with the non-text. Both concerns are related to the trustworthiness of collected data (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). Credibility of research findings deals with how well the data are categorized, which means no relevant data have been inadvertently or systematically excluded or irrelevant data included. One way to accomplish this is to show representative quotations from the transcribed text. Graneheim and Lundman (2004) and Merriam (1988). The tri-angulation method is applied to ensure the data verification.
Research Findings The results based on consequential manuscripts included: systematic difficulties, operational issues, strategic discussion, and scientific argumentation. Systematic difficulties include system crushes, computer failure, device difficulties and technologic logic. Operational issues were related Page 912
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to how students combined each of selections, to rotated players, and cooperated in the game. In order to solve three questions, kids discussed strategies and setting plan when involving in playing. This category was related to the analysis of failure, the discussion of new strategies, and the record of each move. The last part was scientific argumentation in which students handled questions with scientific considerations, such as airplane material, angle-changed in landing. The flowchart of the research framework is shown as follows:
Systematic
Operational
Scientific
Strategic
Examples: First issue: Aircraft cannot take off Pink: Girl in pink jacket TIME
Blue: Boy in blue jacket
Boy: Boy in uniform
Recalled Dialogs
Note
00:11
Blue: Teacher over here!
Teacher
00:14
Pink: I can’t find the web
CODE
00:32
page!
shows the children how to
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Pink: WUGUE (Discussing
01:27
the login user name)
Wright Brother
01:38
Pink: You are not helping by
01:41
sitting next to me, why don’t you
01:45
swap sit with him?
01:48
Bleu: What are you yelling at!
01:51
Pink: Swap your sit with him
01:52
01:57 02:02 02:56 03:07~ 03:19
Pink: He will help you with this. Blue: Gee! What is your problem?
03:56 04:14 04:18 04:32 04:35 04:44
you can do? Aircraft
Boy: That’s right, let’s sit together.
cannot take off There are
complaining?
03:42
Aircraft cannot take off, what
Blue: Why are you still
03:34
Flying website
Question 1:
right now!
01:56
operate the
some autistic responses to be
Pink: He can do this much faster!
selected; 1st response uses
Blue: He got the mouse
birds to lift, 2nd uses cannon, &
already okay! Pink: Look! Someone is talking again!
3rd used balloons.
Pink: Press the button! Press the button!
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04:46 04:50 04:51
Boy: Pick the last one; the wind factors.
The 2nd
Blue: Pick the others! Use the
attempt by
04:55
hot air balloon; Let me Press the
using the hot
04:56
take off button!
air balloon.
04:58
XXXXXXXX
05:19
Blue: Ah! Failed... it is too
05:25 05:28 05:30 05:35 05:36 05:39 05:51 05:55
(Failed)
heavy Boy: One more time, let’s try one more time! Blue: Paper! Use paper! (Aircraft made by strong paper) Boy: Use the Cannon! Use the
The 3rd attempt(Failed)
Cannon! Pink: Don’t use the cannon! Blue: You are such a looser by
06:06
using the cannon.
06:13
Pink: Yes, Cannon is heavy!
06:26
Boy: Choose the wind
06:34 06:43 07:06
direction.
attempt (Failed)
Pink: That one! Choose the last one, just press it! Boy: The first one is better!
07:19
The 4th
Blue: The little bird!
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07:48
Pink: Balloon! The Balloon!
08:00
Pink: Don't you want to try
08:08 08:15 08:19
taking off for once?
The material selection is
Blue: Just use the cannon! Blow it away!
correct, but it would only take
Boy: Balloon! Balloon!
off if over 3
08:23
Pink: Let's try taking off.
options were
08:32
XXXXXXX
correct.
08:35
Pink: I said, I want the cannon!
The 5th
08:40
Pink: Try that first.
attempt
08:43
Pink: What did you use the
(Failed)
09:05 09:42
last time? Boy: This won’t work. Blue: Try first, we will think
09:47
of something else if it doesn't work.
Discussion of Wing position
09:48
XXXXX
09:58
Blue: Not working is normal.
10:03
Pink: I knew it.
wing position,
10:08
Boy: The Bird, Bird!
the 6th attempt
Pink: The bird will crash the
(Failed)
10:14
plane! Blue: Let’s try it first, will try
10:22
Set the
something else if not working.
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Discussion of wing
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10:24 10:30
Blue: It’s flying! It’s flying!
direction.
But why is it so slow? Boy: It’s crashing.
10:31
XXXXX Blue: Use paper, use hot air balloon. Pink: It got to be hot air balloon.
Discussion of larger the
Blue: Let’s choose the paper
wing.
material first, and then try the balloon. Boy: This place is only Fly till two
for.....the skeleton. 10:54 11:10
Pink: What about iron and
third of the way. (Fail)
steel? Boy: Iron won’t take off; won't something more flexible work better? Pink: Sure, add on that flexible plastic.
Only 10
Blue: Test flight! Test flight! Test flight! 11:25
chances (10 planes to be tried out
XXXXXX Blue: Use the normal position,
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the middle of the aircraft. Boy: The tail, the tail! Boy: To lift the head up is more important! Blue: Oh, really? I forgot about that. Blue: Test flight! Test flight! XXXXXX Boy: It only gets to two third of the way every time. Boy: We chose the wrong wind direction! Use opposite direction, the opposite direction! Blue: Wrong Wrong Wrong ! Of course it has to be the same wind direction. Anyway, I want to try again. Pink: Hey, it's worse them the last time, don’t try to cheat! XXXXXX Pink: Hum, did you make the wing bigger? Pink: Is the wing bigger now? Boy: Yes it is.
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Pink: Let’s try that first. Blue: I know all the options, didn’t you see it? Let’s just try anything. Pink: We can’t just try anything; we only got three planes left, if we got this time wrong, it would be...
Boy: The wing’s shape is raised up on the upper side, and concaved on the bottom side, when the plane is flying; the wing will cut the air flow in to two half so it creates a difference in airflow. Therefore according to the Bernoulli’s Principle, the invisible air flow created by the two different air pressures would form the rise force of the plane, and that’s why we have to increase the wing size. (Boy & Pink claps in the same time) Pink: Let’s try again! God please
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help. Boy: It is flying! Pink: We did it!
Stage I: Are the participants really discussing the same topic content? As shown from the above dialog, participants start off discussing random topics which does not have any direct link to the given task. Participants started off familiarizing with the surrounding environments which includes the social interaction between one another and exploding the environments (Changing the sits, finding the right tools). At this stage, participants showed more interest in personal arguments between one another instead of systematic discussion towards the task given. As shown from the dialog, the conversation tends to take place on autistic reasoning approach where all participants tends to focus on fulfilling interest in various combination of possible solutions without systematic and scientific approach. But as soon as the test system started to interact with participants the participants start to draw attention to the system and subconsciously start to shift the dialog content into achieving group’s mutual goal and task. Stage II: Analyzing five levels of argument skills: (1) Being able to share personal opinions with fellow students; based on dialogues between them, all participants are able to share individual opinion with fellow students. Each student construes an argument to support a claim and all students engage in debate of opposing claims as argumentation. For example, the use of material structure for airplane to take off, the selection of wind blowing (tail-wind or front-wind). (2) Being able to form one’s own opinion in a dialogue, utilizing the input of fellow students; Students are able to from his or her opinion in conjunction with adopting fellow student’s opinion.
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For example, in the course of selection of wing position, boy in blue jacket adopt boy’s statement that lifting the head up is essential for airplane before take off. Some scholars state that extended exercise of thinking and reasoning skill in a cognitively rich environment can serve as a sufficient condition for argument skill development. (3) Being able to contribute in a dialogue to the opinion forming of fellow students (coconstruction of opinions (standards and values)) and to contribute to clarification of the opinions (standards and values) of fellow students; students are able to make constructive contribution in a dialogue that each student adopts fellow student’s input opinion and clarify standards and values of his or her own. For example, when players discussing the size of the wing, both pink and boy come to terms that bigger wing stand a better change for air plan to take off. Also, the theoretical principle of Bernoulli serves as a reasoning standard to others with a view to clarify his statement. For many, collaborative discussion appears to be an effective training ground for the development of argument skills and the process of the argumentation. (4) Being able to validate/appraise one’s own opinion from the perspective of justice and respect. For childhood, it is unlikely for them to validate his or her own opinion from the perspective of justice and respect most of the time. At the beginning of conversion, pink showed no respect to peers. But they finally make a great achievement in terms of the trial and error. (5) Being able to validate/appraise opinions of others from the perspective of justice and respect. The adult is more likely to address opponent’s argument through counterargument in which is to undermine their opponent’s argument as well as advance their own argument. For this case, children tend to focus attention on the outcome of airplane take-off through the method of trial and error without showing respect for each other. More often, they validate opinions of others through the outcome instead of perspectives of justice and respect. With a view to achieve the best outcome,
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participants who engage in collaborative discussion will appears to be an effective training ground for the development of argument skills and the process of the argumentation. Stage III: Stage of individual realization: Examining the ability to discuss various views in new situations. At final stage, as shown from 08:19, students are starting to distinguish the strength of other members based on their interaction as well as individuals who realize their strength in particular field. As shown from 08:35, the boy in uniform is starting to show his ability in logical thinking and guide the experiment subconsciously with both realistic reasoning and scientific approaches. Throughout the entire activity, students have formed a framework which enables them to solve new situations in application of realistic reason.
Discussion Amaral, Mendez, and Garrison (2002), and Amaral and Klentchy (2005) suggested that an explicit focus on science classroom discourse, in particular an academic language, is needed to prepare students to talk like scientists. 1. Scientific argumentations in the Wrights When playing the Wrights game, students created scientific dialogues. According to the transcripts, the most frequent matter mentioned was the comparison in material. These three questions proposed in this game allow students to select different material for the aircraft and students usually compare different materials for making airplanes. A1 Student: it is too light to be held firmly on the ground. , A2 Student: Adding stones onto the plane would be helpful. Can we do that? A3. How about making an iron airplane instead of plastic one? B1 Student: What kind of materials should we employ? B2 Student: Hang on. Hang on. I know how to do it.
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B3 Student: Change the direction of the wind? B2 Student: Why don’t we give a try in paper? That’s it. And click on the “Try” button. B1, B3 yell: Yeah! It takes off successfully. We did it. Another alternation student come up with is to increase the weight of airplane so as to let planes take off, or keep it from crosswind. Some students take the weight into consideration in order to achieve individual mission. For example, students select papers to make airplane, and add stones to stabilize planes. The other argumentations made by students include changing the direction of the wind in use of tools such as chains to fix airplanes on the ground. One of teams even searched on the Internet for the principle of Bernoulli or the supportive information to solve the issues. According to students’ discussion, issues related to physical model are solutions relevant to the practical considerations such as increasing the weight, change materials, fixing the method, and using tools. In comparison of Piaget’s theory of the children development, the fifth or sixth graders could perform abstract thinking, but students of this study did not demonstrate their capability in the same aspect. The reason might be related to aviation topics, but are not covered in the elementary education curriculums. In fact discovered in this aspect is that students barely deepened their scientific conversations. Even though some students could conduct scientific dialogues, they did not further elaborate argumentations into. They use commonsense to select the option instead of arguing their application of scientific knowledge with others. Two reasons are found. The first is that students aim to win the game instead of discussing relevant issues with others, while the second is that aviationrelated topics are not on the text and students may not have knowledge to understand the relevant issues in aviation. 2. The dynamics of the collaboration Some researchers believed that a child’s play and cognitive abilities developed in an interdependent process. According to Piaget tradition, cognitive conflicts lead children to seek
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equilibrium (Ellis, Klahr, & Siegler, 1993). Such conflicts may be resulted from pairing students with different opinions or expertise. Therefore, grouping people with different opinions to solve a problem provides opportunities for learning. Learning is the result of certain social settings that force the elaboration and justification of various positions (Rogoff, 1998). Cooperation is much more than being physically near other students, discussing material , function setting or calculated crosswind logic and landing strategic with other students, helping each other , or sharing experience, although each of these is important in cooperative learning (Suthers, 1995; Smith, 1995; Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1991; Chen & Chen, 2004; Daniel et al., 2003).When playing this game, the dynamics of the collaboration among students are two aspects: the operational issues and strategic discussions. In regard to the operational issues, how to combine options was the most common issue. When students consider the Wrights as a game they involved in and try to win, they try to find correct answers in shortest period of time. Therefore, they tried different combination of options to achieve the mission. Here is the example in below: E1 Student: How about the air bag? E2 Student: It did not work last time. It was exploded when the plane laded on it. E3 Student: Let me see. How about using the mattress instead? E1, E2 Students: I don’t really think it will work! Although the argumentation is often an inner process of reflective thinking, in everyday life it is mostly part of dialogic communication (Mila & Andersen, 2007). Some strategies that players took on to solve the proposed questions are indicators of exploring the dynamics of collaboration between them. Students collaborate on consider what to do is possible options, analyzing the actions, recording the process, and copying answers from other teams. Most of the time, the atmosphere of the discussion is fun and active along with a little nervous.
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Conclusions According to the study, students work together during the period time of game playing and they seem to learn scientific knowledge with fun and interests. By comparing with traditional inclass lectures, playing the Wrights game provides another alternative for scientific learning. The digitally situational games allow the co-competitive approach for students. In other word, they collaborate and compete with each other for the accomplishment of the mission. The study echoes the fact that the scientific argumentation for fifth or sixth graders is concrete even though the level of students’ cognitive development may be ready for abstract thinking, but they are stuck with practical thinking when encountering with unfamiliar issues in science. The finding indirectly places an emphasis on the importance of teachers’ role. In order to achieve the effectiveness of learning, a teacher needs to prepare students with enough prerequisite skills and knowledge as well as creating an environment for the exploration of new stuff and subjects. Additionally, technological difficulties will prevent students from the involvement of game playing. Some students felt anxious about the difficulties and being marginal in case of these difficulties are remained. So, increasing the reliability and playfulness of games are critical factors for students to succeed. With the correctly subjective content and decent interface design, the students will immerse themselves for scientific knowledge exploration. Otherwise, students will not take it seriously for learning, which the purpose of game design will not be served.
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Collaborating with ‘real’ scientists and engineers to increase pre-service early childhood teachers’ science content knowledge and confidence to teach science
Christine Howitt1, Elaine Blake1, Martina Calais2, Yvonne Carnellor1, Sandra Frid1, Simon Lewis1, Mauro Mocerino1, Lesley Parker1, Len Sparrow1, Jo Ward1 and Marjan Zadnik1
1
Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia 2
Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia
All correspondence to Christine Howitt
[email protected]
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Abstract This research took a strategic approach to the challenge of better preparing pre-service early childhood teachers to teach science. A uniquely cross-discipline and collaborative approach between scientists, engineers, teacher educators and pre-service teachers was employed. The purpose of the project was to develop, implement and evaluate flexible, integrated and engaging science resources for early childhood pre-service teachers. These resources aimed to provide pre-service teachers with science content knowledge and pedagogical skills, thus increasing their confidence to teach science in the early childhood classroom. Four modules of work based upon astronomy, forensic science, cleanliness and solar energy were developed and implemented into the early childhood science methods course. The process for the collaborative development of the modules is described in detail. Pre-service teachers’ science content knowledge and confidence to teach science increased across the course. Increased science content knowledge was due to active participation within the science methods course, access to the scientists/engineers to explain concepts, and information provided within the modules. Increased confidence was due to being shown how to teach science to young children, the wide range of ideas and activities presented that could be transferred to the early childhood classroom, and increased science content knowledge. The success of this project is a reflection of the commitment of the scientists/engineers and teacher educators, the recognition of the importance of science in the early years of education and the flexibility of all concerned. This research has been funded by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council.
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Collaborating with ‘real’ scientists and engineers to increase pre-service early childhood teachers’ science content knowledge and confidence to teach science Introduction Various reports have identified urgent needs for science education in Australia, in particular in relation to maintaining and increasing capability to teach science at all levels of schooling (e.g. Australian Academy of Technological Science and Engineering, 2002; Dow, 2003; Goodrum, Hackling & Rennie, 2001; Harris, Jensz & Baldwin, 2005; Tytler, 2007). The most recent reports at both the national and State levels have recommended the development of comprehensive ‘action plans’. For example, the Commonwealth sponsored the initial phase of production of a National Action Plan for Australian School Science Education 2008-1012 (Goodrum & Rennie, 2007), and the Queensland Government produced a discussion paper putting forward possibilities for a 10-year plan for Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education and skills in Queensland (Department of Education, Training and the Arts, 2007). Many of these reports highlight a ‘crisis’ in science education, in terms of students’, teachers’, and national needs. Briefly, they provided convincing evidence that students are not enrolling in science courses or science education courses in sufficient numbers; appropriately trained teachers of science are in short supply; the science-related background of teachers, particularly those at primary and early childhood levels, is inadequate especially in an increasingly scientific and technological society; and the critical shortage of people with STEM knowledge, skills and/or appreciation continues to be a national concern, especially in innovation and economic terms. Over the past decade, a number of initiatives have attempted to address the studentrelated dimensions of this problem, particularly increasing engagement in STEM at the upper primary and secondary school levels. Examples of these include the Australian Academy of Page 933
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Science ‘Primary Connections’ program, the Collaborative Australian Secondary Science Program (CASSP), the Creativity in Science and Technology (CREST) program, the Science Education Assessment Resources (SEAR) program, the Australian Science Teachers’ Association Science Awareness Raising Model, and the recent Scientists in Schools (SiS) program. In addition, resources have been dedicated recently to the development of high quality on-line, science and mathematics curriculum content for Australian schools by the Learning Federation (www.thelearning federation.edu.au). However, few of the initiatives to date have focused specifically on the needs of pre-service teachers, and even fewer have addressed the needs of the early childhood pre-service teacher. This paper reports on the outcomes of a project that took a highly collaborative and cross-discipline approach between scientists, engineers, teacher educators and early childhood pre-service teachers to encourage the latter to teach more science, with greater confidecne, in the classroom. This collaborative approach involved both the development of science modules along with the delivery of these modules within a science methods course. The first part of this paper describes the characteristics of early childhood pre-service teachers and reviews the literature on various approaches that have been used to improve teacher confidence and competence to teach science. It then introduces the concept of collaboration as an approach to encourage more science to be taught in the classroom. In the second half part of this paper the project design and findings are discussed. Characteristics of early childhood pre-service teachers Based upon their diverse backgrounds and individual experiences, pre-service early childhood teachers bring a unique set of characteristics with them when they are learning about science and how to teach science. Many pre-service early childhood teachers see themselves as ‘non-science’ people trying to become science students at university
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(Mulholland & Wallace, 2003). They consider themselves to have poor science knowledge, which tends to be limited in quantity, narrow in perspective and characterised by a lack of understanding of the nature of science (Anderson & Mitchener, 1994; Appleton, 2006). Preservice early childhood teachers often lack previous science experiences or have experienced negative science experiences, mostly in secondary school, resulting in them perceiving science as only for the intellectually gifted or having a masculine image (Appleton 1981; Mulholland & Wallace, 1996; Skamp, 1989). They tend to have poor attitudes and beliefs about science and their capacity to be effective teachers of science (Watters & Ginns, 2000), this leading to an avoidance of teaching science (Harlen & Holroyd, 1997). Finally, preservice early childhood teachers tend to have well-developed but often simplistic views of the science teaching and learning process, leading to inappropriate science teaching strategies and learning experiences (Appleton, 2006: Garbett, 2003; Gunstone, Slattery, Baird & Northfield, 1993). All of these factors contribute to the lack of confidence that pre-service early childhood teachers have towards science and the teaching of science. At the same time pre-service early childhood teachers bring many strengths, and thus potential resources, into their teaching and learning. Such strengths include respect for children’s intellect, curiosity and questioning; celebration of children’s wonder of the natural world; excitement associated with children’s exploration and discovery of the natural world; and a willingness to develop instruction based upon children’s thinking that embraces openended inquiry (Howes, 2002). Fleer (2006) also considered pre-service teachers’ informal science knowledge gained through interests and hobbies to be a further strength. Howes (2002) suggested that working with their strengths provides pre-service teachers a greater opportunity to connect with science in a manner that is comfortable to them, and subsequently believe in themselves as teachers of science.
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Improving pre-service teachers’ knowledge and confidence towards science A substantial body of research exists on how best to improve pre-service teachers’ science knowledge of and confidence towards science. The majority of this research has been directed at improving science content knowledge and science methods courses with the aim of improving the confidence of the pre-service teacher (Appleton, 2003; Cahill & Skamp, 2003; Hand & Peterson, 1995; Riggs & Enochs, 1990; Skamp, 1989). The influence of the science teacher educator in improving the confidence of the pre-service primary teacher by creating an effective science learning environment also has been examined to a lesser degree (Rice & Roychoudhury, 2003). In general, results indicate that learning environments need to be positive and supportive to minimise anxiety and encourage freedom to experiment and verbalise opinions (Huinker & Maddison, 1997; Mulholland & Wallace, 1994). Courses should include a variety of authentic teaching methods that concentrate on student-centred learning experiences and make connections with prior knowledge. Pre-service teachers should be supported by consistent feedback to allow for the development of science understanding and pedagogy, and improved beliefs and attitudes about science and themselves as teachers of science (Hardy & Kirkwood, 1994; Huinker & Madison, 1997). Various researchers have advocated a pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) approach in teacher education courses, through successful experiences at the pre-service level, as a means of increasing primary teachers’ confidence towards science (Appleton, 2003, 2006; Cahill & Skamp, 2003; Rice & Roychoudhury, 2003). PCK is one of many different forms of knowledge that teachers draw upon, which includes subject matter knowledge (or content knowledge) and general pedagogical knowledge (Shulman, 1986). PCK is considered different to the latter two forms of knowledge, as it is a form of knowledge in action (Zeidler, 2002). Appleton (2006) defined science PCK as “the
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knowledge a teacher uses to construct and implement a science learning experience or series of science learning experiences” (p. 35). Science PCK is a dynamic form of knowing as it has close links with a teacher’s science content knowledge, and is developed through the teacher’s own science experiences and science teaching practices (Appleton, 2003, 2006). While science PCK is necessary in order to teach science, it is not automatically generated from science content and other forms of teacher knowledge (Appleton, 2006). As a means of developing science PCK, Appleton and Kindt (2002) and Appleton (2003) suggested pre-service teachers develop a repertoire of ‘units that work’, rather than isolated science activities, that consist of a series of activities organised in a pedagogical sequence designed to facilitate pre-service teachers’ conceptual understanding. They suggested that such units would include learning experiences, key teaching strategies, and explanatory science notes. Appleton (2003) went on to suggest that science content would be most meaningful to pre-service teachers when it is dealt within a pedagogical context, which includes a focus on student preconceptions, and how to deal with these while teaching. These findings suggest that participating in authentic science experiences where both content and pedagogy is made explicit provides an opportunity to increase pre-service teachers’ PCK. Collaborative relationships to increase engagement in science This section reviews the literature on collaborative relationships as a mechanism to increase engagement in science, with specific reference at the university level to the collaboration of scientists and/or engineers with teacher educators. It starts with a definition of collaboration, discusses the characteristics of successful institutional partnerships with an emphasis on scientists/engineers, and presents findings from various studies. Collaboration has been defined as “an interactive process among individuals and organisations with diverse expertise and resources, joining together to devise and execute
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plans for common goals as well as to generate solutions for complex problems” (Gronski & Pigg (2000, p. 783). A true collaborative relationship is one that is both mutually dependent on and beneficial to each partner (Miller & Hafner, 2008). There are numerous indicators of successful collaborations including mutuality, supportive and strategic leadership, assets-based building, and sound processes (Miller & Hafner, 2008). Mutuality refers to the sense of parity and mutual participation among participants (Zetlin & MacLeod (1995). The “more fully a collaborative partnership considers the various types of expertise possessed by its members, the more richness of understanding and direction it will receive” (Zetlin & MacLeod, 1995, p. 6). Successful collaborations are dependent on supportive and strategic leadership at multiple levels, including top-level institutional leaders, partnership-level leaders and day-to-day leaders (Miller & Hafner, 2008). An assets-based focus relates to building on partners’ current strengths rather than focusing on weaknesses (Miller & Hafner, 2008). Carefully constructed, sound processes are the cornerstone to effective collaborations. This includes clearly articulated and communicated steps and procedures, strategic use of funds, clear and meaningful definition of roles for all participants so that everyone knows what is expected of them, and substantial and specifically detailed integration of resources across partners to ensure that both groups are involved at various levels of the collaboration. Lasley, Matczynski and Williams (1992) presented an overview of collaborative and non-collaborative partnership structures in teacher education. They found that collaboration between teacher education and science departments within a university to develop and implement science education courses was difficult to structure and maintain as it demanded more dialogue and collective goal setting, and also required more institutional compromise. However, the potential for strengthening educational programming was found to be substantial. In contrast, they found that non-collaborative teacher education programs were Page 938
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characterised by high certainty about role responsibilities, low intensity in terms of work effort, and high autonomy in program decision making. These three characteristics were considered to contribute towards boredom, lethargy and self-interest, thus diminishing the capacity of partners to work towards broader organisational goals, while reducing the effectiveness of the curriculum. Moscovici and McNulty (2003) described the collaborative efforts between a science teacher educator and an earth scientist during a professional development institute for science teachers that centered on inquiry and literacy. The most beneficial element during the entire collaborative process was the learning that occurred for all participants. As a consequence of the collaboration, the earth scientist learned that the best way to teach is to spark students’ interest, engage their curiosity and build their passion. The science educator found learning in a text-rich and technology-rich atmosphere (provided by the scientist) made earth science come alive. The science teachers left the professional development with improved science content, pedagogy and literacy techniques. Eick (2003) reported how two new academics, one in science education and the other in aquatic science education, began and sustained collaboration between their two disciplines within a university. The most important features of this collaboration were found to be the mutual benefit of the relationship; the bringing of complementary skills, talents, and knowledge together (which included different personalities), networking with influential others who could assist the collaborative effort; a trusting, working relationship and a strong commitment to a clear vision; open lines of communication; a shared ‘culture’; and institutional support. Collaborative relationships require an investment in time, energy and emotion from each partner. However, the outcomes of the project, if managed well, can far outweigh the costs involved. Page 939
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The research presented in this paper takes a collaborative and cross-discipline approach to better preparing pre-service early childhood teachers to teach science. For the purposes of this research early childhood was defined as children between the ages of 4 and 8 years. Collaboration between scientists, engineers, teacher educators and pre-service teachers was used to develop science modules and implement them into an early childhood science methods course. The pre-service teachers then had the opportunity to trial and evaluate these modules in the early childhood classroom. This collaboration, along with the developed modules, aimed to improve pre-service teachers’ science content knowledge, science pedagogy and subsequently science PCK, thus increasing their confidence to teach science in the early childhood classroom. The purpose of this paper is to report the results from the first nine months of this project (April to December 2008), outlining the processes involved in the development and implementation of the modules, along with evaluation of the pre-service teachers’ confidence to teach science and science content knowledge. Methodology Action research design This research was guided by a practical action research design, distinguished by an iterative cycle of planning, action, observations and reflection (Creswell, 2005). Action research enables researchers to “gather information about, and subsequently improve, the ways their particular educational setting operates, their teaching, and their student learning” (Creswell, 2005, p. 550). Through the process of action research, the science modules were developed, trialed and evaluated in an ongoing manner by a range of participants. Data were collected from formal questionnaires, open-ended questions, interviews and posters.
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Project Team The Project Team consisted of 10 members, five each from teacher education and science/engineering, and covered two universities within Western Australia. An overview of the role, area of expertise, and experience of each member in their area of expertise is presented in Table 1. As this table shows, one member from each discipline was also involved at a strategic leadership level. Along with these 10 members, there were an additional four ‘expert’ early childhood teachers based in the classroom who provided continual feedback and advice on the modules.
Table 1 Overview of the Project Team, their areas of expertise and university teaching experience Role
Area of expertise
Experience
Project Leader
Early childhood science education
10 years
Project Manager
Early childhood education in school
20+ years
Scientist
Astronomy
20+ years
Scientist
Analytical chemistry and forensic science
15 years
Scientist
Organic chemistry
20+ years
Engineer
Renewable energy systems
15 years
Teacher Educator
Early childhood maths teacher education
20 years
Teacher Educator
Early childhood teacher education
12 years
Dean of Science
Maths/science outreach
20+ years
Deputy Head Education
Primary maths teacher education
20+ years
Each scientist/engineer was individually invited to be part of this project after discussions between the education team members and Dean of Science. Scientist/engineers were selected based upon recognition of their exemplary undergraduate teaching and learning record, ability to work in a group, and their perceived ability to interact in a positive and
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supportive manner with early childhood pre-service teachers. All team members had to show belief in the concept, enthusiasm, imagination, flexibility, and ability to accept constructive criticism. As an initial introduction to early childhood education, all members of the Project Team attended an interactive science centre where they were encouraged to ‘play’ in the early childhood section which had activities designed for children under 8 years of age. The purpose of this exercise was to allow the team members to experience science through the eyes of a child, and realise the important place of play as a platform for learning and experiencing science with young children (Howitt, Morris & Colvill, 2007). Development of modules A philosophy and template were developed from which to construct the modules. Embracing best practice early childhood education, the philosophy was based upon five principles: acknowledgement of the place of young children as natural scientists, active involvement of children in their own learning through inquiry, recognition of the place of a socio-cultural context within children’s learning, emphasis on an integrated approach to children’s learning experiences, and the use of a variety of methods for children to demonstrate their understanding and learning. Each module was developed around a template that consisted of an overview; an introductory core activity that established a suitable context; focus questions relating to the core activity; a range of follow-up activities related to the core activity; possible resources including people, books, websites, raps and rhymes; suggested forms of diagnostic, formative and summative assessment; questions and answers (covering science content); and suggestions for integration across the different curriculum learning areas.
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Four science modules were developed through collaboration between the teacher educators and the scientists/engineer, covering the themes of astronomy (specifically day and night), forensic science, the science of cleanliness and solar energy. The information presented within each module aimed to provide a broad range of possible ideas and activities that could be used within an early childhood classroom. The modules were designed to be adaptive and flexible, rather than set teaching programs, so that teachers could use the materials in a manner that suited their particular context. Role of the scientist/engineer The role of the scientist/engineer was emergent and highly collaborative. Each scientist/engineer engaged in an initial brainstorming session with the Project Leader/Manager to develop both a general theme and possible range of activities within their area of expertise. While each module was based upon the scientists/engineers’ area of expertise, it still required refinement to select an appropriate early childhood topic. The scientist/engineer was considered the ‘science content’ expert, while the teacher educators were the ‘early childhood’ and ‘pedagogy’ experts. However, the scientist/engineer was actively encouraged to think freely and creatively, with every suggestion being accepted as a possibility, even if they were not considered to be of an early childhood focus. The Project Leader/Manager took these ideas and attempted to adapt them for early childhood. There was continuous feedback between the scientist/engineer and the Project Leader/Manager as each module developed. This process took between 3 to 6 months, as a sequence of possible ideas and activities were discussed, developed, discarded or refined. As the module took shape, the scientist/engineer role required them to check the module from a science perspective. This included confirming science content knowledge; checking the scientific basis of ideas and activities; and providing suggestions for modifying or adding
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activities, possible resources, curriculum integration, and answers to typical questions children might ask. Implementing the modules into the science methods course The developed modules were implemented into a 12-week science methods course during the third year of a four-year Bachelor of Education (Early Childhood Education) degree during Semester 2, 2008. There were 38 pre-service early childhood teachers within this course. The weekly three-hour workshops that were delivered during the course aimed to develop the pre-service teachers’ science PCK through active scientific inquiry. The Project Leader was the principle lecturer for the workshops. A summary of the workshops can be found in Table 2. Each workshop consisted of a mini-lecture (of 30 to 40 minutes) that presented the science curriculum and each science conceptual area. This was followed by a range of hands-on activities that were specific to one science conceptual area. A sequential range of science activities were either presented in each workshop, or provided in a detailed handout relating to that workshop. The science learning experiences within the workshops were characterized by active participation, placement with an authentic early childhood context, discussion of children’s views of science, and learning within a social constructivist environment. Each scientist/engineer took an active role in the workshop where the module they had assisted in developing was delivered. While this varied depending on the content of each workshop it included a short presentation by the scientist/engineer that provided background science content knowledge (this became the mini-lecture), answering a range of questions from the pre-service teachers, and assisting with the learning experiences in the workshop. Through discussion between the principle lecturer and the scientist/engineer, selected
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Table 2 Description of the weekly workshops in the science methods course Week/Lecture topic
Workshop emphasis
Project Team members present
1. Introduction to primary science
The science walk. What is science? Why teach science? Overview of course.
Project Leader, Project Manager
2. Science Learning Area, Process skills
Investigating oobleck based on the senses.
Project Leader
3. Life and Living, Prior knowledge
Is fire alive? What’s inside me?
Project Leader
4. Earth and Beyond, Constructivism and alternative conceptions
Explaining the science behind the seasons of the year, phases of the Moon, shadows, and day and night through hands-on activities.
Project Leader, Project Manager, Scientist, Teacher Educator
5. Natural and Processed Materials, Forensic science
Exploring the forensic science principles of ‘every contact leaves a trace’ and ‘all things are unique in space and time’ through fingerprinting, and looking at the detail of hands, feet and faces.
Project Leader, Project Manager, Scientist, Teacher Educator
6. Investigating, Energy and Change
Exploring the investigation process through the questions ‘How far can a toy car roll?’
Project Leader
7. Programming with the 5E model
Illustrating programming through the science of sweets.
Project Leader
8. Energy and Change, Assessment
Heat as a form of energy. Investigating how to slow down the melting of ice cubes.
Project Leader
9. The science of cleanliness, How soap works
Exploring the science in the book Mrs Wishy Washy: exploring mud, how soap works in the cleaning process, investigating the removal of a stain, and 3D mind maps (Howitt, 2009).
Project Leader, Project Manager, Scientist, Teacher Educator
10. Sustainability, Principles and practices of solar cookers
Designing, making, testing, evaluating and redesigning solar cookers based on the principles of effective solar cooking.
Project Leader, Project Manager, Engineer, Teacher Educator
11. Scientific literacy
Preparation for teaching practice.
Project Leader
12. Science and a story
Demonstrating how science can be incorporated into story books.
Project Leader
13-15
School teaching practice.
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activities from the developed modules were chosen to be presented in the workshops. The principle lecturer was present at all workshops, while other teacher educators involved in the project were present in various workshops taking on the role of additional tutor or participantobserver as required. Evaluating pre-service teachers’ confidence and science knowledge As a general measure of the pre-service teachers’ science teaching ability, they were asked four questions in Week 2 and again in Week 12 of the science methods course. The four questions related to their perceived interest in teaching science, background knowledge for teaching science, confidence in teaching science, and enthusiasm for teaching science. These questions had a five-point range of responses from ‘Not Interested’/‘Limited’/‘Not Very Confident’/‘Rarely’ to ‘Interested’/‘Extensive’/‘Confident’/‘Always’. The responses were analysed by descriptive statistics summarizing pre- and post- percentage responses and presenting these as a comparison. Pre-service teachers’ confidence to teach science was measured with a modified Personal Science Teaching Efficacy (PSTE) scale from the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI-B). PSTE is defined as the belief in one’s ability to teach science effectively (Huinker & Madison, 1997). STEBI-B has been found to be both a vaild and reliable instrument for measuring science teaching efficacy in pre-service teachers (Enochs & Riggs, 1990; Ginns, Watters, Tulip & Lucas, 1995) and has been used in a wide range of studies (Cantrell, Young & Moore, 2003; Finson, 2001; Huinker & Madison, 1997; Palmer, 2006; Watters & Ginns, 2000). PSTE pre- and post-tests were administered in Weeks 2 and 12, respectively. The PSTE was modified by changing all 13 questions to the affirmative, simplifying the questions, and allowing a five-point range of responses other than the standard responses of
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‘Strongly Disagree’, ‘Disagree’, ;Neutral’, ‘Agree’ and ‘Strongly Agree’. Depending on the question, responses to the modified PSTE ranged from ‘Rarely’/‘Limited’/‘Different’ to ‘Always’/‘Extensive’/‘Easy’. For example, the question “Even when I try hard, I will not teach science as well as I will most subjects” was changed to “Compared with other subjects I will find it easy to teach science” with responses ranging from ‘Rarely’ to ‘Always’. Statistical differences between the pre- and post-test PSTE were obtained with the use of a paired t-test. At the end of the semester the pre-service teachers were also given an open-ended questionnaire relating to confidence in science teaching and science knowledge. If they thought their confidence to teach science had changed as a consequence of the science methods course, the pre-service teachers were asked to briefly explain how their confidence had changed. If they thought their knowledge and understanding of science had changed as a consequence of the science methods course, the pre-service teachers were asked to briefly explain what had contributed towards this change. Responses to these two questions were analysed, and common themes identified. The percentage of pre-service teachers who commented on each common theme was then calculated. Comments from the pre-service teachers relating to each theme were used to highlight certain responses. To further measure the pre-service teachers’ learning over the semester, they were asked to produce a poster that summarized what content they had learned in each of the four workshops where a scientist/engineer had been present. Responses on the poster were analysed, and common themes identified. The percentage of pre-service teachers who commented on each theme was then calculated. Comments from the pre-service teachers relating to each theme were used to highlight certain responses.
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Teaching science in the early childhood classroom At the end of the 12-week science methods course the pre-service teachers participated in a three week teaching practice in the classroom, in either a Kindergarten (4 years olds) or a Pre-primary (5 year olds) class. The pre-service teachers were encouraged to use the modules to assist them to teach science during this time. However, this could not be mandated as the pre-service teachers were required to follow their cooperating teacher’s advice. At the end of the teaching practice the pre-service teachers were asked to complete a simple open-ended questionnaire on what science they taught in the classroom and how they applied their learning from the modules and the science methods course within the classroom. This was supported with interviews of three purposively selected pre-service teachers to provide more detail on how they had incorporated the modules within their planning and teaching. Findings Pre-service teachers’ perceived science teaching ability Table 3 presents the percentage response to the four questions relating to the preservice teachers’ perceived science teaching ability. For the pre-test, the pre-service teachers tended to rank themselves average/above average for their interest in teaching science and enthusiasm for teaching science, while below average/average for their own background knowledge for teaching science and confidence in teaching science. Across the science methods course the pre-service teachers believed they had increased in all four areas, with this increase tending to reflect a whole unit increase across the 5-point response scale.
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Table 3 Pre-service teachers’ perceived science teaching ability, comparing pre-test (n = 28) and post-test (n = 32) percentage responses.
Not interested
Interested
1. My own interest in teaching science is best described as Pre-test
0
11
39
43
7
Post-test
0
0
22
34
44
Limited
Extensive
2. My own background knowledge for teaching science is best described as Pre-test
18
28
50
4
0
Post-test
3
9
31
54
3
Not very confident
Confident
3. My confidence in teaching science is Pre-test
4
39
50
7
0
Post-test
0
3
16
62
19
Rarely
Always
4. I am enthusiastic about teaching science Pre-test
0
4
28
50
18
Post-test
0
0
12
44
44
Pre-service teachers’ confidence to teach science Pre-service teachers’ confidence to teach science increased significantly over the science methods course. Mean total values (across the 13 items in the scale) for PSTE increased from 39.0 to 49.4 (t = 7.21, p < 0.001, n = 26). As minimum and maximum values of PSTE range from 13 to 65, this equates to almost one whole unit increase across a 5-point scale. The pre-service teachers tended to rank themselves as ‘average’ at the beginning of the science methods course, yet by the end had ranked themselves as ‘above average’. These values are similar, although the pre-test total is slightly lower and the increase slightly larger,
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to those reported in the literature. Huinker and Madison (1997) found PSTE increased significantly (p < 0.001) from 46.2 to 52.2 for one cohort, and 48.0 to 52.4 for a second cohort, across a science methods course. Similarly, the following authors found significant increases (p < 0.01) in PSTE across their science methods course: Watters and Ginns (2000) from 44.8 to 49.2, Finson (2001) from 42.1 to 49.0, Cantrell et al (2003) from 46.3 to 53.6, and Palmer (2005) from 42.0 to 53.0. Table 4 presents a summary of the reasons from the open-ended questionnaire (OEQ) the pre-service teachers believed they had increased confidence to teach science. Relevant comments from the pre-service teachers (PST) are presented to support these findings. The majority of pre-service teachers (82%) believed that being shown how to teach science to young children was the main reason for their increased confidence. Being shown how to teach science included the use of engaging, hands-on learning, letting children explore, integration across the curriculum, use of cooperative learning experiences, and the importance of determining children’s prior knowledge. Being provided with so many ideas to support science teaching, particularly in relation to where to start with very young children, and what sequence should be followed. I also have a better understanding of each of the science areas. [PST17_2008_OEQ_Q1]
Over half (58%) of the pre-service teachers identified the science activities, resources and ideas presented in the workshop as assisting their confidence to teach science. I have learnt so much within this unit and because of this my confidence has grown hugely. By carrying out investigations for ourselves each week, I was able to see how easy and fun science is and can therefore be taught. Everything that we have been taught can be used in the classroom and it is very exciting! I can’t wait to teach science, and I used to not enjoy science through school. [PST6_2008_OEQ_Q1]
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Table 4 Summary of pre-service teachers’ reasons for increased confidence to teach science
Category of reason
Percentage
How to teach science to young children
82
Science activities/resources/ideas
58
Science content knowledge
50
New views of science
10
Total responses
78
Total pre-service teachers responding
38
Fifty percent of the pre-service teachers mentioned science content knowledge as the reason for their increased confidence to teach science. I believe that my confidence has improved because I now have a stronger understanding of scientific concepts and explanations, and I know how to present them to my students. By making science activities more hands on and active, I am confident that children will be eager and willing to participate. [PST1_2008_OEQ_Q1]
A small number (10%) of the pre-service teachers mentioned the new views of science that they now had as a consequence of the science methods course as the reason for their increased confidence to teach science. Before I saw science as the science I learnt in high school and I knew I didn’t understand it so I couldn’t teach it. Now I know science can be adapted to everything and it can be done in a fun way. [PST26_2008_OEQ_Q1]
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These results show that the pre-service teachers have not only increased their pedagogy, knowledge of activities that work, and science content knowledge, but they have also increased the science PCK. Being shown what science to teach, how to teach that science, and how to explain it to young children has not only resulted in increased confidence to teach science but an eagerness to move into the classroom and share science with the children. Pre-service teachers’ science knowledge and understanding Table 5 presents a summary of the reasons from the open-ended questionnaire (OEQ) the pre-service teachers believed they had increased knowledge and understanding of science. Relevant comments from the pre-service teachers (PST) are presented to support these finding. Almost two-thirds of the pre-service teachers (63%) believed the active participation within the workshops contributed to their increased science knowledge. Additionally, 45% of the pre-service teachers believed having a scientist/engineer in the workshop assisted in their knowledge and understanding of science, while a further 34% commented on the use of the developed modules. Most responses from the pre-service teachers included comments that related to two or three of the identified categories, as illustrated below. By the scientists coming in especially the first workshop [astronomy] it has cleared up a great deal of misconceptions I had about space. By me learning the scientific ideas I now feel more confident in teaching it to children. [PST3_2008_OEQ_Q2] There were many aspects of science that I did not fully understand before I started this unit. The modules, however, increased my knowledge and made me think about my misconceptions. I now also know that science is all around us and know what to teach and how to teach it. [PST9_2008_OEQ_Q2]
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Table 5 Summary of pre-service teachers’ reasons for increased knowledge and understanding of science
Category of response
Percentage
The active participation within the workshops
63
The scientists/engineers
45
The modules
34
Doing the assignments in the course
13
Total responses
59
Total pre-service teachers responding
38
The modules that we have been given in class have been a great help to my understandings and ideas. The hands on learning experiences have also allowed us to discover knowledge for ourselves. [PST10_2008_OEQ_Q2] I have gained a far better understanding about a wide range of ideas in the filed of science through this unit, due to the hands-on activities along with discussion about the activities and investigations. [PST11_2008_OEQ_Q2] Having the scientists as a part of the classes has helped me gain a lot more knowledge in a more detailed fashion. [PST37_2008_OEQ_Q2]
To determine the exact nature of the pre-service teachers’ learning over the science methods course the pre-service teachers’ posters were analysed for content learned. Table 6 presents a summary of the major categories of response (greater than 15%) from each of the four workshops where a scientist/engineer presented.
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In responding to what content they learned, Table 6 shows that the pre-service teachers did not restrict their comments to just science content knowledge, but also to various pedagogical strategies, and learning how to apply a certain topic at the early childhood level. Reflecting on the astronomy workshop, 61% of the pre-service teachers stated they had increased science content knowledge relating to the phases of the moon, seasons of the year, or day and night, while 47% stated they had become more aware of their own astronomy alternative conceptions. A large percentage (45%) of the pre-service teachers stated they had a “better understanding” of the science behind the astronomy concepts as a consequence of the workshop. Further, 16% of the pre-service teachers mentioned they had learned about the place of alternative conceptions in the teaching and learning process. Grappling with the concept of the ‘phases of the moon’ stood out in this workshop. My knowledge of this concept is rarely challenged or even discussed. Having to tell the class how these phases work was both humiliating and immensely valuable. [The scientist] noticed my struggle and provided me with his ‘scientific’ understanding of how these phases operate. I was then able to ask questions, clarify, demonstrate and make mistakes in a ‘safe’ environment until I felt comfortable with my basic conceptual knowledge. …[I experienced] the value of having a ‘real’ scientist present. [PST26_2008_POSTER] The most important aspect I feel that I got out of the workshop was that my own misconceptions about astronomy were challenged. [PST32_2008_POSTER]
Reflecting on the forensic science workshop, 55% of the pre-service teachers stated they had learned the importance of the main principle behind forensic science: every contact leaves a trace. Through the activities in the workshop, 47% stated they had learned about the uniqueness of fingerprints, while 29% commented on learning the correct procedure for taking fingerprints. Thirty seven percent of the pre-service teachers also commented on the alternative conceptions of forensic science presented in the media, especially high-profile television shows. Further, 37% commented that they had learned how to use the theme of
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Table 6 Summary of content the pre-service teachers learned from each workshop in which a scientist/engineer participated (total pre-service teachers responding was 38).
Topic
Astronomy
Forensic science
Cleanliness
Solar energy
Category of response
Percentage
Specific facts relating to phases of the Moon, seasons of the year, shadows or day and night
61
Awareness of own alternative conceptions
47
The place of alternative conceptions in teaching and learning
16
Every contact leaves a trace
55
Uniqueness of fingerprints
47
Misconceptions of forensic science in the media
37
Early childhood application
37
Procedure for taking fingerprints
29
How soap works
74
What soap and water molecules look like
34
Using a literacy book to teach science
32
3D mind maps
29
Procedure for making a solar cooker
47
Principles of solar cooking
37
Definition of sustainability
32
The Sun as a source of energy
26
Early childhood application
16
Difference between conduction, convection and radiation
16
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forensic science in the early childhood setting, something they had previously thought impossible. [I learnt that] every contact leaves a trace – a trace can involve more than just fingerprints; there are three types of fingerprint patterns; there are a variety of methods used to ‘extract’ fingerprint images; and fingerprints are unique to each person. Why these points are significant is because of the many dramatised/idealised perceptions that exist about forensic science and the work a forensic scientist carries out. I therefore found it very valuable to be presented with the actual facts about forensic science. I never realized that the process of extracting forensic evidence was such a complex task, and involved so much more than just gaining fingerprint and DNA evidence. [PST34_2008_POSTER] The workshop really changed my thoughts about teaching early childhood students about forensics. Before I attended this session, I never would have even thought about bringing forensics into the classroom because when I hear forensics I just think about murders. I love the forensic bear hunt idea. It is very appropriate for young children and would help them learn in a very engaging way. This was significant to me as it challenged my ideas about forensics and bringing it into the classroom. [PST1_2008_POSTER]
In the cleanliness workshop the majority of pre-service teachers (74%) learned about the process of how soap works. Additionally, 34% reported being more aware of the chemical structure of soap and water molecules. The pre-service also believed they took away pedagogical content, with 32% commenting they had learned how to teach science through a literacy book, and 29% reporting on learning about, and how to use, 3D mind maps. Prior to this workshop I was unaware of the science behind how soap removes dirt. Afterwards, this seemingly complex concept was shown to be easily presentable to children. I learnt how stains are removed, why hot water aids stain removal better than cold water, the chemical properties of soap, and most importantly – how to conduct cleaning experiments with children to develop their understanding. I am now more aware that soap molecules have a water-loving head and water-hating tail. [PST33_2008_POSTER]
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[The] workshop allowed us to explore the extremely relevant science topics to early childhood education – cleanliness and hygiene. The concepts were integrated within the theme ‘Mrs Wishy Washy’ demonstrating to pre-service teachers the way in which scientific understandings can be made both engaging and meaningful through a literature context. [PST10_2008_POSTER]
Reflecting on the solar energy workshop the pre-service teachers commented on a range of science concepts they had learned, including the principles of solar cooking; definition of sustainability; the Sun as a from of energy; and the difference between conduction, convection and radiation. Nearly half (47%) of the pre-service teachers commented that they had learned how to make a solar cooker. Further, 16% commented that they had learned how to use solar energy as a theme in the early childhood setting. [I learned] the Sun is a free, natural source of energy. Knowledge of how to make use of the Sun’s energy is becoming increasingly important for future generations due to our rapid consumption of fossil fuels. We can easily turn energy from the Sun into heat for cooking. We can use this knowledge in our classrooms where children utilize available materials to make their own solar cooker. [PST15_2008_POSTER] In this module I learned the meaning of sustainability; not only what it is and why it is important, but how to incorporate it into the classroom and our everyday lives. We learned measures that could be taken in schools to make them more environmentally friendly, like rubbish free lunches, vegetable gardens and recycling scrap paper. We also had the opportunity to plan, create and modify our own solar cookers. [PST17_2008_POSTER]
Increased science knowledge and understanding is not simply a consequence of being presented with more scientific information. These results illustrate the interplay between learning through doing, while also having ‘experts’ to answer questions, and the provision of materials (the modules) to obatin more information. This is further reflected in the pre-service teachers’ responses to what content they learned in the workshops where a scientist/engineer
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was present. Their responses were not solely restricted to science content knowledge but included science pedagogy and how to adapt science ideas for the early childhood classroom. Teaching science in the early childhood classroom Thirty two of the pre-service teachers went on teaching practice. Of these, 28 (94%) stated they taught some science. Seventeen of these 28 pre-service teachers (61%) indicated they had used the modules to plan their science lessons: nine used the cleanliness module, five used the forensic science module, two used the astronomy module and one used the solar energy module. Over half of these 17 pre-service teachers commented they adapted the ideas presented in the modules to their specific context. Comments on how the students applied what they had learned during the science methods course included the importance of engagement and exploration, the use of hands-on learning and multi-sensory activities, the use of questioning, the importance of obtaining prior knowledge in the teaching and learning process, the use of small group work, and using shared knowledge and ideas. In planning their lessons, the pre-service teachers used the modules in various ways. Some relied almost entirely upon the modules, while others refereed to specific sections of the modules depending on the context of the learning. I chose aspects of the [forensic science] module and altered the activities to be age appropriate. The children … were engaged, motivated and immensely excited about the activities. Transferring the knowledge I learnt about forensic science and how to teach it to children proved effective. [PST1_2008_INTERVIEW] The cleanliness module really assisted my planning. I was able to base all my lessons around the module with ease. The children enjoyed the program. The module was easy to modify for a Kindergarten level. [PST2_2008_INTERVIEW] I incorporated several ideas from the cleanliness module. One of the most interesting experiences I had with the children was when I introduced them to the two mud activities [chocolate mousse
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and wet clay ideas from the module]. I [also] provided mud made from cornflour, water and cocoa [an idea not included in the module]. The children absolutely loved these activities as they had the opportunity to explore the materials, … discover science for themselves, and most of all, the experience was fun! [PST3_2008_INTERVIEW]
Discussion and conclusion This research sought to increase pre-service early childhood teacher’s confidence to teach science through a collaborative approach between scientists, engineers and teacher educators to develop and implement science modules within a science methods course. Over the science methods course, the pre-service teachers increased their interest in teaching science, knowledge for teaching science, confidence in teaching science, and enthusiasm for teaching science. The pre-service teachers identified a combination of reasons that contributed to their increased confidence to teach science: being shown how to teach science, performing science activities, having access to resources, and increased science content knowledge. The method in which the modules were implemented into the science methods course provided opportunities for the pre-service teachers to perform science that they might be expected to teach in the classroom. As Appleton (2003) reported, if this is accompanied with the pre-service teachers being shown why the science they are doing works in both the scientific and pedagogical sense then they are likely to develop their science PCK. The carefully constructed science learning experiences presented in both the modules and science methods course assisted in the ongoing development of the pre-service teachers’ science PCK. Notably, the pre-service teachers did not consider science content knowledge to be the most important reason for their increased confidence. This supports the findings of Howitt (2007) who reported that science pedagogy and science activities were considered more important than science content knowledge in improving pre-service elementary teachers’ Page 959
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confidence. Pre-service teachers value experiences that are directly transferable into the classroom. Thus, they value knowledge of science pedagogy, science activities and science content as a whole, rather than as discrete events. Learning to teach is not a discrete process, rather it is a complex, subtle and continuous process that requires different forms of knowledge (Wideen, Mayer-Smith & Moon, 1998). Pre-service teachers reasons for increased knowledge and understanding of science were attributed to active participation within the workshop where they experienced first hand authentic science activities for the early childhood classroom; access to the scientists/engineers in the workshops to clarify points and ask additional questions relating to science content knowledge and to procedures related to activities; and access to the modules which had a wide range of information relating to activities, resources, science knowledge and integration. Many pre-service teachers considered the combination of all three factors to be integral to their knowledge of science. This further reflects the holistic approach of learning how to teach science which the pre-service teachers appear to require. This holistic approach is also supported when interpreting the pre-service teachers’ content learned from the workshops in which a scientist/engineer participated. Learning was not restricted to science content knowledge. Rather, the pre-service teachers recognised pedagogical content and application to an early childhood context. The results from this research highlight the holistic and integrated approach that pre-service early childhood teachers take in their learning. If this is how they are learning, then this should also be the approach that is used within the science methods course to teach them The experiences within, and confidence from, the science methods course were transferred across to the pre-service teachers teaching practice. Over 60% of the pre-service teachers had used the modules to prepare their science lessons, with more than half of these being prepared to modify the activities within the modules for their own context. The Page 960
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modules had been used in the manner for which they were designed: as an adaptive and flexible tool for early childhood science teaching and learning. This research was based upon a collaborative approach to science education. A truly successful collaboration is one in which all partners benefit. However, the purpose of this paper was only to report on the benefits to the early childhood pre-service teachers. Other papers are still to be written from this research. Many of the characteristics of successful partnerships were evident within this collaboration, including mutual participation between all partners; supportive and strategic leadership; acknowledgement of all partner’s strengths; open lines of communication; a trusting, working relationship between partners; a strong commitment to a clear vision; and a shared ‘culture’ that recognised the importance of science education to the youngest, yet most important, members of our community. Acknowledgements This research was made possible by funding obtained through the Australian Learning and Teaching Council, Grant Number CG8-724. Thanks are extended to all the pre-service early childhood teachers who participated in this research through the development of the modules and subsequent evaluation in the classroom. The ongoing feedback from the expert early childhood classroom teachers was greatly appreciated and fundamental to the success of this project. References Anderson, R. D., & Mitchener, C. P. (1994). Research on science teacher education. In D. Gabel (Ed.). Handbook of research on science teaching and learning. New York: MacMillan. Appleton, K. (2003). How do beginning primary school teachers cope with science? Towards an understanding of science teaching practice. Research in Science Education, 33(1),
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1-25. Appleton, K. (2006). Science pedagogical content knowledge and elementary school teachers. In K. Appleton (Ed.). Elementary science teacher education. International Perspectives on contemporary issues and practice. (pp. 31-54). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Appleton, K. & Kindt, I. (2002). Beginning elementary teachers’ development as teachers of science. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13(1), 43-61. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) (2002). The Teaching of Science and Technology in Australian Primary Schools. Melbourne: ATSE. Cahill, M. & Skamp, K. (2003). Novice’s perceptions of what would improve their science teaching. Australian Science Teachers’ Journal. 49(1), 6-17. Cantrell, P., Young, S., & Moore, A. (2003). Factors affecting science teaching efficacy of preservice elementary teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 14(3), 177192. Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed.). NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Department of Education, Training and the Arts. (2007). Towards a 10-year plan for science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education and skills in Queensland. Brisbane: Queensland Government. Department of Education, Training and the Arts. Dow, K.L. (Chair, Committee for the Review of Teaching and Teacher Education.) (2003). Australia’s Teachers: Australia’s Future: advancing innovation, science, technology and mathematics. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.
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Eick, C. J. (2003, March). The new science educator’s perspective on building collaborations. In D. Duggan_Hass (Chair), Symbiosis on campus: Collaborations of scientists and science educators. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Philadelphia, PA. Enochs, L. G., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90(8), 694-706. Finson, K. D. (2001). Investigating preservice elementary teachers’ self-efficacy relative to self-image as a science teacher. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 13(1), 3142. Fleer, M. (2006). “Meaning-making science”: Exploring the sociocultural dimensions of early childhood teacher education. In K. Appleton (Ed.). Elementary science teacher education. International Perspectives on contemporary issues and practice. (pp. 107124).. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Garbett, D. (2003). Science education in early childhood teacher education: Putting forward a case to enhance student teachers’ confidence and competence. Research in Science Education, 33(4), 467-481. Ginns, I. S., Watters, J. J., Tulip, D. F., & Lucas, K. D. (1995). Changes in preservice elementary teachers’ sense of efficacy in teaching science. School Science and Mathematics, 64, 29-40. Goodrum, D., & Rennie, L. (2007). Australian School Science Education: National Action Plan 2008-2012, Volume 1, The National Action Plan. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/publications_resources/profiles/Austr alian_School_Education_Plan_2008_2012.htm Page 963
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Goodrum, D., Hackling, M. & Rennie, L. (2001). The status and quality of teaching and learning of science in Australian schools: A research report. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Gronski, R., & Pigg, K. (2000). University and community collaboration. American Behavioral Scientist, 43(5), 781-792. Gunstone, R. F., Slattery, M. , Baird, J. R., & Northfield, J. R. (1993). A case study exploration of development in preservice science teachers. Science Education, 77(1), 47-73. Hand, B. & Peterson, R. (1995). The development, trial and evaluation of a constructivist teaching and learning approach in a preservice science teacher education program. Research in Science Education, 25(1), 75-88. Hardy, T. & Kirkwood, V. (1994). Towards creating effective learning environments for science teachers: The role of a science educator in the tertiary setting. International Journal of Science Education, 16(2), 231-251. Harlen, W., & Holroyd, C. (1997). Primary teachers’ understanding of concepts of science: Impact on confidence and teaching. International Journal of Science Education, 19(1), 93-105. Harris, K-L, Jensz, F. & Baldwin, G. (2005). Who’s teaching Science. Report prepared for the Australian Council of Deans of Science. Melbourne: ACDS. Howitt, C. (2007). Pre-service elementary teachers’ perceptions of factors in an holistic methods course influencing their confidence in teaching science. Journal of Research in Science Education, 37(1), 41-58. Howitt, C. (2009). 3-D mind maps: Placing young children in the centre of their own learning. Teaching Science, 55(2), 42-46. Howitt, C., Morris, M. & Colvill, M. (2007). Science teaching and learning in the early Page 964
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childhood years. In V. Dawson & G. Venville (Eds.). The art of teaching primary science. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Howes, E. V. (2002). Learning to teach science for all in elementary grades: What do preservice teachers bring? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(9), 845-869. Huinker, D. & Madison, S. K. (1997). Preparing efficacious elementary teachers in science and mathematics: The influence of methods courses. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 8(2), 107-125. Lasley, T. J., Matczynski, T. J. & Williams, J. A. (1992). Collaborative and noncollaborative partnership structures in teacher education, Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 257261. Miller, P. M. & Hafner, M. M. (2008). Moving towards dialogical collaboration: A critical examination of a university school community partnership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(1), 66-110. Moscovici, H. & McNulty, B. (2003). The effect of collaboration: Learning together towards the development of the mutualistic science educator of the future. In D. Duggan_Hass (Chair), Symbiosis on campus: Collaborations of scientists and science educators. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Philadelphia, PA. Mulholland, J. & Wallace, J. (1994). Knowing and learning about science in a preservice setting: A narrative study. Research in Science Education, 24(2), 236-245. Mulholland, J. & Wallace, J. (1996). Breaking the cycle: Preparing elementary teachers to teach science. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 8(1), 17-38. Mulholland, J. & Wallace, J. (2003). Crossing borders: learning an detaching primary science in the pre-service to in-service transition. International Journal of Science Education, 25(7), 879-898. Page 965
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Palmer, D. (2006). Sources of self-efficacy in a science methods course for primary teacher education students. Research in Science Education, 36(4), 337-353. Rice, D. C. & Roychoudhury, A. (2003). Preparing more confident preservice elementary science teachers: One elementary science methods teacher’s self-study. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 14(2), 97-125. Riggs, I. M. & Enochs, L. G. (1990). Towards the development of an elementary teacher’s science teaching efficacy belief instrument. School Education, 74(6), 625-637. Shulman, L.S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 26, 1403-1418. Skamp, K. (1989). General science knowledge and attitudes towards science and science teaching of pre-service primary teachers: Implications for pre-service units. Research in Science Education, 19, 257-267. Tytler, R. (2007). Re-imagining Science Education: Engaging students in science for Australia’s future. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research. Watters, J. J., & Ginns, I. S. (2000). Developing motivation to teach elementary science: Effect of collaborative and authentic learning. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11(4), 301-321. Wideen, M., Mayer-Smith, J. & Moon. (1998). A critical analysis of the research on learning to teach: Making a case for an ecological perspective on inquiry. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 130-178. Zeidler, D. L. (2002). Dancing with maggots and saints: Visions for subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge in science teacher education reform. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13(1), 27-42.
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Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF (SCIENTIFIC) CONCEPTS
Development of (Scientific) Concepts in Children’s Learning Geometry: A Vygotskian, Body-centered Approach to Literacy
SungWon Hwang Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Wolff-Michael Roth University of Victoria, Canada Mijung Kim Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
All correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to SungWon Hwang, Assistant Professor, Natural Sciences & Science Education, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, 637616, Singapore. Email:
[email protected] Tel: +65-6790-3974 Fax: +65-6896-9414
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Abstract The “construction of meaning” tends to be the main pedagogical goal for the teaching of science. Yet, the metaphor of construction, which is also used to theorize the development of word-meaning, articulates only some among the different possible forms of knowing. The purpose of this study is to show a more comprehensive approach to concepts development than exists in Vygotsky’s framework of word-meaning and its logo (word) centric approach. That is, this study takes Vygotsky’s theory of word-meaning and develops it to include bodily forms of knowing and learning to constitute a more holistic approach to scientific literacy and its acquisition. We draw on a model that we had proposed as a new way of understanding the nature of concepts and show how our extended Vygotskian approach allows us to explain children’s concepts development. We present a concrete case study that exhibits the trajectory of conceptual understanding and exemplify the central role of the body in making connections between different forms of experiences, thereby leading to the (initial) formation of the concept. We conclude that the extended framework of word-meaning allows rendering pedagogical principles that encompasses students’ everyday experience of the world as the condition for concepts development.
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Development of (Scientific) Concepts in Children’s Learning Geometry: A Vygotskian, Body-centered Approach to Literacy Introduction The “construction of meaning” tends to be the main pedagogical goal for the teaching of science and mathematics. Yet, the metaphor of construction, which is also used to theorize the concepts development, describes learning from a perspective of that which is not known to students at the beginning and therefore gives little attention to the real conditions in which conceptions are made possible in the first place. That is, because students do not know a concept, they cannot at the same time aim at (intend) learning it; if they knew the concept, necessary for being able to make it the object of an intention, then they would no longer need to learn. Thus, if learning is an intentional process, it has to be framed in such a way that it is entirely suited in and contextualized by students’ everyday experiences and language. For students, everyday experiences and concepts—which some science educators call misconceptions, alternative ideas, or naïve ideas, and thereby highlight their differences from the scientists’ ways of talking—therefore constitute the very conditions that students depend on when they listen to the other talking and learn about the world. For students, the conceptual growth involved in learning concepts pertains to the transformation of these mundane experiences and everyday (spontaneous) concepts as the materials to be transformed. These materials are given in the everydayness rather than the act of the conscious mind that somehow has to construct an object that it does not know. The purpose of this paper is to exemplify a comprehensive approach to concepts development (formation) that does not begin from the dichotomy between spontaneous concepts and scientific concepts. We take a holistic approach to the meaning development in which everyday experiences constitute the irreducible conditions for conceptions.
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Theoretical Framework Communication is central to the development of meaning in learning science and mathematics. In classrooms, listening to the other talking and interpreting representations allow students to participate in the classroom communication and come to know concepts new to them. For Vygotsky (1986), the development of word-meaning in communication (i.e., verbal thinking) constitutes a central phenomenon that explains the child’s development of scientific concepts and the role of instruction. The significance of communication as linked to the concepts development is that it allows us to attend to all the extra-linguistic capacities that are part of any practice. There is an agreement among language philosophers with a phenomenological bend that linguistic structures and everything else that makes life are woven into an irreducible tissue such as knowing a language is equivalent to knowing one’s way around the world. That is, conceptions mean competency in social actions that presuppose communication and communication necessarily is grounded in knowing the world. Anything linguistic in language use therefore bottoms out in forms of experiences that are pre- and extra-linguistic. In this study, we take a theoretical framework that reviews concepts development through a perspective of a social world that “starts from the actor’s subjective point of view” (Schutz, 1996, p. 9). We suggest that learning science and mathematics is like learning a language that is part of a larger unit encompassing the fullness of life—all the resources that constitute the experience of the living present are also related to concepts development. Learning to speak a new language is considered a good metaphor for the understanding of science and mathematics concepts. The Body in Concepts development Conceptions in this study are related to the (temporal) development of meaning (associated with conceptual understanding) rather than meaning that is assumed to reside
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(atemporally) in specific forms of representation (e.g., words, mathematical representations, and other forms of scientific representations). Our approach to the development of meaning follows Vygotsky’s dialectic theory and its extension to a body-centered comprehensive framework. First, we take a Vygotskian theory of thought and language that is part of a larger unit encompassing the fullness of life (Vygotsky, 1986). For Vygotsky, word-meaning (concepts) arises from the process that integrates thought and speech (gesture) dialectically—“continual movement back and forth from thought to word and from word to thought” (p. 218). Second, we follow other studies that have extended Vygotsky’s word-meaning dialectic toward the point that thought is dynamically related to the whole unit of communication rather than to words alone. For example, in communication, words take forms of sounds (e.g., prosody) and constitute one part of the whole network that marks sense (i.e., living meaning) together with other (embodied and bodily) forms of experiences mobilized simultaneously (e.g., gestures [McNeill, 2002]). The extension following the Vygotsky-McNeill approach involves two significant contributions that lead to a more comprehensive approach to concepts development than exists in Vygotsky’s framework (i.e. word-meaning). First, conceptions—the concrete ways in which concepts are realized in and by individuals—are distributed across many different forms of experiences, language, gesture, body, etc (the whole, including emotions) (e.g., Roth & Thom, 2009a). That is, rather than consisting of words only, we understand conceptions to be grounded in the experience of dwelling in a world so that our entire body becomes a source of expression (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). This more holistic theory of conceptions considers different, irreducible modes of communication as a whole. Second, in this framework of communication, conceptions then may express themselves concretely as part of an embodied life that is irreducibly interconnected with language; therefore, everyday Page 972
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(embodied and bodily) experiences constitute the condition for concepts development (e.g., Roth & Thom, 2009b). This focuses our attention on the processes by means of which everyday non-scientific conceptions come to be transformed into scientific conceptions. Rather than being eliminated and eradicated, the everyday conceptions are the ground, material, and even tools in a transformative process that leads to scientific conceptions. In the way stated, the theory of meaning includes the dynamic role of the body, which allows, for example, emotion to become an inner part of thinking in the way Vygotsky asked for. The following four points summarize the dynamic of meaning development in communication from an extended Vygotskian, body-centered perspective. First, the body constitutes the mediating hub in experiencing the world (objects). Second, the body constitutes the mediating hub in communication; the body is the expression rather than merely a tool for expressing what is in the mind. Third, the real-time articulation of thinking with and for the other is distributed within the unit produced by the bodily action in itself and with respect to them (e.g., speech, gestures, eye gaze, body orientation and movement, etc). Fourth, eye gaze, gestures, body orientation and movement, which are involved in experiencing the world (objects), are also involved in communication. The four principles explain the integral role of the body in the translation of the whole unit of meaning in which the body mediates the unity of different forms of experience: “The unity and identity of the tactile phenomenon do not come about through any synthesis of recognition in the concept, they are founded upon the unity and identity of the body as a synergic totality” (MerleauPonty, 1962, p. 369). The role of the body guides the analysis of meaning development without having to mystify it or begin from the dichotomy between spontaneous and scientific concepts.
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A Holistic Analysis of Concept Development The proposed comprehensive model considers the development (translation) of concepts (meaning) at three levels: the cultural-historical level (e.g., geometry as a field of study), the ontogenetic level (e.g., the child development), and situation (i.e., concrete events in a mathematics lesson). The trajectory of the child’s concepts development involves the three levels dialectically related in the following pair-wise manners. First, concepts development involves an individual’s participation in the reproduction of meaning that has been established and develops at the cultural-historical level. For example, children in the mathematics classroom listen to a teacher explaining geometrical shapes of three-dimensional objects using different sound-words (e.g., cube, sphere, cylinder, prisms, and pyramids). For children, those sound-words may be terms that are not used in their everyday talk and therefore foreign sounds that they are confronted with in the mathematics class. However, words used in geometry have a long history traced back to the ancient Greek in which people at that time used terms that emerged and grew out of their everyday life and experience and have been transformed over a long history, of which the trajectories are left in etymology. Here, the cultural-historical development is tied to the ontogenesis of individuals who became the names associated with particular concept developments (e.g., Euclid, Pythagoras, and Thales with the development of geometrical concepts). Therefore, the analysis of concepts at the cultural-historical level implies that conceptions and (mathematical) literacy require the mobilization of a network in which sound-words make links to other forms of experience (including everyday experience). Second, concept development involves the development of meaning at the ontogenetic level as an individual actively engages in dealing with the salient aspects of the world (objects). The here-and-now of the situation constitutes the setting in which embodied and bodily forms of experience are mobilized and make links in appropriate ways. Children Page 974
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learn geometrical concepts by participating in concrete situations in which they have to point out specific objects or speak this or that, which we thoroughly show in the next section. That is, the ontogenesis of scientific concepts is tied to the microgenesis of children’s talk. Therefore, the consideration of the meaning development at the three levels and their intertwined relations integrate embodied and bodily forms of knowing into the unit of meaning and analyzing the child’s concepts development from a holistic perspective. Case Study Concepts development happens over time. The child in a geometry classroom participates in talking about three-dimensional objects and temporally develops their understanding of concepts. The act of speaking or listening to others’ talk unfolds through time. But we do not only experience our bodies in absolute spatial, measurable time; rather, we also experience “events in inner time (durée) . . . as manifestations of our spontaneity” (Schutz, 1996, p. 29). That is, time is generated as the conceptual possibilities that classroom objects make available are realized into different forms of experience. Certain ways of beingin-the-world emerge as the body temporally engages in objects and therefore spatially realizes different forms of experiencing the world. From a holistic perspective, those (temporally-emergent) different forms of experience are all potential forms of knowing the world that have significant roles in the child’s concepts development. They involve the potential to affect the real-time translation of the whole meaning unit and therefore are simultaneously unique and partial representations of a higher communicative unit. For example, speech and gestures are two irreducible components both of which dynamically incorporate the context of communication in an integral way and therefore affect the development of the contents of communication; either of them constitutes a potential outlet from which a new way of knowing the world (as a result of the translation of the previous)
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emerges and begins to grow. Therefore, the child’s concept development pertains to the dynamic coordination of different forms of experience in which one form is in the metonymic relation to the whole. The body is central to this spatiotemporal coordination because the body mobilizes different forms and more so makes links between them. The unity that the body makes available allows the constitution of a meaning unit from which a higher-order cognitive function arises. In this section, we conduct a case analysis and exemplify the role of body in the spatiotemporal translation of a meaning unit. We show how a child bodily engages in knowing the world, and thereby develops an understanding of three-dimensional geometry concepts. In the following geometry lesson, second-grade children participate in identifying a mystery object placed on the OHP panel, which is surrounded by standing papers and therefore invisible. The teacher provides a two-dimensional shadow projected on a screen (i.e., circle) and different three-dimensional objects on a shelf below a whiteboard. Therefore, students are given opportunities to talk about the geometrical shapes of three-dimensional objects and their relation to a two-dimensional. We exemplify a comprehensive approach to concepts development by substantiating the three-level analysis of meaning development. Episode 1 01 Teacher1 Clara 02 Clara
um [((Clara puts her hand down and stands up))]
03
[(1.8)] [((Clara walks to the front))]
04
[I don’t think it can be a circle] [((Clara grabs a yellow sphere on the shelf and turns toward the teacher and other students. She holds the sphere with her fingertips propping around the round surface/edge*)) (Figure 1a)
05
(1.4)
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06 Teacher1 [(?? ?) circle?] [circles are flat] [((Teacher points at Clara))] [((Teacher holds the palms of her hands facing one another and moves them closer *))] (Figure 1b) 07
((Clara gazes at the yellow sphere that she holds*)) (Figure 1c)
08 Student1 sphere 09
[(1.6)] [((Clara put her palms to the surface of the sphere and holds the sphere using her whole hands instead of fingertips))]
10 Student2 sphere 11 Clara
sphere↓ ((Clara rubs her right palm on the right area of the sphere*)) (Figure 1d)
12 Teacher1 sphere↑* yes, that’s right and why don’t (you?) think it could be the sphere (Figure 1e)
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Figure 1 Description Clara raises her hand and the teacher calls her name (line 01). Clara says “um” and walks to the front side of the classroom (line 02). She picks up a yellow sphere, one of the objects placed on the shelf underneath the whiteboard (line 04). She grabs it by using her fingertips and turns to face the teacher and other students (line 04). She holds the yellow sphere as high as her chest and gazes at it. Simultaneously she articulates that she does not think “it can be a circle” (line 04). A pause comes about (line 05). The teacher points her right hand at Clara and articulates that circles are flat (line 06). Simultaneously, the teacher puts the two palms of her hands together, which constitutes a gesture of narrowing (line 06). Clara gazes at the yellow sphere in her hands (line 07). One of the students sitting in the classroom utters “sphere” (line 08). Clara puts the palm of her right hand attached to the surface of the sphere and grabs it by using the whole hand instead of fingertips (line 09). Another student utters “sphere” (line 10). Clara repeats the word “sphere” and rubs the right surface of the sphere using the palm of her right (line 11). The teacher repeats the word (“sphere? yes, that’s right”) and utters “why don’t you think it could be the sphere” (line 12). Analysis In this episode, we see a child participating in talking about the mystery object projected by an OHP and verbally thinking by talking to a teacher and other students in a
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second-grade geometry class. (The episode exemplifies a beginning (formation) of mathematical thinking realized in communication.) Clara proceeds with picking up a sphere and shows it to others. She holds a round surface/edge of the sphere using her fingertips and articulates that she does not think “it can be a circle” (line 04). After a one-point-four second pause, the teacher points at Clara and articulates that circles are flat. The teacher’s action provides concrete form of knowing “circle.” The utterance “flat” and her gestures of narrowing the space between her facing palms connects the word “circle” to flatness, which contrasts to the spatial shape of the sphere that Clara holds. Clara’s utterance juxtaposes two words, “it” and “circle,” neither of which directly refers to the object that she holds up (i.e., a sphere). Therefore, the teacher’s action makes Clara’s simultaneous coordination of the utterance and the act of picking up the object problematic: It is not clear why she picks up a sphere among others and what she means by “it” or “circle.” Clara gazes at the object at her hands. By actively participating in talking about the mystery object, Clara encounters something that does not simply receives her senses but “which provokes sense without being meaningful itself, but still something by which we are touched, affected, stimulated, surprised (Waldenfels, 2004, p. 238). Immediately one of her classmates utters “sphere,” and thereby makes a sound-word available in the classroom. The articulation of the sound-word “sphere” opens an opportunity for the emergence of a different form of experiencing the object. Clara puts her palms attached to the surface of the sphere, and thereby changes her way of holding the object from using her fingertips to using the whole hands, which allows her to touch the round surface of the sphere rather than the circular edge of the surface. This new form of experience is linked to Clara’s speech when Clara repeats the sound-word “sphere” following another student’s uttering “sphere” in the next. Clara’s speech translates the experience of the object into the sound-word, “sphere,” which also affects the experience of the object into her rubbing Page 979
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movement over the surface of the sphere using the palm of her right hand. Clara’s body mediates the translation between the experience of the object and the word and therefore constitutes the hub of translation. Clara’s change of her way of bodily holding (experiencing) the object constitutes a point at which she explicitly changes the contents of her speech but also lets a new meaning unit emerge. It constitutes an outlet through which everyday forms of knowing the world (e.g., round surface of a sphere) is mobilized in such a way to link to the sound-word and other forms of experience (e.g., teacher’s gesture) and therefore expands a network. Conceptions from this holistic perspective exist “only in, through, and as of the experiences” (Roth & Thom, 2008a). Any single experience serves as an entry point, because it is not only integral part of the conception but also stands for it. The relation of any experience to the whole therefore is of metonymic nature. The episode exemplifies the beginning of mathematical thinking to which the child’s basic experiences in their everyday life are integral. For Clara or anyone in this second grade mathematics classroom, the round surface of a sphere may not be an experience unique to mathematics (geometry) but common to their everyday lives; for examples, when children play with a ball, they have chances to touch the round surface of a ball. Thus, etymology shows that the Greeks words pertaining to “circle” (kúklos) and “sphere” (sfaîra) originate from the sound-words referring to “ring” (kúklos) and “ball” (sfaîra) individually. That is, for Greek people, speaking the word sfaîra immediately mobilized their everyday experiences of using a ball and therefore constituted a metonymic relation to a network of their bodily and embodied experiences related to this toy. Yet, children today have no clue as to the words “circle” or “sphere.” These foreign words are associated with geometry classes but not with the general experience outside of school. In a way, these words are dead metaphors where they have been very much alive for the ancient Greek, for whom they denoted everyday experiences. Today, English-speaking children have to learn to make explicit links between Page 980
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these foreign sound-words to their everyday experience (e.g., playing with a ball) in the mathematical classroom. In this way, the episode exemplifies the beginning of concepts development in which Clara learn to differentiate “circle” and “sphere” by actively participating in making a network of everyday experiences. Yet, again, this cannot the result of her intention to differentiate them. For example, Clara simply says “circle” because it makes sense to her— she raised her hand and volunteered to speak. Speaking the word “circle” brings her to a situation in which she encounters different forms of knowing “circle” and the object (i.e., sphere) that she holds in her hands (e.g., “flat,” narrowing gestures, and “sphere”). In this situation, Clara does not know what or whether she needs to differentiate. She just engages in touching the object that she has already held in her hands (i.e., the palm curved along the round surface of the sphere) and speaks the word (“sphere”) that her classmate has spoken. These simple actions align the configuration of interpretive resources that constitute the meaning unit metonymically related to her action of picking up the sphere. Thus, the teacher utters, “why don’t you think it could be the sphere,” which thereby translates Clara’s initial claim (i.e. “don’t think it can be a circle” [line 04]) into another (i.e. “don’t think it could be the sphere [line 12]). The episode exemplifies the central role of the body in the child’s conceptual development: it consists in bridging interpretive resources and the everyday experience of the world metonymically in two ways. First, the body mobilizes different forms of experiencing and increases interpretive resources for knowing the world. Second, the body coordinates different forms of experience and increases conceptual possibilities (e.g., the emergence of higher-order cognitive functions).
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Discussion and Implication The purpose of this study is to exemplify a comprehensive approach to concepts development (formation) that does not presuppose self-identical meaning separated from the everyday conditions that make communicating concepts possible in the first place. We take Vygotsky’s theory of word-meaning and develop it to a holistic approach to the meaning development in which bodily forms of knowing and learning constitute the irreducible conditions for conceptions. This study exemplifies that the child’s body temporally engages in objects located in local spaces and makes links between different forms of experiences. The body is central to learning geometry because of the capacity to realize everyday forms knowing the world in a specific setting and translate them to a spatiotemporally coordinated form. Our study suggests that conceptions involve the development of one’s way of knowing the world, which co-evolves with the development of literacy and therefore provides implications for a more holistic approach to scientific literacy and its acquisition. Literacy is a core aspect of science and mathematics education. Literacy is generally discussed in terms of language, and our study informs precisely where the very possibility of literacy comes from: the body bridges and translates between interpretive resources and the experience of the world and contributes to the development of higher-cognitive functions. The child in our example participates in a cultural activity (i.e., geometry curriculum enacted in the elementary mathematics classroom) and simply works with objects (including words) given to her. The alignment of action emerges as she encounters the words and other forms of objects rather than through the intentional act toward an outcome that should have been known to her already and therefore does not make sense otherwise. The totality of interpretative resources that the body produces in its mundane engagement in the social world provides the body with its characteristic mundane rationality and reality.
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Pedagogically, the body-centered approach to literacy provides a different way of theorizing learning science: students’ conceptual development is part of their mundane efforts to transform the conditions of the bodily performance, and thereby increasing room to maneuver in their lifeworlds. Therefore, this study answers questions about learning science without passing through psychological models that prescribe some mental construction about which we have no access. For example, what are the central aspects of linguistic practice in knowing and learning science? What makes knowing and learning possible in the scientific understanding of phenomena? The implication from this study is that the relationship between students and the phenomenal world they are supposed to learn about is made in such a way that we cannot understand the actions, knowing, learning, and identity of the subject independent of the body. Meaning develops in such a way in which different forms of experience are marked and remarked in and through the bodily forms of experience—a new way of knowing the world appears from the totality as the body copes up with the given material conditions and increases possibilities for knowing the phenomenon at hand. Acknowledgement This work was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. References McNeill, D. (2002). Gesture and language dialectic. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia, 34, 7–37. Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of perception (C. Smith, Trans.). London: Routledge.
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Roth, W.-M., & Thom, J. (2009a). Bodily experience and mathematical conceptions: From classical views to a phenomenological reconceptualization. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 70, 175–189. Roth, W.-M., & Thom, J. (2009b). The emergence of 3D geometry from children’s (teacherguided) classification tasks. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 18, 45–99. Schutz, A. (1996). Collected papers vol iv. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language (A. Kozulin, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT press. (First published in 1934)
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Developing a research-based model for enhancing PCK of secondary science teachers
Syh-Jong, Jang Graduate School of Education Chung-Yuan Christian University Email:
[email protected]
Abstract Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of in-service teachers is an important issue for current teacher education in Taiwan. However, the development and research for in-service science teachers’ PCK are less emphasized than for pre-service science teachers. This paper first describes the related literature concerning pedagogical content knowledge of science teachers, followed by addressing the models and merits of peer coaching. Then, a research-based model for PCK is presented with its content and process described. Four science teachers and 123 secondary students took part in this study on the application of the developed PCK-RIER model (Research, Instruction, Evaluation, and Reflection). This study used a mixed-method design, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The survey adopted in this study was the instrument on secondary Student Perceptions of Teachers’ Knowledge (SPOTK) developed by Tuan, Chang, Wang and Treagust (2000). The results revealed significant difference (F = 21.413, p < 0.001) in the four categories of SPOTK. Students thought that science teachers had rich subject matter knowledge and often assessed knowledge of their understanding. However, science teachers had difficulty implementing representational repertoire and instructional strategies. Students’ perceptions and teachers’ reflection are the important factors of this model for developing science teachers’ PCK. It is recommended that this model should be adopted in teacher education to offer more opportunities for professional growth among science teachers. On the other hand, the research Page 985
methods of students’ perceptions and teachers’ reflection could enhance the learning and research experience of both in-service science teachers and the instructor, and also serve as useful reference for other in-service teacher education institutes.
Introduction Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of in-service teachers is an important issue for current teacher education in Taiwan. The development and research for science teachers’ PCK is more emphasized (De Jong, Van Driel & Verloop, 2005; Gess-Newsome & Lederman, 1993; Grossman, 1990; Loughran, Mulhall & Berry, 2004; Van Driel, De Jong, & Verloop, 2002; Van Driel et al., 1998). Owing to the implementation of a nine-year integrated curriculum scheme in Taiwan, research on in-service science teachers’ PCK appears to be urgent. This nine-year integrated curriculum, running from first to ninth grade, provides a continuous curriculum integrating traditionally separate courses into seven learning fields. The curriculum of each subject was integrated into the field of interdisciplinary courses; for example, the previously separate courses of Biology, Physics, Chemistry, and Earth Science were integrated under a single subject of Natural Science (Jang, 2006a). This had a great impact on current secondary science teachers of Taiwan who have to enhance their PCK and be equipped with the abilities to integrate and design curriculum as well as aim for changes and for teaching innovatively. Shulman (1987) regards PCK as the knowledge base for teaching. This knowledge base consists of seven categories, three of which are content related (content knowledge, PCK, and curriculum knowledge). The other four categories are to general pedagogy, learners and their characteristics, educational contexts, and educational purposes. A quotation from his work can help us understand what PCK, as part of the knowledge base for teaching, is:
PCK represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular
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topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction (Shulman, 1987, p. 8).
The pedagogical knowledge about certain topics and teaching strategies, including the knowledge of representation (as model and metaphor) and activities (as experiment and explanation) were closely related, and demand a flexible schema for implementation (De Jong, Van Driel & Verloop, 2005; Grossman, 1990; Lederman, Gess-Newsome & Latz, 1994; Van Dijk & Kattmann, 2007). More importantly, when dealing with the pedagogical knowledge, teachers’ actions will be determined to a large extent by their PCK, making PCK an essential component of professional knowledge. Some studies also showed that a science teacher well equipped with the subject matter knowledge might be able to transfer his/her knowledge in a more efficient way, enabling the students to receive the knowledge more easily (Carter & Doyle, 1987; Tobin & Garnett, 1988). When teaching unfamiliar topics, science teachers express more misconceptions (Hashweh, 1987) and they talk longer and more often, and pose questions of low cognitive level (Carlsen, 1993). These results are interpreted in terms of PCK rather than subject matter knowledge (Sanders, Borko & Lockard, 1993). The foundation of science PCK is thought to be the amalgam of a teacher’s pedagogy and understanding of science content such that it influences their teaching in ways that will best engender students’ science learning for understanding (Geddis, Onslow, Beynon & Oesch, 1993; Gess-Newsome & Lederman, 1999; Grossman, 1990). Initially, science teachers distinguish subject matter knowledge from general pedagogical knowledge. These types of knowledge are, however, being integrated as a result of teaching experiences. By getting acquainted with the specific conceptions and ways, science teachers may start to restructure their subject matter knowledge into a form that enables productive communication with their students (Lederman, Gess-Newsome & Latz, 1994). Many scholars suggest that PCK is developed through an integrative process rooted in classroom practice, and that PCK guides the teachers’ actions when dealing with a specific subject matter in the classroom.
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Science teachers of the new curriculum should be equipped with the abilities to integrate curriculum as well as aim for effective teaching. However, integrating curriculum requires rich professional knowledge in different disciplines. Since it is impossible for one teacher to be specialized in all fields of knowledge, collaboration among teachers is needed. Collaboration is increasingly identified as a key aspect for the professional growth of teachers. Education reformers have called for increasing attention to the collegial relationships among teachers in professional growth (Lieberman, 1995; Little, 1993). Effective professional growth must be collaborative, involving a sharing of knowledge among teachers’ communities of practice rather than on individual teachers (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Firestone & Rosenblum, 1998). Researchers report that regular opportunities for the interaction with colleagues are essential for creating professional school cultures (Lieberman, Saxl, & Miles, 1988; Miller, 1988). A community of peers is important not only in terms of support but also as a crucial source of generating ideas and providing criticism (Davis, 1995; Sykes, 1996). For many years, the schools have expected teachers to independently teach students without any assistance from other people (Lortie, 1975). The practice of this pattern hindered the attempts to create collaborative environments where teachers regularly communicated and observed one another. According to Barth (1990), observation, assistance and communication among teachers can cause changes in school. A related approach to increase collaboration among teachers is peer coaching. Peer coaching is a collaborative and confidential process through which two or more professional colleagues work together to provide in-class assistance, reflect on current practices, build new skills and knowledge, share ideas, and solve problems (Joyce & Showers, 1995; McAllister & Neubert, 1995; Slater & Simmons, 2001). Joyce and Showers (1995) suggested that teachers learned from each other in the process of planning instruction, developing the materials to support it, watching each other work with students, and thinking together about the impact of their behavior on the learning process of their students. Some Page 988
studies indicate that peer coaching is viewed as a means of active learning where teachers construct their own knowledge (McAllister & Neubert, 1995) and improve their ability to plan and organize the classroom activities (Hasbrouck, 1997). Previous investigations have examined the practicality of peer coaching for promoting changes in teachers’ pedagogical practices and expertise (Kohler & Ezell, 1999; Pugach & Johnson, 1995). Successful peer coaching resides in developing a climate of trust and mutual respect. When trust exists, the team members will stay focused on the goal, communicate more effectively, and compensate for each other’s shortcomings which generate an improvement in the overall quality of outcomes (Davies, 1995). The coaching relationship also results in the possibility of mutual reflection, checking of perceptions, sharing of frustrations and successes, and in the informal thinking through mutual problems (Joyce & Weil, 1996). This involves identifying and honoring different perspectives, strengths and weaknesses of all team partners (Hudson & Glomb, 1997; Joyce & Showers, 1982; Koballa, 1992). Therefore, peer coaching must focus on improving rather than rating the quality of teaching, and it must not be used for the evaluation or judgment of teachers’ performance (Showers & Joyce, 1996). In recent years, research on student conceptions of heat and temperature has been actively undertaken (Harrison, Grayson & Treagust, 1999; Jones, Carter & Rua, 2000; Kim, 2001; Koh & Paik, 2002; Lewis & Linn, 1994; Niaz, 2000). These studies have revealed that students construct their own conceptions regarding heat and temperature through daily life and their own intuition. Some researchers have shown that students initially treat heat and temperature as if they are the same concept (Lewis & Linn, 1994; Wiser & Carey, 1983). Linn and Songer (1991) found that students have trouble differentiating heat and temperature. In many cases, their conceptions are at odds with those of scientists (Paik, Cho & Go, 2007). In this study, the concepts of “heat and temperature” were chosen to explore the effects of the intended model design. The researcher developed a peer coaching research-based model by revising Lumpe’s (2007) model, which can be applied to collaboration strategies and Page 989
evaluation of students’ results. Knight and Waxman (1991) also advocated the importance of investigating students’ perceptions of teachers’ PCK because they provide rich information for understanding students’ cognition (Tuan, Chang, Wang & Treagust, 2000). However, previous research on learning environments has seldom addressed students’ perceptions of teachers’ PCK. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the eighth-grade students’ perceptions of science teachers’ PCK and the effects of applying the developed model.
Theoretical framework The importance of the constructivist approach to science learning lies in its emphasis on the science students’ direct experiences with the physical world and its recognition of the active construction of meaning that takes place whenever students interact with their environment. In other words, constructivism postulates that knowledge is constructed on the basis of the particular context in which the cognizing individual is operating (Appleton, 1997; Tobin, 1993; von Glasersfeld, 1989). Many researchers in science education recognize that knowledge is also socially constructed (Jang, 2006a, 2006b, 2007; Kittleson & Southerland, 2004; Leach & Scott, 2002). This approach is socially constructivist in nature because learning depends upon constructing personal knowledge for teaching through social interactions in a community of practice (Jang, 2006a; Vygotsky, 1978). This form of thinking and dialogue among science teachers aligns reflection closely with practice. The role of discourse in shaping what is viewed as legitimate understanding within a scientific community becomes a crucial factor in the construction of knowledge. Thus, to understand how scientific knowledge is constructed, in some part the question becomes one of understanding how knowledge is negotiated or co-constructed in social settings. Co-construction refers to the process of jointly building an understanding, as would be characterized by interactive experiences (Kittleson & Southerland, 2004). In other words, peer teachers can be encouraged to use discourse to negotiate their way to understanding in Page 990
their classroom. This notion of inter-subjectivity allows “the meeting of two minds... each operating on the other’s ideas, using the back-and-forth discussion to advance his/her own development” (Rogoff, 1990, p. 149). It also allows for joint thinking, problem solving, and the process of decision-making, from which the teachers appropriate new knowledge (Newman, Griffin & Cole, 1989). This following section first describes the related literature concerning PCK of science teachers. Then it addresses the merits and models of peer coaching. Finally, a peer coaching-based model for PCK is presented with its content and process described.
Pedagogical content knowledge The impact of constructivist epistemology seems to be important in PCK. Since constructivism emphasizes the role of previous experience in knowledge construction processes, it is not surprising that teachers’ knowledge is studied in relation to their practice in research from this point of view. Shulman (1987) regarded PCK as the knowledge base for teaching. Grossman (1990) considered PCK as consisting of knowledge of strategies and representations for teaching particular topics and knowledge of students’ understanding and misconceptions of these topics. Marks (1990) broadened Shulman’s model by including the PCK knowledge of subject matter as well as knowledge of media for instruction. In the discussion on sources of PCK, however, Marks presented the development of PCK as an integrative process revolving around the interpretation of subject-matter knowledge and the specification of general pedagogical knowledge. Marks also discussed some ambiguities in PCK by presenting examples in which it is impossible to distinguish PCK from either subject-matter knowledge or general pedagogical knowledge. Carlsen (1991) discovered that novice teachers might adopt different teaching strategies with respect to varied subject matters. In other words, teachers with rich subject-matter knowledge tended to make use of passively transmitted strategies, whereas new teachers with insufficient subject-matter Page 991
knowledge would like to adopt strategies to actively guide students. Thus, efficiently promoting teachers’ PCK as well as integrating it with their practice may constitute a solution to the dilemma described above. For science teachers, authentic, personal, and professional experience and knowledge of doing research have proven pivotal for facilitation of students’ inquiry practices (Kim, Hannafin & Bryan, 2007). Several researchers challenged reform-based efforts for their failure to account for practical knowledge—deeply personal, highly contextualized, and influenced by teaching experience (van Driel, Beijaard, & Verloop, 2001). Furthermore, Mulholland and Wallace (2005) suggested that science teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge requires the longitudinal development of experience in their transition from novices to experienced teachers. Loughran, Mulhall and Berry (2004) examined how the ways of documenting and portraying science teachers’ PCK were developed. As a result of a longitudinal study into science teachers’ PCK, a method was developed for capturing and portraying PCK that comprised two important elements. The first was linked to the particular science content, termed Content Representation (CoRe), and the second was linked to teaching practice, termed Professional and Pedagogical experience Repertoire (PaP-eR). Through this approach new understandings of PCK emerged that were of interest in terms of both academic (knowledge building about PCK) and teaching perspectives. This study includes a full CoRe and one PaP-eR and fully demonstrates how these two elements interact to portray science teachers’ PCK. Knight and Waxman (1991) pointed out that although students’ perceptions might not be consistent with the reality generated by outside observers, they could present the range of reality for individual students and their peer in the classroom. Using students’ perceptions can enable researchers and teachers to appreciate the perceived instructional and environmental influences on students’ learning processes. According to Lloyd and Lloyd (1986), students expected teachers to provide a sense of how the constituent parts of a discipline fit together, Page 992
to have rich and adequate subject matter knowledge, and to be able to teach this subject matter knowledge to their understanding level. Olson and Moore (1984) revealed that, from the students’ perspective, a good teacher knows the subject matter knowledge well, explains things clearly, makes the subject interesting, gives regular feedback, and gives extra help to students. Similarly, Turley (1994) found that students’ perceptions of effective teaching were a combination of method, context, student effort, and teacher commitment. Students considered those teachers who knew their subject, showed evidence of thoughtful planning, used appropriate teaching strategies, instructional and representational repertoires, and gave adequate structure and direction effective teachers (Tuan, Chang, Wang & Treagust, 2000).
Peer coaching Peer coaching provides a community of practice to be defined as a group of individuals, who share such commonalities as interests, knowledge, resources, experiences, perspectives, behaviors, language, and practices (Barab & Duffy, 2000; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Taylor et al., 2003). Bowman and McCormick (2000) suggest that through social interaction, active learning evolves and each participant interprets, transforms, and internalizes new knowledge. Within the framework of peer coaching, such collaborative discussions allow individuals to develop their own perspectives and to model strengths for others. Pierce and Hunsaker (1996) state that peer coaching not only increases collegiality, but also enhances each teacher’s understanding of the concepts and strategies of teaching, and sustains the movement toward restructuring the traditional evaluation efforts by strengthening the ownership of change. Jenkins et al. (2005) suggested peer coaching as a means of developing pedagogical content knowledge because of its real-life context in which teaching and learning occur. Peer coaching can increase reflective practice, aid implementation of teaching models and instructional strategies, and enhance classroom management and development of PCK (Jenkins & Veal, 2002; McAllister & Neubert, 1995). Joyce and Showers (1982) introduced peer coaching as a component of in-service Page 993
teacher training. A fully elaborated in-service peer coaching model with a planning and implementation focus consists of four elements: (1) the study of the theoretical basis or rationale of the teaching method, (2) the observation of demonstrations by persons who are experts in the teaching method, (3) practice and feedback in relatively protected conditions, and (4) coaching one another to assist the new method to be incorporated into day-by-day teaching style. In their more recent work, Joyce and Showers (1995) expanded their view of peer coaching, emphasizing learning through collaborative planning, development and observation of instruction. They stress the importance of a non-hierarchical relationship between peers working and learning collaboratively to improve their teaching. A series of studies (Davis, 1987; Sloan, 1986) investigated the effectiveness of three peer coaching models with experienced middle and high school science and mathematics teachers. In the first model, each of the five high school science teachers coached one another to improve their self-selected teaching strategies. At a given time, each teacher observed the lesson of a colleague and one week later a coaching session occurred during which teachers collaborated about the observed lesson for one hour. The second model involved two teachers coaching one another on the same day of the observation. The third model involved a coach who was external to the school system and coaching sessions were organized on the same day of the observation. All coaching arrangements were successful in facilitating change for the teachers involved in the study.
Developing a research-based model for PCK Shulman (1987) proposed that PCK development might pass through the processes of comprehension, transformation, instruction, evaluation, reflection and new understanding. In this study, peer collaboration can be described as a collegial approach to the analysis of teaching aimed at integrating new skills and strategies in classroom practice (Joyce & Showers, 1995). Furthermore, a strong line of recent research outside of traditional science
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education is beginning to be used a research approach to professional development (Lumpe, 2007; Marzano, 2003).
In addition, science educators have expanded their views of
professional development by demonstrating some impact on student learning (Czerniak, Beltyukova, Struble, Haney & Lumpe, 2006; Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry & Hewson, 2003). It is time for science educators to emphasize peer interaction as well as student learning results. Therefore, the researcher developed a research-based model by revising Lumpe’s (2007) model, which can be applied to peer collaboration strategies and evaluation of students’ results as depicted in Figure 1. The research-based model includes two parts: the process of PCK development and the content of PCK development. The process of PCK development involves forming peer-coaching communities and applying the PCK-RIER (Research, Instruction, Evaluation, and Reflection) through formal training courses/workshops related to four elements. First, this model starts at the study of the theoretical basis or rationale of the specific content teaching method. The research includes study on the topics of textbook and PCK articles in teams. The analyses and discussions on these PCK research articles also contributed to the science teachers’ PCK of useful instructional strategies for overcoming secondary students’ learning difficulties (Van Driel, De Jong & Verloop, 2002). Second, because some teachers already had teaching experience, the researcher applied the implementation of instruction in real classroom and video-recordings instead of observing expert teachers’ teaching observation. Many related studies indicated that the instructional model related to teaching experience was important for PCK development (De Jong, Van Driel & Verloop, 2005; Gess-Newsome & Lederman, 1993; Loughran, Mulhall & Berry, 2004; Van Driel, De Jong & Verloop, 2002). Third, peer teachers were evaluated on the basis of students’ learning results. Most of these research works collected the teachers’ interviews or assignment transcripts to discuss PCK growth of science teachers (Loughran, Mulhall & Berry, 2004; Van Driel, De Jong & Page 995
Verloop, 2002). However, some studies found that the professional development of teachers might be evaluated by students’ learning results or feedbacks (Czerniak, Beltyukova, Struble, Haney & Lumpe, 2006). DuFour (2005) identified three big ideas that characterize the basis of all professional learning communities: ensuring that students learn, building a culture of collaboration, and focusing on results. Hence, Dufour thinks that not only is peer collaboration conducive of professional learning, but students’ learning results may also reflect teachers’ professional development. Finally, students’ learning results bring out teachers’ reflection. Each science teacher should also show the videotapes of his/her teaching to share his/her teaching experience with others. This teaching practice can stimulate teachers’ self-reflection. To reflect is to think about where you have been and/or what has happened in order to clarify an experience. Reflection is fundamental to assessment, decision-making, and a deeper understanding of the teaching practice. The act of reflection is primarily concerned with developing insights and discovering solutions to difficulties, or what might be described more correctly as learning opportunities to revise the next topic instructional strategies (Vidmar, 2006). The goal of reflection is not only better teaching, but also ultimately improved student’s learning. When the instruction is not as successful as planned, an instructor can change what might seem to be a “mistake” into a learning opportunity. In addition, schedule time and incentive structures must be in place to support the research-based system. In this study, the researcher arranged this course schedule for peer teacher’s interaction and science teachers would finish the research reports for stimulating their learning motive. The content of PCK development for this model includes two important factors of PCK from Grossman (1990): knowledge of strategies and representations for teaching particular topics and knowledge of students’ understanding and misconceptions of these topics. The study extended Grossman’s PCK components for a science teacher as shown in Figure 1, which are classified into three categories: (1) Curriculum: subject-matter knowledge, Page 996
knowledge of learners including prior knowledge and learning difficulties of learners. (2) Instruction: pedagogical knowledge including effective teaching strategies, and knowledge representation. (3) Assessment: teaching goal, students’ understanding and classroom-based evaluation. In this study, students’ learning feedbacks were evaluated from the survey. It requires a multiple evaluative system to assess teachers’ teaching efficiency, including students’ views as a reference for assessment (Brophy & Good,1986).
The Process of PCK Development Formal Training / Workshops
Providing foundation for The Content of PCK Development
Curriculum z Subject matter knowledge z Student prior knowledge and learning difficulties
Instruction z Effective instructional Strategies z Pedagogical knowledge representation
Research
Reflection
Instruction
Providing focus for
Assessment z Teaching goal z Classroom-based evaluation
Evaluation
Support effective
Schedule time
Incentive structures
Figure 1 The research-based model of PCK development Page 997
Research Methodology Participants The context of this study was a graduate school course, “Science content and pedagogy,” designed for in-service science teachers to gain a M.S. degree. The aims of this course are to gain content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, teaching methods and techniques by doing research and school teaching. The participants included a single instructor and a total of four science teachers. The instructor, who was the primary researcher, specializes in science teaching methods and strategies. Four in-service teachers volunteered to participate in this study. Therefore, the researcher formed a peer-coaching team with four science teachers who teach eighth-grade students in a secondary school in Taoyuan County, Taiwan. These four science teachers were all enthusiastic about teaching, gaining new knowledge and willing to make changes. Teacher Amy has a major in Biology and has eight years of teaching experience. She pays much attention to students’ reaction toward her teaching; she therefore has the desire to learn new teaching methods and know students’ learning performances. Teacher Bee has a major in Chemistry and has five years of teaching experience. She enjoys improving herself through self-reflection and correcting her own mistakes. She is interested in teaching and creating new teaching methods. She likes discovering and discussing the learning difficulties faced by students. Teacher Caleb majored in Physics and has 10 years of teaching experience. He is a strict person, one who calls a spade a spade and rarely loosens up in class. Teacher Dick majored in Earth Science and has taken some courses in Technology. It is his third year of teaching. He enjoys discovering and discussing the feasibility of improving students’ learning achievement. One from the classes of each teacher was selected for this study. The numbers of students in each class were 34, 32, 26, and 31. The numbers of students totaled 123. Because the researcher was restricted by the original class placement of students done by the school according to a normal S distribution, the subjects were chosen through non-random sampling. Students at this level were willing to Page 998
express their own opinions and ask questions concerning the teaching contents. Nevertheless, the learning background of each student had a huge impact on the gap in learning.
Research Design and Implementation Grossman (1990) considered PCK as consisting of knowledge of strategies and representations for teaching particular topics and knowledge of students’ understanding and misconceptions of these topics. In this study, the researcher chose the topic of “Heat and Temperature” and used the PCK-RIER module (Research, Instruction, Evaluation, and Reflection) to implement the whole process. The first step was to analyze students’ prior knowledge about the subject matter and their learning difficulties.
The research aimed to
help teachers understand their own PCK; and furthermore the application of relative references concerning the subject PCK, which were to assist teachers in teaching design, as how to select appropriate teaching materials and strategies according to different levels of students. Second, science teachers would implement some teaching activities with video recording. Third, it was to collect students’ feedback and evaluate students’ responses. Finally, the teachers made teaching reflections according to students’ feedback and teaching achievements.
This reflection would revise the current teaching methods and materials for a
new design of teaching activity. Planning and implementation of the module focus on the following four elements.
1. PCK research and comprehension Before teaching, science teachers are required to answer the following questions and note down the responses on their reflective journal. The collection of teachers’ PCK helps teachers understand better their current personal PCK. Assignment 1: From your earlier experiences as a secondary student or from your
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previous teaching practice, what difficulties have you encountered in learning the concepts of “Heat and Temperature”?
The science teachers wrote down their recollections individually, which were then discussed by all. After group discussion, science teachers would note down students’ understanding and preconceptions of these topics in their reflective journals. Then, the researcher assigned a topic, for example, the unit of “Heat and Temperature” to let teachers collect and read the relative PCK research references and books in a group.
2. Implementation of teaching and video recording Every teacher selects appropriate teaching strategy or teaching representation to integrate the instruction design according to the knowledge acquired from the study of relative references or books. Teachers implement the teaching design in their own classes. For example, Teacher Amy teaches the fundamental concepts of 'Heat' for the topic. She proposes the question: “What is the definition of heat? Please give some examples” for stimulating students’ motivation. The entire teaching session is being video-recorded to serve as a reference for mutual observation, learning and reflection of peer coaching. Assignment 2: Give some examples of instructional strategies and representation that you may use to promote students’ understanding of this topic.
Again, all written responses are to be collected, and the subsequent group discussion is to be recorded in their reflective journals.
3. Evaluating students’ learning outcomes To assess teachers’ PCK status, a survey for collecting data concerning students’ learning outcome is necessary. The traditional student learning outcome assessment is not adopted in this research, because it is not efficient for explaining PCK growth of teachers.
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The survey employed in this study is the instrument on Student Perceptions of Teachers’ Knowledge (SPOTK) developed by Tuan, Chang, Wang and Treagust (2000). This survey not only helps teachers understand students’ needs and serves as reference for teachers’ reflection, but also enables them to adjust their teaching strategy accordingly.
4. Group feedback and personal reflection In this section, science teachers with the researcher observe each teacher’s recorded videotapes and analyze results of students’ survey for teaching reflections. The researcher and science teachers would offer suggestions for teaching in order to enhance each teacher’s PCK. Assignment 3: What are the effects of the PCK-RIER module on this course? What changes would you make when you teach the same topic in the future?
All written assignments are to be collected and, again, the concluding group discussion is to be recorded in their journals. Furthermore, the reflective stage would help them self-examine their current lesson plan design and teaching practice in order to modify future teaching practice. At the same time, the researcher conducts personal interviews with individual teacher to understand each teacher’s PCK.
Data Collection To monitor the development of PCK during this model, data were collected at specific moments that were closely associated with the design of PCK-RIER. The data collected consisted of: (a) the survey in relation to instruction, representation, subject matter knowledge, and knowledge of how to assess students’ understanding; (b) the written assignments of each individual science teacher to the questions and assignments included in the model; (c) the reflective journal written by the science teachers through the overall process of the model and this course; and (d) the interviews of four science teachers. These
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interview recordings were transcribed verbatim. The survey adopted in this study was the instrument on secondary Student Perceptions of Teachers’ Knowledge (SPOTK) developed by Tuan, Chang, Wang and Treagust (2000). Features of teachers’ knowledge from the research literature related to the four categories evolved to be “IR (Instructional Repertoire)”, “RR (Representational Repertoire)”, “SMK (Subject Matter Knowledge)”, and “KSU (Knowledge of Students’ Understanding)”. Instructional Repertoire (IR) refers to students’ perceptions of the extent to which the teacher selects from among an instructional repertoire (Items 1-8 as listed in the Appendix). Representational Repertoire (RR) refers to students’ perceptions of the extent to which the teacher uses a representational repertoire that challenges students’ previous concepts and which includes analogies, metaphors, examples, and explanations (Items 9-15). Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK) refers to students’ perceptions of the extent to which the teacher demonstrates a comprehension of purposes, subject matter and ideas within the discipline (Items 16-21). Knowledge of Students’ Understanding (KSU) refers to students’ perceptions of the extent to which the teacher evaluates student understanding during interactive teaching and at the end of lessons and units (Items 22-28). In the original survey, for which 9-10 items under each category were generated making a total of 37 items in the SPOTK, the instrument was administered to 1879 Taiwanese junior high school students varying in grades, sex and ability levels. Reliability and validity measures of the instrument were established using Cronbach alpha and factor analysis. After the validating process, 28 items (as listed in the Appendix) remained in the final instrument and reliabilities of the scales ranged from 0.97 to 0.82. The schema of the interview was the questions of survey designed to gain a deeper understanding of the science teachers' conceptions. The interview was conducted after implementing the model, which was to know the extent of transformation of science teachers’ PCK. It included the improvement of subject matter knowledge, the teaching knowledge or Page 1002
skills, and understanding about students’ prior knowledge. According to the information gathered from the interviews, the researcher wished to: (a) confirm their responses to the questions of the survey and (b) discern the possible discrepancies of their views written down on the written assignments or reflective journals.
Data Analysis This research used both quantitative and qualitative research methods. For the quantitative part, statistical analyses on the survey data were carried out. The survey adopted the Likert scales, with five scales designed for students to express their opinions as follows: “Almost Never”, “Seldom”, “Sometimes”, “Often”, and “Almost Always” correspond respectively to 1 - 5 points according to students’ responses. The survey represented students’ opinions about their teacher’s PCK divided into four main themes as IR (Instructional Repertoire)”, “RR (Representational Repertoire)”, “SMK (Subject Matter Knowledge)”, and “KSU (Knowledge of Students’ Understanding)”. Data collected during various stages of the integrated model were analyzed in relation to the two research questions. The data analysis for each research question involved a similar procedure. The first question was answered on the basis of an analysis of the survey on Student Perceptions of Teachers’ Knowledge (SPOTK), in combination with written assignments 1 and 2 (see above), reflective journals and interviews. The first category was related to students’ perceptions of science teachers’ SMK and KSU. The second category was related to students’ perceptions of science teachers’ RR and IR. The third category was related to the second question, and concerned the effects of the PCK-RIER model on this course.
The second question was answered on the basis of an analysis of the written
responses to Assignment 3 (see above), in combination with the reflective journals and interviews. The inductive data analysis employed in this study utilized a qualitative framework that allowed the researcher to build patterns of meaning from the data (McMillan Page 1003
& Schumacher, 2001). Four phases, as described by McMillan and Schumacher, were employed for the analysis of the transcripts: (1) continual discovery throughout the research in order to tentatively identify patterns; (2) categorizing and ordering data; (3) refining patterns through determining the trustworthiness of the data; and (4) synthesizing themes. A constant comparative method was employed to compare the data collected through the questionnaire and those collected through other means including online, journals and interviews using the categories generated (Strauss, 1987). The data were first collected, coded, compared and then organized into different categories. Then the data were interpreted according to the categories.
Results and Discussion Table 1 shows descriptive statistics of the students’ responses to the four categories in the questionnaire including mean scores and standard deviation. There are significant differences (F = 21.413, p < 0.001) in the four categories of SPOTK. The highest mean score regarding SPOTK is the KSU (M = 3.58, SD = 1.07), the second highest mean score is the SMK (M = 3.57, SD = 1.10), the third highest is the RR (M = 3.00, SD = 1.07), and the lowest mean score is the IR (M = 2.59, SD = 1.04). As seen in the above results, students thought that teachers often used assessment to evaluate their learning conditions. Students also considered their teachers’ subject matter knowledge rich and positive. However, students indicated that the teachers’ instructional representation and strategy could be improved. Because the results show significant difference among the four main categories of SPOTIK, it is necessary to analyze the items in each category in detail to get a general understanding of teachers’ PCK according to students’ perception as seen in Table 2.
Table 1 Descriptive statistics of the students’ responses in SPOTK
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Category
Items
N
Mean (total)
SD
Mean (Av.)
SD
F
IR
8
123
20.73
8.28
2.59
1.04
21.413
RR
7
123
20.97
7.46
3.00
1.07
SMK
6
123
21.44
6.58
3.57
1.10
KSU
7
123
25.06
7.52
3.58
1.07
Table 2 Mean and standard deviation of each category in SPOTK Category/Item
M
SD
Instructional Repertoire (IR)
Category/Item
M
SD
Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK)
1
2.73
1.04
16
3.71
1.14
2
3.12
1.20
17
3.71
1.07
3
2.51
.94
18
3.96
1.01
4
1.91
.86
19
3.73
1.05
5
2.41
1.03
20
3.24
1.16
6
2.97
1.12
21
3.09
1.15
7
2.82
1.13
8
2.26
.96
Representational Repertoire (RR)
Knowledge of Students’ Understanding (KSU)
9
3.48
1.07
22
3.76
1.01
10
3.54
1.11
23
3.59
1.10
11
2.75
1.02
24
3.54
1.08
12
2.75
1.09
25
3.48
1.00
13
2.33
1.01
26
3.18
1.06
14
2.98
1.09
27
3.85
1.10
15
3.14
1.07
28
3.66
1.17
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1. Science teachers had rich subject matter knowledge and often assessed students’ understanding. According to Table 2, students often thought that their science teachers knew the content, and how principles of science theories were developed. Students also perceived that the teachers knew the answer to questions related to science concepts. However, students found that the impact of science on society (M = 3.09) was weak. Science teachers found that their biggest problem was the lack of time. Science teachers usually focused on the subject content and the transmission of concepts, they rarely paid attention to how the subject matter could be related to everyday or how the science concepts can be applied to situations in life. On the other hand, the data collected from interviews and written assignments revealed that teachers found their scientific knowledge acquired from the university enough to teach secondary school students. Teachers showed confidence with their PCK, but Teacher Caleb admitted that certain parts in the lesson of “Heat” required extra information as references to improve students’ comprehension. The opinions of the four teachers are as follows.
I preferred using mathematic formulas to explain the concepts of “Heat and the process of floating”. Owing to the lack of time, I rarely provide examples from everyday life.
(Amy’s
interview)
At the university, I learn that ‘Heat’ is a result from comparable, rather than absolute, value, thermal convection involves transmission of heat energy from high to low temperature, but not from high to low energy. (Bee’s interview)
I think if the temperature of different objects is the same, then there is “thermal equilibrium”. When an iron block comes in contact with copper and achieves “balanced heat”, the temperature won’t change. (Dick’s written assignment)
I do not agree with the concept of “Heat” which is transmissible by radiation rather than by media. How come the process of transmission requires no medium? (Caleb’s written assignment)
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On the other hand, students thought that science teachers often used evaluation to assess their learning outcome. They thought that schools emphasized grades and the Entrance Examination, so most of the science teachers utilized tests to evaluate students’ learning outcome after a unit or after a chapter was taught. The aim of giving tests was to make students think and understand the subject matter content through repeated practices. Furthermore, giving tests was a way to make students study and prepare for the Entrance Examination in order to push them to get a good grade. Most of the teachers’ methods of evaluation came from their paper-based tests. Alternative assessment approaches were fewer and included reports, students’ portfolios, and out-of-class researches.
Lecture is the only way of instruction currently practiced in my class. After finishing the instruction of a topic, students shall review the lesson at home. Then, I set a test to gain the better learning outcome.
(Caleb’s interview)
H=MST is an abstract formula. Hence, science teachers have to create exercises for students to practice. Students may understand the concept after repeated practices. (Bee’s reflective journal)
Having tests is a way to make students think. Paper-based test is the most popular. Other methods of evaluation are fewer and include research reports or portfolios. (Amy’s interview)
The Entrance Examination is the focus of assessment during the whole semester. The more the tests are held, the better the grades students get. (Dick’s reflective journal)
2. Science teachers had difficulty implementing representational repertoire and instructional strategies.
According to Table 2, science teachers sometimes used representational repertoire such as familiar examples, tables and chart, and analogical arguments in their classes. However,
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science teachers seldom used real objects (M = 2.75) or stories (M = 2.33) to explain science concepts. The findings show that science teachers used simple and easy instructional representation. Teachers utilized tables and analogical arguments as well as lectures and writing on the blackboard when explaining concepts. There was less mutual communication between teachers and students when students were required to attend lecture, take notes and practice problem solving.
“Specific heat capacity” is a new concept for students. When I explain it the first time, I usually draw a picture instead of using other tools.
(Amy’s interview)
The way I teach this topic was to have students attend the lecture and take notes in class for the whole semester. I didn’t prepare stories or videotapes as extra teaching tools. (Caleb’s reflective journal)
Students are not clear about the concept of “Specific heat capacity”, so I took the analogical example - temperature to clarify the heat of water. When the same quantity of water goes into a glass cup of a narrow size, the water level rises easily. The phenomenon is analogical to the rise of temperature. (Dick’s written assignment)
When students get bad grades from tests, the main reason is due to their learning difficulty. They cannot understand easily new concepts they learn for the first time. I have to improve the mutual communication with students and get their opinion about the teaching method. (Dick’s reflective journal)
On the other hand, instructional strategies are the worst in the four categories of PCK, which indicates that science teachers’ teaching strategies could not attract students’ learning interest. Students complained that teachers did not use appropriate models to help them understand science concepts (M = 1.91). Responses from science teachers seemed to support this point. Science teaching activities are designed for helping students to do better in tests, and the teacher-centered teaching strategy is considered the most efficient way to achieve the goal. In contrast, other teaching methods, such as discussion and questioning, are less welcome by
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students who are less ready to pose questions and participate in discussion.
In view of the good grades obtained in tests, lecture is considered the most efficient and convenient way of teaching. (Dick’s interview)
I prefer using one-way explanation to describe the definition of “Heat” and the concept of “Thermal Equilibrium”. The discussion strategy is rarely used in class. (Caleb’s interview)
I usually expect students to pose questions in class, but they often do not. (Amy’s reflective journal)
It’s not easy to pose questions, as I know students are not able to ask questions precisely. (Bee’s reflective journal)
3. Students’ perceptions and teachers’ reflection are important factors of this model for developing science teachers’ PCK During this research, students’ perceptions and teachers’ reflection are important factors of this model for developing science teachers’ PCK. In the representational repertoire aspect, science teachers considered using less real objects to support the teaching representation that the main reason is time-consuming of class preparation. Under the pressure of catching up with the schedule, they complained that there was too much to teach, thus leaving them little time of reading science stories when explaining scientific concepts. However, science teachers thought that they would develop some instructional representations after reading the students’ survey results. They might also explain important concepts using real objects or examples from daily life, and by designing some activities to give students the chance to practice and enrich their empirical experience.
I will take into consideration students’ misconceptions and learning difficulties in my lesson design and use daily life experience for a meaningful teaching presentation. (Amy’s written assignment)
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Through analyzing the students’ survey results, I am going to increase the demonstration and empirical activities to help students learn from conducive and inductive concepts in science. (Dick’s interview)
I consider discussions in a group unrealistic for teaching. For example, to reinforce the teaching representation of “Heat”, I will prepare real objects for students instead of drawing on the blackboard for explanation as I did formerly.
(Caleb’s reflective journal)
From the related researches on PCK, I learned to reinforce and integrate teachers’ personal CK (content knowledge) and PK (pedagogical knowledge). Through investigating the students’ survey, I think about developing a better teaching representation. (Bee’s reflective journal)
In the instructional repertoire aspect, teachers admitted that they adopt less various teaching models. Knowledge transmission is an essential point of traditional teaching according to the content of textbook. The teaching schedule with tests included often results in shortage of time for teachers. Through investigating the students’ survey, science teachers reflected that they could reinforce their teaching methods in class using multiple teaching strategies. Meanwhile, science teachers were the most appropriate reflective coaches for each other, because they could faithfully reflect their observations on teaching practice. In this regard, when the teachers provided feedbacks to each other, they not only gave suggestive but also positive feedbacks in order to facilitate peer’s teaching skills and strategies. Science teachers should be more open to critical suggestions for improvement and changes offered by supportive peers. My teaching method and pattern lack change. Although the main point of teaching is knowledge transmission, I consider using multiple teaching strategies in future. (Caleb’s interview)
Peer coaching requires the teachers to be open-minded to both positive and negative feedbacks from peers. Positive feedback could enhance their teaching skills while negative feedback could modify their teaching (Amy’s reflective journal). Page 1010
Teaching schedule and pressure of examination are main obstacles for innovative teaching. However, I will adopt questioning and group discussion as strategies to make up the weakness. (Bee’s written assignment)
I placed more emphasis on observation while Bee focused more on quantifiable operations when we taught the experimental activities of “heat and temperature”. In our discussion, we learned about each other’s viewpoints and we often discovered our own blind spots (Dick’s interview).
Conclusion and Implications The development and research for in-service science teachers’ PCK are less emphasized than that for preservice science teachers (Loughran, Mulhall & Berry, 2004; Van Driel et al., 1998). Most of these works collected the interviews or assignment transcripts, and implemented qualitative analysis to discuss science teachers’ PCK growth. This current study used mixed analytical methods incorporating both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The researcher first developed a peer coaching-based model by revising Lumpe’s (2007) model which can be applied to peer collaboration strategies and evaluation of students’ results. In summary, the peer coaching-based model includes the process of PCK development and the content of PCK development. The process of PCK development involves forming peer-coaching communities and applying the PCK-RIER module (Research, Instruction, Evaluation, and Reflection). In addition, schedule time and incentive structures must be in place to support the peer coaching-based system. The content of PCK development for this model is classified into three categories including curriculum, instruction and assessment. Then, four secondary science teachers and 123 students took part on this study about using the developed PCK-RIER model. This empirical study intended to examine the secondary students’ perceptions of science teachers’ PCK and the effects of applying the developed model.
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As in other similar studies, the students thought that teachers often assessed knowledge of student understanding (Tuan, Chang, Wang & Treagust, 2000; Wang, Tuan & Chang, 1998) and science teachers had rich subject matter knowledge (Clark, 1987; Wang, Tuan & Chang, 1998). In this study, under the pressure of examination, students thought that science teachers emphasized test grades. After science teachers taught the unit of “Heat and Temperature”, they utilized tests to assess students’ learning outcomes. Science teachers have greater confidence in their subject matter PCK. They could teach students how to distinguish between these two concepts, which some researchers have shown that students initially treat heat and temperature as if they are the same concept (Lewis & Linn, 1994; Linn & Songer, 1991; Wiser & Carey, 1983). However, students often thought that science teachers had difficulty in implementing representational repertoire and instructional strategies. Teachers often test students in order to stimulate students to think and understand the content by repeated exercises. Teacher-centered traditional teaching method is considered the most efficient way to achieve the goal. Other strategies such as questioning or group discussion are not adopted. Most teachers in Taiwan are trained by the Teacher Education Center. They are supposed to learn different teaching strategies and teaching models, and research that showed experienced teachers were equipped with good teaching-based knowledge (Lin & Yang, 1998). However, in real teaching situations and the pressure from the Entrance Examination, science teachers often use the traditional teaching strategy, which was considered the most efficient way of teaching. Another finding in the study was that students’ perceptions and teachers’ reflection are important factors for developing science teachers’ PCK. As in other similar studies, science educators have expanded their views of teachers’ professional development by demonstrating some impact on student learning (Czerniak, Beltyukova, Struble, Haney & Lumpe, 2006; Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry & Hewson, 2003). For traditional teaching strategies, science teachers are not aware of students’ weak comprehension and their learning difficulty, Page 1012
so teachers cannot adjust their instructional representations and strategies. However, students’ survey would help science teachers understand their weak points of teaching and develop as a communication tool for science teachers. They reflected that they might explain important concepts by real objects from daily experience, and by designing some activities to give students the chance to practice and enrich their empirical experience. On the other hand, some related studies indicated that the instructional model related to teaching reflection was important for PCK development (De Jong, Van Driel & Verloop, 2005; Gess-Newsome & Lederman, 1993). Science teachers admit that they did not use a variety of teaching models, and they think that transmission of knowledge was the key point of teaching. Only by peer interaction and reflection, science teachers learned and understood more about various ways of teaching a certain topic. Science teachers should be more open to critical suggestions for improvement and changes offered by the supportive peers. This study was a preliminary attempt to fit the needs of the government’s newly integrated curriculum scheme and to develop the science teachers’ PCK through a PCK-RIER module. However, science teachers preferred traditional instruction, not only because of the pressure of entrance examination, but also because of teachers’ lack of adequate PCK. When teachers’ knowledge and abilities are insufficient, it is impossible to implement efficient teaching (Hashweh, 1987). It is recommended that the PCK-RIER model should be adopted in teacher education to offer more opportunities for professional growth of in-service teachers, particularly in the aspects of instructional and representational repertoires. On the other hand, the research methods of students’ perceptions and teachers’ reflection could increase the learning and research experience of both in-service science teachers and the instructor and also serve as useful reference for other in-service teacher education institutes.
References Appleton, K. (1997). Analysis and description of students’ learning during science classes using
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Appendix Students’ perceptions of teachers’ knowledge (SPOTK) Directions for students: This questionnaire contains statements about practices, which could take place in this class. You will be asked how often each practice takes place. There are no “right” or “wrong” answers. Your opinion is what is wanted. Think about how well each statement describes what this class is like for you. Draw a circle around: 1. if the practice takes place “Almost Never” 2. if the practice takes place “Seldom” 3. if the practice takes place “Sometimes” 4. if the practice takes place “Often” 5. if the practice takes place “Almost Always”
Be sure to give an answer for all questions. If you change your mind about an answer, just cross it out and circle another. Some statements in this questionnaire are fairly similar to other statements. Don’t worry about this. Simply give your opinion about all statements.
Assessing students’ perceptions of science teachers’ knowledge
IR 1. My teacher’s teaching methods keep me interested in science. 2. My teacher provides opportunities for me to express my point of view. 3. My teacher uses different teaching activities to promote my interest in learning. 4. My teacher uses appropriate models to help me understand science concepts. 5. My teacher uses interesting methods to teach science topics. 6. My teacher’s teaching methods make me think hard. 7. My teacher uses a variety of teaching approaches to teach different topics. 8. My teacher shows us activities that I can use to continue my study of a topic.
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RR 9. My teacher uses familiar examples to explain scientific concepts. 10. My teacher uses appropriate diagrams and graphs to explain science concepts. 11. My teacher uses demonstrations to show science concepts. 12. My teacher uses real objects to help me understand science concepts. 13. My teacher uses stories to explain science ideas. 14. My teacher uses analogies with which I am familiar to help me understand science concepts. 15. My teacher uses familiar events to describe scientific concepts.
SMK 16. My teacher knows the content (s)he is teaching. 17. My teacher knows how science theories or principles have been developed. 18. My teacher knows the answers to questions that we ask about science concepts. 19. My teacher knows how science is related to technology. 20. My teacher knows the history behind science discoveries. 21. My teacher explains the impact of science on society. KUS 22. My teacher’s tests evaluate my understanding of a topic. 23. My teacher’s questions evaluate my understanding of a topic. 24. My teacher’s assessment methods evaluate my understanding. 25. My teacher uses different approaches (questions, discussion, etc.) to find out whether I understand. 26. My teacher assesses the extent to which I understand the topic. 27. My teacher uses tests to check that I understand what I have learned. 28. My teacher’s tests allow me to check my understanding of concepts.
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Difficulties of hypothesis-based inquiry
What went wrong? A case study of hypothesis-verification process in science inquiry teaching
Mijung Kim1, Yong Jae Joung2, Hye-Gyoung Yoon3
1. National Institute of Education, Singapore 2. Gongju National University of Education, Korea 3. Chuncheon National University of Education, Korea
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ABSTRACT Hypothesis generated based on individual‟s curiosity and doubt suggests tentative answers to the reason why phenomena happen. Hypothesis-verification process requires students to predict reasons and explanations for certain phenomena and to test variables in order to verify the hypothesis. Science inquiry teaching with hypothesis-verification process is generally adapted in elementary science classrooms in Korea, regarded as effective ways of enhancing children‟s inquiry minds and skills. However, without understanding the nature of hypothesis, teachers often utilize this method as a simple process of predicting-checking without scientific reasoning and explanation. To understand how pre-service teachers could understand and adapt the method of investigative inquiry in their elementary science teaching, we conducted a case study with sixteen fourth year university students in elementary teacher education program in Korea. We observed their teaching practice on investigative inquiry and examined their difficulties of teaching with this method. We videotaped, transcribed and analyzed their lessons and group discussions on challenges of inquiry teaching. We also collected their lesson plans and reflective writings as written data. Based on the data collected, this study examines pre-service teachers‟ difficulties in teaching hypothesis construction, test, and data interpretation in hypothesis-based inquiry approach.
INTRODUCTION There have been various forms and approaches of inquiry-based teaching to enhance children‟s scientific mind and skills since scientific inquiry is recognized as one of the main goals in science education (AAAS, 1989; NRC, 1996, 2000). Among various approaches of inquiry teaching, hypothesis-based inquiry has been recognized as an effective way to develop children‟s scientific reasoning and problem solving in science teaching. Studies suggested that hypothesis construction and evidence-based reasoning can be taught to young
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children (Jeong, Songer, & Lee, 2007; Joung, 2008; Tytler & Peterson, 2003), this approach is commonly accepted and practiced in elementary science classrooms. Despite the pervasive practice of hypothesis-verification process, there are some pedagogical concerns in terms of classroom implementation. Firstly, even though that hypothesis is the central part of investigative process, the definition and role of hypothesis have not been examined thoroughly among science educators and teacher practitioners (Wenham, 1993); thus, it has been difficult to agree on its practice and outcomes accordingly. Secondly, there has not been sufficient discussion on pedagogical framework and practice of hypothesis-based inquiry teaching in classroom settings. In this regard, this study attempts to raise some pedagogical issues of hypothesis-based inquiry teaching in science classrooms based on the discussion of the nature of hypothesis and verification in scientific investigation.
The nature of hypothesis-verification Hypothesis is the principle intellectual techniques of investigation in the history of scientific development. Scientists construct hypotheses based on the phenomena they observe and carry out numerous experiments to test their hypotheses throughout the history of science, e.g., Loffler and Roux‟s hypothesis and test on diphtheria and the therapeutic use of antiserum resulted in a significant development of Germ Theory in medical science history (Beveridge, 1961). A good hypothesis indeed brings out an important contribution to problem solving. A good hypothesis, at first, is a hypothesis, but eventually transformed into a fact through evidence afforded by subsequent further investigation. If the hypothesis holds right explanation for all situations, it can be evaluated as a theory or even law if sufficiently profound (Beveridge, 1961). There have also been wrong hypotheses which have led fruitful scientific development in the history. For example, in Western Australia, H. W. Bennet made
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a hypothesis that nervous disease of swayback (sheep) was due to lead intoxication and carried out his tests with ammonium chloride which is the antidote to lead. However, test results suggested him that the disease might be due to deficiency of some mineral which was present in small amounts in the first batch of ammonium chloride. Bennet soon found out that it was due to deficiency of copper, a deficiency never previously known to animal‟s disease (Beveridge, 1961). In fact, a scientific development can also result from a false hypothesis followed by continuous trials, refuting, and reconstructing it. These examples indicate the importance of constructing hypotheses and critical analysis of test results and re-examination. The main function of hypothesis in scientific investigation is to suggest new methods (new observation, experiments, etc.) to test if the explanation is true or not. That is, our attention to what to observe, test, and to collect as data are directed by the tentative explanation or solution to the problem. To verify hypothesis is “to trace out its consequences by deduction, to compare them with results of experiment by induction and to discard the hypothesis, and try another, as soon as the first has been refuted; as it presumably will be” (Peirce, 1877, p138) The structure of hypothesis as conjecture of phenomena and experimental design as method of dealing with evidential phenomena must be suitable for each other‟s end. In other words, the following tests must be purposefully designed and practiced to verify the explanations. Without the connection between hypothesis and testing, many hypotheses cannot be proved and many experiments become disconnected with no outcomes or benefits to accepting or refuting the hypothesis. In the understanding of the purpose of experiments, there requires our attention to the temptation too attached to our hypothesis in the process of data interpretation. “We must strive to judge the data objectively and modify or discard it as soon as contrary evidence is brought to lift. Vigilance is needed to prevent our observations and interpretations being biased in favor of the hypothesis” (Beveridge, 1961, p. 52). That is,
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we need to design experiments and methods based on presupposition that the hypothesis is true and yet, collect and interpret data without over-inclination to the hypothesis. The data interpretation and analysis must require critical, open-minded approach. With the nature of hypothesis in scientific investigation, its role has been emphasized in science education, especially in the area of scientific inquiry & problem solving, scientific explanations, and argumentation. In learning problem-solving process, hypothesis plays a central role in posing and articulating the aspiration and direction of problems (Lawson, 1995, Klahr & Dunbar, 1988), in collecting and analyzing data systematically (Hempel, 1966; Wenham, 1993) and in explaining why problematic phenomena happen (Hanson, 1958; Millar, 1989). Furthermore, hypothesis in the inquiry process can be a logical tool for students to examine and develop scientific knowledge. This suggests that it is crucial for teachers to understand how to construct good and testable hypothesis and how to test and analyze test results in the teaching of investigative inquiry. However, the understanding of hypothesis has been perplexing and challenging among science educators with multiple aspects of prediction, presupposition, and anticipations (Jeong & Kwon, 2006). Hypothesis and prediction are used occasionally for the same purpose without understanding the presupposition of assumption, that is, co-operations of material and imaginary experiences, clues, and identifiers to explain anticipated results. Especially in elementary levels, prediction was suggested as hypothesis considering the level of conceptual knowledge and capacity of problem solving (Gilbert & Matthews, 1986). Because of the multiple understanding of hypothesis, the approach of hypothesis-based inquiry has also been practiced in various formats and directions. In this paper, differentiating hypothesis and prediction, we attempt to discuss that without understanding the nature of hypothesis, hypothesis-based inquiry cannot sufficiently develop scientific reasoning and evidence-oriented mind which theoretically expected in
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hypothesis-verification approach. To claim this notion, we will show some episodes of teaching scenes later on in this paper. Among various definitions of hypothesis, we take the view of hypothesis as a tentative explanation. Hypothesis as tentative/suggested explanation or solution is the most widely used one in science education (Park, 2006; Wenham, 1993). It is a tentative explanation when we encounter an unusual situation and try to make sense of the unusualness (Peirce: CP 5.374-5). In other words, hypothesis is a kind of tentative answer to the question „why a present phenomenon happens‟ (Lawson, 1995; Salmon, 1998). Based on tentative explanation or solution, students determine their observation and variables and data interpretation and conclusion tightening the original explanation and data collected in inquiry process. Without this tentative explanation or solution, students‟ hypotheses in science classrooms turned out to be simple prediction on what will happen in the end. Lawson (1995) explained that „prediction‟ is a thing that is posed from hypothesis by deduction, and is to be compared with the result of experiment, then is to be verified by inductive process. That is to say, the nature and role of prediction is different from hypothesis However, hypothesis is different from prediction, requiring certain process of thinking and testing. Many scholars explain how to verify certain hypothesis with a sequence of abduction, deduction, and induction (e.g., Hanson, 1958; Lawson 1995; Park, 2006). To discuss the challenges of the nature of hypothesis and verification practiced in the real situations of classroom teaching, this study examines how pre-service teachers implement this approach in elementary science classrooms and what difficulties and conflicts emerge during their practice with elementary students. Observing their teaching and reflecting together with the pre-service teachers on their teaching, we, as science teacher educator and researchers attempt to understand the challenges of hypothesis-based inquiry teaching in classroom practice, pre-service teachers‟ difficulties in practicing inquiry teaching, and ways of helping pre-service teachers with understanding hypothesis-based inquiry.
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RESEARCH CONTEXT Research Design & Process This study took place during science methods course in elementary teacher education in Korea. Sixteen fourth-year pre-service teachers participated in designing and practicing inquiry-based science during the course over 15 weeks. The participants were divided into three groups and prepared and taught one inquiry science lesson as group. For the first half of the course (1st -6th week), the preservice teachers were engaged in exploring strategies to help children with problem solving process based on hypothesis making, designing experiments and controlling variables, collecting data, and making a conclusion. The second part of the course involved lesson design and practice. In the 7th -9th week, each group of pre-service teachers chose their lesson topic and collaboratively designed a hypothesis-based inquiry lesson. For more effective lesson to children, the pre-service teachers practiced the lesson procedure beforehand to reduce any anticipated errors. After their trial, they discussed and revised their lesson to enhance the feasibility and efficiency of lesson. In the 10-13 week, they teach their lessons to a mixed class of Grades 4, 5, and 6 students in the gifted science classes. This class is a type of voluntary students‟ club based on extra science learning curricular once a week. The last two weeks (14-15th week) there was reflective discussion among the pre-service teachers and the teacher educator (researcher). They also wrote reflection reports individually and had group discussions on their difficulties. Finally they shared their reflection through whole class discussion. All discussions were audio taped and transcribed for data analysis. Here is the summary of three lessons that the pre-service teachers conducted. In all three lessons, students were asked to construct their hypotheses, design experiments, and verify their hypothesis.
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Lesson 1. Snow man’s coat Students would figure out how they could keep ice bars longer without melting. The students observed ice cream bars for 10 minutes in three conditions; leaving it in the air, fanning it, and wrapping it with cloth. For the third condition, children tested it with different kinds of cloth and changes in the numbers of wrapping.
Lesson 2: Paper spinner and hoop plane There were two separate activities; 1) paper spinner and 2) plane with hoops. The students made their own hypotheses of what makes the objects fly longer. Students tested the variables of length of wings and the number hoops.
Lesson 3: Candle flame and rising water Students asked find out under what condition and why the water level goes up higher after candle flames are off inside of cylinder. Children came up with variables of candle numbers and length to verify their hypothesis.
Among three lessons, we will exhibit the details and cases from lesson #3 more frequently than the rest two lessons. That is not because there were more difficulties or stories found in this particular lesson but it would be more plausible to discuss the issues of hypothesis-based inquiry teaching when the readers understand the sequence of the whole lesson process (see Table 1). Therefore, we attempt to introduce more episodes from the lesson #3.
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Table 1. The sequence of lesson #3, ‘the Candle flame and rising water’ Process
Activities
video clips covering
Introduction
A video clip of burning candle and covered by a
the candle
cylindrical glass
Children observe and discuss why the water is rising after the candle went off.
Hypothesis
Children in four groups make hypothesis on under what condition water will go inside more.
making
Children presented their hypothesis to the whole class. They explained their ideas based on oxygen consumption.
Testing
Children design their experiments with variables and constants based on their hypothesis and conduct test.
Data
Children collect data and examine if their hypothesis was right. They make conclusions
interpretatio n Presentation
Children represent their results and conclusion to the whole class.
Ending
video
Teacher show another video clip of rising water
a flask
inside flask, but with no candle flame involved.
rinsed
Teacher explains that the main reason of water
by hot water
level rising was heat (temperature change) not oxygen consumption.
Data collection and analysis In order to understand the depth of problems and difficulties of hypothesis-based teaching, there was a need for us to understand the pre-service teachers‟ lived experiences, stories, and reflection on and in their actions. For this purpose, we employed qualitative approach for data collection and analysis which allowed us to reach more detailed, descriptive, and approachable understandings of the pre-service teachers‟ dilemmas and difficulties of teaching. We employed video-recording of classes and pre-service teachers‟ written reports to understand their classroom teaching. We also collected data from their
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reflective writings and audio-recording of group discussions on their interactions with children. In data analysis, the researchers modified and employed the process of open coding, axial coding and selective coding originally suggested by Glaser and Strauss (Flick, 2006). When suggested by Glaser and Strauss, this process of coding was intended to develop grounded theories from research texts (Flick, 2006); however, our purpose to adopt this process was not to create a new theory but to search for integrated themes and relationships among research data so that we could explain the phenomena of hypothesis-verification teaching in science classrooms. For that purpose, we found the process of coding fruitful to enhance the coherence of interpretation and thematization of data in our study. For open coding, we individually cross-checked lesson plans, video clips of their lessons, and their reflections to look into the frequent ideas and concerns emerged. Through the audio data of their discussion, we could understand why their action occurred certain ways during teaching. Since each pre-service teacher was working closely with one group of children, their observation on children‟s learning behaviors was very descriptive and reflective. This process also helped us understand the pre-service teachers‟ experiences which were unrecognized by us. For axial coding, the researchers, after the first step of coding, gathered to discuss interpretation, themes, and concerns related to the data. During this step, we attempted to find out integrated, coherent themes and concerns of hypothesis-based teaching. For the selective coding, the researchers selected some episodes from lessons and discussions which distinctively exhibited the concerns and difficulties of teaching hypothesisbased inquiry. Then we discussed the details of pre-service teachers‟ experiences, decisionmaking scenes, and actions in the episodes to re-examine the themes and the contexts of the episodes. By following these steps, we could analyze and conclude the integrated themes of the difficulties and concerns of hypothesis-based inquiry in classroom teaching.
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RESEARCH FINDINGS In this study, we found several pedagogical and instructional difficulties of teaching hypothesis-based inquiry in science classrooms. We especially examined three stages of the teaching of scientific investigation; 1) hypothesis construction, 2) experimental design and test, and 3) data interpretation.
Lack of understanding of hypothesis Good hypotheses require children‟s tentative and testable explanation or solution to the given problem in order for them to develop an investigative process. However, the preservice teachers show uncertain understandings of hypothesis during their teaching practice. They asked children to predict the result of given problems as hypothesis making. Children wrote down what would happen without why it would happen, that is, a tentative explanation to the prediction. In this case, children‟s hypothesis is only a simple prediction, not hypothesis. In the first lesson led by the first pre-service teacher group, children were asked to predict in which way they could keep ice bars the longest without melting among three options (fanning, leaving with no interruption, and wrapping with cloth). For instance, children‟s hypothesis was “when we fan on it, it will melt the fastest”. In the second lesson, children were asked to make hypothesis filling in the blank on the sentence suggested by the pre-service teachers, “when the wings are _______, paper sinners will fall down slowly”. Among four groups of children, three groups made a hypothesis that “the longer the wings are, the slowly the paper spinners will fall down.” And one group said “when the wings have an appropriate length, the spinner will fall down slowly” with no related explanation. Children‟s hypothesis making seemed a bit more appropriate in lesson 3 in terms of explanation. In lesson 3, the third group of pre-service teachers guided children to come up
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with possible reasons for their prediction. Here are the details of children‟s hypothesis making process in the lesson 3 (Episode #1).
Episode #1 Two pre-service teachers (Tae and Kang) were team teaching in this lesson. Tae taught the first half and Kang taught the second half. The rest of the pre-service teachers in the group one were helping children‟s group activity. In the beginning of the lesson, Tae showed a video clip of covering a burning candle with a measuring cylinder. Children observed that the candle flames went off and the water level inside the cylinder rose. The pre-service teacher asked a few questions to guide children‟s hypothesis making. Tae asked,
Classroom dialogue #1 Tae (teacher): Why do you think the water level has gone up inside the cylinder? Could you write down your thinking and present it to the class? Student group 1: We thought it is because the air disappears because of the candle flame and the water was replacing the space of the air. Tae: Ok , good work. What about next group? Student group 2: It is because Oxygen will be consumed and there will be empty space. The water went into the cylinder to fill the space. Tae: Ok, next group, are you ready? Ok, tell us your thought. Student group 3: There is difference of air pressure inside the cylinder. And, Oxygen disappears and the water is sucked in to replace the space. … Group 4: Oxygen disappears so the water goes in to fill the space. Tae: Ok, good work, guys. Now I am going to ask you to think of how you can make the level of water higher.
Later, Tae asked children to make hypotheses, suggesting the sentence of „when_____, the
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water level goes up higher, because_____‟. Three groups of students said that „the more candles are inside, the higher water level will be because they will consume more oxygen‟. One group (group 3) presented a different condition. It was “the longer the candles are, the more water will go inside because carbon dioxide is heavier that the air and can extinguish the flame. In this case, the flames can stay longer”. From the previously dialogue that they suggested above, we could only assume that they also had the idea of oxygen consumption to explain for the difference of air pressure (see dialogue #1).
From the examples above, there are difficulties in the pre-service teachers‟ teaching of hypothesis making. Firstly, they understood a simple prediction as hypothesis. In 1esson 1 & 2, the suggested format of hypothesis making was only to predict what will happen under certain conditions. The pre-service teachers did not ask children to think about explanations or reasons for their predicted result. This process of simple prediction could not provide children with an opportunity to collect and interpret data to explain why certain results happened. Secondly, the pre-service teachers were not able to guide children to construct a hypothesis which children could design an experiment to test their hypothesis. In the lesson 3, the pre-service teachers did not realize that the hypothesis that children constructed was not testable with the materials and situation that they provided to children. That is, there was no way to measure and justify the oxygen consumption in their experimental materials and equipments. We will explain the details of this notion in the following section.
Unfocused roles of testing To justify a hypothesis, there requires fair tests. The conditions of fair test are designing the variables and constants. Controlling variables and constants can attain the fairness of test, however, they need to test their explanation given in the hypothesis, not the
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part of their prediction on result. The pre-service teachers did not have sufficient understandings of this connection between hypothesis and test. The lack of understanding led children‟s work not fruitful. For example, in the episode #1 above, children‟s test with the different numbers of candles could prove that their prediction was right, however, could not verify their explanation true. Here are more details of the scene.
Episode #2 After children made their hypothesis such as „the more candles- the higher water levelbecause of oxygen consumption‟ in the groups of 1, 2, and 4 and „the longer candles- the higher water level- because carbon dioxide is heavier than the air‟ in the group 3, the teacher asked children to deign experiments to test their hypotheses. Children set up their tests based on variables and constants and started testing their hypothesis out. In their testing, what students actually observed was that the water level went higher when there were more candles. In other words, their test seemingly confirmed that their hypothesis was true. Children concluded their work in which the data from the experiment showed that their hypothesis was right.
During children‟s experiments, Kang took over the second part of the lesson. She asked children to present their result and conclusion.
Classroom dialogue #2 Kang: Let’s hear about the last group’s conclusion. Boy 1: We thought that when there are more candles, the more water will go inside because when the candles are burning, carbon dioxide will come out and the density of carbon dioxide is bigger than oxygen and any other gas inside of cylinder so there will be some empty space and the water will be sucked in to replace the space.
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Boy 2: Therefore, we tried to test cases with 1, 2, 3, and 4 candles. We made the same the amount of water [in the petridish], the size of cylinder, the length of the candles, and the time we cover the cylinder. It did not go well, .. we could not do the case of 4 candles. The level of water was 5 cm for 1 candle, 6 cm for 2 candles, 7 cm for 3 candles. We did not have time for 4 candles. Kang: So in the beginning you thought that because of the combustion, Carbon dioxide will come out, and the density is bigger so there will be some empty space. That’s why the water will be sucked in. Boy 1&2: Yes. Kang: Then, if carbon dioxide is more dense, there would be empty space? (She gestures) Boy 1: That’s because the density of carbon dioxide is bigger… Kang: What do you mean by the density is bigger? Boy 1: the molecules are gathering.. Kang: So it means they are very tightly together? That’s why there will be empty space? Boy1: The space inside the cylinder is the same and if the density of the gas becomes bigger, then there will be some space created. Kang: …ok, good. Thank you. …. Kang: To sum up your hypothesis and conclusion, most of you thought that the candles are using oxygen and the water goes inside to replace the empty space. So you designed your test and carried it out. However, think about what you observe on the video in the beginning. If it is because of oxygen consumption, the candle flame is continuously consuming oxygen, the water would go up gradually. However, on the video, you saw the water was suddenly going up very high after the flame was off. A child: because of heat.
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Kang: Then, we thought it was related to oxygen.. let’s watch one video clip to think about other reason.
During their presentations, Kang realized that children were getting wrong ideas that the water level goes up because oxygen is consumed and water is replacing the space of oxygen. She attempted to teach children the “correct” knowledge of the phenomenon. She showed a video clip which her group prepared beforehand. The video clip showed a demonstration of which a teacher rinses a round flask with hot water and put it upside down on a petridish filled with water. There was neither candle nor flame involved in the demonstration so there should be no activities of combustion and oxygen consumption. So by showing this video clip, the pre-service teachers attempted to explain the relationship between water rising and heat (temperature). However, without any discussion on children‟s experiment and conclusion compared to the video clip, the lesson was ended.
In this episode, the pre-service teachers did not understand what children‟s tests proved was only the prediction part (the more candle, the higher water level), not the explanation part (because of oxygen consumption) which is more essential to hypothesisverification process. The collected data and results were not sufficient to explain if the reason for the rising level of water was oxygen consumption or something else (e.g., heat or air temperature). The independent variable (the numbers of candles) and dependant variable (water levels) are enough to prove the prediction, but unsatisfactory to explain the reason. From this episode, we raise some concerns of understanding and scaffolding the relevance of tests in children‟s investigating process. With the given experimental situation (materials, equipment, etc.), it was impossible to justify the tentative explanation of oxygen consumption, therefore, re-examining the hypothesis on oxygen consumption was a necessary step that the teacher needed to take. However, the pre-service teachers could not know how to intervene
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and scaffold the process of hypothesis making and designing a test when children‟s hypothesis was not justifiable and their experimental design could not test their hypothesis. Without realizing the importance of testing for the explanation of hypothesis, the pre-service teacher asked children to process their test. The teacher did not attempt to explain that their hypothesis could not be right by exploring other conditions. Nor did they ask children to reexamine their hypothesis and develop alternatives before their experimental design. In hypothesis-based investigation, designing valid tests is a critical process to verify hypothesis. The variables on tests need to be designed to examine tentative explanations that investigators presuppose. Even though the pre-service teachers in the lesson 3 encouraged children to come up with temporary explanations, there was no deep understanding in which test needed to be set up for the explanation, not the result of prediction. They did not realize that the variables in children‟s experimental design, e.g., the number or length of candles could not justify the hypothesis as a whole (prediction and explanation). As a hypothesis which is eventually proved as wrong can also lead sufficient scientific thinking and knowledge through testing, we do not say that it is meaningless to have hypotheses which cannot be justified by test in the first place. However, without appropriate pedagogical scaffolding, the process of problem solving through hypothesis-verification would be unfruitful and result in perplexing understandings of the role of hypothesis and test. A hypothesis needs to be proved right or wrong through vital testing, and if it is still doubtable or proved wrong, then, there should be more ideas, discussion, and tests to generate alternative and eventually truthful explanations. However, the test design in this episode was not fulfilling the purpose. The design of variables needs to be sufficient to support or refute the explanatory part of hypothesis, not the prediction of final result. Without understanding this connection, the pre-service teachers‟ approach to hypothesis-verification approach got challenged to attain its purpose.
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Lack of skills of data analysis and discussion In the process of verifying hypothesis, data collection and interpretation are critical to collect the evidence of scientific explanation. This process is situated in the classroom environment because children‟s interactions with the learning environments are emerging non-linearly. The data collected and interpreted by children are rather unpredictable in classrooms and pre-service teachers seemed not prepared to scaffold the process of reaching the conclusion. However, in all three lessons, the data interpretation and analysis was not taken as important part of knowledge construction. The following episode shows the lack of understanding of the importance of data analysis in teachers‟ approach.
Episode # 3 The children in the group 3 collected their data from the variables on the length of candles. Their results showed when the length of candle was 5, 8, 11, 14, and 17, the level of water was 6.1cm, 6.5cm, 5.2cm, 5.4cm, and 5.2cm respectively. When they presented their result that there was not found some pattern or much difference of water level among different lengths of candle.
Classroom dialogue #3 Boy 2: To conclude, differently from our hypothesis, when the length of candle is not too long, not too short, but proper, the level of water is the highest. That[the length of candle] was 8 centimeters. Kang: So you thought in the beginning that when the candle was longer, water would go up more. Why did you think that way? Boy 1: errr… eh…. Boy 2: Because if the candle is longer, it will take loner carbon dioxide reaches the flame.. and the water also goes up gradually and it will take longer
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time to reach the flame… Kang: so you thought the short candle will go off early because carbon dioxide reaches it first so only little water goes in? Boy 2: yes. Kang: but I see your results, notice that longer candles did not have more water in. The highest water level was when it was 8cm, then. Boy 2: Yes. Kang: ok…
The teacher moved on to the next step without any discussion on this notion.
It is likely that when the candle is shorter, the water level goes up higher. According to this, the children‟s findings could lead a meaningful discussion on their test results and interpretation. The teacher did not know how to respond to children‟s results and how to open a discussion for children to think about reasons for which their result was different from their hypothesis. For most of times of children‟s presentation, the pre-service teacher repeated children‟s conclusion without further discussion, only moving forward to the next step of the lesson. No critical perspectives and questions were generated during the data presentation and conclusion. This concern appeared in other lessons.
Episode # 4 The following excerpt is from the second lesson on paper spinner. Classroom dialogue #4 Boy A (team 2): We made paper spinner with 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 centimeters wings… And our result is our hypothesis is right when the wings are below 5 centimeters, but it is wrong when wings were7 and 9 centimeters. Hwang: Ok, the flying time was increasing till 5 centimeters and then it
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decreased from 7 centimeters. Ok, give them hands. Next group. Boy B (team 3): We tried 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 centimeters and for accuracy, we tested three times each. With 6 centimeters, the flying time was 1.2 seconds, 7 centimeters, 1.5 seconds, 8 centimeters 1 second, 9 centimeters 0.9 second, and 10 centimeters for 0.8 second. So it was matched with our hypothesis. The finding is when the wings are not short, not long, but 7 centimeters which is just proper length, the flying time is the longest. … Hwang: uhhhh.. 7 centimeters… so this team had a different hypothesis and different result. Ok, give them hands. Next team!
Other two groups presented their conclusion in similar patterns. The lesson ended without analyzing why their hypothesis (prediction in this case) could become wrong when the length of wing reached beyond certain points and what they could interpret from the data.
In this episode, the results showed a certain pattern in the ratio between wings and body where the flying time was not increasing any more when the increase of wing length reached at a certain point. Even though this point varied among groups due to the materials and ratios of wing and body, their results showed their hypothesis could be right only until the point. All groups showed this similar pattern in their graphs, however, the teacher did not ask children to think about why this could happen. The pre-service teachers did not show much effort in interpreting and analyzing data. If the pre-service teachers had asked children to discuss reasons why the levels of water could be different from what they expected (episode #3), why the spinner with longer wings could fly longer, or what would be the similar patterns among groups‟ results (episode #4), it could have been more scientific explanation and reasoning skills generated and developed through
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the process. However, there were not enough awareness and scaffolding to fulfill the aspect of investigative inquiry learning.
DISCUSSION Based on the findings in this study, we highlight the difficulties of teaching hypothesis-based inquiry in the dimensions of the nature of hypothesis, fairness of test, skills of data analysis and communication. Firstly, there needs a sufficient understanding of the nature of hypothesis in order to conduct effective teaching of hypothesis-based inquiry. If there is one sentence, one observation, one single inference about a single concrete object with no testable explanation involved in hypothesis making, the statement is not sufficient to become a hypothesis (Quinn & George, 1975). Because the preservice teachers in this study could not understand the distinction between simple prediction and hypothesis, the process of hypothesis-verification became a simple observation on the test result, not being able to test and understand scientific explanation in the process. Constructing hypothesis is a foundational stage to cohere the entire process of hypothesis-based inquiry. Seen in the Episode #1, without understanding the difference between simple prediction and hypothesis, inquiry process is not sufficient to develop students‟ inquiring about the phenomena and solving problems in scientific manners. For example, to verify „their hypothesis, the more candles, the higher water level because of oxygen consumption,‟ children set up their test with varying the number of candles. However, in this case, the hypothesis was not sufficient to explain the phenomenon and not testable in the given situation. There could have been a discussion on the oxygen consumption was not the main reason for water level rising by showing earlier the video clip which was shown in the end of lesson. This shows that the preservice teachers had the proper scientific content knowledge for the lesson, however, they did not have the sufficient understanding of hypothesis constructing process. It is critical to
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construct hypothesis testable and explanatory of the given problems. To enhance higher level of thinking and reasoning, teachers need to understand and practice the nature of hypothesis in their teaching. Secondly, there should be more understanding of the purpose of test and what is fair test in scientific investigation. Studies explain that hypothesis leads us to decide what to be observed (as well as how, when and where) or which variables are likely to be significant to justify hypotheses (e.g., Wenham, 1993). This draws our attention to the coherent link between hypothesis and following test. Without the connection between hypothesis and test, the process of verification became disjointed work with irrelevant data and explanation to certain phenomena. The test is not a straightforward observation on what is happening during experiment. This also means variables and constants in the test must be connected to the explanation given in the hypothesis. If we intend to enhance the value of fair test, the variables and constants should be controlled in the connection to what needs to be observed and tested. For example, their test in candle and water lesson could verify only the part of prediction (the more candle, the higher water level), not the explanation part (because of the oxygen consumption). That is, a test is not only to get the final result which is predicted but also to be able to examine if the tentative explanation is right or wrong. Thirdly, teachers also need to know how to make their decision on how and when to guide/scaffold children‟s actions in inquiry process. Data collecting and interpretation based on evidence is the essential component of scientific investigation and reasoning, however, the connected examination between primary data and the statement of results has been often ignored in the process of scientific reasoning (Kanari & Millar, 2004). In each group discussion in this study, the pre-service teachers showed their discomfort on how much intervention they could carry out during inquiry teaching. One asked such question: “Is it ok to give them answers at the end when they could not find the right answers? Is it ok to say
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this is not right when they suggested their own answers? Because in inquiry, it is more important to learn the process so even though they could not find the right answer, they must have learned a lot during the process”. Their beliefs in which inquiry values process rather than products and inquiry should be student-centered not teacher-centered are strongly embedded in their minds, however, in real teaching practice, they felt comfortable, encountering the cases of which children are getting wrong concepts after their experiments. In the lesson 3, if the pre-service teacher had intervened children‟s work at the stage of hypothesis construction or if he has shown the video clip with no candles involved and developed some discussion around the heat and oxygen consumption, the process of investigation would have been more meaningful and truthful to enhance children‟s scientific thinking and explanation. Given that the development of teachers‟ understandings of inquiry can be developed through practical experiences and understanding (Crawford, 2007), theoretical modeling of inquiry teaching is not enough for pre-service teachers develop the knowledge and skills of inquiry teaching.
Therefore, we believe that the pre-service
teachers‟ pedagogical management and skills will improve over time, yet, it is only possible through the reiteration and critical reflection on their practice of hypothesis-based inquiry in classrooms. This difficulty also raises a pedagogical concern about enhancing children‟s appropriate communication skills during data collection and analysis for more effective meaningful investigative inquiry. The pre-service teachers expressed their difficulties in mentoring children‟s behaviors of reaching a conclusion during group discussion. The lack of children‟s communication and discussion skills was obviously noticed by the preservice teachers. They said, “children in my group did not discuss collaboratively in conclusion. They were enthusiastic about activities, but after that, they did not want to discuss to draw a conclusion”. The observed children were selecting what they wanted and even distorting the
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data. Even though the preservice teachers were trying to encourage the students to get engaged in discussion or making a conclusion, the process did not seem successful. Sociocultural aspects of learning as fundamental nature of scientific knowledge development need to be taken into account to enhance children‟s scientific attitudes in inquiry learning. Since their decision making process is often negotiated in authoritative and dialogic discourse among themselves (Scott, & Mortimer, & Aguiar, 2006), the value of sharing plural theoretical accounts as collectives in groups needs to be undertaken to enhance the abilities of data analysis, conclusion, and scientific argumentation (Duschl & Osborne, 2002; Kelly, Crawford, & Green, 2001).
CONCLUDING REMARKS Hypothesis-verification process is beneficial to enhance children‟s scientific minds and problem-solving skills. Being engaged in the process, children learn how to make hypotheses, design their experiments to test their hypothesis, and reach conclusions. However, to make the process fruitful and valid, more systemic and disciplined instruction is required to develop children‟s reasoning and skills of evidence-based scientific explanation. Teachers‟ understanding and decision making on how to intervene or guide children‟s work would be challenging without sufficient understandings of the nature of hypothesis and the roles of test. The process of hypothesis-verification is not simply „predicting what‟ but „explaining why‟ on given problems. In this process of explaining and verifying, there are more scientific knowledge, thinking and reasoning skills involved to solve the problem. To aim for the development of higher level of scientific thinking and problem solving, this study suggested that teachers‟ appropriate guidance on children‟s actions based on their understandings of hypothesis, test, and analysis would be essential. And yet, this study still remains some issues of children‟s cognitive levels and the levels of scientific thinking skills in elementary
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classrooms. Distinguishing simple prediction from hypothesis in elementary levels might be argued as an unnecessary challenge for teachers as well as children, which requires critical discussion among science educators and researchers. Teachers‟ tactful pedagogical decision making is also required when they employ the approach of hypothesis-based inquiry teaching in classrooms. For this approach has been discussed and implemented as a critical method to enhance scientific thinking and reasoning, there needs to be more thorough consideration on how we conduct this approach not to be another cookbook-based practical work but to be a meaningful action to evoke children to seek for evidence to claim for their ideas.
REFERENCES American Association for the Advancement of Science (1989). Science for all Americans: Project 2061. New York: Oxford University Press. Beveridge, W. (1961). The art of scientific investigation. London: Mercury Books. Crawford, B. A. (2007), Learning to teach science as inquiry in the rough and tumble of practice, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(4), pp. 613-642. Duschl, R. A., & Osborne, J. (2002). Supporting and promoting argumentation discourse in science education. Studies in Science Education, 38 (1), 39 – 72. Flick, U. (2006). An introduction of qualitative research. London, Thousand Oaks, & New Delhi: SAGE. Gilbert, C., & Matthews, P. (1986). Look! Primary Science: Teacher's Guide A. Edinburgh, Oliver and Boyd.
Hanson, N. R. (1958). Patterns of discovery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hempel, C. G. (1966). Philosophy of natural science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Jeong, H., Songer, N., & Lee, S-Y. (2007). Evidentiary competence: sixth graders‟ understanding for gathering and interpreting evidence in scientific investigation. Research in science education, 37(1), 75-97.
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Jeong, J-S., & Kwon, Y-J. (2006). Definition of scientific hypothesis: A generalization or a casual explanation?. Journal of the Korean Association for Research in Science Education, 26(5), 637645. Joung, Y. J. (2008). Cases and features of abductive inference conducted by a young child to explain natural phenomena in everyday life. Journal of the Korean Association for Research in Science Education, 28(3), 197-210. Kanari, Z., & Millar, R. (2004). Reasoning from data: How students collect and interpret data in science investigations. Journal of Research in Science Research, 41(7), 748–769. Kelly, G., Crawford, T., & Green, J. (2001). Common task and uncommon knowledge: Dissenting voices in the discursive construction of physics across small laboratory groups. Linguistics and Education, 12(2), 135– 174. Klahr, D., & Dunbar, K. (1988). Dual space search during scientific reasoning. Cognitive Science 12(1), 1-48 Lawson, A. E. (1995). Science Teaching and the Development of Thinking. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Lawson, A. E. (2003). The nature and development of hypothetico-predictive argumentation with implications for science teaching. International Journal of Science Education, 25(11), 1387-1408. Millar, R. (1989). What is scientific method and can it be taught? In Wellington (Ed.) Skills and Processes in Science Education: A Critical Analysis (pp. 47-62). London: Rutledge. National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. National Research Council. (2000). Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. Park, J. (2006). Modeling analysis of students‟ processes of generating scientific explanatory hypotheses. International Journal of Science Education, 28(5), 469-489. Peirce, C. S. (1877). Abduction (Ch3. The logic of drawing history from ancient documents, in the
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Book II, Scientific method). In A. W. Burks (Ed.), Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce vol. 7(pp. 136-144). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Quinn, M. E., & George, K. (1975). Teaching Hypothesis Formation. Science education, 59(3),
289-296. Scott, P., & Mortimer, E., & Aguiar, O. (2006). The tension between authoritative and dialogic discourse: a fundamental characteristic of meaning making interactions in high school science lessons. Science education, 90(4), 605-631.
Tytler, R., & Peterson, S. (2003). Tracing young children‟s scientific reasoning. Research in science education, 33(3), 433-465. Wenham, M. (1993). The nature and role of hypotheses in school investigations. International Journal of Science Education, 15(3), 231-240.
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Running head: ART STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT OBSERVATION
Observation through Different Lens: Gifted-in Art Student’s Perspectives on the Biological World
Pi-Chu Kuo, Yu-Ju Hsieh
National Pingtung University of Education, Taiwan
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Abstract Observation is fundamental to all scientific activities as well as visual art. However, the emphasis of observation is not the same in science and visual art. This pilot study on a class of 30 fifth graders who are gifted-in-art aimed to reveal how the drawing training made their observation on the natural world different from regular students. Students were asked to observe a plant in campus. Without telling the name of the observed plant, students described what they had observed to the researcher. Twenty-nine fifth graders from a regular class of the same school were also interviewed after the same activity as a comparison. The interviews were transcribed and then proceeded content analysis. The description of the gifted-in-art students mainly focused on the plant’s color and shape, such as long, tall, big, small, oval. Only one of them noticed the smell of the plant. Whereas the description of the regular students involved more related objects and analogy, such as location, “look like a bottle”, “curly”. The results suggest that observation in art training focuses on the object itself, while novice observers notice on not only the object but also the surroundings. However, both of them need training to perform scientific observation.
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Observation through Different Lens: Gifted-in-Art Students’ Perspectives on the Biological World Background and Research Object Scientific inquiry has been a dominant issue in science education for decades. To assist students actively construct their scientific knowledge through inquiry, basic inquiry skill training is necessary. Among inquiry skills, despite different kinds of definitions and categories of inquiry skills, observation is fundamental to all scientific activity (Eberbach & Crowley, 2009; Norris, 1984) and the start point for the follow-up scientific discovery (Klahr & Simon, 1999). Although being an fundamental element in inquiry processes, not too many studies have been done to discuss about observation alone. People usually consider “observation” as “using eyes to see things”. It is true in most situations. However, scientific observation is more than “seeing”. According to Daston and her colleagues’ (n.d.) opinion, scientific observations involve “a long and arduous training of the senses”, and “learning to look (or smell or hear) is only the beginning of an apprenticeship”. Even sufficiently using one’s senses to collect information about the world, true scientific observation requires cognitively connect to disciplinary knowledge and to make inference and reasoning, so as to approach a meaningful scientific discovery (Daston, Mayer, Munz, Sturm, & Wilder, n.d.; Eberbach & Crowley, 2009). On the other hand, even “seeing” envloves several levels. Concluded from a study on drawing as observing, Altmann (n.d.) claims that “seeing involves focusing, noticing, ordering, attributing meaning, and it is also shaped by its negatives, namely overlooking and disregarding (Altmann, n.d.)”. Children make observation everyday to learn about the world (Goncu & Rogoff, 1998; Rogoff, Paradise, Mejia Arauz, Correa-Chavez, & Angelill, 2003; Scribner & Cole, 1973). However, they are not necessary cognitively considering observation as the primary source of Page 1053
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science learning (Ash, 2003; Callanan & Oakes, 1992; Crowley, et al., 2001). In order to help students learn science from observation, Eberbach and Crowley (2009) suggest contexts that reflect disciplinary practice and support trajectories that connect their everyday observations with disciplinary knowledge are necessary. Eberbach and Crowley (2009) also reviewed related literatures and constructed a framework to organize the states and the activities of observation. From this framework, observation includes four processes: noticing, expectations, observation records, and productive dispositions. By children’s “everyday observation” means the awareness of some features that are different from the others, or being able to describe few features that may or may not conform to disciplinary structure. With this framework, contexts that use real objects, can be designed to help children practice to moving toward scientific observation (Lehrer & Schauble, 2006). The contexts designed for children to learn observation are usually involved observation, recoording, ideal sharing, critiquing, and modifying (Lehrer & Schauble, 2004). However, without prior experience in learning from observation, sometimes children have difficulty seeing things that potentially link to their learning. What kinds of simple contexts are suitable for children to step into the world of observation could be an issue. Observation is not only emphasized in scientific inquiry but also in visual art education. In vidual art education, observation is considered as one of basic skills. Students in visual arts need to clearly observe the world and practice their skills in presenting the 4 dimentional world on 2 or 3 dimention objects. In visual art standards of National Standards for Arts Education (Consortium of National Arts Education Associations, 1994), it is clearly stated that students should be able to “identifying and examining separate parts as they function independently and together in creative works and studies of the visual arts”. Studies on museums in art education (Heid, 2007; Unrath & Luehrman, 2009) also suggest offering opportunities to observe sufficient art works is necessary for kids to moving toward art world. Page 1054
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Since both science learning and art making emphasize observation. Whether training of observation in visual art an approprate context for children to learn basic observation is still a myth. Research in art education (Forseth, 1980; Roberts, 2005) indicated that art experience can promote academic achievement. Although some researchers proposed that art experience may affect individual by contributing to creative thinking, development of cognitive, affective, and psycho-motor skills, learning styles, communication skills, literacy skills, cultural literacy, individual choice making, group decision making, and self-esteem (Dahlman, 2007; Eisner, 1998), there is little evidence to show the theoretical connection between the two. The purpose of this study was mainly to investigate whether observation training in primary visual art benefits students making observation for science learning. An elementary school was selected as the research setting because a visual art class has been established since 1980. Coindentally or not, the academic performance of those students from the visual art classes are significantly better than other students. To assure the effect of visual art training to science learning in terms of observation, a simple task was implemented to closely examin students’ perspectives on the biological world. By closely analysizing students’ oral descriptions and drawing about the same observation, more evidences to show how training affects one’s perspective of observation are expected. Research Setting, Data Collection and Analysis The study was conducted at an elementary school in southern Taiwan. The school is located on downtown in a small town. In order to offer children better education, the school has started a Gifted-in-Art class to recruit smart kids with art talent since 1980. In addition to regular curriculum, students in the visual art class have to take special visual art courses from 4 art specialists in school and also invited artists when needed. Although the students from
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the Giftedin-Art class (“art students” in short) are considered as art-talented and take science courses from the same teachers with regular students, their academic performances in science and other subjects are significant better than regular students (usually 10 points higher in average). In order to investigate whether the observation training in visual arts benefits students in scientific inquiry skills, especially in observation, an observation task was given to art students as well as regular students. To reveal the differences on students’ perspectives between art students and regular students, 29 fifth graders from a regular class were selected to participate in this study. There were 30 students in the fifth grade art class. Both classes were instructed by the same science teacher. Qualitative data were collected during the campus plant observation activities after obtaining the admissions from parents and home class teachers. The campus plant observation task was as following: Each student had to select a campus plant as his/her observing object. Without giving additional instruction on observation skills, each student had 1 week to observe the plant and drew a picture of that plant. A week later, their drawings were collected and they were asked to orally describe what they had observed to the science teacher without looking at their drawing. Before talking to students, the teacher collected their drawings but did not check them to avoid prejudice. During the conversations, whenever the students’ descriptions were too simple or off-topic, the teacher asked them trying to help the teacher to find the plant based on their description. The conversations were audio recorded and transcribed for further analysis. Drawings and conversations between the science teacher and the students were categorized based on the contents related to significant characters, for example, organs, size, shape, growing environment, color, smell. After all the data was categorized, the two classes were compared for discussion using the framework of observation (Eberbach & Crowley, 2009) and levels of seeing (Altmann, n.d.). Page 1056
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Results and Findings From the categorized data, the results of the comparisons between regular students and art students are presented and discussed as following: Different Adjectives Used in Oral Descriptions Without instruction on skills and specific objects on observation, students from both classes described their observation in very simple ways. The responses were mostly composed by adjectives in short sentences no more then ten. When the teach asked ”Can you tell me something about the plant you observed?”, an example description was “the trunk is round and gray, and the leaves are green and sharp”. Even the teacher encouraged the students to say more, most of them, especially the art students, repeated their previous descriptions without adding more descriptions or adjectives. Although the observation task had been assigned for a week before the conversations, and during the week students needed to draw a picture as they observing, students could only describe one or two characteristics orally. Most of the students picked their target plant with one significant characteristic and mainly described it, such as the shape of its trunk, the color of its flower, how the entire plant looks like, etc. None of the descriptions included systemic observation for every parts of the plant. This may indicate that the students, no matter from which calss, even they were fifth graders, still had difficulity (or hesitate) in speak outloud. Or worse, their science learning experiences were separated by units and units. Even though they had already learnt the structure of a plant, “observation a plant” meant “seeing a part of a plant”. This consists with the research findings from environmental psychology and cultural geography: young children are more apt to notice separate object rather than complex systems (Hart, 1979; Tuan, 1974). Moreover, only one out of fifty-nine students explicated the smell of the plants and none of them mentioned about using other senses, indicating that from students’ perspectives, they
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considered “observation” as “seeing” instead of “sensing”. Although some of the students mentioned about “the trunk looks not smooth on the surface”, none of them steped forward to touch the trunk as a part of their observations. When asking about what plant they observed, several of them told the teacher the plant’s name directly, because there were signs of plant species everywhere on campus. After the teacher told them regardless of the name of the plant, they started to recall the images. However, the adjectives used in the students’ descriptions did indicate that there are significant differences in the observation from the two groups. First of all, art students tended to focus on specific parts of plants, for example, leaves or flowers, while regular students varied. When regular students were asked to say more about their observations, they tended to describe the surrounding objects such as “on a red pot” or “beside the pond”. Such surrounding descriptions did not shown in art students’. Most students from regular class described not only the plant itself but also the location it growing. Accordingly, the conversations with regular students were longer than art students. Although the location descriptions were not exactly related to the habitat of the plants, there is potential to link their observation to further investigation. Secondly, in describing specific parts of plants, art students used roughly but not comparable adjectives, such as big or thin. Interestingly, regular students used objects or phenomena in everyday lives such as food or lighting, which were not used by any art student. This probably indicates that when making observation, art students considered the plant as a still image to record while regular students used more imagination to link the image to something similar in their perceptions. Moreover, art students described more on the color of the observing details. They used different adjectives to describe similar colors, such as new green, yellow green, and dark green. Regular students described their observations in affective and abstract ways, such as Page 1058
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beautiful or unique. It shows that the training of visual arts helps students to focus on the presentation of a still image, such as light, shadow, color, and the interaction of the above. For regular students, without the visual art training, they tried to communicate with the teacher in naïve ways. Apparently, all the students were not usually asked to orally express what they sensed about the natural world. Students from both groups were unable to describe their observations clearly enough for others to identify the plants they observed according to their descriptions. Although the art students showed more closely observing on the detail characteristics, regular the students integrated more imagination and linkages to their everyday lives. The differences in observation patterns probably due to the training in visual arts makes the art students tend to focus on “still image” when they receive an observation task. Without special training in observation skills, the regular students simply “spoke out” what they “saw”. More Details Shown from Art Students’ Drawings Similar to their oral descriptions, art students’ drawings mostly focused on the body of a plant, while regular students included the whole plants, nearby things and even addning decorations such as pots and ants in their drawings. Again, all students failed to show the plants’ size by correspondents which were also absent in their descriptions. Although, as stated, some regular students included additional objects in their drawings, the objects were not presented in accurate proportional scale. As expected, with training on visual arts, art students drew more details on plant characteristics than regular students. For example, art students realistically drew the vein type, the border of leaf, the shape of flower. Although they did not show the size of the plant by correspondence objects, they were able to draw each part of the plant in relatively correct size.
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Comparing to the results of oral desctiptions, art students’ drawings presented more details than regular students’ works, showing that the training in visual art did help art students see the world in a exquisite way. They also were able to visualize the world they saw. Observations in Art Students’ Perspectives Comparing the results of oral descriptions and drawing, there were no significant difference shown in regular students’ works. To the contrary, art students drew much more details than they described orally. Even the teacher asked “is there anything else you want to add”, they either answered “I don’t know” or confidently answered “nothing else”. For example, most of the drawings from art students clearly presented the morphology and arrangement of leaves, the type of veins, the position of flowers, etc. However, those details were not mentioned at all in oral descriptions. Interestingly, the art students used different adjectives to explicate the colors of the plants, but the colors were not used in their drawings. Most art students drew the plants by pencils. They carefully presented the light and shadow, dark and bright in sketch. However, although the regular students did not articulate the colors of the plants, most of their drawings are colorful. The above results clearly represent the two group students’ perceptions of observation are different. For art students, observation means to see things closely. The purpose of observation is to replicate the image as possible. Thus, when a sufficient time is given (one week in this case), they take time sitting in front of the plants making the sketch without thinking too much. What they see is presented on paper, therefore, nothing to talk about. Considering the task is given by a science teacher, meaning the drawing is an science assignment, the use of color probably is not the main point of this assignment (or a week is not enough to color the drawing in a realistic way). Since they did not present the color in their drawing, they
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describe it orally as supplement. On the other hand, observation means to notice something for regular students. They are requested to “see something” and then let others know “what” they “see” by oral description and drawing. Therefore, the contents of their drawings consist with their oral description. Jan Altmann (n.d.) suggested that “seeing involves focusing, noticing, ordering, attributing meaning”. Negatively, seeing is also shaped by overlooking and disregarding (Altmann, n.d.). From the above analysis, the “observation” of art students includes focusing and noticing, but no ordering and attributing meaning. They definitely focused enough to draw so many details, thus, no overlooking and disregaring on the plant per se. However, in their perceptions, “to observe a plant” means to observe “the plant”, so anything other than the plant can be overlooked and disregarded. For regular students, “observation” involves focusing, noticing and to a certain extent of ordering, for example, a bird nest on the tree, ants on the ground, the plant is growing on a red pot. However, the regular students tend to overlook and disregard the details of plants that underminds the effect of focusing. Are the students’ perceptions of observation relevant to scientific inquiry? According to the framework of Eberbach and Crowley (2009), within the category of “noticing”, activities of “everyday observatioin” include: 1. Notice a plant is different from other organisms. 2. Notice more irrelevant than relevant features that distinguish one kind from others without explicit awareness. 3. Describe few features that may or may not conform to disciplinary structure. 4. Name kinds of plants, but naming doesn’t do a lot of work. During “transitional” level of “noticing”, students should be able to: 1. Notice more relevant features and identify patterns of features. 2. Use and describe features validated by others to identify plants. Page 1061
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3. Connect features to function and habitat. 4. Name more kinds of plants. 5. Noticing stimulates related knowledge. 6. Name and organize plants into groups by function and/or habitat. 7. Develop habits of attention that are more disciplinary specific than general. (Eberbach & Crowley, 2009, pp. 55, Table 1) With prior knowledge about the structure of a plant, all students can distinguish significant features of a plant. Accordingly, both groups of students have no problem with everyday observation. However, students’ description and drawings did not provide suffient evidence to show the establish of trainsition level. Although art students articulated more features of plants, failure of orally describing the features indicates the “observation” did not involve thinking processes. As researchers stated, true scientific observation requires cognitively connect to disciplinary knowledge and to make inference and reasoning, so as to approach a meaningful scientific discovery (Daston, et al., n.d.; Eberbach & Crowley, 2009). Even art students are skillful enough to present their observation in drawing, without connecting to prior knowledge, there is a big gap to achieve meaningful scientific discovery. Conclusions and Implications To conclude from the above results, in either art students’ or regular students’ perspectives, observation means “seeing”. The results conform with Eberbach & Crowley’s suggestions after reviewing the developmental and educational literatures: “Children may observe the things that interest scientists, but the way children observe and the ways they use their observations to make inferences are not necessarily scientific (Eberbach & Crowley, 2009).” The perception of observation may attribute to prior learning experience. It happens when a teacher asks “what do you observe”, he or she usually means “what do you see”. The
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perception of observation plays a critical role in the behavior of inquiry, whether an expert or novice (Eberbach & Crowley, 2009; Gopnik, 1996). The results of the study obtained from the fifth graders looks frustrating for science teachers. However, research findings indicated that seventh graders are not better. When seventh graders are assigned to compare the differences between two fishes, they typically mention only one morphological feature (Hmelo-Silver & Pfeffer, 2004). The visual art training did help students in capturing clear images about the characteristics of the objects. However, to the art students, objects may only objects themselves. In other words, there probably is no connection to other objects, events, or phenomena. A study of fifth graders’ observation on tracking plant growth also found that students spontaneously focused on individual plants rather than populations (Lehrer & Schauble, 2004), showing that it is children’s (or novice) nature to look at things isolated from the entire system. Moreover, the art students assured they did not need to say more about the plant features even when the teacher implicated that the information was not enough for her to find the plant. This consists with the conclusion of Klahr’s (2000) study: what children consider to be sufficient evidence to support a hypothesis is frequently inadequate (Klahr, 2000). The outcome of a task is affected by individual’s expectation to the task. It can be seen from the students’ drawings. The art students drew pictures of the observant plant by pencils without putting colors, even though they were aware of the color of plants. For the art students, the observation task was given by their science teacher to “produce” a picture of a plant. They need to present the picture in a way they considered “scientifically”. In other words, they expected to fulfill the task by replicating the images. Whereas, for the regular students, they accepted the same task from their science, except that they needed to present
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their observation by drawing a picture. Because the expectations were different, the outcomes were different. Eberbach and Crowley (2009) suggested that to support students learning to observe more scientifically, contexts that reflect disciplinary practice and support trajectories that connect their everyday observations with disciplinary knowledge are necessary. By exposing children in scientific observation contexts repeatly with appropriate supports from teachers, the habits of observation should gradually become innate (Eberbach & Crowley, 2009). Like the way that the art students observed, the training of visual arts spontaneously linked the observation task to what they used to do in art classes. However, the above conclusion raises a doubt at the beginning of this study: Is visual training a proper context for scientific observation? The art students did show better skills in identifying features, but little inference and connection seen in their works. As Daston et al. (n.d.) suggested: Observation should not stop at using senses. It must be forged into a description and often a display using various presentation media, not just preserving an observation (Daston, et al., n.d.). Studies in art education suggest that experience in art promotes academic performance (Dahlman, 2007; Eisner, 1998; Forseth, 1980). The art students in this study did have better grades than other students. This is also true at other schools with art-speciality class. There are many possibilities to explain the phenomena. The main reason should be the selection mechanism for the special calss. Students who are interested in going the class must take exams for every disciplines as well as art related tests. It ensures the art students certain level of academic performance. Therefore, better academic achievers in science do not mean better inquirers, and better inquiry skills are not necessary leading to better academic performance.
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For implication, the research clearly revealed a critical issue in science teaching: Kids are not able to observe as the way science teachers expect. Without basic observation, students have difficulties to ask questions, make hypotheses, propose experiments, make inference, reasoning, and criticising. As consequences, it is difficult to expect students constructing their own understanding by the processes of scientific discovery. Therefore, more research should be done to focus on what kinds of learning contexts are suitable and efficient for young children in elementary level to learn observation, expectations, making observation records, producing dispositions. Furthermore, art students in this study did show better skills in seeing objects (still images) and recording the features by drawing. It will be interesting to see how art students do in observing phenomena or tracking the change of an object. It is also absorbing to know how art students who already equiped with basic observation skills will do in categorizing and comparing among objects. During the processes of analyzing data for this study, some commonalties in emphases of cognition and instruction were found between sceince education and art education. For example, information received from outside of an individual should be internalized and integraded with existing cognition (affection in art and understanding in science) to construct meaningful products (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Walker, 2004). Both art education and science education discuss about inquiry, also use Problem-Based Learning as teaching strategy (Gijbels, Dochy, Van den Bossche, & Segers, 2005; Roberts, 2005). Moreover, creativity, an important element in applying scientific knowledge to technology, is widely discussed in arts. With these commonalties, there should be positive effects when the learning contexts in the two systems interact. More evidences should be revealed to provide fundamental explanations for related research findings.
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Acknowledgment
Funding of this research work was supported by National Science Council, Taiwan, under grant numbers NSC 98-2511-S-153-001-MY2. References Altmann, J. (n.d.). Drawing as observing, from http://www.mpiwgberlin.mpg.de/de/en/research/projects/DeptII_AltmannDrawingAsObserving/index_html Ash, D. (2003). Dialogic inquiry in life science conversation of family groups in a museum. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40, 138-162. Callanan, M., & Oakes, L. A. (1992). Preschools' questions and parents' explanations: Causal thinking in everyday activity. Child Development, 7, 213-233. Consortium of National Arts Education Associations (1994). National standards for arts education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Crowley, K., Callanan, M., Jipson, J., Galco, J., Topping, K., & Shrager, J. (2001). Shared scientific thinking in everyday parent-child activity. Science Education, 85, 712-732. Dahlman, Y. (2007). Towards a theory that links experience in the arts with the acquisition of knowledge. International Journal of Art & Design Education, 26(3), 274-284. Daston, L., Mayer, A., Munz, T., Sturm, T., & Wilder, K. (n.d.). The history of scientific observation, 2005-10, from http://www.mpiwgberlin.mpg.de/en/research/projects/DeptII_Da_observation/index_html?showArchive =yes Eberbach, C., & Crowley, K. (2009). From everyday to scientific observation: How children learn to observe the biologist's world. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 39-68.
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Eisner, E. W. (1998). Does experience in the art boost academic achievement? Journal of Art & Design Education, 17(1), 51-60. Forseth, S. (1980). Art activities, attitudes, and achievement in elementary mathematics. Studies in Art Education, 21(2), 22-27. Gijbels, D., Dochy, F., Van den Bossche, P., & Segers, M. (2005). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis from the angle of assessment. Review of Educational Research, 75(1), 27-61. Goncu, A., & Rogoff, B. (1998). Children's categorization with varying adult support. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 333-349. Gopnik, A. (1996). The scientist as child. Philosophy of Science, 63, 485-514. Hart, R. (1979). Children's experience of place. New York, NY: Irvington Publishers, Inc. Heid, K. (2007). Seeing feeling through shared art making. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43(3), 110-116. Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Pfeffer, M. G. (2004). Comparing patterns and novice understanding of a complex system from the perspective of structures, behaviors, and functions. Cognitive Science, 28, 127-138. Klahr, D. (2000). Exploring Science: The cognition and development of discovery processes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Klahr, D., & Simon, H. A. (1999). Studies of scientific discovery: Complementary approaches and convergent findings. Psychology Bulletin, 125, 524-543. Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2004). Modeling variation through distribution. American Educational Research Journal, 41, 635-679. Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2006). Scientific thinking and scientific literacy: Supporting development in learning contexts. In W. Damon, R. Lerner, K. A. Renninger & I. E.
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Sigel (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (6th ed., pp. 153-196). New York: John Wiley. Norris, S. P. (1984). Defining observational competence. Science Education, 68, 129-142. Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning How to Learn. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Roberts, T. (2005). Teaching real art making. Art Education, 58, 40-45. Rogoff, B., Paradise, R., Mejia Arauz, R., Correa-Chavez, M., & Angelill, C. (2003). Firsthand learning through intent participation. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 175-203. Scribner, S., & Cole, M. (1973). Cognitive consequence of formal and informal education. Science, 182, 535-618. Tuan, Y. F. (1974). Topophilia: A study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Unrath, K., & Luehrman, M. (2009). Bringing children to art -- Bringing art to children. Art Education, 62(1), 41-47. Walker, S. (2004). Understanding the artmaking process: Reflective practice. Art Education, 57, 6-12.
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Nanotechnology Attitude Scale
Running head: Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers
The Development of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers
Yu-Ling Lan National Dong-Hwa University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
AUTHORS’ NOTE: Yu-Ling Lan, Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, National Dong Hwa University, Tawian, R.O.C. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Yu-Ling Lan, Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, National Dong Hwa University, No. 1, Sec. 2, Da-Hsueh Rd., Shou-Feng, Hualien, Taiwan, 974-01. Electronic mail may be sent to
[email protected].
Note. Working paper; not for citation without permission of the author.
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Abstract To ensure national competitiveness, the Taiwan government has chosen nanotechnology as one of the three target areas that can lead to future economic growth. To foster next generation of the Taiwanese people with this advanced technology, a K-12 Nanotechnology Program was established to train K-12 teachers with adequate knowledge about nanotechnology in order to serve this need. The purpose of this study was to develop a new instrument, the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T), to assess K-12 teachers’ attitudes towards nanotechnology and their engagements in teaching nanotechnology. This instrument includes 23 Likert-scale items that can be grouped into three major components: (1) Importance of nanotechnology, (2) Engagement in teaching nanotechnology, and (3) Impact of nanotechnology in K-12 Science Education. A sample of 233 K-12 teachers who participated in this training program was recruited in the present study to investigate the psychometric properties of the NAS-T. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on this teacher sample confirmed that the factor structure of the NAS-T is a three-factor model with 64.11% of the total explained variances. The Cronbach’s alpha values of these three components ranged from 0.89 to 0.95. Moderate to strong correlations among teachers’ NAS-T domain scores, self-perception of own nano knowledge, and their teaching efficacy in science demonstrated good convergent validity of the NAS-T. As a whole, psychometric analyses of the NAS-T indicated that this instrument can effectively measure K-12 teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology.
Keywords: nanotechnology, K-12 science education, professional development, attitudes towards nanotechnology
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The Development of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers Introduction Recently, nanotechnology has entered the mainstream of industry. It improves efficiency in manufacturing, reduces energy waste, and produces better pharmaceuticals as well as high quality food production. Many large and small industry leaders estimated that approximately half of new manufacturing products and pharmaceutical supplies will be influenced by nanotechnology in year 2015 (Roco & Bainbridge, 2005). To maximize the contributions of nanotechnology to this society, the worldwide government investment in nanotechnology research and development (R&D) has increased dramatically from $432 million in 1997 to about $4.1 billion in 2005. At least 60 countries have put efforts into this field. The three major economies, the United States, Japan, and European Union invest approximately $1 billion US dollars every year (Roco, 2005). With regards to Taiwan, the Taiwan government has chosen nanotechnology as one of the top three priority investment areas to ensure national competitiveness which could lead to future economic growth (Lee, Wu, & Yang, 2002). In year 2004, Taiwan ($4.7 million/capita) was one of six major contributors to nanotechnology R&D (Roco, 2005). Besides government investment, the key to reach the full potentials of nanotechnology is to create and sustain a capable nanotechnology workforce (Fonash, 2001). How to attract students to nanotechnology would be an essential concern for the development of nanotechnology. Under the current wave of harsh economic and high unemployment, a nice job market would be a good reason for students to devote in this field. Professor Chang (2006), the director of the National Center for Learning and Teaching in Nanoscale Science and Engineering (NCLT), predicted that “Roughly two million new nanoscientists and engineers will be needed worldwide in the next 10-15 years ” (p.7). In terms of job
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opportunities, nanotechnology would be a very promising filed for students who are interested in science and technology. Other than job opportunities, Roco and Bainbridge (2005) mentioned that “Nanotechnology education should be provided beginning with K-12 programs.” (p. 12). In the 21st century, many K-12 students have grown up with own personal computer and Internet on their side. They use computer and Internet to do their homework, chat over the MSN or the SKYPE, play on-line games, or even join some newsgroups to associate with their peers. They live in the Information Era, but many of them have not heard anything about nanotechnology (Fonash, 2001). To attract their attention or interests to nanotechnology, it is important to introduce them with some interesting concepts about nanoscience and nanotechnology. To successfully introduce nanotechnology to K-12 students, we need to have a group of K-12 teachers who have sufficient knowledge and skills about nanotechnology (i.e., nano literacy) in order to teach what nanotechnology is to these students. In other words, building up a group of K-12 teachers with nano literacy would be a cornerstone to promote nanotechnology to K-12 education. In Taiwan, a K-12 Nanotechnology Program was established in 2002 to foster a future generation of researchers, educators, and general public that could support the development of this advanced technology. The aim of the K-12 Nanotechnology Program was to “provide teachers with information about nanotechnology and to develop material to inspire students to learn about advanced technology” (Lee, Wu, Liu, & Hsu, 2006, p. 141). The goals of this K-12 Nanotechnology Program 1 were “to overcome teachers’ fear of learning about nanotechnology” and “to help the teachers to develop the capability to learn about new technology” (Lee et al., 2006, p. 141). To evaluate if these two goals have been
1
Further details of this program were described in Lee et al’s (2006) paper.
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reached, we developed a national survey questionnaire to investigate that. Due to no available instrument that have been develped to assess teachers’ attitude towards nanotechnology, in this national survey, we developed a new instrument, the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T) to measure teachers’ attitude toward nanotechnology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T). The development of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T) Before the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T) was developed, we conducted a literature review of surveys and instruments on K-12 teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology as well as professional development on nanoscience education. There were no scales specifically addressing teachers’ attitudes towards nanotechnology. With regards to nanoscience education, some researchers strongly advocated the importance of nanoscience education (Chang, 2006; Greenberg, 2009; Roco, 2005; Roco & Bainbridge, 2005), others focused on its curriculum or program innovation (Sullivan, Geiger, Keller, Klopcic, Peiris, Schumacher, Spater, and Turner, 2008; Goodhew, 2006). Only one study (Lee et al., 2006) paid attention to teachers’ perceptions of their participations in the K-12 nanotechnology program. Lee et al. (2006) developed a 10-item questionnaire to investigate “teachers’ interests in science and technology, their feeling of support, and the constraints and opportunities during their involvement in the program” (p.143). Their study gave us a quick look of K-12 teachers’ growth in nanotechnology, but no further details about K-12 teachers’ attitude changes after participating in this K-12 Nanotechnology Program. To fully capture K-12 teachers’ attitudes towards nanotechnology, we modified items that measured attitudes toward science (Gogolin & Swartz, 1992; George, 2006) and perceptions of engineering and technology (Yasar, Baker, Robinson-Kurpius, Krause, Roberts, 2006), and created a 23-item instrument to serve this need. The NAS-T consists of Page 1073
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three subscales: (1) Importance of nanotechnology (IMPO), (2) Engagement in teaching nanotechnology (ENGA), and (3) Impact of nanotechnology in K-12 Science Education (IMPA). IMPO scale includes six items that measure the importance of nanotechnology to the society, ENGA scale includes 10 items that assess level of engagement that K-12 teachers devote themselves in nanoscience education, and IMPA subscale includes seven items that measure the impacts of K-12 teachers’ science teaching standards after participating in K-12 nanotechnology program. The item development of the NAS-T includes four main stages. The first draft of the NAS-T was created by the author who modified items from several other instruments and add several new items in order to capture teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology. The first draft was modified by a team of two nanoscience professors and one education professor to create a second draft. They reviewed the first draft of all NAS-T items, identified items that did not fit the our research purposes, and also helped to refine the wordings of some items. The second draft was sent out via email to a group of K-12 teachers who have participated in the K-12 nanotechnology program to pilot test the second draft of the NAS-T and provide written evaluations of these items. The final draft was developed based on this pilot test feedback. The final version of the NAS-T included 23 items with a five-point Likert scale format ranging from 1= “strongly disagree” or “never” to 5 = “strongly agree” or “always”. The psychometric properties of the NAS-T was examined by the following steps. Reliability was assessed by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to evaluate the internal consistency of this instrument, whereas validity was assessed via construct validity and convergent validity. Construct validity was examined by exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to explore the factor structure of the NAS-T in this teacher sample, and by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate if its EFA factor structure fit the present data well. To examine the
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convergent validity of the NAS-T, we need to find out factors that are strongly associated with K-12 teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology. From the perspective of professional development (PD), Fishman, Marx, Best, and Tal (2003) proposed a model of teacher learning to describe major factors that affect teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes. In this model, teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs can be influenced by participation in professional development (PD) programs. Through participating in PD activities, teachers receive not only content knowledge, but also pedagogical knowledge that improves their teaching skills and classroom management. They also become more confident about their teaching efficacy, more comfortable to see themselves as a member of the scientific community, and have more positive attitudes toward PD training programs. Furthermore, teachers’ knowledge, belief and attitude changes affect classroom enactment which leads to student learning outcome and future curriculum design. According to the model of teacher learning, teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology should be strongly associated with their science teaching efficacy as well as their knowledge in this new technology. These three variables were included in the present study to examine the convergent validity of the NAS-T. Science teaching efficacy was assessed by the subscale of the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI, Riggs & Enochs, 1990), the “Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief” scale. This subscale includes 13 items and is designed to measure teachers’ science teaching efficacy. A more detailed description of the psychometric properties of the STEBI was provided in the method section. Teachers’ knowledge in nanotechnology was measured via 5 self-perception knowledge items and 16 objective knowledge items. Five self-perception knowledge items were used to measure teachers’ knowledge in a subjective manner, that is, how much you think you know nanotechnology. The objective knowledge items were one multiple choice Page 1075
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and 15 true-false items that measure your understanding in nanotechnology. Item analyses of these knowledge items indicated good item discrimination and moderate item difficulty 2 .
Method Participants and Procedure A sample of 233 K-12 teachers who participated in the K-12 Nanotechnology Program was recruited in the present study to investigate the psychometric properties of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T). All participants were recruited on the voluntary basis from June 1st to August 15th, 2008, and had been asked for written consent before completing this questionnaire. All these survey data were stored in the author’s office and computer with the password protection to ensure the confidentiality. Instruments This survey questionnaire included five different sections: (1) personal demographic information, such as gender and level of education, (2) level of participation in the K-12 Nanotechnology Program, (3) Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T), (4) the Chinese version of the first subscale of the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI; Riggs & Enochs, 1990), and (5) knowledge items of nanotechnology. The STEBI was translated into Chinese by the author to assess in this K-12 teacher sample. The quality of its Chinese translation was assured via back-translation techniques (van de Vijver & Tanzer, 1997). Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI)
2
Item analyses of these knowledge items were reported in the final report of the National Science and
Technology Program in Nanotechnology funded by Ministry of Education Advisory Office.
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The Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI; Riggs & Enochs, 1990) is a 25-item scale which consists of two subscales, the “Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief” scale and the “Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy” scale. Riggs and Enochs (1990) reported that the alpha values for the “Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief” scale and the “Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy” scale were 0.92 and 0.77, respectively. The construct validity of the STEBI was also established via the factor analysis as a two-factor structure (Riggs & Enochs, 1990). Enochs and Riggs (1990) conducted another study to further examine the psychometric properties of the STEBI. Their results indicated that the factor structure of the STEBI in this study was very similar to that extracted by their previous study (Riggs & Enochs, 1990) and the alpha values for the “Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief” scale and the “Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy” scale were 0.90 and 0.76, respectively. In this study, only the “Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief” (PSTEF) scale was selected to measure K-12 teachers’ personal science teaching efficacy beliefs. In the “Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief” scale, all 13 items were scored on a five-point Likert scale format ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Higher scores indicate higher science teaching self-efficacy levels. Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T) The Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T) was designed by the author to assess K-12 teachers’ attitudes towards nanotechnology and their engagements in teaching nanotechnology. This instrument includes 23 Likert-scale items and can be divided into three major components: (1) Importance of nanotechnology, (2) Engagement in teaching nanotechnology, and (3) Impact of nanotechnology in K-12 Science Education. The reliability and validity of the NAS-T were examined in the present study to evaluate whether this instrument can be used to assess K-12 teachers’ general attitudes toward nanotechnology.
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Data analysis Data analyses were carried out using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS for Windows, version 16.0, SPSS Inc., 2007) and AMOS 6.0 (AMOS version 6.0, SPSS Inc., 2007). Reliability was assessed by Cronbach’s α, whereas validity assessments included construct validity and convergent validity. Construct validity was examined by exploratory factor analysis (EFA) first to explore the natural factor structure of the NAS-T in this K-12 teacher sample, and by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate its EFA factor structure via a number of fit indices. Pearson correlation was adopted to examine the convergent validity of the NAS-T. Due to missing data on this teacher sample, the maximum likelihood estimator was applied to obtain the estimation of CFA measurement models (Brown, 2006). According to McDonald and Ho’s suggestions (2002), four measures of fit indices were used to evaluate how well the data fit the measurement model: (a) the chi-square/degrees of freedom (df) ratio, (b) the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), (c) the comparative-fit-index (CFI), and (d) the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). For the chi-square/df ratio, a value below 3 is considered acceptable (Kline,1994). The GFI and CFI statistics range from 0 to 1, and values greater than .90 indicate a good model fit (Byrne, 2001). For RMSEA, a value of .05 or less indicates a good fit, a value of .08 indicates a reasonable fit, and a value of .10 or higher indicates a poor fit (Byrne, 2001; McDonald & Ho, 2002). These criteria were used to examine the model fit in the present study. Prior to psychometric analyses, data inspections were examined via the accuracy of data entry, the percentage of missing values, and the assumption of normality (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) to ensure the quality of the following analyses. The accuracy of data entry was examined by the range of data, whereas less than 10% of missing data indicated a reasonable
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missing data rate (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). The normality assumption was examined through skewness and kurtosis. A common guideline to examine the normality assumption was that variables with skewness and kurtosis ranged from -1 to +1. If variables with skewness and kurtosis not far from the range of -1 and +1, estimating the parameter of non-normal variables via the maximum likelihood (ML) method would get acceptable values (Muthen & Kaplan, 1985). Results Characteristics of the participants A total of 233 K-12 teachers who have participated in the K-12 Nanotechnology Program were recruited in this study. 52.2% of these K-12 teachers was female and about 40% of them were in the range of 31 to 40-year-old. Most of these participants had a bachelor or master degree and more than half of them were elementary school teachers. With regards to their participation in K-12 Nanotechnology Program, major reasons for K-12 teachers to participate in this training program were “willing to know more information about nanotechnology” (43.7%) and “understand how nanotechnology can be introduced to K-12 students” (25.7%). Most K-12 teachers reported that they had a positive motivation toward this training program, but their actual participation seemed to tell us another story. In the past year, above 60% of them who took less than 10 hour lecture lessons, whereas only less than 1/5 of them who participated approximately 20 hour talks in nanotechnology. Less than 8% of these K-12 teachers continued to participate in this training program over 4 years, and over 60% of them were first-timers who participated in this program less than 1 year. How to attract K-12 teachers to continue participation in this training program would be an key factor to promote nanotechnology to K-12 education.
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Data inspection Prior to the psychometric analyses of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T), data inspections of these 23 NAS-T items were examined via the percentage of missing data, skewness, and kurtosis. The proportion of missing values for all the NAS-T items ranged from 1.7% to 3.9%, which indicated reasonable rates of missing data for this study. With regards to the assumption of normality, most NAS-T items had skewness and kurtosis ranged between -1 and +1 which did not violate the normality assumption. To provide reasonable parameter estimates of all the NAS-T items, the ML method would be used to compute parameter estimates of the NAS-T items in this study (Muthen & Kaplan, 1985). Reliability of the NAS-T Scale Cronbach’s alpha values of the NAS-T total scale were 0.94. Alpha values for three subscale scores ranged from 0.89 to 0.95 (See Table 1). DeVellis (1991) mentioned that a scale with the alpha value between 0.80 and 0.90 would be considered as a very good instrument. In this study, these alpha values demonstrated good internal consistency of the NAS-T total scale as well as its three subscales. Validity of the Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers Construct Validity Factor analysis was conducted by principal axis factoring (PAF) 3 , followed by the Varimax rotation with Eigen value above 1. Three conceptually meaningful factors were extracted and explained 64.11% of the total variance. Eigen values of these three factors and the corresponding factor loadings are presented in Table 1. In this three-factor model, 23
3
PAF was applied in this analysis to both maximize variance extracted and remove unique and error variance
while analyzing the common variance (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).
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items were included and merged to produce three meaningful factors labeled as “Engagement in teaching nanotechnology”, “Impact of nanotechnology”, and “Importance of nanotechnology” to capture the essence of K-12 teachers’ attitude toward nanotechnology. CFA was applied to examine the fit indices of the models generating from this EFA three-factor model (See Table 2). Prior to the CFA analysis, the data were evaluated for the normality and outliers. In the following CFA analyses, lambda was fixed to 1 for the first observed indicator of each latent variable and all error weights, and all other parameters were freely estimated. CFA was applied in this study to examine how well the proposed measurement model (generated from our prior EFA analysis) fit the present empirical data (Byrne, 2001). The goodness-of-fit indices of this teacher sample were as follows: χ2(227) = 650.395, p < 0.0001; χ2/df = 2.865; the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) = .800; the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .899; the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .090 (see table 2). Based on the general suggestions of the cut-off criteria (Byrne, 2001; Hu & Bentler, 1999), these results indicated a good fit of the three-factor structure of the NAS-T to the present data. With regards to the model comparison indices, the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and the Expected Cross-Validation Index (ECVI) were applied in this study to compare the proposed model against the baseline model (Brown, 2006). According to the AIC and ECVI values (see table 2), the EFA model was a better model than the baseline model. All the fit indices suggested that the present EFA model displayed a better fitting model for the peresent K-12 teacher sample. Convergent Validity Pearson zero-order correlation analyses were conducted to investigate the relationships among teachers’ three NAS-T subscale scores, their teaching efficacy in science, their selfperception of own nano knowledge (i.e., subjective knowledge), and their test scores on nano Page 1081
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knowledge (i.e., objective knowledge). As expected, the associations among teachers’ three NAS-T subscale scores, their teaching efficacy in science, subjective and objective knowledge in nanotechnology were all positive related (see Table 3). K-12 teachers’ engagement in teaching nanotechnology was strongly positively related to their self-perception of own knowledge about nanotechnology (r = .67, p < 0.01). Their perceptions of the impact of nanotechnology in K-12 science education was also strongly positively related to their self-perception of own knowledge about nanotechnology (r = .52, p < 0.01). With regards to K-12 teachers’ science teaching efficacy belief, their STEBI scores were moderately positively related to three NAS-T subscale scores (i.e., correlation coefficients are ranging from .30 to .36, p < 0.01). The association between their STEBI scores and subjective knowledge was stronger than the association between their STEBI scores and objective knowledge (i.e., .39 > .27). Discussion As a newly developed instrument, the psychometric properties of the NAS-T are good. The results of exploratory factor analysis support that the structure of the NAS-T is a threefactor model, which is also confirmed by the results of confirmatory factor analysis. This finding is consistent with the conceptual framework of teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology suggested by the author. No item was excluded in this instrument due to unsatisfactory reliability and validity results. Each item was located in its hypothesized domain with substantial factor loading (i.e., at least 0.62). The alpha coefficient of the NAS-T total scale (α = 0.94) and its three subscales (α in the range of 0.89 to 0.95) indicated that this is a reliable instrument. Although the alpha coefficients for the ENGA and IMPA subscales were close to 0.95, a sign that allows us to reduce the length of the NAS-T with good internal consistency. However, as a newly developed instrument, the length of the NAS-T is reasonable. Each NAS-T item helps to capture different aspect of teachers’ attitudes. At the Page 1082
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initial stage of instrument development, we will keep all these items in the NAS-T to ensure good reliability and validity. In the future, if further psychometric evidences have consistently indicated the sign of redundancies in this instrument, we will look through all these psychometric reports to decide items that could be excluded from the NAS-T. In terms of convergent validity, three NAS-T domains were expected to associate with science teaching efficacy (STE), subjective knowledge (SK), and objective knowledge (OK). The results showed that higher scores on the engagement in teaching nanotechnology were strongly positively associated with higher scores on subjective knowledge, but were weakly positively associated with higher scores on objective knowledge. The associations among impact of nanotechnology in K-12 science education, subjective knowledge, and objective knowledge also revealed the similar pattern. K-12 teachers’ ‘real’ knowledge in nanotechnology was weakly related to their attitudes toward nanotechnology as well as their science teaching efficacy. Instead, what really matters is K-12 teachers’ perception of own knowledge in this new technology. These results seem to suggest that K-12 teachers are more willing to engage in teaching nanotechnology, incorporate what they learn from K-12 nanotechnology program to their science classes, and have higher science teaching efficacy if they feel they have enough knowledge in this field. This phenomenon requires further investigation to make a solid assertion. Implications, future research, and limitation of the present study The results of the present study have two important implications for nanotechnology training program as well as professional development in science education. First, the NAS-T appears to be a reliable and valid instrument that could be applied to assess K-12 teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology. Teachers’ attitudes toward nanotechnology seem to influence whether nanotechnology can be successfully introduced to K-12 students. In order to foster our future generation with sufficient nanotechnology knowledge, we do need to Page 1083
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enhance K-12 teachers’ positive attitudes toward nanotechnology that would lead them to be more willing to teach nanotechnology in their science classes. Ways to enhance K-12 teachers’ positive attitudes toward nanotechnology could be incorporated in our next term of nanotechnology training programs in order to attract more K-12 teachers to engage in teaching nanotechnology. Second, the results of this study seem to suggest that K-12 teachers’ subjective perception of own nanotechnology knowledge is strongly associated with their positive attitudes toward nanotechnology as well as their science teaching efficacy. From the perspective of professional development in science education, we do want to see K-12 teachers to have professional growth and positive attitudes toward new technology in order to face the rapid progress in science and technology. It takes time to train a novice to become an expert. Most of the time, people are way too busy to balance life and work. In this study, many teachers mentioned that they had strong interested in knowing nanotechnology, but they did not spend enough time to attend lectures, workshops, or activities to learn it. If we could pay extra efforts on encouraging K-12 teachers to learn new technology and enhance their subjective perception of it, these teachers probably could sustain longer in the training programs till they become an expert. In this century, “nano literacy” has become a global priority for governments to invest. Many countries have invested millions or even billions of dollars in nanotechnology research and development. Some of them already begin to put their efforts on K-12 teachers’ nanotechnology training programs. How to increase the effectiveness of these training programs would be a key to introduce or even promote nanotechnology to K-12 education. The results of the present study show the importance of K-12 teachers’ positive attitudes toward nanotechnology. Future research should further investigate major factors to enhance
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the effectiveness of nanoscience training programs in order to use a more effective way to build up a high quality nanotechnology workforce to serve future needs.
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References Arbuckle JL. (2005). AMOS 6.0. User's Guide. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc. Brown, T. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford Press. Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Chang, R. P. H. (2006). A call for nanoscience education. Nano Today, 1(2), 6-7. Cohen,. J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied regression/correlation analysis for the behavior sciences. (2nd ed.), Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. DeVellis, R. F. (1991). Scale Development: Theory and applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Fishman, B.J., Marx, R.W., Best, S., & Tal, R.T. (2003). Linking teacher and student learning to improve professional development in systemic reform. Teaching and Teacher Education,19, 643–658. Fonash, S. J. (2001). Education and training of the nanotechnology workforce. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 3(1), 79-82. George, R. (2006). A cross-domain analysis of change in students’ attitudes toward science and attitudes about the utility of science. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 571-589. Gogolin, L., & Swartz, F. (1992). A quantitative and qualitative inquiry into the attitudes toward science of nonscience college students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 487-504. Goodhew, P. (2006). Education moves to a new scale. Nano Today, 1(2), 40-43. Greenberg, A. (2009). Integrating Nanoscience into the Classroom Perspectives on Nanoscience Education Projects. Acs Nano, 3(4), 762-769. Page 1086
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Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. Lee, C. K., Wu, M. K., & Yang, J. C. (2002). A catalyst to change everything: MEMS/NEMS - a paradigm of Taiwan's nanotechnology program. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 4(5), 377-386. Lee, C. K., Wu, T. T., Liu, P. L., & Hsu, S. K. (2006). Establishing a K-12 Nanotechnology Program for teacher professional development. IEEE Transactions on Education, 49(1), 141-146. Muthen, B., & Kaplan, D. (1985). A comparison of some methodologies for the factor analysis of non-normal Likert variables. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 38, 171-189. Pintrich, P. R., & Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33-40. Riggs, I. M., & Enochs, L. G. (1990). Toward the development of an elementary teacher’s science teaching efficacy belief instrument. Science Education, 74, 625-637. Roco, M. C. (2001). International strategy for nanotechnology research and development. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 3(5-6), 353-360. Roco, M. C. (2005). International perspective on government nanotechnology funding in 2005. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 7(6), 707-712. Roco, M. C., & Bainbridge, W. S. (2005). Societal implications of nanoscience and nanotechnology: Maximizing human benefit. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 7(1), 1-13. SPSS Inc. (2007). SPSS version 16.0 for Windows. Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc.
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Sullivan, T. S., Geiger, M. S., Keller, J. S., Klopcic, J. T., Peiris, F. C., Schumacher, B. W., et al. (2008). Innovations in nanoscience education at Kenyon College. IEEE Transactions on Education, 51(2), 234-241. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Yasar, S., Baker, D., Robinson-Kurpius, S., Krause, S., & Roberts, C. (2006). Development of a survey to assess K-12 teachers' perceptions of engineers and familiarity with teaching design, engineering, and technology. Journal of Engineering Education, 205-216.
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Table 1 Latent Structure of the 23-Item Nanotechnology Attitude Scale for K-12 Teachers (NAS-T): Exploratory Factor Analyses in this Teacher Sample (N=233). Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 3
Factor 1: Engagement in teaching nanotechnology (10 items) ENGA5 ENGA10 ENGA3 ENGA7 ENGA2 ENGA4 ENGA6 ENGA1 ENGA9 ENGA8
0.84 0.83 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.76 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.65
0.16 0.05 0.18 0.11 0.19 0.14 0.10 0.20 0.15 0.23
0.04 0.09 0.10 -0.01 0.16 0.08 -0.06 0.28 0.12 0.08
Factor 2: Impact of nanotechnology in K-12 science education (7 items) IMPA4 IMPA3 IMPA6 IMPA5 IMPA7 IMPA2 IMPA1
0.11 0.25 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.17 0.26
0.84 0.82 0.82 0.80 0.77 0.73 0.62
0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.22 0.32 0.42
Factor 3: Importance of nanotechnology (6 items) IMPO2 0.04 0.22 0.80 IMPO3 0.11 0.17 0.79 IMPO4 0.06 0.23 0.72 IMPO6 0.12 0.31 0.67 IMPO1 0.13 0.31 0.65 IMPO5 0.03 0.24 0.63 % of Variance Explained 40.73% 16.89% 6.49% Cronbach's alpha 0.94 0.95 0.89 Note. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted with maximum-likelihood estimation, Varimax rotation. Factor loading ≧ .30 are in bold.
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Table 2. The Fit Indices of the Baseline and Final Models Fit indices
Final model
Baseline model
χ2
650.395
4434.174
DF
49
23
χ2 /DF
2.865
17.526
GFI
0.800
0.193
CFI
0.899
<0.001
RMSEA
0.090
0.267
AIC
748.395
4480.174
ECVI
3.226
19.311
Note. df = degree of freedom; χ2 /DF = Chi-square/degree of freedom; GFI= Goodness-of-Fit index; CFI = Comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error; AIC = the Akaike Information Criterion; ECVI = the Expected Cross-Validation Index.
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Table 3. Pearson correlations between three NAS-T subscale scores and other related measures IMPO
ENGA
IMPA
STEBI
SK
Importance of nanotechnology (IMPO) Engagement in teaching nanotechnology
0.26**
(ENGA) Impact of nanotechnology in K-12 Science
0.59**
0.43**
Science teaching efficacy belief (STEBI)
0.30**
0.32**
0.36**
Subjective knowledge (SK)
0.35**
0.67**
0.52**
0.39**
Objective knowledge (OK)
0.21**
0.22**
0.14*
0.27**
Education (IMPA)
* p < .05, two-tailed. ** p < .01, two-tailed.
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0.22**
VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
USING VIDEO PAPER BUILDER AS AN EFFECTIVE TOOL FOR ACHIEVING UNDERSTANDING IN THE LEARNING OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Veron Lee Mui Keow Innova Junior College
This paper is the result of an action research conducted in Innova Junior College to investigate the use of Video Paper Builder (VPB) in achieving understanding as well as developing analytical skills in the learning of Organic Chemistry at the Pre-University Level. Correspondence concerning this paper could be addressed to the author via email. Email:
[email protected]
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY ABSTRACT In their study of Organic Chemistry, students generally encounter difficulty in recalling the reagents and observations for the various chemical tests used to differentiate organic compounds with different functional groups. The use of Video Paper Builder (VPB) can be utilised to address this issue through the weaving of multiple format of contents such as videos, audios and text in explaining the reagents required, the experimental procedures and final observation of the products formed. The use of visual aid and explanation aids in the understanding of complex experimental procedures and application of knowledge and analytical skills which is necessary to answer questions that required students to select an appropriate chemical test from a diverse range to identify the unique functional groups in organic compounds. This research aims to explore the effectiveness of VPB in enhancing students’ conceptual understanding of organic reactions, particularly during their personal revision time.
Keywords: Video Paper Builder; Organic Chemistry
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY INTRODUCTION With the introduction of the revised General Certificate of Education (GCE) ‘A’ level syllabus in 2006, Higher 1 (H1) Chemistry is introduced as a contrasting subject. With that, new challenges surface in the area of teaching and learning of H1 Chemistry which was pitched to be of the same rigour but reduced in breadth as compared to that of the Higher 2 syllabus. As a result, experimental techniques and knowledge are not emphasised in the new syllabus due to the exclusion of practical assessment. Hence, curriculum time is mainly devoted to the teaching of theoretical content. With this restriction, students going through the lecture and tutorial system will not be able gain much hands-on experience to perform experiments in the laboratory. Hence they will not understand the complex experimental procedures and therefore, lack the skills to record practical observations. It is particular apparent that the weaker students find Organic Chemistry difficult and complicated as they are often confused with which chemical reagents to use for the differentiation for various organic compounds. Video Paper Builder 3 (http://vpb.concord.org/) is a multimedia creation tool for users of any level of technology skills. This java-based software is able to incorporate videos with detailed explanation of the experimental procedures can be used to supplement our teaching and help students reinforce their theoretical concepts. The text sections will integrate notes and observation which emphasize the key points for the recording of resultant observations for each experiment. The other advantage of using VPB will be the ability to synchronise slide shows, videos and text from different files into a single page to save the hassle of page to page navigation to refer to animations and applets and videos from different websites (Elisabeth, 2007). In addition, this integrated presentation can be uploaded on the internet or school learning portal where students can gain access of the revision materials anytime.
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY With the Ministry of Education’s emphasis on “Teach less, Learn more” (MOE 2009) via student-centred teaching approach, the use of VPB encourage students to take ownership of their learning and teachers can make use of this multimedia tool to expand curriculum time as well as complement the lack of hands on practical sessions in the curriculum using online learning platform. This research seeks to explore the use of VPB to assist students in building a stronger foundation for their content knowledge in order to further develop their analytical skills in visualisation of abstract concepts in order to solve more complex exam questions and meet the demand for the GCE ‘A’ level H1 Chemistry Examination. METHOD As a chemistry teacher, I used Video Paper Builder as a multimedia tool to help students with the learning of Organic Chemistry. A class of 22 JC2 H1 Chemistry students were chosen as a target group. Due to the lack of practical lessons, the incorporation of videos of the Organic Chemistry experiments using Video Paper Builder provides visual aids to link theoretical knowledge with practical understanding. In addition, the files were uploaded on the college portal where students can gain access to the Video Paper Builder files from home to facilitate their revision outside curriculum time. Beside, VPB, the class was also involved in the usual lecture and tutorial system as the rest of the cohort. At the end of the section on Carbonyl Compounds in the series of organic chemistry lectures, this class took a written pre-research test to check on their understanding of the different chemical tests used to differentiate two compounds. The class then went through the tutorial discussions followed by individual revision supplemented with Video Paper Builder materials. The Video Paper Builder files integrate videos showing the experimental procedures, PowerPoint slides with pictures of the observation for each experiment and short summary
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY with the text sections. This additional Video Paper Builder material aims to help students recap the reagents and conditions for the experiments followed by stating the observation for various chemical reactions. A week later, all the students sat for a written post-research test followed by a survey. The survey data collected was directed at finding out the students’ perceptions in using the Video Paper Builder files to facilitate the revision of organic chemistry concepts. In addition, quantitative data obtained through the use of a pre-research and post-research tests focus on engaging students in the learning of organic chemistry with the aim to improve their quality grades. RESULTS The H1 class chosen to participate in this research consists of students with mixed ability as their GCE ‘O’ results varies from L1R5 9 to 19, with a mean score of 15. The Pre-Test was conducted after students attend the lecture on Carbonyl Compounds while the Post-Test was conducted after two tutorial sessions. The test results were analysed to determine the effectiveness of VPB, in helping students to visualise the experimental procedures and to answer questions that required students to select an appropriate chemical test from a diverse range to identify the unique functional groups in organic compounds, is summarised in Table 1.
Table 1 Pre-Test 32 9
Percentage pass Percentage of quality pass ( > 80%)
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Post-Test 73 59
VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Survey Questions 1
Video paper builder make the learning of Organic Chemistry interesting.
SD
D
A
SA
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60.0
70.0
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2
Video paper builder helps to clarify my confusion for the different type of identification tests in Organic Chemistry.
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 3
The video component in Video Paper Builder helps me to reinforce the chemicals required for different Organic reactions.
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The video component in Video Paper Builder explains the experimental procedures clearly.
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 5
The video component in Video Paper Builder develops my thinking process required to solve Organic Chemistry problems.
SD
D
A
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6
Video Paper Builder is useful for the explanation of different chemical tests observation.
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 7
Video Paper Builder is useful for my revision of Organic Chemistry reactions outside classroom hours.
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Percentage
8
Video Paper Builder helps to develop my analytical skills in solving Organic Chemistry problems.
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100.0
VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 9
I hope Video Paper Builder can be used to teach other Chemistry topics.
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100.0
Percentage
DISCUSSION The research conducted showed improvement in students’ performances after the introduction of Video Paper Builder (VPB) as a revision tool. With the introduction of VPB, positive responses to the survey questions showed high interest displayed in students. Based on the question “Video Paper Builder make the learning of Organic Chemistry interesting”, it was obvious that students find VPB an interesting and engaging multi media platform as compared to the conventional chalk and talk teaching. In addition, majority of the students responded that, “The video component in Video Paper Builder helps me to reinforce the chemicals required for different Organic reactions” and “The video component in Video Paper Builder explains the experimental procedures clearly”. This highlighted the distinctive advantage when text and videos are integrated into a single page presentation for the scaffolding of the learning detailed and abstract organic content and also aid the retention of knowledge. The interest indicated by student when they answered the questions “Video Paper Builder is useful for my revision of Organic Chemistry reactions outside classroom hours” and “I hope
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VIDEO PAPER BUILDER FOR ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Video Paper Builder can be used to teach other Chemistry topics” suggest that future development of VPB lessons will encourage more independent learning to take place as it is made readily accessible through the school portal. With this online learning opportunity teachers will be able to encourage students to take more ownership of their learning and even explore the possibility where students create their VPB portfolio as a project. REFERENCES
Video Paper Builder 3. Retrieved on March 10 2009, from http://vpb.concord.org/ Cogan-Drew, D. (2003). Video Paper as a tool for new teacher mentoring. Grant funded by the Centre of leadership Development, Boston, MA. Retrieved on May 23 2009, from http://cogandrew.com/videopapers/mentoring/ Olivero, Videopapers. (2008). How to use video, stills, and text to support teaching and learning. Retrieved on June 2 2009, from http://escalate.ac.uk/download/4822.pps Elisabeth Lazarus. (2007). The use of ‘Videopapers’ in professional learning and assessment, Retrieved on June 9 2009, from http://escalate.ac.uk/3342 Ministry of Education. (2009). Teach less, Learn more, Retrieved on July 12 2009, from http://www3.moe.edu.sg/bluesky/tllm.htm
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Running head: THE USE OF WIKIS IN TEACHING RESEARCH
The Use of Wikis in Teaching Research
LEOW Wen Pin
National Junior College, 37 Hillcrest Road, Singapore 288913
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Abstract Recently, Singapore has increasingly focused on research, as epitomized by the establishment of the Agency of Science, Technology and Research in 2002 and formation of the National Research Foundation in 2006. Mirroring this development in the educational sector is the formation of numerous student research programmes (such as the Nanyang Research Programme) and the introduction of research as a higher-level (H3) A-level option. Given the increasing ubiquity of research in schools, there is a need to explore creative pedagogical means to facilitate the learning of research skills. This paper explores the use of the wiki as a IT-based tool to facilitate the teaching of research at the pre-tertiary level. It works from an action-research case-study perspective, utilizing observation and questionnaires as primary data collection methods, describing the author’s experience and observations of using wikis with 40 Secondary 3 (15 year old) students in a high-ability Integrated Programme school to facilitate the teaching of research skills. The research finds that the use of wikis is generally positive although there are some drawbacks that stem from the nature of the wikis themselves. Lessons are drawn from the data obtained and recommendations are provided for other educators in similar contexts on using wikis with student groups for research teaching.
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The Use of Wikis in Teaching Research
1. Introduction In recent years, research has increasingly taken centre stage in Singapore. On a daily basis, this is clear from our national newspapers whose pages are often full of stories about new research. For example, in October 2009, the story of Holly the medaka fish that was semi-cloned by 3 National University of Singapore researchers was front page news on many newspapers (e.g. Ong, 2009). Nationally, this is most evident in the alignment of national economic goals and research goals. Indeed, increasingly “Singapore is committed to invest in R&D as a driver for economic growth and as a foundation for our long-term competitiveness” (NRF, 2009a). Over the past decade, this is clearly seen in two major government initiatives. The first of these initiatives is the evolution of the National Science and Technology Board (NSTB) into the Agency of Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) in 2002. This was a clear signal of the move away from merely helping to upgrade industrial technology towards fostering world class research and research talent with the goal of creating economic wealth and value for Singapore (A*STAR, 2002). The inter-linkage between the economy and research is reflected unambiguously in the various research departments of A*STAR, which has a strong slant towards biomedical sciences, manufacturing science and engineering, and integrative sciences. All these have strong industry links and are highly translational in outlook. Adding on to this is the recent setting up of Fusionpolis, a hub for integrative research which aims to be the “point of convergence where companies with capabilities in infocommunications and interactive and digital media come together to test-bed new concepts and products” (A*STAR, 2009). Educationally,
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A*STAR has also established its presence in the local scholarship scene, giving out 100+ scholarships for tertiary studies and hundreds more at the pre-tertiary level. Concomitant with the above is the second governmental initiative of the creation of the National Research Foundation in 2006. Its importance is emphasized in its organizational position as a key department under the Prime Minister’s Office and in the constituents of its governing board which reads as a who’s-who of Singaporean government. The strategy of the National Research Foundation is five-fold, namely (NRF, 2009b): 1. To intensify national R&D spending to achieve 3% of GDP by 2010; 2. To identify and invest in strategic areas of R&D; 3. To fund a balance of basic and applied research within strategic areas; 4. To provide resources and support to encourage private sector R&D; and 5. To strengthen linkages between public and private sector R&D. Fruitful results have already emerged from this strategy. Singapore has now carved out an international niche as a champion and leader of clean energy. For example, Singapore’s NEWater technology has been lauded for its contributions to microfiltration technology and was presented with an Award of Excellence from the National Water Research Institute, USA. Additionally, top class research talent has been attracted to call Singapore home. Last year saw the inauguration of the Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore. The institute’s current CEO (Professor Joachim Luther) was the former Director of Europe’s largest Solar Energy R&D institute. 1.1 Research Teaching in the Pre-tertiary Section This focus on research has been translated across to the Singapore education system. Most directly, Singapore’s tertiary institutes have seen a boost in their research expenditure. However, investment in research at the tertiary level is most prominently seen in the recent
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move to create a fourth university, one that is a “high-quality research-intensive university ... [serving] as a new engine of knowledge creation and talent attraction that will help boost Singapore’s economic vibrancy” (MOE, 2009). The increasing focus on research has also trickled down to the pre-tertiary level. There are two main initiatives, as follows. The first is the Ministry of Education allowing research to be submitted as an examinable H3 subject at the Junior College level. Commentators on Singapore’s education scene have noted that there is a “quandary faced by the young in Singapore – the pragmatic need to be economically advantaged on the one hand, and the deep-seated desire to find personal fulfillment on the other” (Tan, 2005, p.14). However, by allowing research to be examinable, students interested in research no longer have to decide between their interest (i.e. research) and their studies. Moreover, making research examinable means that more structures will be put into place at the school level to facilitate the teaching and learning of research. The second is the increased proliferation of national-level competitions in research. During my own studies in Junior College in the late 1990s, the only national competition was the Science Research Programme. In comparison, currently there are a slew of national competitions pitched at various levels, a sample of which is illustrated in Table 1. An increase in competitions is arguably a response to demand from students in schools, although it could also be a publicity gimmick for tertiary institutions eager to recruit bright science talent.
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Competition
Organizing Body
Age of Participants
Singapore Science and Engineering
MOE, A*STAR & Singapore
14-18 years olds
Fair (SSEF)
Science Centre
Science Mentorship Programme
Ministry of Education
14-16 years old
Nanyang Research Programme
Nanyang Technological
15-18 years old
University Science Research Programme Ministry of Education
17-18 years old
(SRP) Table 1. Some Examples of Research Competitions at the Pre-tertiary Level in Singapore
This increasing focus on research is not only complementary with national economic goals, it is also complementary with educational national goals. For example, the national initiative of Innovation and Enterprise (I&E) focuses on developing students with intellectual curiosity, strength of character, the ability to deal with ambiguity and teamwork (Ng, 2005), all traits that could be developed through the research process (Booth, Colomb & Willaims, 2008). In particular, research would be gainfully taught in specialized schools such as Integrated Programmes (IP) schools which aim to “provide opportunities and actively encourage students to pursue their own intellectual interests in the context of a well-round holistic education” (Kang, 2008, p. 193). 1.3 Rationale for Research into Pre-Tertiary Research Teaching However, the teaching of research at the pre-tertiary level is fraught with difficulties. As a tutor in charge of teaching research myself, my experience with teaching research suggests the following main difficulties, in order of importance:
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1. Lack of Time. The biggest difficulty facing students is the lack of time. Other than research done as a H3-subject, research is often an enrichment activity. However, as research can often be longitudinal or extensive in nature, it takes up a lot of time which the student would normally use for other purposes. Thus, the lack of time manifests itself in various symptoms such as (a) students finding it difficult to meet up to discuss their project, (b) insufficient time for writing their research proposal, progress report or final reports, or simply (c) not having enough time to complete their research. 2. Intellectual Rigour. Research is a higher-order process that requires many years of training to master 1 . However, the basic idea of research at the pre-tertiary level is to expose young students to cutting edge science. However, students may find it hard to cope due to a lack of subject knowledge or an inability to think in a sufficiently rigorous way. Although it is possible for teachers to teach both subject knowledge and thinking skills, this is extremely time-consuming. 3. Teacher Training. Moreover, even if time can be found to teach subject matter or thinking skills, the question is begged as to whether teachers found in schools are sufficiently trained to meaningfully guide students in research. Teachers with a research-based Masters or a PhD are still a relative rarity in schools and this would thus limit the ability of the teachers to create effective research training programmes. Unfortunately, a quick survey of educational research databases reveals that research into the pedagogy of teaching research at the pre-tertiary level is quite limited. This is not surprising given that the teaching of research at the pre-tertiary level is not common internationally. Doubly unfortunate is the difficulty of applying tertiary-level research to the
1
See for example the multiple levels of ability required in doing a literature review in Hart (2003).
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pre-tertiary level. Books written for tertiary students usually assume high-levels of reading ability, self-discipline and motivation (e.g. Hart, 2003). Anecdotally, I have found that the most useful for teaching research to young students are low-level introductory texts (e.g. Bell, 1999 or Kumar, 1999). Therefore, given the dearth of useful research, there is a strong need to research into the teaching of research at the pre-tertiary level especially into approaches that may combat the difficulties listed above. One possible approach is to leverage upon the use of technology in the classroom. Given the ubiquity of the computer in the Singaporean school today and teens’ familiarity with the Internet, it is obvious to try to use Internet tools to facilitate research teaching. This includes social networking tools such as Facebook or Friendster, live discussion platforms such as MSN Messenger or Skype, or information organizers such as wikis. In the particular, wikis are of particular interest. Wikis are websites that allow the quick creation and editing of encyclopedic web pages. They are usually open to a select community although they can be made open to the general public. The most familiar example would be Wikipedia, a collaborative encyclopedia. It would be useful to research into the use of wikis as research teaching tools for a number of reasons. As highlighted above, the biggest difficulty facing students is the lack of time. Thus, if a wiki could allow students to work asynchronously yet collaboratively, it will play a significant role in addressing the time issue since it will allow each student to work at his/her own leisure. Additionally, wikis also help to make the research process simpler. A key skill that is required is the gathering, analysis and synthesis of large amounts of data. Wikis could help to develop this skill by providing a common platform for students to store data and allow commenting, editing and collaborative work.
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1.4 Research Aim The aim of my research is to investigate into the use of wikis as a teaching approach in the teaching of research at a pre-tertiary level, ultimately improving my own teaching and providing inspiration for other teachers to use wikis in their teaching of research. Specifically, my research aims to find out: 1. What kind of outcomes can be obtained from the use of wikis in various ways of research teaching; 2. The advantages and disadvantages of the use of wikis for research teaching, from the students’ and practitioner’s perspectives; 3. How to better use wikis for research teaching.
2. Methodology & Methods 2.1 Methodology Essentially, my research involves the use of wikis as a learning tool during my research teaching with my research students in my school (National Junior College). Given that my ultimate research goal is to improve my own teaching of research, it is clear that the methodological approach of my research is that of action research. Sagor (2000) defines action research as follows: A disciplined process of inquiry conducted by and for those taking the action. The primary reason for engaging in action research is to assist the actor in improving or refining his or her actions. More specifically, action researchers (1) focus on their professional action, and (2) aim to empower their future action based on improvement made possible by their research (Sagor, 2005). Action research bears elements of the ethnography methodology (Bell, 1999) in that the researcher is not distinct from the research situation but is instead an actively Page 1111
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participating member that is intervening with the goal of learning and improving. Given the time constraints imposed on me by my role as tutor, this is the only logistically feasible methodology. Nonetheless, action research is also arguably the most appropriate methodology in this situation as it allows positive intervention and learning that is in line with my goals as a tutor and researcher. Additionally, as I will be studying my own students, my study also bears the features of case study methodology. In this case, the case I am studying is my group of research students. My research is a case study in the sense that a limited case is studied in depth over a period of time (ibid.), i.e. over the length of the research teaching module. Although case studies cannot be generalizable and hence limiting the usefulness of the data, case studies can be said to be relatable. Bell (op. cit.) notes that as long as the context of the case study can be usefully related to the context of the readers in a meaningful way (while being aware of the differences), case studies can provide a rich source of ideas and inspiration. 2.2 Sample Given the nature of my research, the sample of students I am studying is a convenience sample of my own research students. This would include 19 research students (15 years old) that are mentored (usually face-to-face in small groups) during the course of their entire research project by me and another 21 research students (same age) that are taught research skills in a classroom setting (1 teacher to 21 students). These students are from National Junior College and are thus relatively high-ability students with a strong interest in research. Additionally, the students are largely girls (70%:30%). Obviously, the sample is quite specific – essentially, it is a high ability, motivated group. Thus, I would suggest that any positive learning outcomes from the study should be applied less optimistically to another group of lower ability or less motivated students.
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2.3 Scope The scope of my research is focused on two contexts in my daily teacher responsibilities as a research mentor: 1. Mentoring Research Projects. All Secondary 3 in National Junior College (NJC) are required to complete a research project. Students are grouped in groups of 4-5 students. They choose their own research topic (which should be an original, nonresearched area), design and conduct their research, while being mentored by a teacher from NJC. Thus, for this context, I use wikis as a tool to facilitate my long term mentoring of my groups’ research project (the 19 students mentioned above are in this category). 2. Classroom Teaching of Research Skills. Secondary 3 students in NJC who are interested in pursuing research at a higher level are offered an elective to introduce them to the basics of higher level research. Students are taught in a classroom setting through the use of innovative pedagogy such as games and pseudoexperiments to interest them in higher-research as well as to teach them the fundamentals of higher-level research. This corresponds to the 21 students I have mentioned above. For these students, I use wikis as a learning tool to teach research skills to them. These two contexts cover the usual learning contexts that students in a pre-tertiary institution would experience during their research courses. 2.4 Use of PBwiki in Research Before discussing the data collection methods, it would be helpful to first describe the wiki used in this research. The wiki chosen is PBwiki (http://pbworks.com/), which is short for “Peanut Butter wiki”. See Figure 2. The name of wiki explains one of the reasons why this wiki for chosen for the purpose of this research – namely, it is as easy to use (as peanut Page 1113
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butter). Additionally, PBwiki is the world’s largest provider of educational wikis, in comparison to major competitors like Wikispaces or Google Sites (PBwiki, 2009), thus allowing students users to easily cross-interface with other educational wikis. Lastly, the wiki provides free usage while providing access to many useful wiki features (such as editing history, forums, WYSIWYG 2 editors etc). This minimizes the difficulty of accessing the website (i.e. no payment required) while providing sufficient functionality for research usage 3 . To ensure that the reader better understands this paper, I shall now describe some of the basic features of PBwiki: -
Connecting initially. A new user can easily access PBwiki by signing up. This signing up process is extremely simple and consists only of filling up four fields.
-
Changing. The user can then edit content using a simple user interface that is similar to Microsoft Word. All edits made are logged into a page history. A user can access the page history to check the changes made and even restore the page to its previous state if mistakes are made.
-
Creation of New Pages. If the user wishes to, he/she can create a new page by clicking on a new page link. This is a very fast process that involves only one additional screen. Links can be constructed between pages by simply using some onscreen buttons.
-
Commenting. Students can comment on content on the wiki using a forum.
-
Collaboration. Different students can make edits on same webpage, but not at the same time.
2
WYSIWYG: What you see is what you get.
3
Nonetheless, functionality still does crop up as an eventual problem as I note in the analysis section.
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-
Control. The moderator of the wiki (i.e. in this case, me) can set permission levels. Students can be allowed to be writers or just readers, and may or may not be given permission to create/delete pages. The moderator can also limit the viewing rights to a select group of people.
-
Customization. Limited customization of the webpage is possible in areas of colour and graphics.
Figure 2. PBwiki site used for research teaching
2.5 Data Collection Methods In order to fulfill the methodological goals of action research to improve performance, pre-teaching and post-teaching pen-and-paper questionnaires were issued to the subjects to be completed to detect positive/negative changes. The questionnaires were issued before the start of the module and at the end of the module. The questionnaires focused on the following areas: -
Extent and scope of Internet use
-
Extent and scope of Wiki use
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-
Perceived advantages and disadvantages of Wiki use
-
Preferences in Wiki use
However, questionnaires alone would not suffice as they only capture the perspectives of the students at the instant that the questionnaires are completed. Therefore, to obtain more holistic data, there is a need to obtain data that is not perspectival and is more longitudinal. Thus, another source of data used was observations of the actual changes made on the wiki itself. This is particular convenient with wikis, as the page history function allows the researcher to track exactly what changes are made and when they are made. Additionally, comments on forums and documents uploaded to the wiki can be monitored. Nonetheless, it is clear that this method is not foolproof. Observation of the content on the wiki does not allow the researcher to clearly see why changes are made or how content on the wiki is used. Therefore, a third source of data would be informal discussions with the students (especially for the mentoring group) during face-to-face sessions. This provides contextualize feedback and more detailed feedback from the students without the trouble of setting up interview sessions. However, this does mean that the data obtained by the discussions could be skewed by students who are more vocal. Still, when combined, these three sources of data do provide a rich and connected picture of how the wikis were used by the students. 2.6 Teacher intervention Lastly, it would be helpful to the reader to understand the extent of my intervention during the research process, which is as follows: -
Setting up the wiki. In both contexts, I had set up the basic structure of the website but left customization of individual pages to the students themselves.
-
Uploading documents. Occasionally, I would upload notes or links that were helpful to the students. However, this was not done often (on average, once a month). Page 1116
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-
Setting assignments. For my research teaching at the classroom teaching level, I assigned assignments of various kinds to be completed using the wiki. This included homework that involved (a) use of the forum only, (b) collaborative construction of an essay, (c) collaborative construction of an encyclopedic entry.
-
Promoting use. Occasionally I would advise the students to use the wiki. However, this was also rare.
Notably, I did not moderate any discussions or heavily promote the usage of the wiki. I felt that this was the right approach as students should only use the wiki if they felt it was helpful 4 .
3. Data & Analysis 3.1 Data from pre-teaching questionnaires Generally, a large majority of the students use the Internet between 2-4 hours a day with the mean being ~2.5 hrs. Generally, the students use the Internet for a wide range of purposes including socializing via chatting websites or social-networking websites such as Facebook, email, entertainment (e.g. Youtube) and lastly schoolwork. Generally, the use of wikis for the latter, largely centers on using Wikipedia to research for information to use for school projects or help in the consolidation of concepts/ideas learned in school. However, other than Wikipedia, students did not use other wikis. Given their familiarity with Wikipedia, the students felt that it was easy to read information from a wiki. Interestingly, despite claiming that they had never edited or managed content on a wiki, most students felt that it would only pose them a moderate level of difficulty if they were asked to do so.
4
I did make an exception however for my research teaching at the classroom level as I was interested to see the
students’ responses to different kinds of assignments on the wiki.
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3.2 Data from post-teaching questionnaires 3.2.1 Wiki as a Teaching Tool Generally, most students (95%) found that the use of wiki was a more interesting way to teach compared to normal chalk-and-talk lecturing. Reasons provided for the preferred use of wikis were quite varied, but largely centred around the wikis’ ability to allow students to voice their own opinions and to understand the opinions of others. Another commonly cited reason was the ease of accessing large amounts of information. Less common reasons included the following advantages of the wiki platform: -
Interactivity
-
Allowing information organization
-
Ease of use for frequent computer users
-
Allowing independent learning
-
Different from the usual means of teaching
Despite the generally positive response to the use of wikis are a learning tool, a small minority (5%) did not find it any more interesting that usual approaches to teaching (note that the response is not negative but neutral) with the reasons being that they found typing hard (not just related to wikis) and that it was sometimes hard to understand what was being written due to the large amounts of information present. 3.2.2 Students’ Preferred Use of Wiki For the students that used wikis as part of classroom teaching of research, the majority of students preferred commenting individually on a forum, as compared to collaboration on a single article. Since this was surprising given that the unique feature of a wiki is mutual collaboration on an article, the students were asked as to why they preferred the forum. The reasons focus chiefly on the issue of clarity. Students were concerned that that their viewpoint was reflected clearly and that ownership of their ideas was clear, which they felt Page 1118
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was not the case for a wiki. Moreover, they also noted that in group collaboration, it was difficult to suggest unique opinions and thus they were forced to think harder. Lastly, some students claimed to not like “group thinking” at all and preferred to express their individuality via a forum. Therefore, in contrast, their least favourite mode of wiki use was large-scale collaborative work (working on a class-level essay). In comparison, for students who used wikis as part of a long-term research mentoring process, their preferred use of a wiki was largely for benchmarking. Since groups would upload their working drafts of their research reports onto PBwiki, other groups could look at their peers work and check their own progess as well as learn from the strengths and weaknesses of other groups. Although use of the wiki for collaborative work was more preferred compared to the classroom-teaching group, the students did not generally use PBwiki for large scale collaborative work. Reasons were largely due to functionality, such as (1) only one person could edit the document a time, (2) the PBwiki interface did not allow the full range of formatting functionality, (3) the wiki did not allow large files to be uploaded as webpages. Lastly, when asked about likely future use of the wiki, most students stated that they are unlikely to use it more, with the key reason given that they did not see any other occasion to use it. 3.3.3 Perception of wikis The students were asked about what they felt to be the advantages and disadvantages of wikis based on their experiences. The advantages were in line with the reasons quoted above on why the students found the use of wikis a more interesting way to teach. When asked about the disadvantages, the students cited three main reasons: 1. Quality of information. The students were concerned about the quality of information on the wiki. They were wary that any user could edit the website and this may lead to Page 1119
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factual inaccuracy or poor organization of material. They felt that a moderator would be helpful. 2. Management of information. The students were also concerned about information loss. They felt that it was simple to delete the entire webpage and thus lose all information (despite the fact that there is a page history site that allows you to undo changes). 3. Discussion. Although the wiki has its advantages, many students felt that the wiki could not compare to a face-to-face discussion for flexibility and clarity of collaboration. 3.3 Data from Observation of Use of Wikis Changes made by students to the wikis were recorded down. In general, the type of changes made by students can be classified into 4 types: 1. Uploading of information onto the wiki 2. Formatting the information on the wiki 3. Reorganization of information on the wiki 4. Responding to information on the wiki When the students in the classroom teaching setting were tasked to do a classcollaboration assignment, the first type of change is dominant (85% of the time) with the other 3 types being quite rare (15% of the time). Interestingly, when they were tasked to do a small-group collaboration assignment instead, the first type of change was less frequent (60%) while reorganization & formatting became more common (35%). When work was assigned at an individual level, the organization & formatting was done to the highest quality although the total amount of information declined (which is expected given that only one person is doing the work).
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Also in contrast are the students who are in the long-term mentoring context. These students uploaded information less (50%) and spent more time responding to information through forums (40%). Formatting and reorganization were still quite rare (10%) and there is anecdotal evidence from informal conversations to suggest that this was because the formatting and reorganization was done offline. Interestingly, the use of the wiki in non-teacher specified ways was rare. Although a commenting function was present all the time, only a few students took the initiative to make use of it (10%). It was also rare to see students link to other websites or create new pages on their own accord. 4. Analysis and Recommendations Generally, it is clear from the data in the above section that the use of wikis in research is generally positive and is viewed as positive by students. The key advantages are illustrated in Table 3. Nonetheless, there are some problems in the use of wikis for research teaching. In this section, I analyse some of these difficulties and suggest some recommendations to deal with them.
1.
Voice personal opinions
2.
Hear other’s opinions
3.
Access to large amounts of
4.
Interactivity
5.
Allowing information organization
6.
Ease of use for frequent computer users
7.
Allowing independent learning
8.
Different from the usual means of teaching
Table 3. Advantages of Wiki Use as Highlighted by Research Students
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4.1 Data Sharing Versus Data Quality The first problem is an inherent tension in the wiki medium, that is, the tension between the ease of data sharing and the problems associated with poor quality and excessive quantity. Students noted that the primary advantage of the wiki is that it allows quick and easy collaboration through data uploading; ironically, this is also the root of the primary disadvantage cited by the students which is that the ease of editing means that information can be unreliable or excessive. This tension is associated with a secondary tension between a user’s individuality and group identity. Students often noted how a wiki entry did not allow them to express their individual opinions in a fashion that allowed clear ownership. Instead, they noted that wikis tended to absorb ideas into a potpourri of ideas. How can we cope with these tensions? I suggest three approaches that may ameliorate the difficulties present: 1. Careful selection of use of wikis. Tutors should realized that wikis are not panaceas to their teaching woes. Thus, they cannot be indiscriminately used for all of research teaching. There needs to be a careful matching of the learning task with the use of wikis. Given the strength of the wiki in collaboration, it is strongly suggested that the wiki be used in tasks such as collaborative writing (e.g. while writing their research report) or group databasing (e.g. storage of a bibliography). Alternatively, tutors can take advantage of a wiki’s associated forum functions to allow students to post comments on a research report or poster. 2. Training students to work collaboratively. Students must be trained to research in a collaborative fashion. For example, writing on the wiki tended to be of a high quality when they were individual entries. However, when the work was collaborative, the entries tended to be poorly structured and poorly reasoned. Thus, there is a need to help students learn how to reorganize knowledge and reformat Page 1122
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writing, in particular, from other people’s work. It is clear from the observations made of wiki use that students generally do not commonly do these two tasks and it could be due to a lack of training. Fortunately, given the nature of the wiki, it would be a helpful platform for an exercise in organization and reformatting. 3. Moderation. The deliberate lack of oversight during this study has revealed the need for effective moderation of the wiki pages. It could thus be helpful to assign moderators who organize and vet information placed on the wiki. This would make the quality and quantity of information placed on the wiki more manageable. 4.2 Lack of Functionality Another problem with the use of wikis is the lack of functionality. Although important and useful functions such as the page history function and forum are present, other types of functionality would be helpful. Possible helpful functionality would be more advanced functions to save work, more formatting options, allowing more than one user at a time to access the documents, more targeted commenting functions etc. The most basic solution to this problem would be to first conduct for the students a more thorough introduction to the various functionalities of the wiki (as opposed to assuming that students would take the initiative to figure out the wiki by themselves). This would ensure that students are at least able to make use of the range of functionality that the wiki already possesses. Another possible approach is to tackle the lack of functionality by a judicious choice of tasks. In other words, choose tasks that avoid the functionality holes in the wiki. For example, a good task involving literature review skills could be to ask students to comment on a journal article on separate pages (this would avoid the one-person-at-a-time problem). Then a group leader could then combine the comments into his/her group’s comments.
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Nonetheless, there may be times where this is not possible. In that case, it might be helpful to supplement the use of wikis with other forms of teaching. For example, during the writing of research reports, some of my students used Google Docs as a platform for editing their writing while using PBwiki to plan and organize. They made use of Google Docs more flexible formatting and collaboration functions, while relying on PBwiki’s forum feature to hold extended discussions. 4.3 Promoting Deeper Learning The third problem with the use of wikis is the problem of promoting deeper learning. As noted in the data section, students often only uploaded information, but failed to reflect upon it or process it. This means that their learning from the wiki is likely to centre around information collation and not analysis nor evaluation. Moreover, students also failed to use the wikis in non-teacher ordained ways which suggests that their ability to use the wiki in a non-routine way is limited which in turn suggests that their research ability may be limited as well. In addition, students claimed that they would not use the wiki more often after the end of the module as they claimed that they no longer had an occasion to use it. I believe that it is particularly important to explicitly highlight the thinking skills that are being taught through the use of wikis, as this would aid transferability. It is surprising to note that the students felt that with the end of the research module, they no longer had a chance to use the wiki. One would have thought that the students would realize that the medium would be useful for many other schooling purposes, such as essay writing in English, project work in Sciences etc. Therefore, it is critical to provide more guidance along the way, in particular to explicitly state the learning outcomes of wiki use. The workability of this approach is corroborated by the data. When students who were explicitly told to use the wiki for producing a group level encyclopedia article which was of a high quality, the students took deliberate steps to edit and format the data such that the information in the wiki was Page 1124
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processed. This was in distinction to the observed quality of work given when the students were told to work together in a class-level essay (without instructions to produce a high quality piece). 4.4 Summary of Recommedations 1. To carefully match wiki use with appropriate learning tasks 2. To provide adequate training and guidance in wiki use 3. Deliberate acts of facilitation such as assigning a moderator or explicitly stating learning outcomes 4. Using other Internet tools to supplement wiki functionality
5. Conclusion The use of wikis does seem well received by students and is accompanied by a host of advantages and disadvantages. In particular, it is important to intelligently match the use of wikis to the appropriate learning tasks and to be cognizant of the functionality gaps in wikis. It is thus important for the teacher mentor to facilitate appropriately. One possible area for future research could be into Google Docs as a tool for research teaching. Given the functionality gaps in wikis such as flexibility in formatting and simultaneous editing, since Google Docs does not suffer from these gaps, it might be helpful as a parallel platform to supplement the use of wikis in research teaching. This research has also unveiled that the quality of changes made to a wiki by students is situational in nature and is dependent on a number of factors. Future research could be done to future analyse how to improve students’ quality of thought while using the wiki.
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Research teaching still suffers from a lack of research at a pre-tertiary level where the contexts and constraints are significantly different. Given the increasing ubiquity of such teaching, it would be helpful to conduct future research in this area.
Acknowledgements. I would like to thank Mrs Virginia Cheng (Principal, NJC) and Ms Ong Yann Shiou (Head of Department, Science, Junior High, NJC) for their support for this piece of research. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the NJC SPIRE research programme for sharing with me their ideas, especially Mrs June Fong and Mr Nick Chan.
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6. References A*STAR (2002). A*STAR targets the young and sharpens research focus to build intellectual capital for a knowledge-based Singapore. Press Release. Retrieved on 19 Oct 2009 from http://www.a-star.edu.sg/a_star/189-Press-Release?iid=453. A*STAR (2009). Fusionpolis. Retrieved on 19 Oct 2009 from http://www.astar.edu.sg/a_star/189-Press-Release?iid=453. Bell, J. (1999). Doing your research project: A guide for first-time researchers in education and social science. Maidenhead, PA: Open University Press. Booth, W.C., Colomb, G.G. & Willaims, J.M. (2008). The Craft of Research. Chicago, USA: The University of Chicago Press. 3rd Edition. Hart, C. (2003). Doing a literature review: Releasing the social science research imagination. London, UK: SAGE Publications. Kang, T. (2008). Integrated Programmes in Singapore: Choices and Challenges. In: Tan, J. & Ng. P.T. (Eds.), Thinking Schools, Learning Nation (pp. 191-205). Singapore: Pearson-Prentice Hall. Kumar, R. (1999). Research Methodology: A Step-by-step Guide for Beginners. London, UK: SAGE Publications. MOE, Ministry of Education (2009). New Peaks of Excellence in the Tertiary Landscape — More Quality Higher Education Opportunities. Press Release. Retrived 19 October, 2009, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/press/2009/05/new-peaks-of-excellence-inthe.php. Ng, P.T. (2005). Innovation and Enterprise. In Tan, J. & Ng. P.T. (Eds.) Shaping Singapore’s Future: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation. (pp. 41-51). Singapore: Pearson-Prentice Hall.
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NRF, National Research Foundation (2009a). Promote Research, Innovation & Entreprise. Retrieved 19 October, 2009, from http://www.nrf.gov.sg/nrf/ourwork.aspx?id=182. NRF, National Research Foundation (2009b). About us.
Retrieved 19 October, 2009, from
http://www.nrf.gov.sg/nrf/ourwork.aspx?id=92. Ong, D.L. (2009). A Fish Called Holly (Today Online). Retrieved 16 October, 2009, from http://www.todayonline.com/Singapore/EDC091016-0000061/A-fish-called-Holly#. PBwiki (2009). Pressroom. Retrieved 19 October, 2009, from http://pbworks.com/content/ pressroom. Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding school improvement with action research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Sagor, R. (2005). The Action Research Guidebook: A Four-Step Process for Educators and School Teams. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Tan, C. (2005). Driven by Pragmatism: Issues and Challenges in Ability-Driven. In Tan, J. & Ng. P.T. (Eds.) Shaping Singapore’s Future: Thinking Schools, Learning Nation. (pp. 5-21). Singapore: Pearson-Prentice Hall.
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Effectiveness of the 5E Learning Cycle Model and Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) teaching & learning strategies in the acquisition of science concepts for Primary 6 students.
Agnes Lim, Jalene Lim, Adrian Lim
Pasir Ris Primary School Email:
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]
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Effectiveness of the 5E Learning Cycle Model and Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) teaching & learning strategies in the acquisition of science concepts for Primary 6 students.
Abstract The main purpose of this study is to explore the effectiveness of the 5E Learning Cycle Model, and the Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) teaching and learning techniques on students’ learning and the acquisition of Science concepts and their levels of achievements in the understanding of these concepts through both qualitative and quantitative data collection.
The study was carried out with four classes comprising 112 Primary 6 students, ranging from middle to low ability. The topic selected was ‘Forces’, in particular, ‘Elastic Spring Force’ as students had displayed difficulty in understanding the concepts of original length of spring, new length of spring and extended length of spring and how each is related to the other.
The data corpus included a pen-and-paper pre- and post-test, classroom observations, students’ focus group discussion, teachers’ reflections and students’ survey. Results of our study were positive. Students showed a better understanding of the topic; they were more confident in forming and communicating explanations and they showed a keener interest and motivation on their part. These results were reflective of earlier researches which revealed greater gains for students in subject mastery (Carlson, 1975, Schneider & Renner, 1980, and Saunders & Shepherdson, 1987) and positive attitudes (Lawson,1995) in Science learning.
Key words: teaching and learning techniques; acquisition; science concepts
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Introduction Science is a key subject assessed at the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) in Singapore. With the emphases on literacy and numeracy in the primary school education system in Singapore, Science is taught as a formal subject only at Primary 3. With only four years of formal science education before students take the PSLE at the end of Primary 6, coupled with a rigorous and extensive syllabus and content coverage, students do encounter difficulty in the acquisition of science concepts, especially with the more abstract ones.
This research study was undertaken as a result of a conversation among the teachers of the Science Department from Pasir Ris Primary School who realized that a vast majority of the Primary 6 students in the middle to low ability levels do experience difficulty in understanding physical science concepts. It was with the intent of providing an interesting and authentic learning experience for these students to seek clarity of such concepts so that they could better illustrate and construct their ideas when answering exam questions that this study was undertaken. Therefore, this paper sets out to: *
explore the effectiveness of the use of the BSCS 5E Learning Cycle Model and Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) in inquiry-based lessons for the acquisition of science concepts.
*
report the findings of this study and consider some of the implications that have arisen in the course of this project.
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Literature Review
What is Scientific Inquiry?
In the new Primary Science Syllabus (2008), scientific inquiry is defined as the activities and processes scientists and students engage in to study the natural and physical world around us. Scientific inquiry may be perceived as consisting of two critical aspects – the what (content) and the how (process) of understanding the world we live in. Hence, the teaching and learning of Science has to go beyond merely presenting bare facts and information. Students have to know how the products of scientific investigations were derived through platforms which allow for questioning, exploring and investigating and making connections to the real world. This concurs much with the National Science Education Standards, which defines inquiry as a multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and communicating the results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use of critical and logical thinking, and consideration of alternative explanations. Students will engage in selected aspects of inquiry as they learn the scientific way of knowing the natural world, but they also should develop the capacity to conduct complete inquiries. National Science Education Standards (1996), p23.
Singapore’s Ministry of Education Primary Science Curriculum Framework encapsulates the thrust of Primary Science Education in Singapore to prepare our students to be sufficiently adept as effective citizens, able to function and contribute to an increasingly technologicallydriven world, with the inculcation of the ‘spirit of inquiry’ taking centre-stage. The three
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domains of (a)Knowledge, Understanding and Application, (b)Skills and Processes and (c) Ethics and Attitudes are essential features that seek to nurture the student as an inquirer and the teacher as the leader of inquiry in the classroom. 2008 Syllabus Primary Science Standard / Foundation (Curriculum Planning and Development Division. Ministry of Education. p1-2)
Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills.
Effective teaching is at the heart of science education. Good teachers of science create environments in which they and their students work together as active learners. They are continually expanding theoretical and practical knowledge about science learning, and science teaching. They use assessments of students and of their own teaching to plan and conduct their teaching. They build strong, sustained relationships with students that are grounded in their knowledge of students' similarities and differences. And they are active as members of science-learning communities. In an article ‘PSLE Science Paper tougher? No, says MOE’ in the Straits Times dated 16 October 2004, while some students, parents and teachers complained about the difficulty level of the paper, some schools shared that they had no issue about the paper as their students were exposed to learning beyond, through experiments, discovery and real-life experiences.
The importance of inquiry does not imply that all teachers should pursue a single approach to teaching science. Just as inquiry has many different facets, so teachers need to use many
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different strategies to develop the understandings and abilities described in the Standards. What students learn is greatly influenced by how they are taught. National Science Education Standards(1996). The National Academies Press.
Llewellyn, in his book ‘Inquire Within, Implementing Inquiry-based Science Standards’ shared on the seven dimensions of inquiry. An inquiry approach should address the following: curriculum, environment, the student’s role, the teacher’s role, skills, attitudes and the inquiry cycle.
Science and the under-achievers Science Education has definitely evolved from sheer memorization of theories, principles and laws to their applications in daily lives. While attainment is defined by a cohort’s final deliverable at a term test or a final year examination, achievement covers a broader area; it includes progress, and incorporates personal and emotional learning, as well as a contribution to the community outside school. (Motivating underachievers: techniques and tactics)
In many respects, it is difficult to define precisely what constitutes moderate learning difficulties of students as the range of difficulties can be so complex and unique to each individual. Difficulty is also diverse in itself as it could vary according to the curriculum area. When students underachieve, their talents and ability find no expression. They are likely to become disaffected and may disrupt others. Research has shown that when active measures are taken to address students’ attainment, the results are often not negative. Underachievers, well taught, tend not to contribute to negative value add. The main aim is to help underachievers achieve as much as that can be achieved by their most successful peers. It may be unrealistic to expect them to become high achievers overnight, rather the intent is to
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help recover their status as an achiever and put them back on track with the mainstream cohort.
Constructivism and the BSCS 5E Learning Cycle Model
Constructivist theories of learning consider that students’ existing understandings should be considered when developing teaching and learning programmes. Events that surprise create conditions where students may be ready to start re-examining their personal theories. The philosophy about learning, that proposes learners need to build their own understanding of new ideas, has been labeled constructivism. Much has been researched and written by many eminent leaders in the fields of learning theory and cognition. Scholars such as Jean Piaget, Eleanor Duckworth, George Hein, and Howard Gardener have explored these ideas in-depth. The Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS), a team whose Principal Investigator is Roger Bybee, developed an instructional model for constructivism, called the "Five Es". In this model, the process is explained by employing 5Es. They are: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate.
Engage. In this stage, the students first encounter the instructional task. They make connections between past and present learning experiences, lay the organizational ground work for the activities ahead and stimulate their involvement in the anticipation of these activities. Posing a question, showing a surprising or discrepant event and dramatization are some ways to engage the students and focus them on the instructional tasks.
Explore. In this stage, the students have the opportunity to be directly involved with investigations and materials. By involving themselves in these activities they develop a grounding of experience with the investigation. As they work together in teams, students
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build a base of common experience which assists them in the process of sharing and communicating. The teacher acts as a facilitator, providing materials and guiding the students' focus. The students' inquiry process drives the instruction during an exploration.
Explain. The ‘Explain’ stage is the point where the student begins to put the abstract experience into a communicable form. Language provides motivation for sequencing events into a logical format. Communication occurs between peers, the facilitator, or within the learner himself. This is also the stage where new scientific terms or key words can be introduced. Explanations can also be accompanied by video clips and other visual aids.
Elaborate. In this stage, the students expand on the concepts they have learned, make connections to other related concepts, and apply their understandings to the world around them.
Evaluate. Evaluate, the last ‘E’, is an on-going diagnostic process that allows the teacher to determine if the student has attained understanding of concepts and knowledge. Evaluation and assessment can occur at all points along the continuum of the instructional process. Viewing the evaluation process as a continuous one gives the constructivistic philosophy a kind of cyclical structure. The learning process is open-ended and open to change. There is an on-going loop where questions lead to answers but more questions and instructions is driven by both predetermined lesson design and the inquiry process.
Predict, Observe, Explain (POE)
The POE strategy was developed by White and Gunstone (1992) to uncover individual students’ predictions, and their reasons for making these, about a specific event. Page 1136
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POE is a strategy often used in science and works best with demonstrations that allow immediate observations, and suits the physical and material world contexts. It can be used for finding out students' initial ideas, providing teachers with information about students’ thinking, generating discussion, motivating students to want to explore the concepts and generating ideas.
Constructivist theories of learning recommends that students’ existing understandings should be considered when developing teaching and learning programmes. Events that surprise create conditions where students may be ready to start re-examining their personal theories.
Methodology
Research Questions
Does the inquiry approach to teaching science using the 5E Learning Cycle Model and POE improve P6 students’ understanding of science concepts?
Instruments The instruments used in this study were: 1) Pre-test and Post-test (Appendix 1) 2) Analysis of results for pre- and post-tests 3) Teachers’ Reflection 4) Focus Group Discussion for Students 5) Student Perception Survey Sample and Procedure A total of 112 students from four Primary 6 classes were selected for this study. They represented students from the middle to low ability academic groups. The study was carried
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out in the first semester of the academic year, between March and April 2009 and lasted for five weeks of Term 2. This period was chosen as it coincided with the Science Schemes of Work for Primary 6. At the onset of the study, the students sat for a pre-test on the topic ‘Forces’. The topic was chosen as it was highlighted by teachers as a common area of weakness amongst students. The pre-test results confirmed the teachers’ concern.
Four P6 Science teachers came together and crafted a set of lesson plans (Appendix 2) which applied the 5E Learning Cycle Model. Activities were carefully designed for each of the five E-stages : Engage, Explore, Explain, Extend and Evaluate. Predict, Observe, Explain (POE) was used as an approach during the Engage and Explore stages. In the Engage stage, it was used to find out students’ initial ideas of the topic so that teachers had a basis of students’ past experiences and could therefore better tailor their lessons to meet students’ needs. This is in line with the constructivist theories of learning which takes into account students’ existing understandings when designing classroom instructions. In the Explore stage, POE was again used to elicit predictions from students as they carried out hands-on activities during the practical activities in the lesson.
The actual conduct of these lessons took place in the 2nd and 3rd weeks of April. To evaluate the effectiveness of the BSCS 5E Approach in the teaching of Science concepts, a post- test was administered to the students to gauge and assess their understanding of the topic upon completion. Students’ feedback were also sought at a focus group discussion and their reflections were collated to provide better insights to this method of delivery in the middle and low ability groups of students. The focus group involved 20 students from the four classes. This served as a basis for triangulation of the data collected. In addition, the students from the four classes completed a perception survey so that more reliable data could be Page 1138
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gathered. The four Science teachers who delivered the 5E inquiry-based lessons also shared their personal reflections.
Data Analysis The pre- and post-tests (Appendix 1) consisted of 8 multiple choice questions with a weighting of 2 marks each and a four-part, open-ended question which carried 4 marks. The total weighting of the test was 20 marks. The questions were carefully designed to test students’ understanding of elastic spring force, extension of springs when weights are added on them and their ability to interpret graphs. Table 1 below shows the analysis for each question answered correctly in the pre- and post-tests. The score is based on a cohort of 112 students from the 4 classes. Table 2 is a summary of overall passes as well as mark range scored by students before and after intervention measures were carried out.
Table 1: Pre- and Post-Tests Results PRE-TEST QN
NO. OF
POST-TEST
PERCENTAGE
STUDENTS
NO. OF
PERCENTAGE
STUDENTS
1
101
90%
103
92%
2
84
75%
103
92%
3
88
79%
89
79%
*4
25
22%
57
51%
5
44
39%
62
55%
6
89
79%
101
90%
7
75
67%
78
70%
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8
61
54%
61
54%
9a
67
60%
72
64%
*9b
36
32%
59
53%
*9c
8
7%
24
21%
9d
24
21%
28
25%
Table 2 : Summary of Overall % Passes PRE-TEST
POST-TEST
80%
94%
15 – 20 MARKS
22%
48%
10 – 14 MARKS
58%
46%
‹ 10 MARKS
20%
6%
% PASSES MARK RANGE:
Results Collectively, the data collected in this study indicated that the 5E Learning Cycle Model and POE had made a positive impact on students’ acquisition of science concepts. Overall, a significant increase in the number of correct responses for most questions was achieved after the 5E inquiry-based lessons were conducted. The number of passes has also increased from 80% to 94%, an increase of 14% in the post-test. It was also noted that the percentage of quality passes (15 – 20 mark range) rose from 22% to 48 % as seen in the graph below.
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Pre- and Post-test Results 70
% of Students
60 50
40
30
20 10
0 15 – 20 MARKS
10 – 14 MARKS
‹ 10 MARKS
Mark Range Pre %
Post%
Teachers’ Reflection Science teachers involved in this study shared that this student-centric approach in the 5E lessons conducted had been effective in engaging the students, allowing students to take charge of their own learning and making learning fun and meaningful. The post-test results confirmed that students had learnt and benefited from this mode of delivery through teachers’ role was that of a facilitator. In contrast to the conventional teaching methods, students had the opportunity to engage in meaningful activities which they could make connections and apply to daily lives. The table below is part of the transcript scribed during a teachers’ reflection session.
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Stages in 5E
Teachers’ Feedback
Engage
Teacher 1 The students were amused with the hammock spring and recalled the time when they were placed in a hammock – relating to prior experiences Teacher 2 Students were confident and gave various examples of objects that require springs to work. Some good examples elicited were hold puncher, clothes peg, the pogo stick and their sleeping mattresses without which sleeping will be so uncomfortable. Teacher 3 As a general comment, students’ responses were forthcoming as they were able to make connections relating to daily lives
Explore
Teacher 4 The students enjoyed this stage most as they could bring in a variety of objects to explore the elasticity and extension of the spring. Students brought in a wide variety of objects. Teacher 3 It was observed that students were beginning to use terms like when an object was hung on the spring, the spring became longer. Some students were also puzzled when the spring did not be become longer when a small object was hung on it. Alternatively, a spring became overstretched when a heavy object was hung, eg, a stapler. Teacher 1 Noted that a teacher has to plan and be familiar with the lesson in advance so that students are on task as this segment may result in poor class management if students are disengaged.
Explain
Teacher 1 This was the most challenging stage for the students. Students had limited vocabulary and were unable to generate their ideas / answers clearly. Teacher 4 Page 1142
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The movie clip helped to reinforce the concept better.
Extend
Teacher 2 The activity required the students to design a toy or anything that made use of a spring to work. Due to constraints of time, this would be kept in view till after PSLE. Teacher 3 On the contrary, this class of very low ability students attempted the toy making in groups and found that the students were able to come up with interesting toys.
Evaluate
Teacher 2 Generally, the students showed a better grasp in the concepts as reflected in the results of the post-test. However, there were still some terms that students tend to be confused about – the difference between length of extension and length of spring Teacher 4 Teacher noted that the students’ retention level was rather poor. Though they displayed understanding of concepts, recalling facts and correct terms to use were a major problem.
General Comments and Learning Points
Teacher 1 For 5E lessons to be effective, detailed lesson preparation and teacher preparedness are two essential components. Teacher 2 Always be prepared for unexpected situations. A teacher does not need to have all the answers at hand. Teacher 3 An inquiry lesson incorporating the 5E may not be easy to deliver, but the fruits of the labour is well worth the effort. Teacher 4 POE lends itself very well in physical science topics. Will it work equally well in life science topics?
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Generally, it was observed that students enjoyed their learning experience. In the Engage stage, providing a platform for students to make connections with their past and present experiences helped in the elicitation of student responses. Instructional tasks that involved scientific investigations and problem-solving skills appealed to most of the students. Alongside having fun with the hands-on and minds-on activities, students acquired scientific concept with much less difficulty. Use of movie and video clips aided in providing better understanding of concepts.
Students’ Focus Group Discussion Five questions were asked and the students gave their insights during the session. In question 3, students were asked if the activities conducted during the lessons helped them in their learning of science concepts. Some of the responses were: Hoe In:
Shawn: Jessica:
I was a little confused at first but the various hands on activities helped to clarify some of my doubts. Now, I have a clearer idea what elastic spring force is about and how it works. I am able to understand the questions and problems put to me (better) as I was given sufficient practice on the topic. It will be good to have more of such lessons as we had fun as we learnt. Teachers are not the ones doing the talking most of the time, we are involved in it too, that makes me think a lot more.
In question 4, students were asked which part of the lesson they enjoyed/learnt the most. Some of the responses were: Nicholas:
Hoe In:
Felester:
The practical activities allowed me to see the pattern of behaviour in elastic springs, I had a lot of fun trying to hang all kinds of objects on my spring. I enjoyed that too but I was also reminded to make predictions before I conduct the actual experiments, that forced me to think and observe the results carefully. When I was asked to create a toy that works with a spring in it, I had to read up on the internet and look around carefully for ideas. That lesson was challenging yet interesting for me.
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In question 5, students were asked which part of the lesson they found challenging and the reasons why they felt that way. Some of the responses were: Jessica:
For me, it is the plotting of graphs. Though I understood the relationship between the mass of the weights and the extension of the spring, I had some difficulties learning how to plot the data on the graphs. I keep making mistakes when it comes to finding the length of extension of the spring. I always get confused between new length of spring and length of extension. When there is no weight hung onto a spring, I must always remember that length of extension is zero. I always get this mixed up.
Shawn:
Nicholas:
It was apparent that the students enjoyed the practical activities best and wished that every science lesson would be as fun-filled. The discussion also revealed that students found it easier to understand concepts better through actual hands-on experimentation.
Results from Student Perception Survey on the 5E Inquiry-based lessons Graph showing Results of Students’ Survey on the 5E Inquiry-Based Lessons Student Survey on 5E Inquiry-Based Lesson 100 90
%of PositiveR esponse
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 A
B
C
D
E
F
Survey Descriptors % of positive response
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Student Perception Survey on 5E Inquiry-Based Lessons ☺
5E Inquiry-Based Lessons A
The activities in the lesson help me understand the topic better.
B
I can make connections with the world around me.
C
I am given opportunities to exercise my problem-solving skills.
D
I take greater ownership in my own learning.
E
I feel more confident to communicate my ideas.
F
The toy-making activity gives me a clearer understanding of the application of springs in my daily life. G I know the importance of making careful observations of a given task. H I know the importance of making educated predictions using available data. ☺: Agree, :Somewhat agree, : Disagree The Students’ Perception Survey revealed that over 90% found that the activities helped them to better understand concepts in Science. It was also noted that through the lessons, students were able to realize that making educated predictions with available data was important. Although there was a general sense that students were now more confident and better able to provide sound explanations to questions, a percentage of close to 20% of students still indicated that they lacked the confidence when it came to explaining observations made during the lessons.
Limitations Though the post-test results indicated a significant increase in the students’ performance, the percentage increase for correct responses for questions 4, 9b and 9c were lower than the other questions. These three questions tested concepts on extension of a spring in relation to the mass of weights added as well as interpretation of graphs. The team concluded that though
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the 5E inquiry-based lessons were effective in engaging pupils and contributing greatly to the learning of concepts, process skills such as the above cannot be acquired over a single lesson. As this was a process, time was a major constraint for P6 graduating classes.
Underachievers were already burdened with poor acquisition of vocabulary and language. This, coupled with abstract science concepts, impeded students’ ability to communicate and provide succinct answers to given questions.
For primary school students, writing the answer could be a barrier to useful communication of ideas. Oral responses need to be managed so other group members do not initially influence students. For example, use Think-Pair-Share, before sharing with the whole group.
The POE is not suitable for all topics, for example, topics that are not "hands-on" or in which it is difficult to get immediate results (for example, Living World). If the POE strategy is used often, some demonstrations should be chosen to not give surprising results, otherwise students start looking for the trick. This may affect the explanations they give.
Some researchers say that students are more likely to learn from observations that confirm their predictions. This cautions us to be careful that predictions are not wild guesses. A joint conversation about what we might expect to see, and why, based on the underlying science idea, could help avoid this trap.
In a nutshell, students must be given ample opportunities to explore and extend their learning, a process which requires much time and careful planning of tasks by teachers.
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Conclusion and Implications The post-test results from all the four classes showed an overall improvement over the pretest results. The four classes of students were taught by different teachers using the same lesson design. Since different teachers have different styles and different levels of competencies in science teaching, this further validates that the BSCS 5E Learning Cycle Model and POE applied at different stages of the 5E lessons is effective and has value-added in the students’ achievement. Moreover, this student-centric approach has empowered students to become more independent learners, taking ownership of their own learning, with the teacher being the leader of inquiry. These findings were reflective of earlier researches which revealed greater gains for students in subject mastery (Carlson, 1975, Schneider & Renner, 1980, and Saunders & Shepherdson, 1987) and positive attitudes (Lawson,1995) in Science learning.
Our findings has revealed that the inquiry-approach to teaching science using the 5E Learning Cycle Model and POE do show an improvement in students’ understanding of science concepts. It has also value-added in students’ personal and social development.
With these positive results, we had already extended this to other topics, some of which are ‘Magnets’ at Primary 3, Matter at Primary 4 and ‘Cells’ and ‘Electricity’ at Primary 5. We are convinced that the 5E Learning Cycle Model, coupled with strategies like POE, help to enhance students’ knowledge and concept acquisition and their application of skills.
However it is also important to note that despite the positive findings, the use of inquirybased approaches is not a panacea for teaching all students. Our students come from diverse backgrounds and learning abilities. Teachers therefore need to adapt their approaches and styles to meet the wide variety of student’s needs they encounter. As long as activities and
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lessons are well thought-out and tailored to cater to the appropriate levels, the learning of science can definitely take place. It is therefore necessary for all science educators to be able to use appropriate strategies to engage students of all ability groups. Even the disengaged ones will be motivated!
Acknowledgement This AR study would not be made possible without the invaluable support and guidance from Mrs Teh Li Heong (MTT, E6) Ngee Ann Secondary School, Mr Justin Pierre (Principal, Pasir Ris Primary School) and Mr Eddie Foo (EL HOD, Pasir Ris Primary School). References Bybee, R. W. et al (2006). The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: Origins and Effectiveness. A Report Prepared for the Office of Science Education National Institutes of Health. Colorado Springs: Office of Science Education National Institutes of Health. Curriculum Planning and Development Division (2007). Science Syllabus, Primary 2008 Fraenkel, Jack R., Wallen, Norman E. (2006). How To Design and Evaluate Research in Education, Sixth Edition. New York: The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Gardner, H. (1991). The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach. NY: Basic Books. Hammerman, E. (2006). 8 Essentals of Inquiry-based Science, K-8. California: Corwin Press. Inc Joel J. Mintzes, James H. Wandersee, Joseph D. Novak (2005) Teaching Science For Understanding: A Human Constructivist View. San Diego, California: Elsevier Academic Press Llewellyn, D. (2002). Inquire Within: Implementing Inquiry-based Science Standards. California: Corwin Press. Inc. White, R. T., & Gunstone, R. F. (1992). Probing Understanding. Great Britain: Falmer Press. Online Article: Constructivism and the 5E Model in Science Learning http://cte.jhu.edu/techacademy/fellows/Ullrich/webquest/mkuindex.html Science Education Standards (1996). The National Academies Press http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4962&page=2
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Appendix 1 SCIENCE – PRIMARY 6 TOPIC : FORCES PRE & POST-TEST
20
Name : _______________________
Score :
Class : Primary 6_______
Date : ____________
_______________________________________________________________________ Choose the correct answer and write its number in the bracket provided. (2 marks each)
1.
Mei Ling conducted an experiment shown below.
spring retort stand scale pan
marbles
What was the changed variable each time a different number of marbles were placed on the scale pan? (1) (2) (3) (4)
Type of spring Size of scale pan Length of spring Material of marble
(
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The graph below shows the relationship between the amount of weight suspended on a spring and the length of the spring. Use the information from the graph to answer questions 2, 3 and
Length of spring (cm) 18 15 12 9 6 3
0
20
40
60
80
100
Mass of weights (g)
2.
What is the relationship between the mass of weights and the length of spring? (1) (2) (3) (4)
As the mass of weights increases, the length of spring decreases. As the mass of weights decreases, the length of spring increases. As the mass of weights increases, the length of spring also increases. As the mass of weights decreases, the length of spring remains constant. (
3.
)
What is the length of the spring when no weight is hung on it? (1) (2) (3) (4)
0cm 3cm 9cm 18cm
(
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4.
What is the length of extension of the spring when a weight of mass 60g is hung on the spring? (1) (2) (3) (4)
3cm 6cm 9cm 12cm (
5.
)
The flow chart shown below is used to classify three different types of forces, P, Q and R.
Can the force at
No
Does the force oppose the
from a distance?
No
S
motion of the object? Yes
Yes R
No
Q
Is it always a pull? Yes P
Which one of the following correctly classifies the three forces?
(1) (2)
P Gravity
(3)
Elastic spring force Magnetic force
(4)
Gravity
Q Elastic spring force Friction Gravity Magnetic force
R Friction
S Magnetic force
Magnetic force
Gravity
Elastic spring force Friction
Friction Elastic spring force
(
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6.
Jane carried out an experiment to find out the relationship between the number of ball bearings placed in an iron pan and the extension of a spring. She used a spring with an iron pan attached to it, some identical ball bearings and a ruler for her experiment.
spring
original length of spring
length of extension
iron pan
ball bearing
She recorded the results in a table as shown below. Number of ball bearings 0 4 8 12 16
Length of spring (cm) 6 9 12 15 18
Extension of spring (cm) X 3 6 9 Y
What should X and Y be?
(1) (2) (3) (4)
X 0cm 2cm 6cm 12cm
Y 12cm 6cm 2cm 0cm
(
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7.
Jane repeated the whole experiment, this time with Object X held below the pan. She found that the length of spring was longer when compared to her first experiment. If all variables were kept constant as in the first experiment, what could Object X possibly be?
original length of spring
spring
length of extension
iron pan
ball bearing
Object X
(1) (2) (3) (4)
A metal rod A rod magnet A wooden pole A plastic cylinder (
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8.
The experiment as shown below is carried out with a spring, a steel ball and a strong magnet.
spring retort stand
steel ball strong magnet
Which of the following forces are acting on the steel ball? A : Magnetic force B : Gravitational force C : Elastic spring force
(1) (2) (3) (4)
A and B only A and C only B and C only A, B and C
(
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Answer question 9 in the space provided. [4m]
9.
The diagram below shows the length of four identical springs when four objects, A, B, C and D, of different weights, are hung on them.
7cm 10cm 13cm
16cm
A 2kg B 4kg
C 6kg
D 8kg
(a)
What is the original length of spring? [1m]
__________________________________________________________________
(b)
The table shows the weight of the objects and the length of extension of the spring. Complete the table by filling in the empty boxes. [1m]
Weight of objects (kg)
0
Length of extension of spring (cm)
0
2
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6
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(c)
Using the results in part (b) above, draw a line graph to show the relationship between the weight of the objects and the length of extension of the spring. [1m] Length of extension of 14 12
10
8 6
4 2
0
(d)
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
How does the increase in weight of objects affect the length of extension of the spring? [1m]
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
End of Paper
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Appendix 2 P6 LESSON PLAN ON ELASTIC SPRING FORCE Topics: FORCES – ELASTIC SPRING FORCE Level: P6 Class size: 30 Students’ ability: Middle and Low Ability Duration: 7 periods Pupils are able to: 1) state that elastic materials can return to their original shape when released. 2) list examples of elastic materials around us. 3) state that when elastic materials are stretched or compressed, they exert a force called elastic spring force. Learning Outcome Pupils will be able to: 1) infer that the greater the force (weight) applied to a spring, the longer the spring will stretch. 2) plan and conduct an investigation to proof that when a force (weight) acts on a spring, it will stretch by a distance proportional to the amount of force applied. 3) analyse data collected and present it in a graph. Materials needed Objects with elastic spring in them, e.g. hammock spring, stapler, hole puncher, clothes peg etc, large spring, spring balance, piles of newspapers (assorted weights) – bundled up by raffia strings and the sciberdiver web site: http://lgfl.skoool.co.uk/viewdetails_ks3.aspx?id=502 Pupils’ group work (8 sets) – Retort stand, load hanger, 50g-weights, metre ruler
Lesson Outline Stage
Activity / Task
Resources
Stage 1:
Teacher will show pupils a variety of objects that have elastic spring in them and get them to talk briefly about how the elastic property is useful in each object. (E.g. hammock spring, stapler, pen, hole puncher, clothes peg, spring balance etc). Lead pupils to infer that when elastic materials are stretched or compressed, they exert a force called elastic spring force.
Large spring, newspapers, clothes peg, hole puncher etc
Engage 10 min
Next bring pupils’ attention to the large spring and get pupils to predict what will happen when a pile of newspaper is hung onto the spring. Teacher will get pupils to observe the result by hanging the pile of newspapers on the spring. She will check
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with pupils if their predictions are correct and continue to add more newspapers to the spring, drawing their attention to the increasing length of the spring. Pupils will be able to infer that with increasing mass to the weight of the newspapers, the length of the spring also increases. This is due to the force acting on the spring (weight of newspapers). Next, pupils will view this video clip on what sprngs can do. " This is followed by practical activity 1. Trampoline Act by Circue du Soleil http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7tfyVbyD08 15 min 5 min
Stage 2: Explore 30 min
Stage 3: Explain 20 min
10 min
To further develop the concept, pupils will then carry out practical activity 1. They will predict, observe and explain the behaviour of the set up (spring hung on a retort stand) as they hang various objects on it. Allow pupils to use their own terms to describe what they have observed at this point. Inform pupils that they will conduct an experiment to investigate how increasing mass of the weights affect the extension of a spring. They will work in groups of 4 to complete practical activity 2 with the materials provided. Pupils will record the data in the practical activity worksheet provided.
Practical Act. 2, pg 1 & 2 Retort stand, spring, 50gweights, metre ruler
Teacher to get groups to share their findings and draw a conclusion to the relationship between the increasing mass of the weights to the extension of the spring. Highlight the terms – original length, new length and increase in length (extension) of the spring. Guide pupils to see that the extension of the spring is derived from subtracting the new length from the original length of the spring.
sciberdiver website
To reinforce the concept, teacher will show pupils the movie clip on stretching materials from the sciberdiver website: http://lgfl.skoool.co.uk/viewdetails_ks3.aspx?id=502
30 min
Retort stand, spring Practical Act. 1
Teacher then makes reference to the terms used in the movie clip as she demonstrates how the data collected from practical activity 2 can be transferred to a graph. Highlight the difference between the length of the spring and the extension of the spring. Illustrate how these can be plotted on a graph (i.e., length of the spring cannot start at ‘0’ whereas extension of the spring can start at ‘0’ when no weights is hung on the spring yet). Page 1159
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Pupils will plot a graph with the data they had collected.
Stage 4: Extend 60 min Stage 5: Evaluate 30 min
Teacher then uses the graph to generate questions to reinforce concept on extension of a spring. Example : What pattern did you notice between the weights added to the spring and the extension of the spring? Predict the extension of the spring when a 400g weight is hung on it. To test pupils’ understanding of the concepts learnt, they will conduct further research on the uses of springs via the internet and produce a toy or useful object demonstrating the principle of elastic spring force. Post Test to be administered to assess pupils’ level of understanding on this concept.
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Practical Act 2, pg 3
Internet
Post test
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Appendix 3 SCIENCE – PRIMARY 6 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY SPRINGY SPRINGS (1) Name : _______________________
Date : ________________
Class : Primary 6_______ ________________________________________________________________________
original length retort stand
retort stand
of spring
new length of spring object
1.
Measure the original length of spring. Hang an object on the spring and measure the new length. Record your measurements in the box below.
From the measurements, find the increase in the length of spring. This increase in length is called the extension of the spring. (a)
What was the extension of the spring?_____________________________________
(b)
What caused the spring to extend?________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
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SCIENCE – PRIMARY 6 PRACTICAL ACTIVITY SPRINGY SPRINGS (2) Name : _______________________
Date : ________________
Class : Primary 6_______ ________________________________________________________________________ 1.
Carry out an investigation to find out how different weights affect the length of extension of a spring. Hang a weight hanger to a spring as shown.
retort stand
spring
weight hanger
Put a weight of 50g on the hanger and measure the new length of the spring. Record the new length in the given table. Repeat the experiment using 100g, 150g, 200g and 250g weights.
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Results findings
Weight (g)
New length (cm) (Measure using ruler)
0
50
100
150
200
250
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Length of extension (cm) (New length – original length)
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Use the results from the table to plot a graph. Choose a suitable scale for the vertical axis [the axis that represents the length of extension of spring].
Length of extension of spring (cm)
0
50
100
150
200
250
Weight (g)
Use your graph to answer the following questions. (a)
What pattern did you notice between the weights added to the weight hanger and the length of extension of the spring? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________
(b)
Name two important variables that must be kept the same to ensure reliable results. ________________________________________________________________
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Gestures in teaching and learning
ILLUMINATING MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS-USE OF GESTURES IN TEACHING AND ASSESSING UNDERSTANDING OF COLLEGE BIOLOGY
Lim Yian Hoon and Dr Lee Yew Jin
Meridian Junior College in collaboration with National Institute of Education, Singapore
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Abstract Does nonverbal cues increase the propensity of teachers’ instructive discourse and at the same time assesses students’ cognitive construction of knowledge? The researches that attest to the effectiveness of gestures are by far those conducted on younger children. Few of such research have been done on college students and in Science subjects. As such a randomized pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design of 14 matched pairs were tasked to watch one of the two videotaped lessons on a topic in Biology. In the videocum-slides-plus-gesture lesson, the teacher produced gestures to illustrate concepts while in the video-cum-slides-only lesson the teacher did not produce any gestures. In a post-test of 10 Multiple-Choice-Questions attempted by these 28 students, students who watched videocum-slides-only lesson scored a mean of 7.6 while students who watched video-cum-slidesplus-gesture lesson scored a mean of 6.2. 7 of these matched pairs further underwent a feedback session with the teacher while the other 7 did not. A follow up test showed that students who had feedback given scored higher and progressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a right concept while those without feedback regressed.
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Problem & Literature Review Vygotsky in his works on ‘Thoughts and Language’ espoused the existence of consciousness intertwined with inner and external speech. He elaborated that external speech is not simply the manifestation of the inner speech rather it is an outcome of only a specific dimension of inner speech. Inner speech has its own semantics, structure and encompasses beyond the motor skill of speaking; it covers the impalpable, non-sensory and non-motor speech aspect of cognition (Vygotsky, 1934). This area of inner speech has been almost inaccessible to experiment until Jean Piaget discovered the existence of cognitive egocentricism and the manifestation of egocentric language in young children (Piaget, 1953, 1959) which in turn led to countless research to unravel the nature of inner speech. Such investigations threw light to the paramount role gestures play in consciousness, (Hopkin, 2007) communication, (Goldin-Meadow et al, 1994, Goldin-Meadow, 2000, Alibali & Heath, 2001 and Tomasello, Carpenter & Liszhowski 2007) cognition (Alibali et al, 1999, Goldin-Meadow, 1999 and Gershoff-Stowe & GoldinMeadow, 2002) and in the evaluation of learning (Church & Goldin-Meadow 1986 and Alibali & Goldin-Meadow 1993). Therefore, this attest to the propensity gestures exhibit in contributing to the instructive discourse of abstract concepts in Science teaching and learning (Crowder, 1996) especially in a large class size of 250 students where inquiry-based and problem-based pedagogies are limited (Brew, 2003). Consisting of three parts, this paper (1) explores the challenges Pre-University educators faced in this revised JC curriculum and proposes a new model termed Science Speech (an extension of Crowder’s Science Talk model, 1996 with the inclusion of recent developments on the role of gestures in learning) to assess student’s learning (2) investigates the use of gesture in Science teaching in a mid range college in Singapore, and (3) analyzes
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Gestures in teaching and learning the use of gesticulated feedback to assess students’ learning of Biology via gesture-andspeech matches in Science Speech model. Singapore’s Pre-University Education and its Challenges Since her independence, Singapore has been transformed from an equatorial ‘fishing village’ into one of the world’s most competitive economy. This is very much due to the imperative focus Singapore has on the development of human resources which has led to her ability to stay abreast with the ever changing economy. These include the use of the education system as an instrument for nation building and an upgrade of the workforce’s technical knowledge. Consequently, there is a doubling in the percentage of ‘A’ level students enrolled into the universities. However, this shift from an industrial to a knowledge-driven economy has also brought forth new challenges, the education system that have served us well for the last three decades has become inadequate in meeting the demands of the 21st century. The education system of the 20th century has shaped a workforce that is good in following instructions and managed decisions based on a set of rules and regulations which is contrary to the workforce requisite for the knowledge-driven economy of the 21st century. The latter requires a workforce that is creative, proactive, and enterprising; equipped with good problem solving skills, (Brown & Lauder, 2001). As such a Junior College and Upper Secondary Education Review committee, chaired by then the Minister for Education and Second Minister for Finance Tharman Shanmugaratnam, was conceived in April 2002 to develop a revised JC curriculum framework to better equip our students for this ever-changing world and to keep Singapore viable in this knowledge-driven economy. This committee which consisted of high level stakeholders from the Politics, Education, Private and Public Sector held 22 public consultation and dialogue sessions with professionals, employers, academic, parents,
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Gestures in teaching and learning teachers, undergraduates, JC and secondary school students and drew insights from visits and study of school systems in United Kingdom, United States, Hong Kong and China recommended two main thrust of change, (Report of the Junior College/Upper Secondary Education Review Committee, 2002). They are the introduction of a broader and more flexible JC curriculum that better developed students’ thinking skills to engage them in greater breadth of learning; and the creation of a more diverse JC and Upper Secondary education landscape. For the purpose of this paper and the relevance of this topic, I will only discuss the reality in the classroom that I have observed during the course of the introduction of the revised JC curriculum and the challenges that pre-University educators faced amidst this change. Firstly is the greater focus on skills, much more than content, where teachers are tasked to develop conceptual thinking, data response and communication skills in the students with a greater emphasis on independent learning and creative exploration. Such endeavours require both skilful expertise of teachers (Adey, 2006) and time for students’ exploration (Falk, 2005). This is because the development of students’ thinking requires pedagogical skills which are different from those of normal, good quality teaching for conceptual development. It requires the active engagement of students in cognitive conflict, social construction and metacognition. Such a change in teaching practice as suggested by (Adey, 2006) takes a long time, requires effort to affect a paradigm shift among the teachers and necessitates assistance for teachers in their own classroom. Here teachers not just have to understand how creative problem solving works, they have to sharpen their problem finding skills, develop a good blend of creative styles, be passionate in teaching their subject area and learn to take calculated risks, (Ng, 2004 & 2007). Such transformation in teaching pedagogies brings about cognitive dissonance which results in resistance among teachers to such change.
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Gestures in teaching and learning In addition, cultivating mental habits of creativity necessitated by the Education Review requires curiosity, resilience; experimentation, attentiveness and thoughtfulness as proposed by Claxton et. al (2006) and cultivating such dispositions need time to engage the students in active questioning. However with the reduction in curriculum time from a 7hr/week of a Science Subject Lesson to a 6hr/week, teachers find it a challenge to engage students in active questioning and to nurture their inquisitive minds to foster creativity in them. Secondly is the allowance of more flexible options where subjects are redesigned to give the students flexibility to decide on the scope and depth of content they would want to take. Here content-based subject can be offered at Higher 1 (H1) or Higher 2 (H2) levels, where the H2 is equivalent in rigor to the previous ‘A’ level while the H1 is equivalent to half the content of H2. The purpose of such flexibility is to allow students to take a broad spectrum of subjects so as to develop them holistically. As such each student is required to take at least 3 H2 and 1 H1 content-based subjects where one of them must be a contrasting subject. This is over and above Project Work, Mother Tongue and General Paper which inevitably increases the students’ workload as the previous ‘A’ level syllabus only requires them to only take 3 subjects at ‘A’ Level, Project Work, Mother Tongue and General Paper. Furthermore, a board base education also entails students reading subjects at the PreUniversity Level which usually are not of their strength. This certainly adds on to the level of stress of these young adolescent as taking on an extra subject which is not their forte would mean expending more time trying to comprehend this subject and at the same time coping with the rigor of the revised curriculum. Thirdly is alignment of teaching and assessment methods with the objectives of the revised JC curriculum where more emphasis is placed on assessing critical and creative skills within the traditional mode of pen and paper. Such a change in assessment method is
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Gestures in teaching and learning important if we are to move away from rote learning and content mastery of the students. This is because teachers are bounded by their need to stratify their students and hence they are inevitably locked into particular types of assessment due to examinations requirements and university guidelines. Therefore, in light of such change, teaching strategies should take the form of inquiry-based learning where students construct new knowledge based on existing ones, formulate questions and procedures to test questions and problems; or problem-based learning where students identify important information, generate ideas about what is happening, attempt to answer the problem with what is already known, decide what is not known, study and return with new knowledge for discussion (Savin-Baden, 2004). Though such changes in teaching strategies are essential to imbue in the students skills to think critically and creatively, there exists a fundamental problem of having large class sizes of 250 to 700 in a lecture theatre where inquiry based and problem based learning proved futile in bringing about such change (Falk, 2005). Thus in view of these constraints, the use gestures can be an avenue to scaffold and assess students’ learning of abstract concepts in the topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome in Biology among adolescents in a mid range Junior College of Singapore to determine its effectiveness in Sense-Making Science Speech. This is because gesticulation accompaniment in teaching does not necessitate teacher learning new pedagogies, requires little or no extra curriculum time in implementing, result in no elevated stress among students and circumvent the standing problem of having large lecture sizes of 200 students in a lecture theatre. Furthermore, gestures may illuminate students’ mental representation and assist teachers’ arrest student’s alternative conceptions and determine students’ readiness to learn new concepts.
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Gestures in teaching and learning Gestures Defined Gestures come into existence with consciousness as first proposed by Thao, Herman & Armstrong (1986) which is later proven by Hopkin, (2007) whose research into the central thalamus of the brain revealed starling discovery that this area is involved in motor control, formation of gestures and in relaying signals to the cerebral cortex of the brain where consciousness originates. However, this medical breakthrough is of no surprise to many, as linguists, anthropologists, psychologists (Tomasello, Carpenter & Liszhowski 2007) and educators have long advocated the paramount role gestures play in the construction of language (Kendon, 1997), cross cultural communication (Kendon, 1997), and in recent years in the field of teaching and learning (Goldin-Meadow et al, 1994, Goldin-Meadow, 2000, Alibali et al, 1999, Alibali et al., 2001, Gershoff-Stowe & Goldin-Meadow, 2002, Roth, 2001). In fact, Carpenter, Nagell, Tomasello, Butterworth and Moore (1998) and Tomasello et, al (2007) revealed in their monographs for Research in Child Development, that infant gestures began at around one year of age, even before language emerges and that this is a uniquely human form of communication that rests on a very ‘complex social-cognitive and social-motivational infrastructure of shared intentionality’. However, gestures do not just occur among infant. It is seen as frequently in the young as in the old. Gesture and speech are often regarded as two aspects of a single process (Kendon, 1997 and McNeil, 1992) where gesture is usually perceived to be the visible act of a dialogue with both the visible (gesture) and the audible acts (speech) being completely interwoven together (Bavelas and Chovil, 2000). Even with such amalgamation, Kendon (1996) has defined gesture technically to be one that is symmetrical and has a clear beginning and end, with a peak structure or ‘stroke’ to denote the meaning of the movement. He explained that gesture usually begins from a
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Gestures in teaching and learning position of rest, move away from the body and return back to the position of rest. McNeil (1992) has successfully categorized gestures into a continuum and superimposition of beat, deictic, iconic and metaphoric. Beat gesture is distinct from the rest of the gestures in that it is a non pictorial gesture that simply could be the tapping motions or up and down flick of the hand to emphasize certain utterances. It is usually process oriented (Crowder, 1996) and plays minimal role in the instructive discourse of information as illustrated by Alibali and Heath (2001) where it was noted that the frequency of beat gestures remain unchanged regardless of the visibility of the speaker to the listener. Deictic gesture refers to concrete pointing that represent concrete attributes or relationships between characters and is usually context dependent and content oriented (Crowder, 1996). Deictic gestures can be sub-typed into spatial deictics where gestures are used to convey direction of movement or literal deictics where gestures are used to indicate concrete objects or similar ones (Alibali et al., 2001). Next, iconic gesture which is also known as representational gesture or lexical gestures, (Roth, 2001) is one whose movements bear a direct relationship with concrete events or entities in a narrative structure e.g. drawing an aptitude to signify action potential in Biology. This gesture is usually content-oriented as findings reported that this gesture frequency increases when speakers could see their listeners and lower when speakers could not see their listeners (Alibali and Heath, 2001). Lastly, metaphoric gesture is a three dimensional, content-oriented gesture (Crowder, 1996) that is used to shape an idea; and whilst it is similar to iconic, its abstract content is usually referred to metaphorically and could be in the form of an imagery of objects, space and movement (Roth, 2001).
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Gestures in teaching and learning Analogous to languages, gestures has its own nouns and verbs, as Goldin-Meadow, Butcher, Mylander and Dodge (1994) illustrated in their case study on a hearing impaired boy born of hearing parents who displayed a set of gestures as verbs and another set as nouns to illustrate the difference between them. These gestures are significantly different from those of his hearing parents and unlike any of those in the American Sign Language. Hence, gestures, akin to any universal language have its own structure and function that is able to communicate information to untrained listeners. Role of Gesture in Teaching and Learning Beyond its role as a language in communication, gesture is instructive to learning by revealing knowledge not expressed in speech as shown by Alibali et al (1999) where speech and gestures provide a more complete representation of solution strategies in solving Mathematical problems than via speech alone. This is seen when 20 undergraduate students were asked to solve a set of 6 structurally analogous word problems that involved constant change. In instances where gestures reinforced speech; participants were very likely to use solution compatible with the verbal representation. However, when gesture was neutral with respect to speech, participants used the strategy compatible with the verbal representation less often and when gesture conflicted with speech, participants used the problem solving strategy expressed in gesture more than the strategy expressed in speech. This is indicative that gestures are produced from the deep recesses of the brain which is heavily involved with knowledge construction that necessitates cognitive development. Besides, gesture-speech relationship is also used as an indicator of what learners already know and their readiness to learn. Church & Goldin-Meadow (1986) revealed that when children have a mismatch in gesture and speech, the child actually has 2 distinct ideasone in speech and the other in gesture, which in turn will cause them to activate both ideas when solving problems. This is a stage of cognitive discordance which increases the child
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Gestures in teaching and learning receptivity to instruction and learning. Consequently if this mismatch is not rectified, regression of receptivity to instruction and learning also occurs. Alibali & Goldin-Meadow (1993) extended the earlier findings and threw light on cognitive transition in children. They reported that changes in gesture-speech relationship reflect knowledge change where each child transits from a stable cognitive concordant state in which the child produced gesture-speech matches conveying incorrect procedures to an unstable cognitive discordant state in which gesture-speech mismatches occur and finally to a stable cognitive concordant stage in which the child produced gesture-speech matches conveying correct procedures. Such findings are especially useful in arresting learners’ discordant stage and in ascertaining that students shift from gesture-speech matches that convey incorrect procedures to gesture-speech matches that convey correct procedures. Gestures also play a quintessential role in teaching where gestures though nondeliberate contribute to both the thinking and instructive process. This is seen when the frequency of beat gestures remain the same regardless of the visibility of the speakers to the listeners (Alibali and Heath, 2001) which validates Baveles and Chovil (2000) findings that gestures are non-deliberate and are produced as means of drawing out ideas, not simply just as a form of communication. Moreover, research by Goldin-Meadow, S., Kim, S. & Singer, M. (1999) revealed that gesturing in Mathematic instructions aid in the instructive process of teaching Mathematics where children are more likely to reiterate the teacher’s speech if it was accompanied by gesture than having no gesture at all. Consequently, these young children are even less likely to reiterate speech if the speech was accompanied by mismatching gesture than no gesture at all. These findings suggest that gestures are pivotal in the instruction and comprehension of abstract concepts.
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Gestures in teaching and learning However, despite the numerous extensive researches on the origin of gestures that revealed the propensity gestures have in illuminating mental representations of human cognition and the revelation of the inner speech of human consciousness, (shown in Table 1) not much research has been conducted in the field of Science were abstract concepts are rampant, e.g. solubility product and mole concepts in Chemistry, forces and electricity in Physics; signal transduction and control of eukaryotic genome in Biology. This could be because Science Educators are bombarded with incessant approaches in Science Teaching such as the use of Information and Communication Technologies, Problem-Based and Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies with the newly expanded 7E approaches namely, elicit, engage, explore, explain, elaborate, evaluate and extend (Eisenkraft, 2003), Collaboration and Cooperative Learning strategies such as Think-Pair Share, Three-Step Interview, Round Table, Jigsaw and Rally Robin, that an investigation in the use of gestures in Science Teaching may prove futile. Nonetheless, these teaching pedagogies are either limited in a large class size or require extensive planning that an educator simply do not engage in due to constraints in curriculum time and the need to prepare students for high stakes examinations. Thus it is in response to these reasons and the challenges educators faced in the revised JC curriculum framework, this study was conceived to propose a new model, termed Science Speech to investigate the use of gesticulation accompaniment in scaffolding and assessing students’ understanding by providing the grounding necessary in the instruction discourse on the topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome in Biology.
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Gestures in teaching and learning Authors Church and GoldinMeadow (1986)
Alibali and GoldinMeadow (1993)
Crowder, (1996)
Sample 28 students ages 5-8
90 4th grade students obtained from classes of 6 schools and divided into 3 groups.
Observation on two 6th grade white, middle class classrooms, two 6th grade ethnically mixed classrooms and two 6th grade African American inner city classrooms
Research Design And Instrumentation Investigate the implications Separate coding of gestural and verbal of frequent mismatch explanations. between gesture and speech in child’s explanation of Coding of verbal explanations into concept. (1) Equivalence explanations (2) Nonequivalence explanations Videotaped the testing task (3) Non-comparative explanations of these students on 3 quantity concepts Coding of iconic gestures into: (1) Action gestures that portray motion • 2 liquid quantity task used to transform task. • 2 length task (2) Attribute gestures that portray • 2 number task characteristics of task objects Each task consist 3 phrases 1. Initial equality Coding relationship of speech & gestures 2. Transformation (1) Concordant explanations 3. Final equality (2) Discordant explanations
Results Children are likely to produce gestural explanations along with their speech when asked to give explanations.
Investigate gesture-speech mismatch and the mechanisms of learning in young children.
Learning transits between these 3 stages: • A stable state in which the child produced gesture-speech matches (accessible by both gesture and speech modes) conveying incorrect procedures • An unstable state in which the child produced gesture-speech mismatches where the child is in discordant stage and is most accessible to instruction and at risk to regression if mismatch is not rectified (accessible only by gesture mode) • A stable state in which the child produced gesture-speech matches conveying correct procedures. (accessible by both gesture and speech modes) Students who skipped the mismatch and go directly from incorrect to correct concept do reliably less well.
Selection based on pre-test Divided into 3 groups to solve and explain a series of 12 addition problems and receive different kinds of training experience: 1. No instruction No feedback 2. Addition With feedback given after every problem. 3. Addition+Multiplication To generalize their knowledge in new operation of 6 multiplication questions. Administer Post test. Administer Follow-Up test Investigate which type of gestures distinguish ‘describing a model’ or ‘running a model’ of language activity. Videotaped focal lessons on students’ explanation on shadows and seasonal change using models, props or enactment on the changing earth-sun relation as shadows change length or as seasons progress from winter to spring, summer and fall
Separate coding of gestural and verbal explanations. Coding of solutions: Solutions of the Maths problems were coded within ±2 of the answer. Coding of Explanations: Categorized into a set of 6 qns/child namely pre-test, 1st training, 2nd training and multiplication. • Types of explanation in speech alone in 6 basic steps of spoken explanations e.g. Grouping, AddSubtract, Equalizer, Add All, Add to Equal and Carry Types of explanation in gesture using lexicon gestures (Perry et al 1988) • Relationship between gesture and speech where if gesture and speech do not match, they are considered as mismatch and if they do, they are coded as gesture-speech match. Analyse the performances of students that has been previously coded as describing a model or running a model Describer of a model • Is teacherly • Demonstrates an understanding • Can perform one’s understanding • Communicates that one already understands • Gestures more for the audience Runner of a model • Is figuring things out • Publicly constructs understanding • Revises and repairs understanding • Communicates while in the process of understanding • Gestures more privately
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The concordance and discordance between gesture and speech can be used as an • Index of what the child knows • Index of how consistently the child knows • Index of translational knowledge and readiness to instruction. Discordant children were more likely to acquire new equivalence explanations after training.
Describing a model language: 1. Gestures such as pause-filling beats 2. Eye gaze towards audience 3. Gestures less frequently 4. Gestures are with or follow speech 5. Gesturer remained outside the gesture space 6. Communicate fluently with less midphrase hesitations Running a model language activity: 1. Deictic and beat like gestures 2. Eye gaze directed at gestures 3. Gestural foreshadowing 4. Gestures are with or follow speech 5. Gestures are used to adjust components in an overt model 6. Communicate with numerous verbal and gestural hesitations.
Gestures in teaching and learning Authors GoldinMeadow, Kim and Singer (1999)
Alibali, Heath and Myers (2001)
Valenzeno , Alibali and Klatzky (2003)
Sample 8 teachers (6 females and 2 males) who had formerly or is currently teaching Maths. Each has 9.6 years of teaching experience
Research Design And Instrumentation Investigate the contribution Coding of gestures of nonverbal behavior to • Correct strategies lead to correct cognitive and affective solution if implemented components of teaching • Building strategies are strategies that are used to break the problem into Videotaped each teacher who parts will individually instruct 5-7 • Incorrect strategies lead to incorrect children within a solution if implemented 20min/session in the child’s Coding of types of turns school using the pre-test Coding of relation between teacher’s addend questions as a guide. strategies and child responses.
Results Correct strategies display • High speech and gesture match • Low speech & gesture mismatch • Low speech without gesture
16 (8 males & 8 females) undergraduate who are chosen based on a postexperiment questionnaire
Investigate whether speakers use gestures differently when visible/invisible to listeners.
Speakers produce comparable beat gestures regardless of their ability to see the listeners. However, speakers produce more iconic/representational gestures when they could see their listeners and lower when they could not. The rates of iconic/ representational gestures remain high even when the speakers could not see their listeners.
25 children (12 boys & 13 girls) from 2 preschool classes with a mean age of 4 years and 6 months
Videotaped story narration which involved (a) retelling the cartoon after watching a cartoon (b) listening to another person retell the cartoon. To investigate whether teacher’s gestures influences students’ learning. 13 students watched verbal only video lesson 12 students watched verbal+gestures video lesson Post test on judgement and explanation of 6 line drawings of familiar objects. Children’s answers were videotaped and transcribed.
Alibali and Nathan (2004)
Cook and GoldinMeadow (2006)
6th grade mathematics lesson on algebraic equations in a suburban community, ‘middleschool’ philosophy
To investigate the use of gestures in instructional communication along with speech to scaffold students’ understanding.
49 3rd and 4th grade children were selected based on their unsuccessful pretest results.
To investigate the role of gestures in learning.
14 minutes video excerpt from a 90 minutes class of the entire teacher’s discourse, including verbal utterances & arm movement.
Each student was given instruction on 6 Math problems with addends and with or without gesture. Videotaped each student explanation of their solutions to the experimenter. Posttest
Classification of gestures: Beat gestures and Metaphoric gestures which include: (1) iconics, (2) metaphorics, (3) spatial deictics (4) literal deictics Uses rate of gestures/100 words as the dependent measure.
Incorrect strategies display • Low speech and gesture match • High speech & gesture mismatch Building strategies display • High speech and gesture match
Coding was done on children’s 1. correct judgement • one point for each correct judgement. 2. Symmetry explanation • Scored between 0-6 based on correct explanation due to (i) Content (a) Sides explanation (b) Mirror explanation (c) Halves explanation (d) Irrelevant (e) Don’t know (ii) Correctness (iii) Presence of gesture
Children who saw verbal+gesture videotaped lesson provided a small and non-significant margin of correct judgement on more items than children who saw verbal only videotaped lesson. However these children who saw verbal+gesture videotaped lesson provided more combined judgement and explanations than children who saw verbal only videotaped lesson.
Coded as idea units of utterances such as: Speech with pointing Speech with writing Representational gesture Use 3 categories of referents 1. Depictions of a pan balance 2. Visible equation used to model the pan balance 3. Conceptual Links between the pan balance and the equation.
The more abstract the concept, the more gesture is used as a form of grounding in instructional teaching Conceptual Links>>Equation>Pan
Speech and gesture coded separately
Instruction that included a correct problem-solving strategy gestures was significantly more likely to produce that strategy in the children own gesture than children who are not exposed to it during the same period of instruction. These students are hence more likely to retain and generalized the knowledge than those who do not (not quite proven).
Tabulated the number of times each child produce an equalizer strategy (strategy taught by instructor) in speech or in gesture during the instruction period
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In Speech with Pointing: Conceptual Links>Pan>Equation In Representational Gesture: Pan>Conceptual Links>Equation In Speech with writing: Conceptual Link>Equation>Pan
Gestures in teaching and learning Authors Kerfelt (2007)
Sample 17 preschool teachers from 17 different departments and 34 children.
Research Design And Instrumentation To investigate how gestures Coding was through the use of and utterances are used as (i) Verbal utterances for interresources in the interaction subjectivity using a 3 stage method: between children and Teacher utterance → Student teachers response → Teacher response Each teacher was to sit with (ii) Gestures 2 children, one at a time at a (iii) Visualisations on computer screen computer to create a story. For 2 areas, namely: Interaction was observed. (1) technical functions, (2) dialogues that involves around the content and structure of the story
Results Teacher instructions have different structures depending on whether they are directed towards technical functions of the computer, content and structure of the stories or a dialogue. When dealing with technical functions of the computer, verbal utterances and indexical gestures are used, but they do not extend beyond instructions. When dealing with creation of content and structure of a story with visual image and reciprocal dialogues, an adequate amount of verbal language with an adequate gesticulated language is needed for meaningful learning.
Cook, Mitchell and Goldin Meadow (2008)
84 3rd and 4th grade children selected based on failing pretest results.
To investigate whether gestures play a role in children learning a task.
Instructor taught equalizer strategy to all the children by solving 6 problems in speech and in gestures. Each time repeating 2x for each problem, altogether
All children improved with instruction; hence the pre-instructions behaviour did not affect children’s understanding of the experimenter’s instruction.
Each student to solve one problem, reproducing the pre-instruction behaviour they had mimicked before & after solving the problem. Post test Follow-Up test 4 wks later.
Children from Gesture + Speech group and Gesture group retained their knowledge longer than Speech Group as shown in the follow-Up test. This shows that gesturing promote learning in the one month later follow up study and not in the immediate post test.
Ping and GoldinMeadow (2008)
61 ethnically mixed kindergarten and firstgraders (35 5year-olds, 22 6-year-olds, and 4 7-yearolds) from Chicago public and private schools.
Children are randomly assigned to 3 conditions and are asked to mimic the preinstructions 3x. 1. Speech only condition Pre-instruction given verbally. 2. Gesture only condition Pre-instruction given gesturally. 3. Speech+Gesture condition Pre-instruction given verbally and gestures simultaneously. To investigate the possibility that gesture helps children learn even when it is produced “in the air.” Students are selected based on their failing Pre Test score and explanation of 8 conservation tasks. Children were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions for instructional delivery: 1. Objects present–gesture plus speech 2. Objects present–speech alone; 3. Objects absent–gesture plus speech; and 4. Objects absent–speech alone. Posttest comparable to the pretest without feedback.
Compare the results of post test and follow up test.
Coding of the equality judgment (same or different) and problem solving explanation that the child gave for each question during the pretest, instruction, and posttest was done • Speech without the gestures • Gesture without the speech children who produce gesture–speech mismatches on conservation task was excluded from the analyses.
Children in all four groups solved approximately the same number of problems correctly on the pretest. There are no significant differences between the gesture-plus-speech and speech-alone groups, and no significant differences between the objects-present and objects-absent groups. Children in all four groups also expressed approximately the same number of correct explanations in speech on the pretest. There are no significant differences between the gesture-plus-speech and speech-alone groups; and no significant differences between the objects-present and objects-absent groups. Hence adding gesture to instruction allowed children to go beyond what they had been taught, helping them develop additional ways to explain why but only when the task objects were absent during instruction.
Table 1: Summary of the major studies about the role of gestures in teaching and learning
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Science Speech Model in Singapore’s Pre-University Education Science Talk, first suggested by Crowder (1996) as shown in Figure 1, comprised of Sense Making and Knowledge Transmission where Sense Making is the mediation of collective explorations and experimentations involved in the cognitive construction of mental representations concerned with active discovery while Knowledge Transmission is simply the relaying of ideas and prior discoveries from one person to another with or without having to make sense out of these ideas.
Figure 1: A model of 2 types of Science Talk-sense making and Transmitting Knowledge, Crowder (1996)
The difference between these two languages in Science Talk is the stance each takes to learn Science. Sense making in Science Talk is one who publicly constructs understanding, communicates while in the process of understanding, revises and repairs one’s understanding and who gestures privately to help in one’s reasoning. This language activity termed as ‘Runner of a Model’, usually assist one in conceptualising a subject or topic. On the other hand, Knowledge Transmission in Science Talk is characterized as one who is teacherly, demonstrates an understanding which may or may not be correct, able to
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Gestures in teaching and learning perform one’s understanding, communicates what one already understands and gestures more for the audience. Termed as ‘Describer of Model’, this language is usually used when one transmits preplanned knowledge. Describer of a Model 1. Gestures such as pause-filling beats 2. Eye gaze towards audience 3. Gestures less frequently 4. Gestures are with or follow speech 5. Gesturer remained outside the gesture space 6. Communicate fluently with less midphrase hesitations
Runner of a Model 1. Deictic and beat like gestures 2. Eye gaze directed at gestures 3. Gestural foreshadowing 4. Gestures are with or follow speech 5. Gestures are used to adjust components in an overt model 6. Communicate with numerous verbal and gestural hesitations
Table 2: Gestural characteristics of these two models in Science Talk, Crowder (1996).
The overlapping region between Knowledge Transmission and Sense Making, denoted by ‘↔’ is the area where students and teachers alike enter into a space between planning-in-the-moment to rote transmission of knowledge, where one is ‘able to maintain the explained model while retaining the option to revise and integrate newly synthesised knowledge to existing ones’. This is the area where many researches in the last decade has explored and shed much light in. As such, with reference to the extensive literature reviews in the area of the role of gestures in teaching and learning, I have extended Crowder’s Science Talk model to include these recent findings on how gesticulation accompaniment and the use of gesture and speech relationship can scaffold teaching pedagogies and at the same time illuminate the mental representations of students.
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Ways of knowing and Doing:
Language Activity:
Transmitting Knowledge Gesture-Speech match of wrong concepts Transmit Facts GestureMethods Speech Prior Knowledge mismatch Unanalyzed Gesture-Speech models match of right concepts
Describing
SenseMaking
Explaining to Others
Preplanned
Explore Experiment Build mental Representations
Explaining to Self Planning in the moment
Figure 2: A model of 2 types of Science Speech in Transmitting Knowledge and Sense Making
This extension of Science Talk is re-named as Science Speech (figure 2) because consciousness comes into existence with inner and external speech. The former is illuminated with the use of gesture while the latter is via vocalization (Vygotsky, 1934) and Science Speech is meant to represent mental cognition both in gesture and words. The inclusion of the gesture-speech relationship in the region of integration of transmitting knowledge and sense-making signifies the cognitive discordance the learner transits between (Alibali et al., 1993), from Gesture-Speech match of wrong concepts to Gesture-Speech match of right concepts. This cognitive dissonance can be elicited as learner attempts to explain his conceptual understanding to others. Here gesture-speech relationship reveals mental representation especially when concepts are abstract and where words fail to sufficiently explain. Thus Science Speech will be used to assess students’ understanding in the abstract concepts of Science especially in the difficult and concept-laden topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome in Molecular Biology, as further illustrated in this paper.
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Gestures in teaching and learning
Chapter 2: Methodology Finally, to address the question on the use of gesture in Science teaching in a mid range college in Singapore, and the analysis of the use of Science Speech model in assessing students’ learning of the abstract concepts in the topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic genome among adolescents, a quasi-experimental design, randomized pretestposttest control group was used. Here 14 matched pairs (as shown in Annex E) were selected based on their failing Promotional Examination scores on the topic Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic genome, a H2 Biology topic laden with abstract concepts. These students were divided into 2 groups of similar demographics (social economic background and ‘O’ Level L1R5) to undergo 2 different kinds of instruction. The first group of 14 students attempted a Pre-Test 10 Multiple Choice Questions before they underwent an e-learning instructive discourse on this topic with PowerPoint slides and a talking head. The second group of 14 also attempted a Pre-Test 10 Multiple Choice Questions before they underwent this e-learning instructive discourse on this topic with the same PowerPoint slides and a waist up video recording of the lecturer with the inclusion of gestures.
Beat Gestures
Deictic Gestures
Before any data collection can occur, permissions were first sought from the Principal and the respective Head of Science overseeing the subject. Consequently, permissions were Metaphoric Gestures
Iconic Gestures
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Gestures in teaching and learning also obtained from the students providing the data. This entailed having the participant sign a consent form which detailed the research procedures (as this involves video taping the student interviews) and guaranteeing the protection of the rights of the participants. In addition participants were also informed that they have the rights to withdraw from the study or to request that data collected from them to not be used (Annex C). The lecturer was selected based both on the level of subject and pedagogy mastery (indicative of having a Degree in the field of Molecular Biology, a major aligned to the topic investigated and had taught for 6 years in a Junior College), quantitative and qualitative evidence of good teaching (proxy using students’ test results and anecdotal feedback from students). Since gestures enhanced speech in the teacher’s instructive discourse, the latter should translate to better cognitive strategies in the learner’s mind hence resulting in better outcomes, indicated by a higher gain score in post test results. Each group of 14 students were further asked to solve and explain a set of 10 questions that was equivalent to the level of difficulty in the pre-test and a follow-up test 1 week later on another 10 questions of equivalence to assess their retention of knowledge. These questions were used because they underlined the learning outcomes of H2 Biology and whose content validity and reliability was well established since they were derived from past Cambridge ‘A’ Level Examinations. Analysis was done on each question to ensure that no questions were repeated and each question tested no more than two concepts. In addition care was taken to ensure that these questions range from simple to more difficult and they were a mixed of ‘knowledge with understanding’ and ‘application questions’ so as to provide a range of difficulty. The Multiple Choice Question framework is presented in the table below. Questions 10 Questions (Question 1-10)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Subject Matter Knowledge Mutation Steps involved in Gene expression Chromatin modification+ Transcriptional Control Chromatin modification
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Gestures in teaching and learning 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Transcriptional Control Post Transcriptional Control Post translational Control Protein Synthesis Translational Control Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Control
Table 3: Framework of the ‘Multiple Choice Questions’ on the topic of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome.
Seven matched pairs (one from each group) were interviewed on their explanation and were given feedback on their explanations of each question while the remaining seven match pair received no feedback. Each explanation and feedback were videotaped and transcribed for their gestural and verbal explanations. To ensure internal validity, the same interviewer was used throughout the entire interviewing process and in analyzing the data collected. In addition, to address instrument decay, an interview schedule was planned where the interview process was spread out throughout the day to minimize fatigue of the interviewer and that the interview was conducted at the end of the students’ lessons so as to ensure that the interview survey was not rushed. A point was of concern was the potential biasness that might arise by the researcher as the data were collected concurrently and especially since it was collected from the same participants and as such, open discussion with the supervisor was necessary to minimize such bias. The quantitative results obtained from the Post Test were ascertained by calculating the mean test score for the control and experimental groups, followed by the use of Pearson’s correlation and Paired sample T-test to determine the relationship between the uses of gestural scaffolding in bringing about conceptual change. The qualitative data were coded for explanations in speech, in using gestures and in relationship between speech and gestures across four subcategories (Table 3). Here relationship between speech and gesture could be determined by examining the mental representations presented in speech and in gestures and in comparison of the two
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Gestures in teaching and learning mental models. If the mental models converged, this will be termed as Gesture-Speech match and vice versa. Category 1 7 students who underwent e-learning with PowerPoint Slides and Talking Head Solved and explained 10 questions with no feedback.
Category 2 7 students who underwent e-learning with PowerPoint Slides and Talking Head Solved and explained 10 questions with feedback after each explanation.
Category 3 7 students who underwent e-learning with PowerPoint Slides and Video recording of lecturer. Solved and explained 10 questions with no feedback
Category 4 7 students who underwent elearning with PowerPoint Slides and Video recording of lecturer. Solved and explained 10 questions with feedback after each explanation.
Table 4: Four groups of students with four different training experiences
Consequently, if students in category 1 and category 3 regressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a wrong concept while students from category 2 and category 4 progressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a right concept, it will thus support the proposed Science Speech model where the relationship between Speech and Gesture can be used to evaluate students’ understanding in Scientific concepts in Science Speech-Sense-Making. Chapter 3: Findings Pre-Test Performance Even though care was taken to ensure that the experimental and control group were of the same demographics and were comparable in calibre, students in the control group generally still scored slightly better in pre-test than those in the experimental group but only by a small non-significant margin. (M=5.8, SE=0.33, vs M=6.2, SE=0.66).
Pre Test Score N Valid
Experimental Group 14
Control Group 14
0
0
5.79
6.21
0.33
0.66
Median
6.00
6.00
Mode
6.00
5.00
Missing Mean Std. Error of Mean
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Gestures in teaching and learning Std. Deviation
1.25
2.46
Variance
1.57
6.03
Sum Percentiles
81.00
87.00
25
4.75
4.75
50
6.00
6.00
75
7.00
8.25
Table 5: Pre-Test Score of Experimental and Control Groups
Post-Test Performance In a post-test of 10 Multiple Choice Questions attempted by these 28 Junior College students, students who watched the video-cum-slides-only lesson obtained a higher score with a mean of 7.6 and a Gain Score of 1.4, SE=0.53 while students who watched the videocum-slides-plus-gesture lesson scored a mean of 6.2 and a Gain Score of 0.4, SE=0.36 with a Pearson’s correlation of 0.15 and a T-test of -2.42.
Post Test Score
Experimental Group
Mean Variance Observations Pearson Correlation df t Stat P(T<=t) one-tail t Critical one-tail P(T<=t) two-tail t Critical two-tail
Control Group
6.21 0.95 14 0.15 13 -2.42 0.02 1.77 0.03
7.64 4.55 14
2.16
Table 6: Post-Test Score of Experimental and Control Groups
Gain Score N Valid
Experimental Group 14
Missing
Control Group 14
0
0
Mean
0.43
1.43
Std. Error of Mean
0.36
0.53
Median
0.00
1.00
Mode
0.00
1.00
Std. Deviation
1.34
1.99
Variance
1.80
3.96
Table 7: Gain Score of Experimental and Control Groups
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Gestures in teaching and learning Control Group
Experimental Group 5
6
5
4
Frequency
Frequency
4
3
3
2
2
1
1 M Std. 0
0 -2.00
0.00
2.00
-4.00
4.00
-2.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
Gain Score
Gain Score
Graph 1: Frequency Polygon of Gain Scores between Experimental and Control Groups
The frequency polygon (Graph 1) showed that more students who watched the videocum-slides only lesson (Control Group) obtained a higher Gain Score than students who watched the video-cum-slides-plus-gesture lesson (Experimental Group).
Paired Differences
Experimental Group – Control Group
t 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
-1.00
2.57
0.69
-2.49
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
0.49
-1.46
13
0.17
Table 8: Table of Paired Sample T Test of Gain Score between Experimental and Control Group. Gain Score of Experimental Group Experimental Group
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
1
-0.16 0.58
N Control Group
Gain Score of Control Group
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
14
14
-0.16
1
0.58
N
14
14
Table 9: Table of Pearson’s Correlation of Gain Score between Experimental and Control Group.
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Gestures in teaching and learning The Paired Sample Two Tail T-Test (Table 8) showed that the difference in Gain Score between the Experimental Group and the Control Group was insignificant while Pearson’s Correlation (Table 9) highlighted that there was also no correlation in the use of gestures to bring about better understanding in the students. Follow-Up Test Performance In a follow up test attempted one week later, it was revealed that students who were given gesticulated accompaniment feedback on their explanations scored better (Graph 2) in the follow-test and progressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a right concept while those without feedback regressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a wrong concept as hypothesised earlier. Categories Training Experiences
1 PowerPoint Slides and Talking Head Solve and explain 10 questions with no feedback
Post-Test Follow-Up Gain Score
7.3 7.4 +0.1
2 PowerPoint Slides and Talking Head Solve and explain 10 questions with feedback after each explanation 7.1 8.6 +1.5
3 PowerPoint Slides and Video recording of lecturer. Solve and explain 10 questions with no feedback 5.8 7.8 +2.0
4 PowerPoint Slides and Video recording of lecturer. Solve and explain 10 questions with feedback after each explanation. 6.3 9.3 +3.0
Table 10: Table of Test Score and Training Experiences of 4 categories The Effect of Feedback on Students' explanation 10
9
8
Test Scores
7
6
Category 1 Category 2
5
Category 3 Category 4
4
3
2
1
0 Post Test
Follow Up Test
Test Administered
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Gestures in teaching and learning Graph 2: Graph of Test Scores among the Categories of 4 different training experiences
Further analysis showed that students who underwent the video-cum-slides-plusgesture lesson with feedback (Category 4) have the highest Follow-Up Test score of 9.3 with a Gain Score of 3.0. This is followed by students who underwent video-cum-slides-only lesson with feedback (Category 2), obtaining a high Follow-Up Test score of 8.6 with a Gain Score of 1.5. This clearly supported the hypothesis that students from category 2 and category 4 progressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a right concept. On the other hand, students who underwent video-cum-slides-plus gesture lesson with no feedback (Category 3) and those who underwent video-cum-slides only lesson with no feedback (Category 1) scored the lowest in the Follow up test, obtaining a Mean Score of 7.8, a Gain Score of 2.0 and a Mean Score of 7.4 and a Gain Score of 0.1 respectively. This also supported the hypothesis that students in category 1 and category 3 regressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a wrong concept. Interaction between the use of gestures in teaching and feedback on students' explanation 10
9
8
Follow-Up Test Score
7
6
without feedback
5
with feedback 4
3
2
1
0 without gestures
with gestures
Teaching
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Gestures in teaching and learning Graph 3: Interaction between the use of gestures in teaching and gesticulated feedback in students learning.
Investigation into the possible relationship between the use of gestures in teaching and feedback in students learning revealed no interaction between these two factors (Graph 3).
Average frequency of gestures types in each category of students
5.3
0.0
4.4
10.0
0.1
5.0
1.9
0.0
8.9
5.4
Category 1
1.2
6.9
Category 2
9.0
11.8
Category 3
3.0
Category of students
1.2 0.3
2.7
1.7
Category 4
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
Frequency Gestures Gestures Gestures Iconic Graph 4: Average frequency ofBeat gesture types inDeictic each category of students
Gestures Metaphoric
Graph 4: Average frequency of gesture types in each category of students
On examining the frequency of gesture types each student displayed while explaining their understanding (Graph 4), it was noted that students who had feedback given (Category 2 and Category 4) produced fewer gestures than those who did not receive feedback (Category 1 and Category 3). This is because students in Category 1 and 3 did not receive any feedback on their explanations; hence they are in a state of cognitive dissonance (evidence by the high level of beat and deictic gestures) where these students are constantly revising and integrating newly synthesised knowledge to existing ones. Furthermore these students employ the use of metaphoric gestures to aid in their explanation of biological concepts. This is because in
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Gestures in teaching and learning areas where words failed to sufficiently clarify their mental representations of concepts, the use of gestures was employed to illustrate their explanations. Chapter 4: Discussion and Conclusion This study revealed that the use of gestures in a video recorded lesson did not bring about an increase in conceptual change in the students. This could possibly be due to the distraction that gestures bring in a video recorded lesson. Here students may possibly be too busy looking at the gestures of the teacher (Diagram 1) and ignore the content presented in the slides. Moreover, since these students do not have any supplementary notes with them whilst viewing these video recorded lessons, there is no way they could refer to any biological content once they have missed the information on the slides. This may explain the lower Post Test Scores and the distribution of students having lower Gain Score in the Experimental Group.
(b)
(a) Diagram 1: (a) A video-cum-slides lesson and (b) A video-cum-slides plus gestures lesson
Therefore, a way to ascertain the above hypothesis is to extend this investigation to having two groups of students watch video recorded lessons. One lesson has a talking head incorporated while the other does not. Hence if the hypothesis that the gestures used in the
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Gestures in teaching and learning video recording lesson is a form of distraction is true, the Post Test Score obtained by these two groups of students should be comparable. On the other hand, this study also proves that students who had feedback given progressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a right concept and at the same time have a higher retention of knowledge (as seen in the higher Mean Gain Score of Follow Up Test in Table 10), while students who did not receive feedback regressed from a discordant stage of gesture-speech mismatch to the concordant stage of gesture-speech match of a wrong concepts. This is because the use of gestures in teachers’ feedback help ground the difficult biological concepts of Organisation and Control of Eukaryotic Genome into concrete, physical examples (Valenzeno et al, 2003) which in turn enables students build a mental representation of the concept hence retaining their learning for a much longer period. The purpose of this investigation is also to bring about increase awareness among Singapore’s teachers in the propensity gestures have in scaffolding students’ learning. This is because most teachers are not conscious of their hand movements as they teach, whether these gestures convey the same message as their speech or provide a second communicative channel needed to illustrate concepts which are difficult to explain in words. Therefore, it seems appropriate to employ the use of gestures as a daily resource in teaching, amidst the changing Pre-University education landscape where teachers are tasked to ‘Teach Less and Learn More’. This is because the use of gestures requires no extra teaching resources, curriculum time in implementing and is a ready tool for all teachers to tap on. Looking ahead, the use of gestures as means to assess students’ mental representations and understanding, may play a pivotal role in assisting teachers’ arrest student’s alternative conceptions and determine students’ readiness to learn new concepts in our current Education Landscape. Thus, it is paramount that the National Institute of
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Gestures in teaching and learning Education of the National Technological University looked into training Beginning Teachers’ acumen in judging students’ learning on the basis of non verbal cues and gestures (Jecker et al, 1965). This is imperative as more and more undergraduates from our local universities are turning to the Teaching Profession as means to obtain jobs through this Economy downturn without having the ‘heartware and hardware’ necessitated by this profession. Such a move could distinctly increase the level of competency of Beginning Teachers’ in assessing and keeping in pace with students’ learning to bring about an increase in conceptual understanding in our students.
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Gestures in teaching and learning References Adey, P (2006). A model for the professional development of teachers of thinking, Thinking Skills and Creativity, 1, 49-56 Alibali, M. W., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1993). Gesture-speech mismatch and mechanisms of learning: What the hands reveal about a child’s state of mind. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 468-523 Alibali, M. W., Bassok, M., Olseth-Solomon, K., Syn, S. E. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1999). Illuminating Mental Representations through Speech and Gesture. Psychological Science, 10, 327-333 Alibali, M. W, Heath, D. C., and Myers, H. (2001). Effect of Visibility between speaker and listener on Gesture Production: Some Gestures are meant to be seen. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 169-188 Aliabli, M and Nathan, M. J. (2004). The Role of Gesture in Instructional Communication: Evidence from an Early Algebra Lesson. International Society of Learning Sciences. Presented at the 6th International Conference on Learning Sciences, Santa Monica, California, June 22-26 Bavelas, J. and Chovil, N. (2000). Visible Acts of Meaning: An Integrated Message Model of Language in Face-to-Face Dialogue. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 19, 163-196 Brew, A (2003). Teaching and research: New relationships and their implications for inquiry-based teaching and learning in higher education. Higher education Research and Development, 22, 3-18 Brown, P & Lauder, H (2001). The Future of Skill Formation in Singapore. Asia Pacific Business Review, 7, 113-138
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Gestures in teaching and learning Carpenter, M., Nagell, K., Tomasello, M., Butterworth, G and Moore, C. (1998). Joint Attention and Communicative Competence from 9-15 Months of Age. Social Cognition Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 63, i-174. Church, R. B. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1986). Using the relationship between gesture and speech to capture transitions in learning. Cognition, 23, 43-71 Claxton, G, et. al. (2006). Cultivating creative mentalities: A framework for education, Thinking Skills and Creativity, 1, 57-61 Cook, S. W and Goldin-Meadow, S. (2006). The Role of Gesture in Learning: Do Children Use Their Hands to Change their Minds? Journal of Cognition and Development, 7, 211-232 Cook, S. W, Mitchell, Z. and Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008). Gesturing makes learning last. Cognition, 106, 1047-1059 Crowder, E. M. (1996). Gestures at Work in Sense-Making Science Talk. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6, 173-208 Eisenkraft, A. (2003). Expanding the 5E model. The Science Teacher, 70, 57-59. The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) Falk, B (2005). From the Editor-Inquiry into Teaching and Learning: An Essential of Educator Preparation. The New Educator, 1:i-v Gershkoff-Stowe, L. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2002). Is there a natural order for expressing semantic relations? Cognitive Psychology, 45, 375-412 Goldin-Meadow, S. (2000). The importance of Gesture to Researchers and Learners. Child Development, 71, 231-239 Goldin-Meadow, S., Butcher, C., Mylander, C. & Dodge, M. (1994). Nouns and Verbs in a Self-Styled Gesture System: What’s in a Name? Cognitive Psychology, 27, 259-319
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Gestures in teaching and learning Goldin-Meadow, S., Kim, S. & Singer, M. (1999). What the teacher’s hands tell the student’s mind about Math. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 720-730 Goldin-Meadow, S. (1999). The role of gestures in communication and thinking. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 419-429 Hopkin, M. (2007). Implant boosts activity in injured brain. Nature, 448, 2 Jecker, J.D, Maccoby, N. & Breitrose, H, S. (1965). Improving the accuracy in interpreting nonverbal cues of comprehension. Journal of Psychology in the Schools, 2, 195-288 Kendon, A (1996). An Agenda for Gesture Studies. Semiotic Review of Books, 7, 8-12. Kendon, A (1997). Gesture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 26, 109-128 Kerfelt, A (2007). Gestures in conversation-the significance of gestures and utterances when children and preschool teachers create stories using computer. Computers and Education, 48, 335-361 Lev Vygotsky (1934). Thought and Language. The MIT Press, 1962 McNeill, D. (1994). Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal About Thought, Reviewed Works by Pierre Feyereisen. The American Journal of Psychology, 107, 149-155 Ng, A. K. (2004). Liberating the creative spirit in Asian students. Singapore: Prentice-Hall, Pearson Education Asia. Ng, A. K. (2007). Creative problem-solving for Asians: A practical guide to develop your creativity as an Asian. Singapore: The Idea Resort. Piaget, J (1953). Origins of Intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Piaget, J (1959). Language and thought of the child (3rd edition). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Ping, R, M. and Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008). Hands in the Air: Using Ungrounded Iconic Gestures to Teach Children Conservation of Quantity. Development Psychology.44, 1277-1287
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Gestures in teaching and learning Report of the Junior College/Upper Secondary Education Review Committee (2002) Roth, Wolff-Michael (2001). Gestures: Their Role in Teaching and Learning. Review of Educational Research, 71, 365-392 Savin-Baden, M, (2004). Understanding the impact of assessment on students in problembased learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 41, 221-233 Teaching and Learning Methods and Strategies. Retrieved on November 6, 2007, from http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/edtech/strategy.html Thao, T., D., Herman, D., J., & Armstrong, R., L. (1986). Investigations into the Origin of Language and Consciousness. American Anthropologist, 88, 188-189 Tomasello, M., Carpenter, M. & Liszkowski, U. (2007). A New Look at Infant Pointing. Child Development, 3, 705-722 Valenzeno, L, Alibali, M, W. and Klatzky, R. (2003). Teachers’ gestures facilitate students’ learning: A lesson in symmetry. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 187-204
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Writing for publication Running head: AN EDUCATION TOOL: WRITING FOR PUBLICATION
Writing for publication: a tool for collaborative science education
Lye Yu Min National Junior College 37, Hillcrest Rd Singapore 288913. Email:
[email protected]
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Writing for publication Abstract Scientific publishing has been a tool for reporting discoveries. With the advent of electronic publishing, the throughput of research papers has peaked. To educate a new generation who will remain scientifically-relevant, scientific publishing will have to become a central theme in pre-tertiary science syllabi, which has been notably under-represented. To address this issue, we pursue the model of scientific reporting as a 4-step progression: (1) identify knowledge gaps, (2) formulate testable hypotheses, (3) design feasible strategies, and (4) communicate research outcome. Following this model, science education transcends above rote learning to become a dynamic, communicative and inquiry-based subject. The paucity of student publishing platforms is one challenge for the development of this model. Here, a high school students’ research program is described, targeting motivated students to write for publication. To deepen the potential of this program as an educational tool, a research paper archival / publishing system is proposed.
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Writing for publication: a tool for collaborative science education 1. Introduction School science education systems tend to over-emphasize textbook knowledge (Bencze & Bowen, 2009). This means schools teach and learn about achievements of science (such as laws and theories), and compromise students’ opportunities to develop realistic conceptions about science and science inquiry, and also the techniques they could use to conduct their own science inquiry projects. An overemphasis on textbook knowledge may be due to teachers’ lack of experiences with realistic science inquiry. Schwebach (2008) confirmed this conception with this statement: “Inquiry-based, student-lead research may be a pinnacle of high school science education, and the implementation of inquiry themes at all grades is of profound importance.” As a proof-of-concept, Schwebach (2008) described a program at the Beacon High School in New York City where “all seniors, regardless of their scientific proclivity or interest, completed original science research projects as a graduation requirement.” In Singapore, the National Junior College implements a comprehensive research program spanning both the junior and senior high levels. At the junior high level, SPIRE (Special Program in Inquiry and Research) aims to cultivate research questioning, planning, implementation and report writing. The program culminates in a symposium. SPIRE leads seamlessly to the STaR (Science Training and Research) at the senior high level, where selected students are given opportunities to be attached with research institutes. However, there is a notable gap in this and other models for science training: opportunities for scientific publication. The premise for this notion rests on the fact that scientific careers are increasingly dependent on what a person has written and where it is published. Since realistic scientific training will certainly involve peer-review and editing, this article outlines
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Writing for publication a framework for developing research talents through targeted scientific publishing coupled with the establishment of a school e-journal which will offer publishing opportunities. 2. Writing for publication In a program designed for developing students for scientific writing, it may not be sufficient to put students through a lecture on ‘report writing’ and expect them to write with zeal and passion. Targets should be set; but with motivation through students’ ownership of their project. This is summarized as a ‘Do-Think-Write-Tell’ model. This article focuses on the ‘Think-Write’ phases of this model. ‘Tell’ is the art of communicating research data and will be addressed elsewhere. Most high school students, realistically, embark on a project with much guidance (read: explicit instructions) from their teachers. These students are expected to perform some experimentation, followed by thinking about the data collected. At this point, it will be useful to ask the student a few questions: (1) What has been done? Why do you think the data turned out this way? And most importantly, (3) what is the knowledge gap that is being addressed by your data? This will serve as a guide for the framework of their manuscripts. The targets that could be achieved by Grade 9-12 students are listed in Table 1. The ideal prerequisite for this program should be an existing research program implemented at Grades 9-12. However, additional targets (Targets 4-5, Table 1), which require maturity in thinking and self-motivation, have been included to cater for advanced students. Table 1: Targets for developing skills in writing for publication. 1
Target for publishing which helps them chart the deliverables of their research
2
Learn the etiquette and rules of scientific publishing
3
Understand the ethical boundaries of writing and experimentation
4*
Maximize their research output in a realistic ‘publish-or-perish’ environment
5*
Identify the significance of the sequence of authors in scientific articles * = Targets pitched at Grades 11-12 students
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Writing for publication 3. A suggested lesson on writing for publication An optimal lesson on scientific writing hinges on the availability of a research module in the school, which is out of the scope of this article. This lesson plan (Table 2) aims to address the difficulties many students face when constructing high-quality explanations for data which they have to articulate and defend (Sadler, 2004). Moreover, some students demonstrate tendencies to discount data which contradicts their hypothesis (Chinn & Brewer, 2001). This will be addressed in Lesson Two. Table 2: Outline of lessons for developing skills in writing for publication Lesson number
One
Specific lesson objectives
-Identifying what counts as evidence in research
- Develop skills to analyze research data Two
- Making appropriate claims using data collected in their own research project.
Activities (1) Students are tasked to present a Research Proposal, where they will share pre-existing data that forms the background and rationale of their project. (2) It should be a 5 min PowerPoint presentation followed with an oral defense session. (3) Specifically, the instructor needs to ask guiding questions, e.g. Identify the evidence in this source of information do you find most reliable. Explain. (4) Identify a variety of informational source: internet, electronic journals, books, etc. Comment on the authority of those references. (1) Using data collected in their research modules, students are to present a Progress Update on PowerPoint for about 10 min. (2) Students often lack the technical skills to process data meaningfully on Microsoft Excel. This will be an opportunity to share skills in: a. Choice of graph format: histogram, line graphs or scatter plots? b. Incorporating error bars (3) Identify students’ claims based on their personal opinions or from the internet. (4) If students discount data which contradicts their hypothesis, analyze the possibilities of discussing it as a point of interest.
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Writing for publication - Identifying the ethics of writing
Three
- Identifying a target journal for paper submission – maximizing publishability - Adaptive manuscript writing to cater for stylistic differences between journals
Four
-Manuscript submission
(1) Provide examples on plagiarism (2) Hands-on activity: identifying potential journals for manuscript submission (computer-lab needed) (3) Case study of two different journals for examples (open-source or free-access) of articles which provide an idea of the styles (content and formatting) required. (4) Develop skills to read Author Instructions / Submission Requirements carefully so as to cater for stylistic differences between journals. (1) Students are expected to be ready with a submission-ready manuscript. (2) Embark on manuscript submission
4. Operationalization of the lesson tool – challenges faced A notable struggle the students faced was the analysis of their own data. For instance, a group studying the feasibility of using polymerase chain reaction to detect the presence of herbicide-resistance transgenes in local vegetables obtained negative results from the reaction. The first emotive response from the students was that of failure. It was quickly followed with a lack of direction in report-writing. We then independently explored a web-based curriculum idea, also reported by Bos (2000), where students performed web-based reviews of previous research data with similar findings. From these activities, the students had an opportunity to benchmark their own experiments against credible sources and were able to formulate a reasonable discussion that recognized the limitations of their experiments, and hence, proposed recommendations for future iterations of their project. Similarly, another group studying the antibacterial activities of green tea extracts faced problems with crystallizing green tea concentrates isolated using acetone. They initially had a white powdery contamination which could not be eliminated. These students critically explored existing literature and discovered that the powdery contamination originated from the polystyrene
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Writing for publication containers that they used to hold the acetone-based extract. Glass containers were used instead, hence eliminating acetone-sensitivity in the experiments. In another attempt to operationalize manuscript-writing as a teaching tool, a group of four motivated 9th-graders were first assessed for aptitude in publication-writing as the process was extra-curricular and time-consumption was anticipated. Aptitude evaluation was necessary and would be highly recommended for educators attempting to work with students on manuscript writing. A list of character traits of suitable students are listed in Table 3. Table 3: Some observed character traits of students who may excel in manuscript writing Reliable Inquiring Persevering Meticulous Observant Punctual
Manuscript preparation is arguably the most effort-intensive step of this learning package; hence, the need for persevering students. In one instance, a pair of motivated students, who studied the relationship between knowledge of running shoes types and proneness to injury, made 15 drafts of their manuscript and 16 drafts of the poster, the presentation of which was awarded a silver medal in an in-house research symposium. Realistically, most 9th-graders do not exhibit the required perseverance to bring a project to completion. However, building resilience into these students is always an understated learning objective. Another group of four students working on the antibacterial properties of different contact lens solutions best reflected the challenges of teaching students how to write a report. They had the aptitude and perseverance for laboratory work but lacked the resilience to withstand critiques of their manuscripts. An excerpt from the students’ early manuscript which was to be submitted to the Journal of Young Investigators (www.jyi.org) demonstrated lack of compliance to submission instructions (Figure 1). For instance, there was inconsistency in the fonts being used: Times New Roman for the header ‘References’ whereas the Arial was used for text. Secondly, the submission instructions did not specify the
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Writing for publication need for numbered headers. Thirdly, a common shortcoming of 9th graders is to succumb to the convenience of numbered endnotes – a feature provided in word processors like Microsoft Word, despite knowing that they have to customize their manuscripts to the requirements of the journal of interest, e.g. in APA citation format which required references to be sorted in alphabetical order. The manuscript shown in Figure 1B was eventually submitted to the Journal of Young Investigators after much critique. It is an undergraduate peer-reviewed journal and we are still anticipating a response from an editor. However, the paucity of students’ research journals erodes the possibility of students making sound, value-added contributions to web-based literature – be it reviews, experimental research or an opinion paper. Therefore, a student research e-journal or archival system is urgently needed.
A
B
Figure 1: Excerpts of (A) an earlier version of a students’ report and (B) final manuscript. Inconsistent font use, unsolicited numbering of headers and noncompliance to submission instructions (indicated with arrows) plagued the manuscript preparation process.
5. Framework for an e-journal submission portal A rigorously-designed submission portal is as important as the works that are being submitted. A primary feature of a paper archival system should request for user-provided
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Writing for publication information at the point of submission to avoid unnecessary end-to-end communication. A workflow is suggested in Table 4.
Table 4: Workflow for setting up an online submission portal Item 1. Survey professional paper submission websites 2. Formulate technical requirements for setting up archival / publishing portal on KM 3. Write Instructions to Authors based on selected paper format. 4. Drafting of Transfer of Copyright agreement from author to NJC. 5. Identify potential scope of publication, e.g. biochemistry, physics… 6. Solicit feedback on scope of publication. 7. Decision for access rights of portal: Open access or restricted to registered KM users? 8. Design a work flow: From receipt of online submissions to final publishing, with provisions for peer-review (implementable option at steady-state) 9. Testing of beta version of online submission portal.
Intended timeframe 1 month 2 months 1 month 2 weeks 1 week 2 weeks 1 week 3 weeks 2 months
Abbreviation: KM = Knowledge Management, a proprietary online portal used in NJC
5.1. Features of a submission portal A survey of some journal submission portals reveal some common features listed below: 5.1.1. Author / reviewer registration (Figure 2) •
Candidate authors register with website as “Authors” for a password-protected account with a login ID of their choice.
•
Capacity to include feature for (future) login by reviewers.
•
Candidate should use their login account for submission of paper if they do not complete their submission.
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Figure 2: Sample author registration page. This should be the first page for new authors. Authors who wish to submit future manuscripts should logon using the same username and password. A facility for retrieving passwords should be provided. Screenshot of http://ees.elsevier.com/febsletters/
5.1.2. Personal data •
Authors’ given name
•
Authors’ family name
•
Salutation (drop down list)
•
Email
•
Affiliation / Institution
•
Country
5.1.3. Main menu (Figure 3) The main menu serves as an important overview of the manuscript submission process.
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Figure 3: Main menu allows authors to track the progress of their manuscripts.
5.1.4. First approach to submit a manuscript (Figure 4) •
Field of study o Biology o Physics o Chemistry
•
Article title (less than 100 characters). If this field is not completed, the submitting author should not be allowed to proceed with submission.
•
Include option for adding more than one authors and offer check box for indicating ‘presenter’ and ‘corresponding author’
•
Abstract (less than 200 words). If the 200 word limit is violated, the submission process should not be able to proceed.
•
Keywords (separated by semi-colons)
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Figure 4: First approach of a manuscript submission process. Article type can be chosen with a drop down box (blue arrow). Suggested categories are ‘research letter’, ‘review’, and ‘opinion papers’.
Figure 5: Flow of submission (overview of process on left column, indicated with arrow)
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5.1.5. Submission process (Figure 5) • Includes a function for saving the submission for later completion. • Submission ‘button’ • Redirection to confirmation page with ‘submission number’ • Participants can register with archive as “Author” and perform a log-in 6. Current developments – preparatory course for 8th graders To extend the reach of a multi-tier research program, akin to the program currently in place at National Junior College, 8th-graders should be exposed to technical skills required in research prior to embarking on research projects in Grades 9-11. This serves as a growth platform to equip students with essential skills to plan for, and execute a research project. Skill sets have been identified as learning foci targeted at 8th-graders. These will in turn, prepare these students for higher quality research projects at 9th – 11th grades. They are outlined in Table 5.
Table 5: Skills that will be learnt in Grade 8 as part of a research preparatory course 1
Student should be able to record readings of an apparatus or data-capturing device clearly using a table and place a suitable caption above the table.
2
Student should be able to construct a figure, using software, which will be used to illustrate their claims or ideas and place a suitable caption below the figure.
3
Student should be able to analyze their collected data in the form of a suitable chart, e.g. histograms, scatter plots or line graphs.
4
Student should be able to apply the formula for standard deviation to a set of collected data and use error bars to represent standard deviation.
5
Student should be able to identify outliers in a dataset or a chart pattern.
6
Student should be able to use obtain a graph of best fit using a software, and obtain a mathematical equation representing the relationship between variables that are being examined.
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7
Student should be able to distinguish statistically significant data from statistically insignificant data by analyzing a given chart.
7. Conclusions and future perspectives Research and manuscript writing is arguably the best form of education. Firstly, the uncertainties in a project are the highest level of a character test for a student in terms of perseverance and diligence. Students are expected to be able to troubleshoot and every mistake made, when thoroughly analyzed, is an opportunity for cognitive learning. Experiments requiring the use of microscopes will train students’ dexterity and patience in looking for the correct plane of focus. The hands-on approach of their experiments demands students to rely on themselves for progress in their work. Every action or inaction has a direct consequence on the outcome of their project. Moreover, students learn to take calculated risks with every step they make, and this includes time management, minimizing opportunity costs, and a modulation of their expectations of themselves and of others. Students will learn interpersonal skills, as they will find that it will be easier to obtain resources that they need (for example, a data logger) if they were polite with the school technician. As students are required to provide oral updates periodically, they have opportunities to hone their communication skills. The frequent requirement to provide written progress reports also serve to train student researchers in their ability to use drawing and word-processing software effectively. The need to construct posters develops their sense of aesthetics. However, the process of research is never complete without communicating the results of their work to an audience. Given the paucity of platforms for publishing students’ work, there is a dire need to establish one such portal. It will be an uphill endeavor plagued with administrative, funding, and staffing issues. However, with an unwavering support from education administrators,
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Writing for publication manuscript-writing as an educational tool could become part of mainstream science syllabi. 8. References Bencze, J. L. & Bowen, G. M. (2009) Student-Teachers' Dialectically Developed Motivation for Promoting Student-Led Science Projects. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 7, 133-159. Bos, N. (2000) High School Students' Critical Evaluation of Scientific Resources on the World Wide Web. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 9, 161-173. Chinn, C. A., & Brewer, W. F. (2001). Models of data: A theory of how people evaluate data. Cognition and Instruction, 19, 323-393. Sadler, T. D. (2004). Informal reasoning regarding socioscientific issues: A critical review of research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 513-536. Schwebach, J. R. (2008) Science Seminar: Science Capstone Research Projects as a Class in High School. American Biology Teacher, 70, 488-497.
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Engaged Learning
Applying a Hybrid Learning Model and Cooperative Learning for Engaged Learning in Chemical Education Swe Swe Min & Raymond Tsoi Ngee Ann Polytechnic; National Institute of Education Singapore, Nanyang Technological University
[email protected] [email protected]
Knowledge and skills necessary for today’s students are becoming increasingly complex based on the changing economy and the current and future industry needs. Apparently, the students need to possess not only the individual achievement test score but also a variety of social skill, team working skill, and multimedia skill if they are to be successful. For such purpose, teachers play an important role in training the students with a mixture of new and different teaching techniques and methodologies to enhance their skills. Learner-centered Learning approaches for example, Cooperative Learning has been found to be effective for teachers to equip the students with various skills. In addition, TSOI Hybrid Learning Model whose theoretical construction is based on the combination of the Piagetian science learning cycle model and Kolb’s experiential learning cycle, has also been known to promote active cognitive processing in the learner for engaged learning proceeding from inductive learning to deductive learning. This hybrid learning model will be used to design the lessons for a lecture group of the first year Chemical Engineering students from a local polytechnic. Cooperative Learning strategies, for example Numbered Heads Together will be employed for the tutorial group to promote team working skill. The applications of hybrid learning model and cooperative learning approach will be illustrated for engaged learning on the topic of physical thermodynamics. Issues on crafting of authentic tasks to enhance engaged
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learning, feedback & implications will also be discussed further in this context of engaged learning. Introduction Recent changes in world’s economy have demanded for schools to train its students who are the future work force of industry to possess various skills and knowledge for the tougher challenges ahead. As such, there is an increasing need for schools to introduce curricular changes which will allow the students to engage, think, act, and reflect via their own learning experiences in the classroom and in the lecture theatre. These meaningful learning experiences could be introduced using videos, playing simulation software, through real life problems, and conducting activities in the classrooms followed by effective questioning by the teacher to stimulate meaningful discussion among students. A systematic way of designing these meaningful learning components could be accomplished by using various learning models and new pedagogy approaches. In this paper, designing the lessons by applying TSOI hybrid learning model and cooperative learning approach will be illustrated for meaningful engaged learning on the topic of physical thermodynamics. Framework of TSOI© hybrid learning model TSOI Hybrid Learning Model’s theoretical construction is based on the combination of the Piagetian science learning cycle model and Kolb’s experiential learning cycle (Tsoi, 2007; Tsoi, 2008a; Tsoi, 2008b). The term “hybrid” represents the mixing of the two different learning models. The hybrid learning model has been known to promote active thinking process in the learners for engaged learning. Since this hybrid learning model encompasses the characteristics of the two models, namely, the Piagetian learning cycle model and the Kolb’s experiential learning cycle model, it has not only able to promote active cognitive processing in the learner for meaningful learning proceeding from inductive to deductive but
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also has an added advantage of addressing the individual learning style for the learners. The TSOI© hybrid learning model primarily consists of four phases, namely the Translating phase, the Sculpting phase, the Operationalizing phase, and the Integrating phase. These four stages were crafted as a learning cycle to represent the hybrid model as an innovative learning model which is able to facilitate learning as a meaningful cognitive process. During this learning cycle, the learner will go through from concrete knowledge to the abstract which leads to concept formation. In the first two phases, multiple activities are designed for preliminary awareness of the concept to be learnt as well as for concept construction of its critical attributes. This is then followed by concept internalization through various practices and eventually to concept application for real life situations and problems solving. Figure 1 shows the four stages of the hybrid learning model.
Translating
Integrating
Sculpting
Operationalizing
Figure 1. TSOI© hybrid learning model
Redesigning the lessons based on the framework of hybrid learning model For the Translating phase, it is important to introduce interactive experiences to the student which can be translated into beginning ideas or concepts of the subject. From the author’s past experience, learning internal energy concept appears to be a difficult concept for the students while learning it through the traditional lecture setting, i.e., listening to teacher’s
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explanation based on the PowerPoint slides presentation. As such, in order to help the students for understanding the internal energy concept better, the students will be instructed to watch a video based on a laboratory experiment by a group of students from the YouTube website and to explore more about internal energy concept thereby improve understanding on the First law of Thermodynamics which is the most important core concept of the subject. It is not possible to comprehend the First Law of Thermodynamics fully if the students do not understand Internal energy concept. Therefore, this activity is designed for the first stage of hybrid learning model which is the Translating phase and the original lecture slides were revised and redesigned in order to fit into the framework of the hybrid learning model.
Next, for the Sculpting phase where the concept formation and the reflective observation will occur, the author has designed ten thinking questions for the students to think, and observe actively and reflectively. These questions are related to the internal energy video and they are launched continuously through the blackboard’s discussion forum. The students are allowed multiple viewing of the video before answering the questions and post their answers in the discussion forum. After watching the video, the teacher will facilitate a short questioning session to encourage the students to explain what they meant by “heat” , “work”, and “ internal energy” in the context of the video by asking some questions to help students think and identify the critical characteristics or attributes of the concept (Scott, Mortimer, & Aguiar, 2006). The evidence of students’ engagement to teacher’s questioning will be captured via Blackboard’s discussion forum. Figure 2 shows a screen shot from blackboard’s discussion forum about internal energy concept.
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Figure 2. Blackboard’s discussion forum about internal energy
The relevant questions to the internal energy video (Question 1 -10 in the above screen shot) are presented as follow (Scott, Mortimer, & Aguiar, 2006): 1. What happens when we heat up the air in the conical flask? How do you explain it? 2. What are the changes/interactions between the system and surrounding? Temperature or heat or work or all of them? 3. Is there is a change of temperature? Why? 4. Is there is a change of volume? Why? 5. Why the volume of the balloon changes? 6. Is there heat transfer? What’s that? Can you explain more about this? 7. Is there work transfer? What’s that? Can you explain more about this? 8. Is there a change in internal energy? Why? 9. Please justify your ideas/answers. 10. Please take a look at the other answers in this forum and if you think differently, explain your ideas here.
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Engaged Learning
For the third stage of the hybrid learning model, the Operationalizing phase, it is important to promote the understanding of the relationship between thinking and concept acquisition to the learners as well as to operationalize the newly acquired concepts together with the existing ideas or concepts. For such purpose, the students will be instructed to watch a second video about the First Law of Thermodynamics from YouTube website. After that, they will be given simple practice problems and examples for linking the various concepts of “heat”, “work”, and “internal energy” to the First Law of Thermodynamics. For this stage, a complete understanding of the First Law of Thermodynamics which is based on the various concepts will be obtained via a concept map which helps students to link all the critical attributes or characteristics for the meaningful internalization of the concepts. The students will be asked to log into the Blackboard’s discussion forum and submit a concept map as a group assignment after watching the video and solving simple problems. Figure 3 shows a screen shot of Blackboard discussion forum for the First Law of Thermodynamics.
Figure 3. Blackboard’s discussion forum for First Law of Thermodynamics
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Engaged Learning
For the fourth stage of hybrid learning model, the Integrating phase or the Concept application stage where the learners applied the concept to new domains in which the transfer of learning is practiced, the students will be given more real life practice problems, examples and online quizzes in Blackboard so that they are able to integrate the knowledge, transfer it to different situations and be able to master the skills for solving the problems. Cooperative Learning Approach Based on numerous studies (Blignaut & Venter, 1998; Ghaith, 2002; Slavin, 1996;), Cooperative Learning, one of the engaged learning approaches, is proven to be an effective teaching and learning approach for teachers to equip the students with effective team work. Cooperative Learning, in general, introduces learners with instructional methods to the context they will work as an effective team. It also helps the learners to acquire the ability to think actively and reflectively as well as to cooperate effectively from their experiences on social interactions and discourse in a group. There are four basic components for the Cooperative Learning approach. They are positive interdependence, individual accountability, equal participation, and simultaneous interaction. When any one of four components is not implemented, it was noted that there is no Cooperative Learning (Kagan, 1994). In this exploratory study, apart from applying the hybrid learning model to the lecture group, Cooperative Learning with a Structure Approach will be used for the small Tutorial group, i.e., using Numbered Heads Together approach for teaching tutorials to the students and the feedback from the students will be recorded from the students’ responses to a questionnaire. It was noted from the literature that students’ experiences in a small group cooperative classroom climate were strongly positive if it is implemented well. (Hanze & Berger, 2007; Ghaith, Shaaban, & Harkous, 2007; Gillies, 2003; Siegel, 2005; Tan, 2004; Tan, Sharan, & Lee, 2006).
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Engaged Learning
Discussions This paper has proposed the applications of hybrid learning model and cooperative learning approach for designing engaged learning process to obtain a better achievement outcome regarding to students’ results as well as improvement for students’ study attitude in a meaningful learning climate. The use of a learning management system, the Blackboard has also been incorporated in the lessons design. The richness of the contents provided by the students in the discussion will also serve as another valuable source for finding out the extent of learning outcomes in terms of their understanding of the concept and knowledge acquisition. Further to this, a future study will be conducted to answer the following research questions “Is there a significant difference between pretest and posttest achievement means with or without TSOI Hybrid Learning Model in the lessons design?” and “Are the students’ learning attitudes positive with or without Cooperative Learning Approach in the tutorial sessions?” Issues and implications for implementing stages shall be further discussed in the future work. References
Blignaut, R. J. & Venter, I. M. (1998). Teamwork: can it equip university science students with more than rigid subject knowledge? Computers & Education, 31, 265-279. Ghaith, G. M. (2002). The relationship between cooperative learning, perception of social support, and academic achievement. System, 30, 263-273. Ghaith, G. M., Shaaban, K. A., & Harkous, S. A. (2007). An investigation of the relationship between forms of positive interdependence, social support, and selected aspects of classroom climate, System, 35, 229-240.
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Engaged Learning
Gillies, R. M. (2003). The behaviors, interactions, and perceptions of junior high school students during small-group learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 137–147. Hanze, M., & Berger, R. (2007) Cooperative learning, motivational effects, and student characteristics: An experimental study comparing cooperative learning and direct instruction in 12th grade physics classes, Learning and Instruction, 17, 29-41. Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan, c1994. Scott, P. H., Mortimer, E. F., & Aguiar, O. G. (2006). The tension between authoritative and dialogic discourse: A fundamental characteristic of meaning making interactions in high school science lessons. Science Education, 90, 605-631. Siegel, C. (2005). An ethnographic inquiry of cooperative learning implementation. Journal of School Psychology, 43, 219-239. Slavin, R. E. (1996). Research for the future-Research on cooperative learning and achievement: what we know, what we need to know. Contemporary Education Psychology, 21, 43-69. Tan, G.C.I (2004). Effects of cooperative learning with Group Investigation on secondary students’ achievement, motivation and perceptions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Tan, G. C. I, Sharan, S. & Lee, K. E. C. (2006). Group Investigation and Student Learning: A Cooperative Learning Experiment in Singapore Schools, Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. Tsoi, M.F. R. (2007). Development and Effects of Multimedia Design on Learning of Mole Concept. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
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Engaged Learning
Tsoi, M. F. R. (2008a). Designing for engaged e-learning: TSOI hybrid learning model, The International Journal of Learning, 15 (6), 223-234. Tsoi, M. F. R. (2008b). Designing e-learning cognitively: TSOI hybrid learning model, International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning, 1(1), 48-52.
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TOYS @ WORK
TOYS @ WORK: A NANYANG PRIMARY SCHOOL INITIATIVE
Yasmeen Mohamad Tan Si Ming
Nanyang Primary School Singapore
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TOYS @ WORK
Abstract Toys @ Work is Nanyang Primary School’s initiative designed to allow the teaching of scientific concepts through the process of discovery, while still maintaining the fun aspects of playing with toys. It applies the Teach Less, Learn More (TLLM) concept and incorporates several teaching strategies such as Multiple Intelligences (MI) and Cooperative learning (CL), as well as opening the pupils’ eyes to the presence of Science around them. The purpose of this initiative is to overcome the problem of upper primary pupils losing their interest in Science, while also injecting enthusiasm and excitement in the learning of Science. The project has been implemented for 3 years and scientific concepts are taught through pupilcentred activities involving playing with simple toys, with the teacher as the facilitator. Pupils are also encouraged to develop their own toys to highlight the same concepts learnt. This functions as both an informal assessment as well as tapping on their creativity to further stretch the pupils’ potential. Information, via feedback forms given out after each lesson as well as teacher observation, clearly indicated that pupils were more excited about Science lessons. They recalled the concepts taught during these lessons better and voluntarily develop more toys despite the lack of any incentives. The lessons also heightened their interest level as well as made them realise that Science is not just a concept to be learnt in textbooks but is applicable in daily life.
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TOYS @ WORK Introduction In general, this paper serves as a record of the development, planning and full implementation of the Toys @ Work initiative in Nanyang Primary School (NYPS). It is a common problem in every primary school in Singapore for upper primary pupils to lose their interest in Science, as it is a ‘difficult subject to learn’ with ‘too many facts to remember’. For some time, the upper primary school teachers in NYPS have also observed and remarked upon the decrease in the excitement level of primary school pupils in the learning of Science upon entering primary five and six. The children’s common grouses include their inability to recall all the concepts that had been taught since primary three, as well as their perception that the subject is most often taught in a dull manner and is ‘non-applicable in daily life’. Despite the effort that they put in, they also struggle to perform well during examinations, which further turn them off the subject. Based on informal discussion between teachers of different levels, it is obvious that the lack of exciting activities to convey Science concepts may have played a large part in affecting the pupils’ attitude towards Science. After all, children love to play and enjoy getting their hands on any kind of equipment. However, some teachers get too bogged down with worries about whether equipment would get broken or the experiment would fail and tend to skip on these activities and rely on lecture-style teaching method.
How it got started By chance, in 2006, some of the primary six teachers decided to use their children’s old toys in order to teach the concept of energy conversion. The demographics of our student population is such that most of them are much more familiar with computerised-toys like PSP and Xbox rather than simple old toys. Thus, the cheap plastic toys, which were brought to class, turned out to be big hits simply due to their novelty and cute factor. The pupils were
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TOYS @ WORK asked to predict how the toys would work, test the toys out themselves and then go on to explain the energy conversion involved after seeing the toys work. The result was better than the teachers had anticipated. The same jaded primary six pupils became more alive than they had been in two years and were more than eager to suggest other toys that could be used to illustrate the similar concept. As a follow up to the lesson, without being prompted by the teachers, the pupils brought many of their own toys to share with their classmates, as well as made their own simple toys just to illustrate the same concepts to everyone. This successful lesson was then shared with the teachers of the same level during the Science weekly White Space sessions. All the teachers who tried out the same lesson made the same observation. The pupils loved the lesson! By the end of 2006, in trying to revamp the Science pedagogy in NYPS, it was decided that such lessons should come with proper lesson plans in order to support and encourage other Science teachers to conduct them in class. The Science department members teamed up to generate lesson plans based on specific topics for each level. In 2007, the initiative was carried out on a trial basis in order to further refine the lesson plans. These lessons were then incorporated into our Science Scheme of Work by 2008, making it compulsory to conduct such lessons in lieu of other less hands-on lessons. These lessons were named the ‘Toys @ Work’ lessons. The objectives for innovating Toys @ Work are:•
To inculcate TLLM, MI and CL strategies into the teaching of Science in NYPS
•
To captivate the interest of the pupils
•
To provide opportunities for authentic learning and enable pupils to relate and derive Science concepts for application in daily life
•
To teach experimental skills and process skills through investigations using toys
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TOYS @ WORK Multiple Intelligences & Cooperative Learning In 2007, NYPS embarked on a whole-school approach in incorporating multiple intelligences (MI) and cooperative learning (CL) strategies in the teaching of all core subjects. The rationale behind this is to fully benefit our pupils based on the results of research, which clearly shows the effectiveness of these strategies. Past researchers (Miller and Harrington, 1990; Slavin and Cooper, 1999) have found that cooperative learning leads to a higher self-esteem of students. Due to its interactive nature with classmates, such lessons also lead to a more positive peer relationships as well as improve inter-ethnic and cross-cultural relationships. This is on top of the equal or higher levels of academic achievement in comparison to classrooms where students worked independently or structured competitively. Kagan (1994, pp. 2-10) stated that ‘students no longer come to school with an established caring and cooperative orientation’ and that ‘we need cooperative learning if we are to preserve democracy’. He believes that exclusive use of teacher-dominated classrooms structures leaves students unprepared for participation in a democratic society since democracy in itself is not nurtured by a system which models autocratic decision-making, and expects passive obedience among pupils. This further validates the need to incorporate CL in our repertoire of pedagogy to ensure that we could incorporate the schools core values of Respect, Responsibility, Resilience, Integrity, Care and Harmony (R3ICH) As for Multiple Intelligences, Gardner (1993) highlighted the need to identify different learning styles and cater to such learning styles in order for the lessons to be more effective. “The theory of multiple intelligences, in and of itself, is not going to solve anything in our society, but linking it with curriculum focused on understanding (taking ideas that are learned and applying them appropriately in new situations) is an extremely
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TOYS @ WORK powerful intellectual undertaking. People may differ in their natural talents but all talents are important, can be honed, and are worthy of appreciation.” As such, the Science department agreed that the lessons using toys fits in perfectly with MI and CL strategies. Thus, the lessons were further honed and modified to ensure more incorporation of cooperative learning situation which makes use of as many learning styles as possible (as can be seen in the lessons plans). On top of that, Toys @ Work also creates opportunity for inquiry-based learning. Students work in groups to predict the outcome of ‘experiments’, make observations and mentally engage themselves to think about the scientific concept behind the activity that they are carrying out, with the teacher acting as facilitator. This helps to ensure a more lasting understanding of scientific concept as opposed to having the teacher stating the concept for the students (Brooks & Brooks, 1993).
Let’s Play! As a start, the key point to remember was that the lessons are to be pupil-centred and made as fun as possible in order to captivate the interest of the pupils. To further emphasise the idea that Science is all around us, opportunities were created to allow students to relate and derive Science concepts for application in daily life. The toys also provide an authentic learning opportunity since some students may have been playing with them all along without realising that they have been applying Science concepts. Experimental and process skills were also incorporated into these lessons. As mentioned before, certain topics per level were selected and these lessons were incorporated into the scheme of work. The selected topics can be seen in the table below:-
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TOYS @ WORK Level
Topic
No. of lesson plans
Toys
(Refer to appendix) Primary 3
Magnets
2
Magnetic bracelets Magnetic rings
Primary 4
Heat
2
Light Primary 6
Hand boiler Periscope
Energy
1
Flip cards
The respective level drivers for Science would work based on the SOW and get the toys ready as well as draw up a schedule for usage by every teacher in the level. The lesson plans and accompanying worksheets are also printed and the method of conducting the lessons will be fully explained by the level drivers to all the teachers as a form of support to further develop confidence in the teachers in conducting these lessons. The very simple to follow lesson plans are attached as appendix. As a form of differentiation lower ability, middle ability and higher ability groups, teachers could modify the lesson plans by either providing the toys for lessons, or getting their pupils to make the toys using templates given, or even to design and create the toys themselves prior to the lessons. Teachers are also given the choice to extend the lessons by posing certain challenges to the students to create another toy to illustrate the same concepts with limitations with regards to the type of resources used (for e.g. only recycled materials and rubber bands could be used). Pupils who had chosen to create such toys would then be given the opportunity to present their ‘inventions’ to the rest of the class. The activity sheets provided consist of step-by-step instructions for the pupils to follow thus ensuring that the lessons are pupils-centred and activity-based. They are to record
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TOYS @ WORK their findings and observation on the activity sheets. These sheets would also serve as a reference for the pupils when they revise their work as the key concepts taught during the lessons are highlighted at the end of the sheets. Throughout the lesson, teachers serve as facilitators and elicit key concepts from the pupils as they play by asking leading questions. These questions are already stated in the lesson plans and help the pupils to piece information together to enhance understanding and internalisation of the concepts. It allows teachers to teach answering skills needed for application questions in examinations. A survey form is also given out to randomly selected pupils at the end of the lesson. This is done to gather feedback from the pupils regarding the positive and negative points of the lesson, as well as to get their inputs regarding other suggestions in conducting more exciting lessons. Results from these surveys are collated for further improvement towards the Toys @ Work initiative. Currently, the feedback from pupils is obtained via the school portal, where every student would key in their feedback regarding the lesson immediately.
Lesson Plans Topic
Worksheet
Primary 3: Magnets
W1a & b
-Magnets can attract a magnetic object Primary 3: Magnets
W2a & b
-Like poles repel, unlike poles attract Primary 4: Heat
W3a & b
Primary 4: Light
W4a & b
- Light travels in straight lines - Light can be reflected Primary 6: Energy
W5a & b
- Energy can be converted from one form to another
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TOYS @ WORK W1a Nanyang Primary School Primary 3 Science Worksheet Topic: Magnet
Materials needed: 2 chains (1 with a hook and one magnetic bracelet) per group Q1) How is the second chain used if there is no hook? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________
The following diagram shows one way of fixing the second chain.
Draw 3 other ways of fixing the chain together.
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TOYS @ WORK
What similarities do you observe in all the different ways of fixing the chain together?
The second chain is made up of magnets and non-magnetic objects. Can you tell which part of the chain is the magnet? Why? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________
Learning point: -
Magnets can ______________ another magnet.
-
Magnets cannot ________________ a _______________ object
W1b Nanyang Primary School Topic: Magnet Teachers’ Instruction Sheet Level : Toy : Topic : Objective: Concepts:
Primary 3 Magnetic bracelet Magnets To discover properties of magnets used in accessories Magnets can attract other magnets Magnets cannot attract a non-magnetic object
(A) Introductory activity (10 mins) Display the first chain(the one with a hook) . Pose the following questions:• What is the first chain used as? (Ans: Accessories) • How would you fix the chain in order to use it properly? (Ans: Hook) • Can the chain be fixed at any other points? (Ans: No) Display the second chain(without a hook) . Pose the following questions:• Do you think this chain can be used in the same way? (Ans:Yes) • How would you fix the chain in order to use it properly? (To be investigated) • Can the chain be fixed at any other points? (To be investigated) (B) Distribute the 2 sets of chains & worksheets (5 mins) Groups leaders are to collect 2 sets of chains and individual worksheets from the teacher. • Each pupil to be given a worksheet
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TOYS @ WORK •
Chains are to be placed in the centre of each group table
(C) Pupils to follow instructions on the worksheets (10 – 15 mins) Pupils are to work as a team to discover the different ways of fixing and using the second chain. • Follow the instructions on the worksheet • Draw the different ways of fixing the chain together • Identify the pattern that can be observed in all the different ways. (D) Conclusion (5 mins) Ask the pupils to share their observation with the class. • Discuss why only certain parts of the chains can be ‘attached’ to each other. Recall ‘magnetic’ and ‘non-magnetic’ objects. • Highlight the learning points: i. Magnets can attract another magnet ii. Magnets cannot attract a non-magnetic object (E) Extension (5 mins) Pair-work: Give each pair a bar magnet and get them to identify 5 nonmagnetic objects in the room.
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TOYS @ WORK W2a Nanyang Primary School Primary 5 Science Worksheet Topic: Magnet Materials needed:
7 sets of objects A, B and C, wooden base with pole.
Follow the instructions below carefully. 1)
Remove objects B and C (still attached) and invert them. Replace them on the wooden stand. Draw your observations in the space below.
2)
Measure the distance between the object A and the other 2 objects.
3) (i) Remove object C and draw your observations in the space below. Measure and record the distance between objects A and B. (ii) Invert object C and replace it so that it floats on top of object B. Draw your observations in the space below. Measure and record the distance between each object. (i)
(ii)
Distance:_________cm
Distance:_________cm
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TOYS @ WORK 4)
Compare the distance between (i) and (ii). Explain why there was a change.
______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ Learning point: -
Like poles facing each other will _________. Repelling distance is affected by ________________pull.
Extension: Place a magnetic object between 2 floating magnets. Find out what happens?
W2b Nanyang Primary School Topic: Magnet Teachers’ Instruction Sheet Level : Toy : Topic : Objective: Concepts:
Primary 3 7 sets of ring magnets, wooden base with pole. Each set consists of covered magnets A, B and C Magnets To discover properties of magnets used in a ‘magic’ toy Like poles facing each other will repel Repelling distance is affected by gravity
(A) Introductory activity (5 mins) Teacher to perform a magic trick! Make the magnet float. Pose the following questions: -Is this really magic? Or is it Science? (B) Distribute each set of magnets, wooden base and worksheets (5 mins) • Each pupil to be given a worksheet • Magnets (A being at the base, B and C right on top of it) and wooden base are to be placed in the centre of each group table (C) Pupils to follow instructions on the worksheets (15 - 20 mins) Instruct pupils to leave the ‘labelled objects’ as it is or the magic will not work. Pupils are to work as a team to discover the different ways of making the objects ‘float’. Follow the instructions on the worksheet (D) Conclusion (5 mins) Ask the pupils to share their observation with the class. • Discuss why • Highlight the learning points: i. Like poles facing each other will repel ii. Repelling distance is affected by gravity (E) Extension (5 mins) Place a magnetic object between 2 floating magnets. Find out what happens.
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TOYS @ WORK W3a Topic: Heat Level : Primary 4 The Hand Boiler Name: ___________________(
)
Pr 4 ______
This toy is called the hand boiler. A short glass tube inside the bottom glass Bulb A continues upwards as a double-coiled tube to join another glass bulb B. There is a coloured liquid inside the bulb.
Date: ____________
B
A
liquid
1. Carefully hold Bulb A in your palm for a minute. What do you observe? ____________________________________________________________
2. Explain what caused the liquid to move from Bulb A to Bulb B. ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
3. When most of the liquid are in Bulb B, how would you move it back to Bulb A? ______________________________________________________________
4. How would you explain that the liquid flows more quickly from Bulb B to Bulb A than from Bulb A to Bulb B? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
5. What would be a safe way to move the liquid more quickly from Bulb A to Bulb B? ______________________________________________________________ 6. For this toy to work, what do you think is the most important detail about the material used? ______________________________________________________________ Page 1237
TOYS @ WORK W3b Nanyang Primary School Topic: Heat Teachers’ Instruction Sheet Level: Primary 4 Toy: Hand Boiler Topic: Heat Objective: To explain the transfer of heat Concepts: Heat can be transferred. Matter expands when heated. (A) Introductory Activity ( 5 min) 1. Teacher poses the question, ”What do you do when you are cold?” Answers elicited may include rubbing hands together, putting hands under the legs or at armpits, wear sweaters, take a hot drink, etc. 2. After eliciting the responses, teacher asks how these actions can help to keep the person warm. Pupils should be able to deduce that such actions help to contain heat/prevent further heat loss or generate heat. 3. Teacher shows a mug/cup containing warm water. She asks how it can help to keep a person warm. Answers may include drinking it or cupping it with both hands. She asks if there is any difference in the way heat is obtained by rubbing the hands ( heat is generated) and cupping the warm mug (heat is transferred). (B) Development (30 min) 1. Teacher shows the toy and explains that the toy is fragile and should be handled carefully. 2. Pupils form groups of 4 (collector, police, recorder, timer). Teachers remind these pupils of their roles. 3. Collector gets a toy and an activity worksheet for the group. The group has to do the various activities and discuss the answers before writing them down. The period of 20 min is enough to allow all the pupils in the group to handle the toy. 4. Teacher signals the end of the activity and the collector returns the toy only. 5. Teacher discusses the answers and clarifies any wrong concepts. (C) Conclusion (5 min) Teacher summarises the teaching points again. She gives out a template worksheet of questions based on heat and heat transfer.
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TOYS @ WORK Answers (Hand Boiler) 1. Carefully hold Bulb A in your palm for a minute. What do you observe? The liquid slowly moves up the tube inside Bulb A. When most of the liquid are in Bulb B, we can see a few bubbles. Then more and more bubbles are seen, just like boiling water. 2. Explain what caused the liquid to move from Bulb A to Bulb B. The air inside Bulb A gained heat from my palm and expanded. It forced the liquid up the coiled tube into Bulb B. 3. When most of the liquid are in Bulb B, how would you move it back to Bulb A? Cover Bulb B with your palm. 4. How would you explain that the liquid flows more quickly from Bulb B to Bulb A than from Bulb A to Bulb B? Bulb B is smaller than Bulb A so it takes a shorter time to warm up the air inside Bulb A for it to expand and force the liquid back into Bulb B. 5. What would be a safe way to move the liquid more quickly from Bulb A to Bulb B? Rub the palms vigorously before holding Bulb A in the palm. / Place Bulb A in warm water. 6. For this toy to work, what do you think is the most important detail about the material used? The glass must be thin.
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TOYS @ WORK W4a Nanyang Primary School P4 Science Worksheet Topic: Light Tasks at Station 1)
What is the name of the device that you are using? ___________________________________________________
2)
What can you see? ___________________________________________________
3)
Which part(s) of the device enable you to see objects at different
levels?
____________________________________________________ 4)
From your observation, how do you think these devices work? ____________________________________________________
You have just observed how a periscope works. Now imagine that you have to explain how it works to a friend who did not attend this lesson. In your explanation, you should include the following points: 1)
At what angles are the mirrors mounted?
2)
How do you measure these angles?
3)
If the angles of the mirrors are changed to 60º, would you still be able to see the image?
4)
If the length of the periscope is made longer or shorter, how would this affect the image?
5)
Where can you find periscopes being used? Draw a diagram to illustrate your explanation.
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TOYS @ WORK W4b Primary 4 Science Worksheet Topic : Light (Periscope) Objective
: To discover how a periscope works.
Concepts
: i. ii.
Light travels in a straight line. Light can be reflected.
(A) Introductory Activity Error!
(B) Distribute the periscopes to the groups. Set up the apparatus as shown. Ask the pupils: a) What can you see? b) What is the name of the device you are using? c) What devices are used in the periscope to enable you to see objects at different levels? d) How do these devices work? (C) Pupils to draw diagrams to demonstrate how the periscope works. Ask the pupils: e) At what level are the mirrors mounted? f) How do you measure these angles? g) If the angles of the mirrors are changed to 60º, would you still be able to see the image? ( Discuss with pupils ) h) If the length of the periscope is made longer or shorter, would this affect the image? ( Discuss with pupils ) (D) To ask pupils where periscopes are being used? (Possible applications: in submarines, in army tanks, some double-deck buses)
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TOYS @ WORK W5a Materials needed: Individual flip cards *How to make a flip card 1. 2.
Get 2 used plastic cards (eg. Phonecards or old EZLink cards) Use a hole-puncher to make 2 notches on one end of the cards as in the diagram below.
Attach this portion with tape.
3. 4. 5.
Attach the other two ends of the cards together using scotch-tape or masking tape. Tie a rubber band to the notches. Fold the cards together to stretch the rubber bands. Place it on the ground and let it go. (CAUTION: Make sure your face is far away from the card as you start to release it!)
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TOYS @ WORK Nanyang Primary School Primary 6 Science Worksheet Topic: Energy 1. Draw a diagram of the flip card that you have made. Indicate the materials you have used. Material Measurement of card No. or twists No. of rubber bands
2. Draw a diagram of the best flip card that was made. Indicate the materials they have used. Material Measurement of card No. or twists No. of rubber bands
3. State the differences between the winning flip card and the one you have made. What allowed it to flip higher? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
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TOYS @ WORK 4. List down some of the things that you/your friends have done to try and make the cards jump higher _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
5. Have you conducted a fair test during this activity? Why? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
6. Why must each experiment be repeated at least three times? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________
Learning points: - Stretched rubber bands possess _______________ ___________ energy. - Energy can be _______________ from one form to _______________.
W5b Topic: Energy Teachers’ Instruction Sheet Level: Primary 6 Toy: Flip cards Topic: Energy Objective: To highlight the source of energy in a flip card To highlight the conversion of elastic potential energy to kinetic and sound energy Concepts: Elastic potential energy Energy can be converted from one form to another (A)
Introductory activity ♦ Pupils are to be given the instruction sheet on how to make a flip card a few days prior to this activity Page 1244
TOYS @ WORK ♦ Highlight to the children that the flip cards that they make can be of varying size. They may also vary the position of the notches on their flip cards. ♦ Explain to the children that this will be an inter-group and inter-class contest to see which card can ‘jump’ the highest distance (B)
Class competition ♦ Group activity i. Children are to make their flip cards work simultaneously within their groups. They are to repeat this thrice in order to ensure that they get reliable results. They may make necessary adjustments to their flip cards only at the very beginning of each round. ii. Children with the flip card that could ‘jump’ the highest are to step out of the group and proceed to the front of the room ♦ Class activity/observation i. Winners of each group are to compete in another 3 simultaneous rounds. They may make necessary adjustments to their flip cards only at the very beginning of each round. ii. The winner(s) will have to highlight to the class their method of ensuring their win. This includes the material that they have used, they number of elastic bands, they number of twists applied as well as the size and shape of the cards.
(C)
Worksheets ♦ Pupils are to take note of their observation as well as the pupils’ sharing to ensure the best result for their flip cards ♦ Draw the design as well as include important details like materials used to make the best flip card
(D)
Conclusion ♦ Discuss the key points needed to allow the flip cards to ‘jump’ higher ♦ Highlight the learning points: i. Energy can be converted from one form to another ii. Rubber bands can be used to provide elastic potential energy when stretched
(E)
Extension ♦ Group/pair work i. Pupils are to create a toy of their own that makes use of rubber bands in order to function ii. Bring it to class, demonstrate its use and give a short presentation on the energy conversion involved
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TOYS @ WORK Feedback The results obtained over the past 3 years have shown an overwhelmingly positive response from the pupils. Out of 163 primary four and six pupils polled, the results showed that over 80% of the pupils polled strongly agreed and agreed that learning Science using toys make them realize that the subject is fun and help them to understand the concepts taught better. They also agreed that it is an exciting way to learn Science and has increased their interest so much that they would want to find out more about the topic taught on their own. L e a rn in g S c ie n c e u s in g to y s ... 80 70
Percentage
60 SA
50
A
40
N D
30
SD 20 10 0
Makes me realise Science is fun
Helps me better understand the concepts
Is an exciting way to learn Science
Makes me want to find out more about the topic
Has increased my interest in Science
Helps me reflect and think deeper about the topic
Fig 1: Pupils’ feedback regarding the impact of learning Science using toys At least 70% of the pupils also believe that they are now able to understand the concept behind the toys used and could follow the procedural textx given for the lesson. They also felt that the lesson provided them with a problem-solving learning opportunity, accept others’ alternative explanation, as well as understand how the concepts could be applied in other toys or appliances in their daily lives.
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TOYS @ WORK
I c a n ... 6 0 .0 5 0 .0
Percentage
4 0 .0
SA A N
3 0 .0
D SD
2 0 .0 1 0 .0 0 .0 Understand the Science concept behind the toy
Follow the instructions in the worksheets
Offer different ways to solve the problem
Understand my friend’s explanation about the problem
See how the concept can be applied in daily life
Fig 2: Pupils’ feedback regarding their abilities as a result of learning through Toys @ Work On top of that, the pupils also contributed more ideas regarding toys to be used in future lessons. Most of the responses included requests to be given toys with instructions so that they could assemble them on their own and keep the toy for their own use for fun. They feel the need for more challenging and interesting toys but would like a higher toys-to-student ratio. Interestingly, some of their suggestions had already been incorporated into the Toys @ Work lessons for other levels. Other suggestions that have not yet been used include creating a mini-mirror maze for the study of light, using various wind-up toys, pinwheels, spring frogs, marbles/toy cars and ramps, jack-in-the-box and musical boxes for the study of energy conversion, stuffed toys and buttons for learning classification, trolleys and soccer balls to study forces and sparklers to study heat and light. Others suggested using solar-powered toys, lego, skipping ropes and robotics to incorporate Science concepts.
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TOYS @ WORK For pupils who had gone through the lessons as mini-competitions to find out who had designed the best toy, there had even been requests for their teachers to take part in the competition. That in itself shows the level of motivation by the pupils. The intrinsic motivation of pupils shows us that independent learning and self-discovery has taken place.
Conclusion Even without any data obtained from the feedback forms, it is clear to any educator conducting these lessons that the formerly bored pupils became excited, on task and eagerly looked forward to more of such lessons. Thus, the Toys @ Work initiative not only successfully incorporates the various Multiple Intelligences and Cooperative Learning strategies as well as applying the constructivist theory in lessons; it clearly achieves the objectives of the innovation. It is the school’s aim to further encourage teachers to think out of the box and beyond the limitations set by the textbooks and activity books in order to incorporate more of such activities so as to enable the full implementation of Teach Less, Learn More (TLLM).
References
Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: BasicBooks. Johnson, David W. and Johnson, Roger T. (1989). Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research, Edina, Minnesota: Interaction Book Company. Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente: Resources for Teachers. Miller, N. & Harrington, H.J. (1990). A situational identity perspective on cultural diversity
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TOYS @ WORK and teamwork in the classroom. In S. Sharan. (Ed.). Cooperative learning: theory and research. Pp. 39-76. Wesport: Praeger. Slavin, R. & Cooper, R. (1999). Improving intergroup relations: lessons learned from cooperative learning programs. Journal of Social Issues. (Winter)
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB
Multi-modal representations of science: What affordances are offered by interactive whiteboard technology?
Dr Karen Murcia
Edith Cowan University Perth, Western Australia
[email protected]
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB Abstract It is widely accepted that ICT is central to innovations in science education and as such the Australian Government’s School Science Education action plan has recommended as a priority that pedagogy should enable students to learn science by seeking understanding from multiple sources of information, ranging from hands-on investigation to internet searching. Interactive whiteboard (IWB) technology has been embraced in Australia and internationally as an educational tool that enables the convergence of a diverse range of ICTs into daily classroom practice. The technology enables students and teachers to interact with all the functions of a desk top computer through the IWB’s large touch sensitive surface fixed at the front of the classroom. It effectively becomes a port for incorporating a range of multimedia resources such as written text, pictures, diagrams, photos, video and online websites into classroom teaching and learning activities. The IWB has been found to support a range of multi-modal representation types including verbal, graphic, tabular, mathematical, pictorial and kinaesthetic. This paper reports on exploratory research that examines how students learn science with an interactive whiteboard. The affordances offered by the technology will be discussed in relation to teachers’ classroom practice and the way students show what they know. Examples from primary science classrooms will be used to illustrate how students learn science and demonstrate understanding through the multiple representations afforded by interactive whiteboard technology.
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB Multi-modal representations of science: What affordances are offered by interactive whiteboard technology?
Introduction A vast range of digital technologies are currently available and increasingly used in education. It has even been argued that in the digital age Internet Communication Technology (ICT) is central to effective science learning and teaching (Hackling and Prain, 2005). Yet, to meet the learning needs and demands of contemporary students, teachers’ pedagogy must evolve with the educational technology. Educators need to appreciate that today’s students live in a technologically driven and connected society, using digital technologies to communicate and access information from multiple sources. They are the first generation born to and growing up with digital technologies. Often referred to as ‘digital students’, they can be described as technology consumers who have a positive attitude and disposition for exploring new technologies (Shelly, Cashman, Cashman & Gunter, 2008). They are socially engaged in online worlds and connected to vast quantities of information via the World Wide Web. Digital educational technologies are tools that can be used to connect with digital students’ everyday experiences and support or extend learning and teaching strategies. Osborne (2003) suggests ICTs can enhance both the practical and conceptual aspects of learning science. The teacher can use ICTs in primary science to facilitate students emerging understandings, to encourage students to think about their experiences, talk together, explore, fair test, describe and communicate their ideas to others. He suggests using ICTs can reduce the time taken to perform manual processes, which allows more time for thinking, discussion and interpretation. Scope and relevance can be increased by linking school science through internet based technologies to contemporary real world science with internet based technologies. It is further argued that engaging and motivating digital students is increasingly
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB possible with ICTs as they can assist teachers in creating continuity between the world inside and outside the classroom, particularly in the way information is accessed and manipulated.
Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) technology has been embraced in Australia and internationally as an educational tool that enables teachers to converge a diverse range of ICTs into daily classroom practice. The students and teachers can use an IWB to interact with all the functions of a desk top computer through its large touch sensitive surface fixed at the front of the classroom (SMART Technologies, 2006). Features of the IWB software are reported to enhance interactivity between the teacher, the learning resource and students (Betcher & Lee, 2009). Software tools and simple design techniques promote active learning with manipulations such as drag and drop; hide and reveal; layering, colour, shading and highlighting; annotating with digital ink matching equivalent terms and movement for sorting and classifying (Higgins, Beauchamp & Miller, 2007). There is, however, a need to go beyond understanding the technology itself, important as this is, to understanding the impact of the technology on teachers’ pedagogy and students learning. We need to understand how students learn with an interactive whiteboard and to document how teachers and students use the interactive whiteboard for representing science concepts. The ultimate goal is to improve interactive science pedagogies and learning outcomes for students.
In this preliminary conference paper I report on my qualitative research about how children learn science with an interactive whiteboard. My research uses a socio-constructivist lens and draws its conceptual framework from the multi-modal representation literature. The multimodal framework focused the current research on the multiple ways in which teachers and students represented and re-represented science concepts. This lens was placed over exploratory case studies conducted with six primary school teachers. All teachers
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB participating in the study were using Primary Connections, which is a national science curriculum resource, produced by the Australian Academy of Science (2007). The research was conducted in conjunction with their normal classroom science program and documented how the teachers and their students used the interactive whiteboard for supporting their representations of science concepts. Data gathered for the case studies included semistructured interviews, classroom observations, student work samples and interactive notebooks produced by the teachers. Some example activities have been extracted from the teachers’ interactive science notebooks and included in this paper to illustrate ways in which the teachers and students used the IWB to support multi-modal representations of science. Each notebook page is described by a narrative that draws from interviews with the teachers and classroom observations.
In the following discussion I firstly place my research into the context of the Australian ‘Digital Education Revolution’ and explore the potential of IWB technology for assisting teachers to integrate ICTs into science. The development of my multi-modal research framework is then described and used for focussing the view given into the teachers’ IWB science classrooms. Emerging themes and issues will be further explored in the conference presentation. The presentation will contain a more extensive range of interactive science activities.
The digital classroom: A revolution or evolution of ‘good teaching’ The Australian Government’s Digital Education Revolution recognises the changing needs and motivation of contemporary students and aims to contribute sustainable and meaningful change to teaching and learning (DEEWR on-line). Research and classroom practise provides evidence to support the increasing focus on integrating
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB ICT across the curriculum. For example, Hackling and Prain (2005) found from their analysis of a series of seminal Australian research and professional documents that the dominate characteristics of effective science teaching were life and community relevant science learning experiences, active engagement and inquiry learning focused on outcomes that contribute to scientific literacy. In particular, they stated that in effective science teaching; ‘Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are exploited to enhance learning.’ (p. 19). Furthermore, the Australian School Science Education National Action Plan recommended as a priority action that teaching and learning approaches be encouraged that promote the outcome of scientific literacy which included, ‘students learn science by seeking understanding from multiple sources of information, ranging from hands-on investigation to internet searching’ (Goodrum & Rennie, 2007, p. 14). Research findings, classroom experience and policy documents all indicate that new learning environments are required to insure continuity in the learning experiences of students from their world outside the classroom to within.
Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) technology can be the port through which teachers bring a wide range of ICTs into their daily classroom practice. Educational technologies now available include ICT hardware such as computers, scanners, printers and digital cameras; softwares such as Microsoft word, excel, moviemaker, games, CD-ROMs and DVDs; forms of networking conductivity such as World Wide Web and video conferencing. Digital publishing has also entered the classroom with some teachers and students pod-casting, vlogging, contributing to a Wiki or keeping an e-portfolio. The interactive whiteboard enables teachers to bring all the technology together and to the front of the classroom. Teachers are able to incorporate a range of multimedia resources such as written text, pictures, diagrams,
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB photos, video and online websites into interactive classroom teaching and learning activities. Multimedia resources can be converged into a sequence of learning activities, with time efficient links embedded into the IWB softwares notebook. Teachers can engage students with computer based learning without being hidden behind a desktop screen or isolating learners at a computer (SMART Technologies, 2006). Importantly, from a socioconstructivist perspective, students and teachers using an IWB can interact with all the functions of a desk top computer while collaborating and engaging in whole class social discourse.
The uptake of IWB technology internationally and nationally is in part due to its compatibility with existing teaching practices. However, the IWB has been found to offer possibilities for expanding and even reinvigorating teachers’ pedagogy (Higgins, Beachamp, & Miller, 2007). Yet, common sense tells us that what a teacher does with the technology is far more important than the technology itself. For example, U.K. researchers Higgins, Beachamp and Miller (2007) who investigated the impact of educational technology on students’ outcomes state, Good teaching remains good teaching with or without the technology; the technology might enhance the pedagogy only if the teachers and pupils engaged with it and understood its potential in such a way that the technology is not seen as an end in itself but as another pedagogical means to achieve learning and teaching goals. (p. 217)
Effective digital teachers demonstrate the ability to use computers and other technologies combined with a variety of teaching and learning strategies to enhance students’ learning.
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB This means teachers understand how to match appropriate technology to learning objectives goals and outcomes.
Integrating ICT in the IWB classroom Social constructivist classroom teachers who integrate ICT through the use of an IWB emphasise learning with the technologies rather than learning about the technologies. Learning with an IWB can occur in a social environment in which students are encouraged to observe, question, practise and evaluate contemporary knowledge while physically interacting with digital activities. Computer supported learning activities can potentially reveal students’ thinking processes and problem solving strategies as word processing encourages editing on screen, choices made about digital resources are obvious and internet search patterns can be observed and tracked. Teachers are able to use the digital tools for modelling inquiry processes and developing scientific explanations. In the IWB classroom teachers are able to rapidly and flexibly access a range of examples in multimedia formats, which generate opportunities for students to talk through their ideas, transfer ideas to new contexts, debate and negotiate understanding. Student learning is enhanced when individuals are given the opportunity to make their ideas public, participate in rich dialogic discourse in which concepts are shared and vocabulary is developed and practised (Warwick, Wilson and Winterbottom, 2006).
The social constructivist teacher who integrates the use of digital technologies across the curriculum represents an ideal ‘digital teacher’ but in reality the IWB is not always used in this manner or to its full potential. Like many technology led initiatives in education the installation of an IWB is not always accompanied by an adequate understanding of the technology’s impact on pedagogy (Warwick and Kershner, 2008). The tool has been
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB observed complementing traditional teacher led, whole class learning where the IWB is simply used as a surface for writing notes or projecting images. Yet, teachers using effective interactive pedagogies do much more as they become “critical agents in mediating the technology to provide a more dynamic, interactive and appropriate learning experience” (Rudd, 2007, p. 6).
ICT and multi-modal representations Lemke (1998) argues that “we need to see scientific learning as the acquisition of cultural tools and practices, as learning to participate in very specific and often specialized forms of human activity” (p.1). From this perspective, greater emphasis is required on meta-cognitive practises or more simply how students construct meaning. Tytler, Peterson, and Prain (2006) argue that “constructing and re-fining representations is a core knowledge construction activity within science, and should therefore be a major emphasis in the science classroom” (p. 17). Prain & Waldrip (2006) describe these modes as descriptive (verbal, graphic, tabular), experimental, mathematical, figurative (pictorial, analogous and metaphoric), and kinaesthetic or embodied gestural understandings or representations of the same concept or process.
It is argued that the ‘slipping and sliding’, as described by Yore and Treagust (2006) as students move from one mode of interpretation or representation to another is a necessary skill in developing scientific literacy. Jewitt, Moss & Cardini (2007) further argue that “images do not supply a similar version of a concept; they provide a different representation of it; to talk about a concept, to draw it, to animate it, all draw on different aspects of a concept” (p. 310). Hand, Gunel and Ulu (2009) propose that all classroom learning should be focussed around the understanding that “meaning making is multi-modal” and as such
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB students need to “develop multi-literacies as a function of learning” (p. 226). Multi-modal representations are evident in the Primary Connections curriculum resource units used by the teachers participating in the current study. The guide for facilitators of teachers’ Primary Connections professional learning states that ‘multi-modal science texts combine verbal, visual, mathematical and aural language to represent themes, concepts, relationships or explanations’ (Australian Academy of Science, 2007, Science and literacy resource sheet 3:1). The writers of these materials argue that students need to be able to interpret and construct multi-modal science texts. To achieve these aims teachers need to provide students with opportunities to both experience and use different modes of representation in ways that support the development of science outcomes.
Looking into IWB science classrooms The following examples of multi-modal representations in the IWB science classroom were extracted from the participating teachers’ interactive science notebooks. The narrative with each notebook page captures the teachers’ ideas and actions surrounding their development and classroom use of the IWB supported representation of science. The title of the Primary Connections unit framing each IWB notebook is given below.
Weather in My World (Early Stage One)
Our science topic for this term is weather so I start each day by asking the children to talk to me about the day’s conditions. We record the days forecast on the IWB into our weather book (interactive notebook). The children have learned that we show weather with symbols. They take turns to drag the weather symbol into the day’s record. I have even started to extend them by introducing the interactive thermometer and showing the days temperature as a number. Page 1259
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Spinning in Space (Stage two)
The biggest difference in my IWB lessons would have to be the use of video, audio and images. It was fantastic to listen to JFK making a speech and Neil Armstrong talking as he stepped onto the moon. I inserted the media files into the notebook so I could move between each just by touching the board. I could also stop the video and write over the image.
Smooth Moves (Stage Two)
I found this interactive investigation on the BBC schools website. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/scienceclips/ag es/8_9/friction_whatnext.shtml) It didn’t replace the children’s own investigation of friction but more reinforced what they had seen. They could try out a range of surface types and see what effect each had on how far the car traveled.
It’s Electrifying (Stage three)
One child from each group drew the electrical circuit built by their group onto the IWB. There was lots of talk from the members of the group as they decided how to draw the circuit; especially from the first group. We used the record function on the IWB to capture each group’s action on the board and their voices as they talked about what they were doing.
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB In Conclusion Each of these IWB examples illustrates ways the IWB was used by the case study teachers to support multiple representations of concepts in primary science. These notebook pages show science being represented textually, experimentally and symbolically. The students were actively moving between representations on the board which were consistent with the activities conducted at their desks. Interpreting representations and re-representing in another mode facilitated students’ construction of knowledge. However, each example is a snap shot only. The reader must appreciate that it is the connected and flexible nature of the IWB notebooks that generates the whole interactive learning experience. The dynamic nature of a series of activities will be demonstrated at the conference presentation.
References Australian Academy of Science (2007). Primary Connections. At http://www.science.org.au/primaryconnections/spinninginspace.htm. Accessed 5/10/09 Beauchamp, G. & Kennewell, S. (2008). The influence of ICT on the interactivity of teaching. Education Information Technology, 13, 305-315. Betcher, C. & Lee, M. (2009). The Interactive Whiteboard Revolution. ACER Press. Victoria, Australia. DEEWR (2008). Better practice guide: ICT in schools. Available from http://www.deewr.gov.au/Schooling/DigitalEducationRevolution/Resources/guide/P ages/guide.aspx DEEWR (on-line). Digital education Revolution. At http://www.deewr.gov.au/Schooling/DigitalEducationRevolution/Pages/Professional DevelopmentforTeachers.aspx. Accessed 29/08/09
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB Goodrum, D & Rennie, L. (2007). Australian School Science Education: National Action Plan 2008–2012, Volume 1, The National Action Plan, Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Canberra. Hackling, M. & Prain, V. (2005). Primary Connections: Stage 2 trial - Research report. Canberra: Australian Academy of Science. Available from http://www.science.org.au/primaryconnections/pcreport1.htm Hand, B., Gunel, M. & Ulu, C. (2009). Sequencing embedded multimodal representations in a writing to learn approach to the teaching of electricity. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 46(3), 225-247. Hennessy, S., Deaney, R., Ruthven, K. and Winterbottom, M. (2007). Pedagogical strategies for using the interactive whiteboard to foster learner participation in school science. Learning, Media and Technology, 32, 3, 283-301. Higgins, S. Beachamp, G. and Miller, D. (2007). Reviewing the literature on interactive whiteboards. Learning, Media and Technology, 32, 3, 213-225. Jewitt, C., Moss, G., Cardini, A. (2007). Pace, interactivity and multimodality in teachers’ design of texts for interactive whiteboards in the secondary school classroom. Learning, Media and Technology, 32, 3, 303-317. Lee, M. & Boyle, M. (2003). The educational effects and implications of the interactive whiteboard strategy of Richardson Primary School. At http://www.richardsops.act.edu.au. Accessed 6/6/08. Lemke, J. (1998). Teaching all the languages of science: words, symbols, images, and actions. At http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/education/jlemke/papers/barcelon.htm. Accessed 20/08/09
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB Lewin, C., Somekh, B. and Steadman, S. (2008). Embedding interactive whiteboards in teaching and learning: The process of change in pedagogic practice. Education Information Technology, 13, 291-303. Murcia, K. (2008) Teaching for scientific literacy with an interactive whiteboard Teaching Science. 54(4). Murcia, K. & McKenzie, S. (2008). Whiteboard Technology: engaging children with literacy and numeracy rich contexts. Report to DEEWR Australia. At, http://www.education.murdoch.edu.au/clcd/docs/Whiteboard%20Technology%20Repo rt.pdf Osborne, J. (2003). Literature review in science education and the role of ICT: Promises, problems and future directions. Report 6, Futurelab series. Prain, V. & Waldrip, B. (2006) An exploratory study of teachers’ and students’ use of multimodal representations of concepts in primary science. International Journal of Science Education. 28(15), 1843-1866. Rudd, T. (2007) Interactive whiteboards in the classroom. Futurelab. At www.futurelab.org.uk/events/listing/whiteboards/report. Accessed 20/3/09 Shelly, G., Cashman, T., Gunter, R., Gunter, G. (2008).Integrating technology and digital media in the classroom. Thomson Learning. Massachusetts, U.S.A. SMART Technologies (2006). Interactive Whiteboards and Learning: Improving student learning outcomes and streamlining lesson planning. SMART technologies white paper. On-line. Tytler, R. (2007). Australian Education Review. Re-imagining science education: Engaging students in science for Australia’s future. Australian Council for Educational Research. Tytler, R., Peterson, S., & Prain, V. (2006). Picturing evaporation: Learning science literacy through a particle representation. Teaching Science. 52(1), 12-17.
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Multi-modal Science and the IWB Warwick, P & Kershner, R. (2006). Is there a picture of beyond? Mind mapping, ICT and collaborative learning in Primary Science. In Warwick, Wilson and Winterbottom (eds). Teaching and learning primary science with ICT. Open University Press. McGraw-Hill House. Williams, J. & Easingwood, N. (2006). Possibilities and practicalities: Planning, teaching and learning science with ICT. In Warwick, Wilson and Winterbottom (eds). Teaching and learning primary science with ICT. Open University Press. McGraw-Hill House. Yore, L. & Treagust, D. (2008). Current realities and future possibilities: Language and science literacy- empowering research and informing instruction. International Journal of Science Education. 28(2-3), 291-314.
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Running head: Teaching magnetic field using ILD technique
Using interactive lecture demonstration to promote active learning in a large science class: A case study of magnetic field
Pattawan Narjaikaew1 and Narumon Emarat2
1
Udon Thani Rajabhat University, Thaharn Rd., Makkaeng, Udon Thani, 41000, Thailand.
Email:
[email protected] 2
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd,. Ratchathewi,
Bangkok 10400, Thailand. Email:
[email protected]
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Abstract A lecture presentation is the most common teaching method used in classroom, and research suggests that promoting active learning in large classes is possible. This study seeks to improve the teaching of science in a large class setting using interactive lecture demonstration technique to enhance students understanding of science concepts, with a particular emphasis on magnetic field concept. A series of demonstrations were used to help students to develop their own understanding; aided by the process of Predict, Observe, and Explain (POE). To simultaneously watch demonstrations, and follow verbal descriptions, interactive guided notes were used to provide students with opportunity to become actively participate in science learning process. This study was conducted as part of the first-year introductory physics course at a university in Thailand. The result showed that this technique of teaching helped students to master the basic concepts of the subject. This has also enhanced their positive perceptions of learning physics.
Keywords: Active learning, interactive lecture demonstration, interactive guided notes, POE.
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Using interactive lecture demonstration to promote active learning in a large science class: A case study of magnetic field
Introduction The concepts of electromagnetism are abstract and underlie mathematical complexity. The subject we chose was more difficult for students to understand (Maloney, O’Kuma, Hieggelke, & Heuvelen, 2001). The magnetic fields of current-carrying wires are a general term in the magnetism topics of introductory physics. Introducing the magnetic field concept to students was not easy, even if there were carefully drawn diagrams in books (Browne & Jackson, 2007; Prayaga, 2008). After the traditional instruction, we asked the first-year university students (N = 208) about how magnetism produces, 58% of the students mentioned that magnetism was produced by a permanent magnet. Only 27% of the students stated that magnetism was produced by current and 15% of the students showed that they did not know answers. We considered the fact that if we focus only on the interaction between permanent magnets and ferromagnetic materials, students would not give importance to the fact of magnetism generation using electric current. In addition, this might be because students were passively participating in lecture. Introducing the magnetic field concept to students was not easy, even if there were carefully drawn diagrams in books (Browne & Jackson, 2007; Prayaga, 2008). However, lecture presentation is the most common teaching method used in classroom. Research suggests that promoting active learning in large classes is possible.
Lecturing can be an effective method for both professors and students. Research suggested that promoting active learning in large classes can enhance the quality of lecturing that means, students are engaged in thinking about the information being presented. To establish and active learning environment in the lecture, the Interactive Lecture Demonstrations (ILDs) Page 1267
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is seen as to eliminate formal lecture to increase student learning. This is a teaching method that is used to promote student participating in the learning process in large classes (Sokoloff and Thornton, 1997). Research reported that there were significant learning gains in science concepts for students who participated in this teaching approach (Thornton & Sokoloff, 1990, 1998).
This paper describes the use of the interactive lecture demonstrations (ILDs) to improve the teaching of science in a large class. The ILDs were integrated into the lecture at the beginning for introducing magnetic field concept. The aim of the study is to establish an active learning environment to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of magnetic field. We also present a simple series of the demonstration sets that were used to challenge students to predict and observe the magnetic field phenomena. The activities were designed to give students an opportunity to share their understanding of the concept with friends through the lecture that the students become actively participate in learning process.
Background Research on physics learning has revealed that students come to their physics courses with existing ideas about the world that differ from accepted scientific ideas (Bagno & Eylon, 1997; Chang, 2005; Elby, 2001). Research studies about student understanding in electromagnetism topics show that both high school and university students have many existing ideas about these concepts before they come to the physics classroom (Maloney et al, 2001; Narjaikeaw, Emarat, Soankwan, & Cowie, 2006). The ideas of electromagnetism are relevant to students’ daily experience but many students do not associate these topics with their daily life because of a focus in the textbooks used, and in teaching on formulae (McDermott & Redish, 1999; Raduta, 2005). A survey by Maloney and his colleagues Page 1268
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(2001), for example, investigated students understanding of the magnetic field. They implied that students were confused between the magnetic field effects and the electric field effects. Some thought that the wires were positive and negative (the current going out of the page equated to a negative charge, the current coming into the page equated to a positive charge). They also found that some students were still getting the direction wrong, suggesting that students were confused with the direction of the magnetic field caused by a current.
Active learning is an instructional method in which students become active participants in the learning process. Active learning often contrasts to the traditional teaching method, that is, in active learning students transform knowledge from the instructor. Research shows that active learning made a valuable contribution to the development of independent learning skills and the ability to apply knowledge (Sivan, Sivan, Leung, Woon& Kember, 2000). Meyers and Jones (1993) have offered that the basic elements of active learning are talking, listening, reading, writing and reflecting. Keeler and Steinhorst (1995) showed that students working in small groups assist students in developing an understanding of the more abstract and difficult concepts. In addition, student attitudes toward the cooperative group experience were also positive.
The Interactive Lecture Demonstrations (ILDs) was developed by Thornton and Sokoloff (1997) and usually follows a set of procedure. The procedure starts with the lecturer describes the experiment then engages individual students to predict the outcome on a Prediction Sheet. After individual students already predicted the outcome on their own Prediction Sheet, the lecturer engages them to discuss their predictions with neighbors whether they remain the same answer or not for their final prediction on the Prediction Sheet. After that the lecturer run the experiment with the results displayed graphically for all to see. The lecturer engages Page 1269
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student comparing their predictions to the actual results. Students record the actual results on a Results Sheet, which they keep. Lecturer discusses variations of the experiment focusing in particular on any common misconceptions. A very interesting study was conducted by Sokoloff and Thornton (1997) under the title of “Assessing student learning of Newton’s laws: The Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation and the Evaluation of Active Learning Laboratory and Lecture Curricula”. They developed two active learning microcomputerbased laboratory (MBL) curricula: Tools for Scientific Thinking on Motion and Force, and RealbTime Physics Mechanics, to encourage active learning in large lecture classes. Researchers reported on assessments of conceptual learning gains using the Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation (FMCE) for introductory physics students who experienced a series of ILDs on kinematics and Newton’s First and Second Laws. The research data seem to show that the ILD enhanced student learning. Assessments using the FMCE indicate that student understanding of dynamics concepts is significantly improved when these learning strategies are substituted for traditional ones.
Research Design Sample and data collections The participants involved in the study were first-year university students who enrolled in the introductory physics course. They were doing second semester 2007 academic years, at a public university in Thailand. There were 227 students who participated in the interactive lecture demonstration. We gave students the conceptual test (Conceptual Survey of Electricity and Magnetism [CSEM]), the multiple-choice test (Maloney et al., 2001), as preand post-test to assess their knowledge over the subject. The students’ responses on the 3 conceptual questions (Appendix B) were calculated the percentage of the student answering each question correctly using the average normalized gains (Hake, 1998) that sets three levels Page 1270
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of average normalized gain; high when the value is greater than 0.7, medium when it is between 0.7 and 0.3, and low for values below 0.3.
=
(Mean of the post-test in %) - (Mean of the pre-test in %) 100-(Mean of the pre-test in %)
Moreover, interview and three close-ended questions with choices on a five-point Likert-type scale, and an open-ended question were prepared and given to students, to see how they perceived the demonstration activity and which teaching/learning method they found more effective. The ILDs setting A series of the simple demonstrations (Appendix A) were used to help students to explore the magnetic fields of current-carrying wires. Most students were familiar with the use of iron filings to find the shape of the magnetic fields of bar magnets. This lead some of them to think that magnetism is only produced by permanent magnets, ignoring the fact of that produced by current-carrying wires. Therefore, we gave importance to the fact of magnetic fields created by electric current, in our demonstrations. These tools are simple and can be included during a lecture, so that students will understand the concept better. The apparatus consisted of a DC power supply and Plexiglas tables with three wires of different shapes: first a straight wire, second a circular loop and third a solenoid (THAI YAZAKI wire with cross section area 4 mm2, diameter 2.25 mm, with insulation thickness 0.9 mm).
In ILDs setting, students were taught following the ILDs sequences which the POE approach was integrated along with provides activity sheets to record their observations. However, we did not completely follow the eight step of the ILDs procedure (actual lecture demonstrations). The procedure we used in this study as following steps: The instructor presented the demonstration without measurement displayed, the students were asked to
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predict the result and record on their individual demonstration sheet, the instructor choose a few predictions at random from the whole class, the students were engaged to discuss about the prediction with their nearest neighbors, the demonstrations were conducted and the students record the result (observe), small groups were asked to discuss of the result and a few students were chosen to discuss, the instructor asked students to summarise the demonstrations. Findings Students’ responses to conceptual test and to the questionnaire were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching method. The findings will be discussed in turn.
Students’ performances on the conceptual test The students’ responses to the CSEM (shown in table1) showed that students who participated in the ILDs have scored higher after they participated in the ILDs approach.
Table 1. Mean scores (M) and average normalized gains of the pre- and post-test results of the magnetic field test Pre-test
Post-test
normalized
M (%)
gain ,
Questions
n
M (%)
1
227
31
58
0.39
2
227
22
47
0.32
3
227
64
81
0.47
There was a noticeable improvement after the ILDs. However, students ‘performances was in medium level (0.3- 0.7). In addition, eight students were interviewed using the same three questions. All of them were familiar with the right-hand rule that is used to find the direction of the magnetic field around current-carrying wires. They pointed the right hand thump in the
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direction of the current and the curled fingers indicating the direction of the magnetic field. Couple of students seemed to think that the magnetic field in the midway between two identical loops of wire carrying identical current is zero, although they were able to show the researcher the right-hand rule.
Students’ Perceptions of the ILDs Methods The students in the implementation group were given questionnaire after the teaching process. Students’ response on the close-ended questions is shown in Table 2. We combined “Strongly Agree” and “Agree” as “Agree” and took “Strongly Disagree” and “Disagree” as “Disagree”, for easy conclusion of their responses. The result revealed that the mean score of students’ response to the survey was over 3 in the rating scale of 5.
Table 2. Student rating each statement on the benefits of activities (%). (N = 227) Statement
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Mean
S.D.
Conducting demonstrations
4
35
62
4.11
0.85
Providing demonstration sheets
3
18
78
4.01
0.80
Summarising demonstrations
4
21
75
3.97
0.82
Providing opportunity to discuss with friends
9
44
48
3.50
0.83
Providing opportunity to predict the result
12
41
48
3.42
0.92
It could be seen that most of the students perceived that conducting demonstration and providing demonstration sheets helps them learn most. It seemed that some students did not agree with the prediction and discussion as helpful ways for their learning. The open-ended question asked students about that kinds of teaching methods that help them learn during the class. 169 students’ comments on the open-ended section were analysed. About 21% of the students said that conducting demonstration and providing demonstration sheets are helpful.
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No students mentioned the helpful of discussion and prediction. We found that students mentioned many ways which help them to learn in a lecture such as pacing and explaining style of the teacher (42%), showing how to work through problems (10%), asking students some questions during the class (5%), and summarising concepts (4%). Below are some students’ comments,
1
I do not know much about teaching strategies, but I think the conduction of many demonstrations along with relevant theories was very helpful.
2
Conducting demonstrations for these topics is a good teaching method because this subject matter is abstract. Only drawing pictures might not help students learn.
3
Conducting demonstrations allowed me to see the real phenomena and are easy to remember.
4
Providing activity sheets to supplement demonstrations helped me learn and remember the contents better.
5
Providing activity sheets with description helped me understand the contents during demonstration.
6
Summarising the demonstration displays on demonstration sheets helped me grasp the contents better.
Students’ responses over the questionnaire show that, it makes a lot of sense to conduct demonstrations to teach students. This indicates that demonstrations are worthy of inclusion as a way of encouraging students to be interested in what is going on in the lecture classes. Conducting demonstrations might help students to learn better as they are allowed to see how the concept works rather than only listening to what is said.
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Conclusion The demonstration was seen as an essential instrument for helping students to learn the concept of magnetic fields created by current-carrying wires. The first-year university students who attended the study had shown an improvement in understanding magnetic field. Using a series of demonstrations and encouraging students to predict, observe, and explain allows them to visualize the shape and direction of the magnetic field. This will promote students’ interest and improve their understanding of the concepts of magnetic fields created by current-carrying wires. The qualitative data result suggests that students’ perception over the use of learning activities in the ILDs method is positive. The first three activities that students thought as helpful learning activities were conducting demonstrations, providing demonstration sheets and summarizing demonstrations. Providing opportunity to discuss with friends and predict the results were seen as the least helpful method in the lecture. It might be that they might lack of experience with the content, so they were not confident enough for talking about their point, or even were not confident in the others.
Based on students’ responses to conceptual test, questionnaire and interview, student value activities that may support them to become more active in class when they are engaged in doing problems, seeing how things work from visual materials, and participating in doing demonstration. As noted by many researchers that encouraging students to become actively involved in learning/teaching activity tends to help them learn in a classroom (e.g., Sokoloff, D. R., & Thornton, R. K., 1997; McCarthy & Anderson, 2000). The overall student evaluation of the activities they had experienced in the ILDs teaching approach, as detailed in the survey used in this study, was positive.
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References Bagno, E., Eylon, B.-S., & Ganiel, U. (2000). From fragmented knowledge to a knowledge structure: Linking the domains of mechanics and electromagnetism. American Journal of Physics, 68(7), S16-S26. Browne, K., & Jackson, D. P. (2007). Simple experiments to help students understand magnetic phenomena. The Physics Teacher, 45, 425-429. Chang, W. (2005). Impact of constructivist teaching on students' beliefs about teaching and learning in introductory physics. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology, 5(1), 95-109. Elby, A. (2001). Helping physics students learn how to learn. American Journal of Physics, 69(7), S54-S64. Keeler, C.M., & Steinhorst, R.K. (1995, July). Using small groups to promote active learning in the introductory statistics course: a report from the field. Journal of Statistics Education, 3(2). Retrieved October 11, 2009, from http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse/v3n2/keeler.html. Maloney, D. P., O’Kuma, T. L., Hieggelke, C. J., & Heuvelen, A. V. (2001). Surveying students’ conceptual knowledge of electricity and magnetism. American Journal of Physics, 69(7), S12-S23. Meyers, C. and Jones, T. B. (1993). Promoting active learning. Strategies for the college classroom. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco. McCarthy, J.P., Anderson, L. (2000), Active learning techniques versus traditional teaching styles: two experiments from history and political science. Innovative Higher Education, 2, 279-94. McDermott, L. C., & Redish, E. F. (1999). Resource letter: PER-1: Physics education research American Journal of Physics, 67(9), 755-767. Page 1276
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Narjaikaew, P., Emarat, N., Soankwan, C., & Cowie, B. (2006). Year-1 Thai university students’ conceptions of electricity and magnetism In Science and Technology Education Research Papers (pp. 75-95). Haminton, New Zealand: University of Waikato. Prayaga, C. (2008). Preparing content-rich learning environments with VPython and excel, controlled by Visual Basic for Applications. Physics Education, 48(1), 88-94. Raduta, C. (2005). General students' misconceptions related to electricity and magnetism. Retrieved 11 October, 2009, from http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0503132. Sivan, A., Leung, R. W., Woon, C.C., & Kember, D. (2000). An implementatıon of actıve learning and ıts affect on qualıty of student learning. Inovatıons in Education and Training Internatıonal, 37(4), 381-389. Sokoloff, D. R., & Thornton, R. K. (1997). Using interactive lecture demonstrations to create an active learning environment. Physics Teacher, 35(6), 340-347. Thornton, R. K., & Sokoloff, D. R. (1990). Learning motion concepts using real-time, microcomputer-based laboratory tool. American Journal Physics, 58, 858-867. Thornton, R. K., & Sokoloff, D. R. (1998). Assessing student learning of Newton’s law: The force and motion conceptual evaluation and the evolution of the active learning laboratory and lecture curricula. American Journal Physics, 66, 338-352.
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Appendix A: Apparatus for exploring the magnetic field produced by current-carrying wires and the strength of it.
Figure 1. The compass needles tend to emanate from the north pole and re-enter to the south pole of the bar magnet. Notice the alignment of iron filling in the background.
Figure 2.The magnetic field of the straight current-carrying wire. (a) The needles point north when there is no current. (b) The needles point counterclockwise around the wire when the current flows up. (c) The needles point clockwise around the wire when the current flows down.
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Figure 3. The magnetic field created by a circular loop. (a) The needles point towards the north when there is no current in the loop. (b) The needles point counterclockwise and clockwise around the left and the right ends of the loop, respectively. The needles inside the loop point perpendicular to the loop.
Figure 4. The magnetic field created by the solenoid. (a) The needles point north when there is no current. (b) Inside the solenoid, the needles point in the same direction along the axis of the solenoid, whereas the rest tends to point to the north at the outside.
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Figure 5. (a) Set-up for the experiment with compasses aligned along the axis of the coil of wire and the compass needles are not initially lined up with the coil axis. (b) When there is current flowing through the coil, three needles line up in different directions depending on how far they are from the coil.
Appendix B: Three conceptual understanding questions of the magnetic field concept. Question 1 asked students to find the direction of the magnetic field at a point between two long straight wires having current flow in opposite directions. Question 2 asked students to find the direction of the magnetic field around a straight current-carrying wire at two surrounding points. Question 3 asked students to find the direction of the magnetic field on the midway between two identical loops of wire carrying current in the same directions.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration
Understanding photosynthesis and respiration – is it a problem? Eighth graders’ written and oral reasoning about photosynthesis and respiration.
Helena Näs* & Christina Ottander
*Department of Ecology and Environmental Science Department of Mathematics, Technology and Science Education Umeå University S-901 87 Umeå, Sweden [email protected]
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Abstract Earlier studies show that students at almost all school levels have difficulties to understand photosynthesis and respiration. However, international evaluations like TIMSS and PISA, present students’ understanding about photosynthesis and respiration without any connection to teaching and classroom context. Our research interest is to see to what extent ecology teaching develops students’ understanding of photosynthesis and respiration and how students can demonstrate their learning in both a written test and a guided interview. Ten weeks of 66 students’ ordinary ecology lessons were observed, their ecology tests were collected and 23 individual interviews were accomplished. The test results were analysed according to three categories of understanding. The interviews were analysed by how the students recalled their subject content knowledge, which rendered three types of reasoning. Both oral and written reasoning confirm a substantial learning, with more knowledge of photosynthesis than respiration. Analyses of test results and understanding as presented in interviews did not always correspond. Students with high scores in test showed problems to make a comprehensive picture of the concepts during interview, and students who tried and managed to connect concepts during the interview scored low in test. The interviews showed the importance of letting students try to explain concepts and to correct themselves. A potato gave both high and low scored students, an aha-reaction and truly satisfaction when they realised that photosynthesis and respiration were something else than a formula.
Keywords: Secondary school, photosynthesis, respiration, written test, oral reasoning, ecology teaching
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Understanding photosynthesis and respiration – is it a problem? Eighth graders’ written and oral reasoning about photosynthesis and respiration.
1. Introduction At the senior level of nine-year compulsory school in Sweden, photosynthesis and respiration play an important part in biology instruction and curricula. One important objective is that the student at the end of year nine should ”have an insight into photosynthesis and combustion, as well as the importance of water for life on earth” (The Swedish National Agency for Education 1994). Another objective to strive towards is to develop knowledge about organisms and their interplay with the environment. In the understanding of cell and life processes, knowledge about photosynthesis and respiration is described as essential (ibid). Students at almost all school levels, from 9 to 19 years of age, show difficulties in understanding photosynthesis and respiration, and there seems to be a fundamental lack of understanding of basic ecological concepts, e.g. energy flow in ecosystems, including the role of photosynthesis and respiration for life on earth (Canal 1999; Marmaroti & Galanopoulou 2006; Wood-Robinson 1991). Reports from three different decades show the persistence of the intuitive explanation that plants get their food from their environment specifically from the soil, where the roots are the organs of feeding (Andersson 2008; Driver et al. 1994, Smith & Anderson 1984). Understanding photosynthesis depends on concepts of particle theory, changes of phase and transformation that students have difficulty grasping (Carlsson 1999). But according to Barak (1999), the process is not learnt properly if the teaching does not go beyond learning just words and concepts. When photosynthesis is not truly understood, the students tend to use rote learning as a strategy and their knowledge about photosynthesis is not meaningful (Canal 1999). Understanding complex topics in ecosystems requires
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration knowledge about concepts and how to relate them to the whole system (Helldén 2005; Hogan & Fisherkeller 1996 and Magntorn, 2007). Ecology teaching gives an opportunity to relate photosynthesis and respiration to the whole system. Even so, results from Özay & Öztas (2003) show that students aged fifteen did not understand photosynthesis after ecology teaching. Many of the above mentioned difficulties are demonstrated in results from different written tests. Written tests are the most common way to evaluate students’ knowledge both in school and in national (NE, 1992; 2003) and international surveys (TIMSS and PISA). These evaluations have a high impact in media, and one question is whether they fairly reflect the knowledge of the students. Schoultz, Säljö & Wyndham (2001) show how students’ difficulties in understanding two items from a TIMSS’ test were easily solved in an interactive setting and they found it doubtful if these items could test conceptual knowledge. According to Andersson (2008) both every-day language/thinking and scientific language/thinking have an important role in understanding science. It is important for the students to learn how to move between every-day and scientific thinking. Andersson’s work is based upon large empirical material and Piaget’s and Vygotskij’s theoretical descriptions about every-day and scientific knowledge. Using living plant material as artefacts in teaching is important to obtain an ecological understanding and to provide good learning opportunities about photosynthesis in early grades (Helldén 1992; Näs & Ottander 2008; Vikström 2005). Vikström worked with the lifecycles of plants, seeds and angiosperms. She showed how seven to twelve year old students developed complex understanding of photosynthesis when their teachers used a language including metaphors, and when they pointed out critical aspects for the students’ learning. Magntorn & Helldén (2007) described a ‘bottom-up’ perspective in teaching primary students about ecosystems which took its starting point in one common key
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration organism. By connecting the effecting environment and other organisms’ dependence upon the key organism, the students acquired a better understanding of the ecological concepts. Teenagers’ lack of interest in describing and understanding ecological concepts like food webs, recycling and energy transformations tells us that new ways of teaching ecology are needed (Barker & Slingsby 1998; Delpech 2002; Driver et al. 1994; Feinsinger et al. 1997). Slingsby & Barker (2003) claimed that biology teaching needs ethical and emotional aspects to practice the skills. A group task about survival on a Space Shuttle, used as an ecology introduction, allowed the students to discuss and use ethical and emotional aspects and the student interest increased (Näs & Ottander 2009). Delpech pointed out that it is important for the teacher to give the students opportunities to express other knowledge than memorised facts. Teaching, such as process teaching, group work, outdoor education, and ethical and emotional discussions, really needs supportive, experienced and instructing teachers if the students are to learn and understand difficult science concepts (Delpech 2002; Näs & Ottander 2008; Vikström 2008). Knowledge about students’ reasoning gives the teacher interesting insights into student understanding and thoughts (Driver et al. 1996; Mortimer & Scott 2003; Schoultz et al. 2001). Driver et al. listened to students reasoning during work with different scientific problems outside the classroom. In their analyses they tried to describe the learning process of the students. Schoultz used items from TIMSS and could therefore compare the understanding the students showed in a communicative format to the understanding measured in TIMSS’s assessment. Mortimer and Scott studied science talk in the classroom by applying a prepared framework and they found that students’ understanding and interest increased when the teacher used their framework. Research in science education often focuses on designed teaching sessions or at special parts of the classroom activity. Only few studies present the
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration real classroom atmosphere. We would like to contribute to this field of enquiry with students’ knowledge originating from ordinary science classrooms. We studied ecology lessons in three eighth grade classes for ten weeks (the ecology unit) in a Swedish school where the teachers used their usual teaching. The first author had an ethnographic approach (Bogdan & Biklen 2003; Erickson 1986). She observed in the classrooms, studied the tests from all students and conducted 23 individual interviews (Table 1). This paper focuses on students’ written and oral reasoning about photosynthesis and respiration, and we investigate their knowledge after ecology instruction. We address the following questions: •
What knowledge about photosynthesis and respiration do the students show in a written test and in a guided interview?
•
How does the reasoning of students differ in a written test and in a guided interview?
2. Method 2.1 The ecology unit The ecology unit consisted of ten weeks with 33 hours in each class. Table 1 presents the activities during the ecology unit and results from the parts, written in bold, are presented in this paper.
Table 1. The teachers’ lesson plan and time used at each part Introduction to ecology – group work about survival on a Space
5-6 h
Shuttle. Theory lessons in ecology and group work as a preparation for the
5-6 h
excursion to the forest biotope. The excursion and supplementary group work. Theory lessons with
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12-14 h
Understanding photosynthesis and respiration ecology, photosynthesis and respiration content carried out both as lectures, students’ group work and individual work with questions from the textbook interspersed with demonstrations and laboratory work. Repetition lessons before the test and one lesson’s ecology test
5-6 h
(Appendix 1). 23 individual interviews (from 15 to 35 minutes for each student).
During 2 weeks
2.2 Students and teachers involved Three eighth grade classes and their two teachers participated in this study. The teachers had more than ten years of experience and they managed all lesson plans and the teaching. The teachers described the classes as two normal and one problematic class. Many students in the problematic class were restless and disruptive, and they spoiled two thirds of the lessons. One teacher taught the problematic class (18 students) and the other teacher the other two (24 and 27 students respectively) classes. The students had joined the present classes from the sixth grade and had two years left at senior level of the nine-year compulsory school. During the four years together, all the students had science lessons in the three subjects biology, chemistry and physics. They had been taught about photosynthesis and respiration in sixth and seventh grade, but the teachers wanted to repeat the content in the ecology unit. All students and their parents were asked for acceptance of the attendance of the researcher during the lessons and for the follow-up interviews. The Swedish ethical principals in research were followed (The Swedish Research Council 2002).
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration 2.3 The ecology test and analysing strategies The students completed the ecology unit by taking a final test with 20 questions (Appendix 1), designed by the two teachers. The teachers decided the scoring strategies and they scored their students’ tests. We collected tests from 66 students and specifically scrutinised questions with photosynthesis and respiration content. The analysis was made when the tests had been scored, which gave us an opportunity to look at both the answers and the teachers’ scoring. In this paper we report the results of three essay questions (questions 9, 17 and 20, Appendix 1). The answers to these questions were analysed and categorised with three aims: (1) to examine the written reasoning of the 66 students, (2) to allow us to compare their reasoning with a large national evaluation (3100 Swedish students in 1992 and 620 students in 2003), and (3) to use them in comparison of the 23 interviewed students oral statements. We constructed three answer categories: (1) correct, (2) not comprehensive and (3) no or irrelevant answers. These three categories were an amalgamation of the National Evaluation’s nine categories used on the essay question ‘Growing tree’ (question 9) in 1992 and 2003. Our ‘correct’ category corresponded to the two categories of the National Evaluations (NE) for a passed and a passed with distinction grade. To get a passed grade, the NE required carbon dioxide in the answer, perhaps in any combination with nutrition, water and sun energy, and for the passed with distinction grade a more scientific explanation needed to be included in the answer. The NE used five categories including answers where the students tried to explain but used the science words and concepts both incorrectly and incompletely or fragmentarily, such as: the tree has grown and the sun, air or nutrition in diverse combinations. We united their five categories into one ‘not comprehensive’ category since we thought that these answers corresponded to attempts to give a correct answer. Our
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration third category corresponded to the NE’s ‘no answer’ or ‘other’ categories where ‘no answer’ was the dominating answer in our material. We categorised and analysed all three essay questions (the Growing tree, the Polar bear and the Terrarium) in the same way. These questions are part of a workshop on the Internet that is run by Björn Andersson in Gothenburg (NORDLAB-SE, 2009), and our teachers used these questions in the ecology test.
2.4 The interviews We interviewed 23 students. The students were informed about the interviews in the beginning of the teaching unit and were asked to participate after the last lesson. Our interest in learning something about both their lack of knowledge and their actual knowledge was made clear. The students applied on a voluntary basis but some were denied participation as all of them could not be interviewed. Our previous observations had given some knowledge about the reasoning capacity of the students, and we wanted to interview as many students with varying levels of achievement as possible. The composition of the interviewed group was proportional to the three classes’ diversity and composition of strong and weak students. The students were interviewed by the first author. The design of the interview was semi-structured with groups of questions about themselves, the teaching and photosynthesis and respiration. The specific subject content was introduced by means of questions and material (branches of trees, potato, apple and carrot). The interview guide is shown in Table 2. During the interview the students were challenged in their reasoning and the guide was not strictly followed. When the manner and contribution of the students changed the focus of the interview, we encouraged them to finish what they had to say so we could catch unexpected threads. The interview dealt, to a large extent, with photosynthesis and respiration content.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Table 2. The interview guide. Question
Aim
Tell me something about yourself.
Get to know them and help them relax.
Tell me something about the unit you have just
To talk about the ecology unit without
finished. Do you remember anything in
having the intention of mentioning any
particular?
scientific words, processes or concepts.
Do you remember the Space Shuttle? If you
To mention an actual part of the teaching
were told to do it now, would you change your
and the Space Shuttle was their first part.
equipment and plans? What do you think about photosynthesis? Is it
To make them start reasoning about
important? Where is oxygen used? What is
photosynthesis and respiration.
respiration? Branches of pine and spruce, a potato, a carrot
To see if they could use their
and an apple were used. How does this become
photosynthesis/respiration knowledge
a pine, potato etc.? What it is made up of?
with a plant or a fruit in their hands.
2.4.1 Analysis of the interviews The interview design made the questions partly leading and also allows the interviewer to gain insight into the students’ thoughts and knowledge. During the interviews the students were encouraged to elaborate on their explanations, applications and guesses about plant life and other organisms’ dependence on plant life. The reasoning capacity of the students was continuously interpreted (Bogdan & Biklen 2003; Erickson 1986). This first analysis during the interview (Table 2) corresponds to Kvale’s (1996) first three steps in the analysis of qualitative interviews (pp.189-190). The real interpretation of the students’ reasoning (Kvale’s fourth step), started with the transcription of the audiotaped interviews.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Directly after the transcription of each interview, the main issues were summarised and the interviewer’s feeling about the students’ skills were commented on. The first author read through the transcripts many times and tried to develop the meanings of the students’ reasoning. This eventually resulted the defining of three types of reasoning representing the way students describe, explain and just talk about ecology, photosynthesis and respiration. In the beginning boys and girls were separated. More gender similarities than differences appeared in the analysis and we united them into three reasoning types:
1. The ‘linking-together’ reasoning: The students mainly linked scientific concepts and words to form a whole description by using more everyday language rather than scientific language. 2. The ‘memory’ reasoning: The students mainly presented their knowledge by using memorised formulations and correctly articulated scientific concepts. 3. The ‘school-weary’ reasoning: The students mainly maintained that they did not know anything and that it was boring.
The interviews of five students will be presented to demonstrate the reasoning types and the different ways of expressing knowledge in the guided interview.
3. Results 3.1 Written knowledge Table 3 shows how the 66 students managed to answer the essay questions. The questions dealt with photosynthesis (the Growing tree) and carbon recycling (the Polar bear
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration and the Terrarium). Below we show an example of an answer to the Growing tree question categorised as correct.
The tree absorbs solar energy and carbon dioxide through the stomata and water from the soil. In the photosynthesis the tree uses the energy to put the carbon dioxide and the water together to get carbohydrates and oxygen. The oxygen is released through the stomata and the carbohydrates build up the tree.
An example of an answer categorised as not comprehensive was: The weight is a lot of water, nutrients and the tree itself. When it’s raining the tree eagerly sucks up the water with its roots and the water evaporates and the nutrients too. It gets big and heavy because of the branches, the stem and the leaves. Everything weighs.
Over all the answers in the Growing tree and the Terrarium questions were better formulated than in the Polar bear question. There were more than three times as many students that had no or an irrelevant answer in the Polar bear question compared to the other two questions. More than 50% of the students had correct answers on the Growing tree and the Terrarium questions, where the Polar bear question only had half as many correct answers.
Table 3. The 66 students’ answers in three essay questions (9, 17 and 20, Appendix 1) Category
The Growing tree
Polar bear
Terrarium
Correct
39 (59%)
22 (33%)
34 (52%)
Not comprehensive
19 (29%)
16 (24%)
22 (33%)
No or irrelevant answer
8 (12%)
28 (42%)
10 (15%)
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration The students’ answers to the Growing tree question differed substantially (cf. Table 3 and 4) from the results of the National Evaluation (NE). The correct answer category was seven to ten times higher in our material. The high percentage in the no or irrelevant category in the NE of 2003 is also worth noting.
Table 4. The results from the question about the Growing tree in the NE 1992 and 2003 Category
1992 (n= 3103)
2003 (n=620)
Correct
5%
8%
Not comprehensive
73%
47%
No or irrelevant answer
23%
45%
The students in the NE had not necessarily been taught about ecology, plants and photosynthesis recently, so the results from the two studies cannot be easily compared. The students in the NE were, however, in the same age as our students and most of them must have been taught about these topics. Since we used the same correct criteria, we can make the conclusion that our students learnt something from their teaching and it is evident that the students in the NE had forgotten, did not understand or just did not want to answer the questions. Of course, we do not know if our students would also soon forget what they had learnt about photosynthesis. Even so, Näs and Ottander (2008) showed that 11-12 year old students remembered what they had learnt about photosynthesis six months after teaching.
3.1.1 Written answers to the three essay questions Jonas, Sara, Sune, Evelina and Timon will exemplify the written reasoning of the whole group and in section 3.2.1-4 we will discuss their oral reasoning. Below we show their answers to the three essay questions.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration
The Growing tree (“Where does the biomass come from?” question 9, Appendix 1) Jonas: Carbon by means of taking in carbon dioxide and using the carbon to build up itself and then it gets nutrients from the soil that it also uses to build up itself. Sara: It comes from the air. The tree needs carbon dioxide to grow and the bigger it gets it will need more carbon dioxide… so the air and the sun’s energy is the tree’s “food”. Sune: The 250 kilos come from the plant’s photosynthesis. The glucose that is caught is partly used by the plant to build itself up. Evelina: Energy from the sun. Timon: The tree has picked up energy and carbon dioxide and formed it into glucose and oxygen. The plant eats of the glucose and transforms it into building blocks so the tree can grow. All answers except Evelina’s was categorised as correct to this question. Her answer was categorised as not comprehensive. The not comprehensive answers could in the test sometimes render points by the teacher, but never up to a passing level. Timon had the most comprehensive scientific explanation and he also showed a willingness to explain in a holistic way.
The Polar bear (“Describe the journey of carbon atoms.” question 17, Appendix 1) Jonas: A polar bear swam to Norway and found a wolverine that it bit in the leg. This passed the carbon atom to the wolverine and he started to migrate to Sweden where he found a female that he mated with and then it has been passed on through generations. Sara: When the polar bear breathed out, the carbon atom flew away and in the end the wolverine breathed in the atom and the atom entered into the blood circulation and went to the paw.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Sune: The carbon atoms are spread in the wind and come to a flower in the Swedish mountains. Then a field mouse eats the plant and gets the carbon atom. The wolverine then eats the mouse and gets the atom. Evelina: The polar bear breathed out it and the wolverine, later on, breathed it in. Timon: No answer. Timon did not answer this question but all the others tried to make a scientific answer.
Sune was the only one who combined photosynthesis and respiration and explained it in a nearly correct way. Jonas had a long answer that was not comprehensive. His answer describes population ecology theories and not carbon recycling. It is possible that he did not understand the question but he tried (like in the Growing tree) to put the carbon atom in a meaningful context. Students that knew something about molecules and the transformation from one form to another, but did not fully explain, were categorised as not comprehensive (e.g. Sara). A correct answer, out of the 66 students, was: “the plant picks up the carbon atom → is eaten by the bird → the bird flies to Sweden → and the wolverine eats the bird → the wolverine gets the atom → it goes to the front paw“
The Terrarium (“What will happen in the jar if you do not open the lid?” question 20, Appendix 1) Jonas: The plant dies. Sara: The plants die as they need carbon dioxide to live and when you put a lid on, there will be no carbon dioxide. That is why the plants die because they need carbon dioxide to make glucose and without carbon dioxide everything stops. Sune: The plants grow slowly but surely since the oxygen and carbohydrates, made in the photosynthesis, are used in the respiration and there it’ll form carbon dioxide, water and
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration energy that are used in the next photosynthesis and like that it goes on. Photosynthesis = Carbon dioxide + water + energy = oxygen + glucose. Evelina: There will still be plants in it after five years. Timon: It will get misty because they breathe out oxygen but it will not get out of the jar. There will be photosynthesis because there is…
The answers of the students in the terrarium question were hard to categorise since the formulation “What will happen” did not insist upon any scientific explanation. An answer like “It will grow” or “It will stay the same” therefore generated a correct answer. Evelina’s answer was categorised as correct. Sara was categorised as not comprehensive though she tried to explain with the use of carbon dioxide. Sune was again categorised as correct, but his answer shows that he had difficulties in explaining and formulating an answer. Several students showed difficulties in explaining and understanding the questions with an essay character.
3.2 The reasoning during the interview One third of the students taking the ecology unit were interviewed. At the start some of the students did not want to say anything or only said they knew nothing. They needed to be encouraged. They often started to talk about plants and photosynthesis and, unexpectedly, ecology was mentioned more seldomly. The reluctant students started their reasoning about plants/photosynthesis during the third question and those who already had lost their thread were directed back to the subject with this question. When the students realised that they were allowed to use every-day knowledge, their must-give-the-right-answer-tendency was abandoned and new explanations that showed a broader understanding were used.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration The explanations used were often a mix of school science and of their every-day experiences. Branches of pine and potatoes helped the theoretically weak students to find explanations often from a practical angle. For the theoretically competent students a potato in the hand gave an aha-reaction and satisfaction when he/she realised that photosynthesis and respiration were something more than a formula. The pedagogical experience and content knowledge of the interviewer helped the students to broaden and deepen their reasoning (cf. Schoultz et al. 2001). The five interviews below show the reasoning and how the students often used two and sometimes three types of reasoning.
3.2.1 Linking together reasoning The interview with Jonas was easy to accomplish since he was confident, easy to talk to, thoughtful and reflecting in his reasoning. He thought that the ecology unit had been interesting and he highly commended the practical parts with the excursion and the experiments with plants. When he got a potato in his hand he directly connected the photosynthesis of the potato plant with the production of potatoes beneath the soil. Jonas connected scientific words and concepts to his every-day language and he only used linkingtogether reasoning.
J: It gets like a photosynthesis… I: Yes what is that? J: It’s like… when the plant mixes sunlight, water and air into energy… or not air, carbon dioxide and then transforms these into air and energy… I mean glucose. I: Exactly, if you say that you have carbon dioxide in the mixture from start… what do you get afterwards?
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration J: Then it will only be oxygen. Because it makes use of the carbon dioxide, there, together with the energy… I: Yes, what happens to the carbon dioxide? J: I don’t know… it stores it? I: Now you say that you got water, carbon dioxide and energy and then glucose and … is made… J: Oxygen… then the carbon dioxide must go into the glucose. I: Yes, why? J: Because it is needed… in the glucose or otherwise in wont be glucose.
His explanation of how a plant generates dextrose 1 pastilles was easy and logically explained:
No, but it is like this… chemically… it is like made up of… like the scientists have…it’s like synthesised glucose… it’s not like an apple that is taken directly from the tree…they have used the apple and made pastilles from the apples.
Jonas reasoning sprawled but at the same time helped him progress in his understanding. His explanations were elaborated on during the guided interview and he needed help in his learning process.
1
During the lessons the teachers mostly used the word grape sugar. Grape sugar and dextrose is the
same word in Swedish and the students starts to think about the dextrose pastilles when grape sugar is mentioned. Glucose, carbohydrates, sugar, grape sugar, fruit sugar, dextrose etc. are words used during the lessons. In this paper we consistently use the word glucose when it is of little consequence for the context.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Sara mostly used linking-together but also memory reasoning. Her knowledge about photosynthesis and respiration was well developed. She was self-confident and went on talking in a way that sometimes got things wrong. She used scientific language and wanted to explain difficult processes. During the interview there was only a need to ask about her statements and to split some of her ”big” theories into smaller parts. She constantly tried to connect concepts to a context and she tried to create consistency.
I: Why are the plants important? S: I mean, the plants create oxygen and humans need that… we need oxygen to live and if the plants wouldn’t be there we probably would have been created differently. I: How is the oxygen made? S: Hmm… that’s photosynthesis in these spruces and inside the vessels it’s created with like water and air and energy from the sun. Photosynthesis is created and the glucose comes out and at the same time oxygen comes too. I: Hmm when you say comes out what do you mean? S: Eh… actually we have talked about oxygen coming through the stomata on the leaves but I am not sure about the pine-needles and I really don’t know at all how the glucose comes out. Actually it could not come just like this out in the air, could it? I don’t know… we haven’t talked about that. ... ... ... I: Does the glucose come through the plants? Why do you think like that? S: But, I have seen those dextrose pastilles… and then I thought that you could not possibly saw out them from the tree… or I do not know. In some way I think that it comes out.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration
Sara was interested and learned easily. The next excerpt, with her explanation of respiration about the glucose in the plant, shows that she relied on how her memory.
It burns…or it solves oxygen and carbon dioxide and water again so it gets like three different parts again. And the water the tree drinks up… no like… and then… I think that it has something to do with the bark/cortex and that it goes out through the bark or something… evaporates through the leaves or something maybe?
This excerpt shows the difficulty in connecting and understanding all facts that are presented in textbooks and by the teacher. Sara seems to have mixed up things but follow-up questions showed that she could explain the concepts and how they were connected to the context. Sara was more confident than Jonas with the scientific concepts and could easily recall the formula for photosynthesis or respiration (memory reasoning) if she was asked to do so. She also got stuck to a greater extent than Jonas since she was more bound to what the books and the teacher had said. Sara’s concept knowledge and reliance on the words of books and teachers characterizes memory reasoning, as described in the next passage. Of all 23 interviewed students there were eleven that mostly used linking-together reasoning. One memory and four school-weary reasoning students also partly used linkingtogether reasoning.
3.2.2 Memory reasoning Sune used memory reasoning and only with guidance he realised that he had missed some crucial connections between concepts. He was seen as the cleverest boy in the class by both students and teachers. He was a bit bullied because of his proper and adult way of
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration talking. He had, as he said, a good memory and his reasoning was characterised by telling correctly memorised formulas and concepts. He learnt during the interview. The next excerpt shows his reasoning:
I: How can photosynthesis help to become this spruce twig? S: The spruce takes in CO2 and H2O and energy from the sun and transforms it into oxygen and glucose, where the glucose mostly is used to build up the trunk. I: Could you tell me more… it doesn’t matter if you say something wrong. S: But it’s like… water comes up through the roots and is transported in the trunk and the CO2 gets in at the needles… at the stomata. … … … I: If you were to describe a potato… how does it become a potato? S: Yes… I have no idea where the potato comes from, but I have heard that there is starch in it. I: What is that? S: It’s like long glucose molecules that take a longer time to combust than usual glucose. I: How can it become starch in the potato? S: Could it be like… that it takes in CO2 and the sun’s energy into the plant above the soil and that the… the law of gravity takes it down to the potato?
When Sune got the question where in the body you need glucose he tried to come to the point, but after a while he came to the conclusion that he did not know. On the question
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration “What is respiration?” he gave a perfect account for the formula, but then he claimed that he did not know where the respiration process takes place. When he was told to think about the word cellular respiration, genuinely surprised he said: Is it in the cells? It is notably that Sune did not know that respiration is a cellular process. He also encountered problems when he was told to put his knowledge into practice with, for example, the potato. Of all the 23 interviewed students there were only four that mostly used memory reasoning. Ralph, the “most fluent ecology speaker”, used it together with linking-together reasoning. Ludvig used memory reasoning together with a great deal of school-weary reasoning. Four students mostly using linking-together and two mostly using school-weary reasoning, also partly used memory reasoning.
3.2.3 School-weary reasoning Evelina said that she had no interest in science and that she had not understood the point in knowing or learning something about ecology. Evelina was a weak performer in school and without self-confidence. She said: I don’t know what to say … I know practically nothing. When she was asked to say something about what she remembered from the whole ecology unit she mentioned the stomata that she had looked at in the microscope, and seeds and ecosystems were also mentioned. The interviewer asked her what she meant by food and she answered:
Green houses and things… and animals like… that we had… then you always got food… if you let them breed and such … then it’ll get more and more.
A switch back to the stomata track tried to make her talk about plants and what they need. Five times she answered that she did not know, but the stubborn interviewer did not
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration give up and then she suddenly just said: you mean carbon dioxide and water that the plants need followed by an explanation about the products. She forgot the oxygen but easily and directly complemented her answer when she was asked about it. An urgent ongoing reasoning made Evelina talk and she partly showed understanding of both photosynthesis and respiration. The next excerpt shows a “competition dialogue” often used in the interviews with the school-weary students:
I: Where is the sugar made before it comes to the apple? E: I don’t know. I: Yes you do. E: Yeah, but from the tree then…. I: And where in the tree is it made? E: Is it in the roots? I: It is stored in the roots but in this case it is stored in the apple. Where is the glucose made? E: I don’t know… I: But you have told me before. E: No not where it is made, no… I: Where is the photosynthesis happening? E: But, in the plant. I: And… where about in the plant? E: I don’t know… I: Where did you say that the stomata were located? E: In the leaves. …is the sugar made in the leaves too?
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Evelina’s question of whether the sugar is made in the leaves shows how important it is to connect photosynthesis to living matter and to something concrete as an apple. Evelina, just like Sune, had missed where photosynthesis and respiration take place. They used two totally different ways of reasoning but both of them needed a discussion to better understand the processes. Eight students mostly and three partly used school-weary reasoning. Evelina and five more students that did not pass the test showed understanding during the interview. It was difficult to interview these students but during the interview they displayed knowledge they did not know they were capable of.
3.2.4 Timon used all three reasoning types Timon used his concept knowledge (memory) and he connected the concepts correctly (linking-together), but he answered a question only when he wanted to (school-weary). Many of the students that used school-weary reasoning required a wheedling and enticing way of interviewing not to get bored and tired of the whole thing. Timon was restless and in the interview he was bored after five minutes. His fast and often correct answers made the short fifteen-minute interview substantial. Timon’s behaviour during the lessons had made me believe that he knew and learned very little. I was incorrect because he was a quick learner. When asked to tell me something about the unit in the second question, he directly answered:
T: Carbon dioxide and water and energy from the sun give glucose and oxygen. I: Was that what you remembered? T: That's just it. Photosynthesis… I: What is the glucose used for?
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration T: Fruit, resin, cones and to give food. Because the plants eat it and then they grow. They grow because of the glucose but they also make cellulose, starch that is in bread, potatoes and trunks.
3.3 A comparison of the written and oral reasoning knowledge Figure 1 shows different usage of the three reasoning types by twelve of the 23 interviewed students. The students’ grades on the ecology test are also shown in the table. Each student is put in the square that shows her/his grade and that best describes his/her reasoning. The arrows mark the other types of reasoning that they used. For example, Timon used mostly linking-together reasoning and he received a passing grade. His use of both memory and school-weary reasoning are marked with two arrows.
Reasoning types Grades Passed with distinction
Memory reasoning
Ralph Sune
Linking-together reasoning
School-weary reasoning
Lovisa Jocke Sara Timon Lisa Jonas
Passed
Ludvig Niklas Not passed Maria Evelina Figure 1. Twelve students’ usage of the reasoning types and their grades in the test
Jonas used linking-together reasoning and his knowledge served him better in the interview than in the test. Sara’s oral explanation about what happens to the dextrose pastille showed a knowledge that she did not use in the written Terrarium question, for example.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Sara’s oral reasoning was characterised by high concept knowledge that she always tried to put in a context. Sara only got a passing grade in the test. Linking-together reasoning often generated lower grades than memory reasoning. Even so, Lovisa and Jocke only used linkingtogether reasoning and succeeded well in the test. Lovisa succeeded best of all the students in the test. She reasoned more sparingly than Sara and did not speculate. Lovisa’s closest equivalent, Ralph, was the most fluent ecology speaker. He used more memory than linkingtogether reasoning. Sune’s memory reasoning with short and correct answers (often written formulas) was rewarded in the test and he received a pass with distinction grade. Ludvig used memory reasoning in the interview and seemed to be school-weary and lazy but unexpectedly he did well in the test. Evelina’s sun energy answer in the Growing tree scored zero and she did not pass the test, but in the interview she showed that she had more knowledge and understood better. All students, that used the school-weary reasoning, also used either linking-together or memory reasoning. Maria and Niklas were the only two students who, from their oral reasoning, could be categorised as weak achievers, and they partly used memory reasoning. Underachievers who memorised and used short answers in the test succeeded better than underachievers who used their own theories and made efforts to link together ideas (cf. Niklas and Evelina). Half of all interviewed students claimed that science is boring and those students mostly used linking-together and school-weary reasoning. Timon’s answers in the three essay questions showed that he had understood photosynthesis. Why did Timon not answer the Polar bear question and why did not he elaborate his answer in the Terrarium question? Was it because he was stubborn and bored? In the interview he clearly explained that respiration happens in humans. In his written answer in question 10 (Fig. 1), the respiration process is correctly explained but, contradictory to his
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration oral reasoning, he wrote that respiration only happens in plants. This answer shows the danger with making respiration the inverse formula to photosynthesis (cf. Canal 1999).
Describe respiration. Please draw to support your writing. (2p). Oxygen + glucose → water + energy+ carbon dioxide. Respiration is like photosynthesis backwards. Does respiration take place in both plants and animals? Explain. (2p) No, only in plants because they’ve got chlorophyll. Figure 2. Timon’s answer to question 10 (cf. Appendix 1). Answer in Swedish to the left.
Our analysis of the written and oral reasoning shows that only a small part of the students’ understanding about photosynthesis and respiration was demonstrated in the written test.
4. Discussion According to the literature, learning and understanding photosynthesis and respiration is difficult (Andersson 2008; Driver et al. 1994; Smith & Anderson 1984). An essential question is if it is possible to judge the understanding of a student from an answer in a written test? The students in our study took part in an ecology unit for about ten weeks. Their written tests showed more knowledge about photosynthesis and respiration than expected from Özay’s & Öztas’ (2003) study. The students, however, also showed more knowledge about both concepts than in the National Evaluation (NE) and in Driver et al.’s study 1994. Both the
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration oral and the written reasoning of the students confirm better knowledge in photosynthesis than in respiration. The teachers’ greater focus on plants than animals during the ecology unit was probably one of the reasons for more knowledge in photosynthesis. In our comparison with the NE (1992 & 2003), we found that our 66 students had much better knowledge about photosynthesis than the students in the NE. We think that the large national and international evaluations (NE, PISA and TIMSS), which present students’ understanding about photosynthesis and respiration without any oral reasoning or connection to teaching and classroom context, underestimate students’ knowledge. Of course we do not know how motivated the students are to answer correctly in these big surveys. Most of our students presented more knowledge than expected in the guided interview compared to the written test. In the interview most of our school-weary students showed a will to link the concepts and they would have passed in an oral test. All of the 23 interviewed students showed ‘good’ oral qualifications in photosynthesis. But we also met students with good memory and high grades in the test that showed surprising gaps in understanding when they orally had to explain the formulas and put them in a context. There were also students who had succeeded quite well in the test and remembered nothing in the interview one or two weeks later. The students who succeeded best in the interview tried to put everything in a context and they wanted to explain everything. Unfortunately, this often made them speculate and develop their own theories that naturally were not successful in the test. This corresponds with the results from Schoultz et al. (2001). These students emphasised the importance of the communicative format. The traditional test situation in schools does not include the presence of a conversational partner and without that, the text of the problem can, for example, be difficult for the students to understand. The conversational partner can also help the students to resolve difficulties of a conceptual nature. Schoultz et al. concluded that the low performance on written tests appears to be a product of the absence of the communicative
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration format. Our results show the importance of a communicative partner for students’ understanding. The low achieving students in our project asked for emotional aspects in the teaching to make it more interesting and the lack of such a discussion was probably one of the reasons for both their written and oral answering strategies. Slingsby & Barker (2003) claimed that biology teaching needs ethical and emotional aspects to practice the skills. We also found that a more complex reasoning in the interview made both high and low achieving students more interested, i.e. a formula interested a few students but the more complex explanation about how a carrot, potato or an apple ‘comes out of’ photosynthesis interested all 23 teenagers. This corresponds with Delpech (2002), who asked for more practical fieldwork and to allow more flexibility in the students’ answers. Magntorn and Helldén (2007) mentioned the importance of taking primary students out to engage them and acquire better understanding. Teenagers also need to get out, but the opportunity to discuss authentic matter in the classroom and thereby interest students more and allow them to gain deeper understanding is even more important. So, we must conclude that learning and understanding photosynthesis and respiration is not really a problem. Tests conducted in close connection to a unit of instruction also show students’ knowledge. Major evaluations, such as NE, are not necessary. If the students are given the opportunity to reason with their teachers and classmates, to use fewer formulas, and, when using formulas, to connect them to concrete material, such as branches and fruits, they will achieve better understanding. This corresponds to learning theories that present both every-day language and scientific language as essential for a deeper understanding.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration 5. References Andersson, B. (2008). Att förstå skolans naturvetenskap. Forskningsresultat och nya idéer. Studentlitteratur. Andersson, B., Bach, F., Frändberg, B., Jansson, I., Kärrqvist, C., Nyberg, E. et al., (2009). Formativ utvärdering med fotosyntes som exempel. http://naserv.did.gu.se/nordlab/se/trialse/pdf/bi3.pdf (2009-10-04). Barak, J. (1999). As ‘process’ as it can get: students’ understanding of biological processes. International Journal of Science Education, 21, 1281-1292. Barker, S. & Slingsby, D. (1998). From nature table to niche: curriculum progression in ecological concepts. International Journal of Science Education 20, 479-486. Bogdan, R. C. & Biklen, S. K. (2003). Qualitative Research for Education. An introduction to Theories and Methods, 4th Ed. Syracuse University. Canal, P. (1999). Photosynthesis and ‘inverse respiration’ in plants: an inevitable misconception? International Journal of Science education, 21, 363-371. Carlsson B. (1999). Ecological understanding – A Space of Variation. Luleå University of Technology Delpech, R. (2002). Why are school students bored with science? Journal of Biological Education, 36, 156-157 (editorial). Driver, R., Leach, J., Millar, R., & Scott, P. (1996). Young People’s Images of Science. Open University Press. Buckingham, Philadelphia. Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P. & Wood-Robinson, V. (1994). Making sense of secondary school science: Research into children’s ideas. London: Routledge. Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative Methods in Research on Teaching. Handbook of Research on Teaching third ed., 119-161.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Feinsinger, P., Margutti, L. and Oviedo, R. D. (1997). School yards and nature trails: ecology education outside university. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12(3), 115-119. Helldén G. (1992) Grundskoleelevers förståelse av ekologiska processer. Studia Psykologica et Pedagogica. Series Altera C. Stockholm Helldén, G. (2005). Exploring Understandings and Responses to Science: A Program of longitudinal Studies. Research in science education, 35, 99-122. Kristianstad University. Hogan, K. & Fisherkeller, J. (1996) Representing students thinking about nutrient cycling in ecosystems. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 33, 129–141. Kvale, E. (1996). Interviews. An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Sage Publications, Inc. Magntorn, O. (2007). Reading nature. Developing ecological literacy through teaching. The Swedish National Graduate School in Science and Technology Education. Linköping University. Magntorn, O. & Helldén, G. (2007). Reading nature from a ‘bottom-up’ perspective. Journal of Biological Education 41 (2) 68-75. Marmaroti, P., & Galanopoulou, D. (2006). Pupils’ Understanding of Photosynthesis: A questionnaire for the simultaneous assessment of all aspects. International Journal of Science education, 28, 383-403. Mortimer E. F. & Scott P. (2003) Meaning making in secondary classrooms. Milton Keynes England: Open University Press. National evaluation of the compulsory school in 1998 and 2003. http://www.skolverket.se/ (20091004) Näs, H. & Ottander, C. (2008). Students reasoning while investigating plant material. NORDINA-Nordic Studies in Science Education, 2, 177-191.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Näs, H. & Ottander, C. (2009). The Space Shuttle – an introduction to ecology teaching. ERIDOB proceedings (in press). Schoultz, J. Säljö, R. & Wyndham, J. (2001). Conceptual knowledge in talk and text: What does it take to understand a science question? Instructional Science, 29. 213-236. Slingsby, D. & Barker, S. (2003). Making connections: biology, environmental education and education for sustainable development. Journal of Biological Education, 38, 4-6 (editorial). Smith E. L., & Anderson C. W. (1984). Plants as Producers: A Case Study of Elementary Science Teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21, 685-698. The Swedish National Agency for Education (1994). Curriculum in nine-year compulsory school LpO 94 The Swedish Research Council, (2002). Ethical Guidelines for Research. (Vällingby: Elanders Gotab). Vikström, A. (2005). A seed for learning. A variation theory study of teaching and learning in biology. Doctoral thesis no: 2005:14. Department of Educational Sciences. Luleå University of technology. Vikström, A. (2008). What is Intended, What is Realized, and What is Learned? Teaching and Learning Biology in the Primary School Classroom. Journal of Science Teacher Education 19, 211-233. Wood-Robinson (1991). Young People’s Ideas About Plants. Studies in Science Education, 19 119-135. Özay, E. & Öztas, H. (2003). Secondary Student’s Interpretation of Photosynthesis and Plant Nutrition. Journal of Biological Education, 37, 68-70.
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration Appendix 1
Ecology test in the 8th grade 1. In the textbook the word ecology is described as ”the theory about the house”. Explain what the word ecology means. 1p
2. Karin fills up a plastic bag with usual air (air is a mixture of gases). Then she puts the plastic bag over the potted plant and ties it round the stem as shown in the figure below. The seal is fully airtight. The plant is put in darkness for a whole night. The following are some statements about what happens to the air mixture in the plastic bag. You are going to put an R after a right statement and an F after a false statement. 1p
i. The amount of oxygen increases ii. The amount of oxygen decreases iii. The amount of oxygen stays the same iv. The amount of carbon dioxide increases v. The amount of carbon dioxide decreases vi. The amount of carbon dioxide stays the same
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration 3. Name two examples of eco systems. 1p
4. Mention two things that, besides animals and plants, have an effect on an ecosystem. 2p
5. Which one/ones of the following food chains are correct? 1p for right, and minus 1p for wrong, answer. The question generates minimum 0p.
b)
Pine --- bug --- woodpecker --- moose ---
c)
field-mouse --- fox --- golden eagle
d)
plant plankton --- zoo plankton --- dragon fly larva --- perch
e)
zoo plankton --- plant plankton --- fry --- pike
f)
birch --- plant-louse --- ladybird --- willow warbler
6. What is meant by a population? 1p
7. a) What is the process in which the green plants capture light called? 1p
b) Why do raspberries that get more sun light taste sweeter than the ones that have been in the shade? 2p
c) What is the green pigment in plants called? 1p
8. You have an elodea plant in a test tube beneath a shining lamp. What gas comes like bubbles from the plant? 1p
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration 9. A small tree is planted on a meadow. Twenty years later it has grown into a big tree. The tree has grown taller, the trunk has grown thicker. The tree has many leaves, branches and big roots. The tree weighs 250 kilos more than when it was planted. Where do these 250 kilos come from? Explain your answer as fully as possible. 3p
10. a) Describe respiration. Please draw to support your explanation. 2p
b) Does respiration take place in both plants and animals? Explain. 2p
11. a) What purpose do decomposers serve in the ecosystem? 2p
b) Give two examples of decomposers. 2p
12. What is an animal on the last level of a food chain called? 1p
13. a) What is meant by symbiosis? 1p
b) Name an example from the nature. 1p
14. a) Describe soil humidity in a biotope where almost only pine trees grow. 1p
b) Name two examples of plants that you can find in a pine forest. 2p
c) Name two examples of plants that you can find in a spruce forest. 2p
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration 15. What do you know about the soil in the pine forest? 1p
16. a) Why do the lakes have a seasonal thermocline? 2p
b) Which seasons is the lack of oxygen in the lakes a problem? 2p
17. In the exhalation air from a polar bear on Greenland there are molecules of carbon dioxide. We are interested in the carbon atom in one of these molecules. Many years later this special carbon atom is found again in the front paw muscle of a young wolverine in the Swedish mountains. Describe as carefully as possible the carbon atom’s journey from the polar bear to the wolverine’s paw. 4p
18. Why are there so few top-level predators in an ecosystem compared to plants? Explain as carefully as you can. 3p
19. Use the figure and explain the oxygen and carbon cycles in nature. Please draw arrows that elucidate your description. Use the following words: oxygen, fox, hare, water, carbon atom, grass, respiration, air, glucose, carbon dioxide and decomposers. 4p
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Understanding photosynthesis and respiration 20. You take a glass jar with a lid and put some soil in it. Soil usually has fungus and bacteria in it. You plant some green plants and add water to get humidity. Then you put on the lid and put the jar in a lit place. What will happen in the jar if it is standing there for five years without opening the lid. 4p
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Teachers’ Beliefs Preservice Science Teachers’ Beliefs
A Constructivist Technology-aided Instruction and its Influence on Preservice Science Teachers Beliefs & Understanding
Lorna Milly A. Navaja
Central Mindanao University Musuan, Bukidnon, 8710 Philippines
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Teachers’ Beliefs ABSTRACT
The study aimed to examine how the introduction of a constructivist technology-aided instructional unit influenced preservice teachers’ beliefs and understanding to adopt constructivist teaching practices and utilize technology for science teaching. The data were gathered through questionnaires, journals and interviews. The preconceptions on teaching, learning and computer use in the classroom were determined before and after their participation in the instructional unit, to determine changes in their beliefs and preconceptions. Semi-structured interviews and journal writing were used to further examine the students’ answers to the questionnaires. Data derived from the General Science Questionnaire, showed that the respondents’ participation in the instructional unit has resulted in a significant increase in their understanding of basic science concepts. The Pearson Product Correlation was used to determine the extent of association between the respondents’ pedagogical beliefs and their use of computers for instruction. The qualitative results indicated that the participants showed dissatisfaction with their existing conception. They acknowledged the viability of the constructivist technology-assisted instructional unit as a result of their participation in the instructional unit. It enabled most of the respondents to undergo conceptual change at varying levels. These results showed that the subtle changes of beliefs and conceptions of the participants, which were not significant using quantitative methods but were evident in the qualitative results.
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Teachers’ Beliefs
A Constructivist Technology-aided Instruction and its Influence on Preservice Science Teachers Beliefs & Understanding Introduction Alarming reports of poor quality of science teachers’ content knowledge and the low interest and poor performance of students in mathematics and the sciences have prompted more than ever the urgent need to improve programs in teacher education. The bleak state of science education in the Philippines is no exception, as evidenced by the poor performance of Filipino students in standard examinations given at the national and international levels. This dismal state implicates as one of the causes, the inadequate preservice preparation of teachers in science and mathematics disciplines (DEET, 1989; Ibe, 2002). Bybee (1993) has indicated that the decisive component in reforming science education is the classroom teacher. Unless the classroom teachers move beyond the status quo in science teaching, the planned reform will falter and eventually fail. Researchers and practitioners have begun to acknowledge the important influence that teacher beliefs have on virtually every aspect of the teaching/learning process. A substantial amount of evidence has emerged, suggesting that beliefs held by the teachers, influence their perceptions and judgments and therefore affect their practices (Pajares, 1992). That is why their beliefs are the more precise agents of change, and they have to be taken into consideration when changing teaching practices (Lumpe, Haney & Czerniak,2000). Cooney & Shealy(1997) have indicated that the ideal time to explore the beliefs of teachers is during the early stages of teachers’ development for they are said to optimize the impact of learning of new teaching practices. Belief change is premised on the theoretical perspective of constructivism. The core view of constructivist learning suggests that all knowledge is actively constructed in the mind
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Teachers’ Beliefs of the learner. It is committed to the general view that 1) learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge, and 2) instruction is a process of supporting that construction rather than communicating knowledge (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). The only tools available to the learner are his senses and it is through his senses that an individual interacts with the environment. From the constructivist perspective, researchers affirm that computer technology provides abundant opportunities for students to build or modify their personal knowledge through the rich experiences that technology can offer (Papert, 1993). Educational technology, when used appropriately, will produce positive effects on student’s attitudes, achievement, and classroom interaction, which in turn will be beneficial for the improvement of science education (Galligan, Buchanan & Muller(1999). It is in the light of the foregoing discussions that the present study was conducted. The overall direction of the study was to examine changes in beliefs of preservice teachers to adopt constructivist teaching practices and utilize technology for science teaching. It also included changes in understanding of basic science concepts as a result of the introduction of a constructivist technology-aided instructional unit.
The Research Method Participants Forty-four students (ages 18-23) from an intact Education class were used as respondents for the study. Of the forty four students, thirty-five (80%) of the respondents were female. Six were majoring in Biology or General Science while the rest were majoring Math or English. These six students were used in the qualitative portion of the study.
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Teachers’ Beliefs
Procedure 1. The study used the descriptive-analytical research design to describe and assess the beliefs of preservice teachers before and after instruction. Data gathered from multiple sources used both qualitative and quantitative techniques. 2. A technology-assisted instructional unit was developed for the research and was taught using the constructivist method of instruction. The class met for 3-hours every week for eight weeks. 3. Data used in the quantitative method were derived from three survey instruments answered by the whole class before and after participation in the instructional unit. Data for the qualitative portion were derived from the answers of the six General Science/Biology Survey Questionnaires Three survey questionnaires were used for the study to describe how the respondents reacted to the technology-assisted intervention. Two of these questionnaires were on beliefs and one was on basic science concepts.
Teacher Beliefs Survey(TBS). The Teacher Beliefs Survey (TBS) was developed by Jane Benjamin & Charles Kefover(2004) and validated as “an instrument that could measure changes in teachers’ beliefs related to constructivist and behaviorist theories of learning” (Wooley & Woolley,1999). The instrument consisted of 48 items, representing four components: Behavioral Management(BM),10 items; Behavioral Teaching(BT),10 items; Constructive Teaching(CT), 17 items; and Constructive Management(CM), 11 items. With the authors’ permission, the number of items were reduced after the instrument was field-tested and an initial reliability analysis was done. Those items with low item total correlation were not included. Also, the original 6-point Likert type scale with 6 = strongly
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Teachers’ Beliefs agree and 1 = strongly disagree, was changed to a 4-point Likert type scale with 4 = strongly agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree and 1 = strongly disagree. The remaining items consisted of 7 BM, 4 BT, 5 CT and 4 CM, totaling to 20 items. The computed Cronbach’s alpha for the subscales of the Teacher Beliefs Scale(TBS) were: Behavioral Management ( α= 0.64), Behavioral Teaching ( α = 0.75), Constructivist Teaching ( α = 0.67) , and Constructivist Management ( α = 0.64). Cronbach's alpha should at least be 0.6 for reliability tests to be acceptable (Heath & Martin, 1997). Beliefs about Teaching with Technology Instrument(BATT). Ford(1992) identified two types of beliefs that are critical for a person’s effective functioning: capability belief and context belief. Capability (or enabling) beliefs include a person’s perception of whether he possesses the personal skills needed to function effectively. Context (or likelihood) beliefs include an individual’s perception about how responsive the environment (external factors and/or people) will be in support to his effective functioning. Ford (1992) further indicated that capability and context beliefs combined will form the Personal Agency Belief patterns that regulate the level of motivation a person has in reaching a target goal. Fourteen categories of contextual factors impacting teachers’ beliefs about technology use are found in the questionnaire. These categories include the following: a) resources, b) professional development, c) internet access, d) quality software, e)classroom structures, f)administrative support, g)parental support, h)teacher support, i)technical support, j)planning time, k)time for students to use technology, l) class size, m) mobile equipment, and n)proper connections. Initial reliability analysis of the BATT instrument for Capability (enabling) beliefs ( α = 0.73) and Context (likelihood) beliefs ( α= 0.86) were already acceptable, thus, no item was eliminated from the BATT instrument.
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Teachers’ Beliefs General Science Questionnaire on Matter and its Properties. The General Science Questionnaire was used to determine the conception/ misconceptions of preservice science teachers on the properties and changes that matter undergoes. The questionnaire consisted of 30 questions, 15 of which were on the classification of mixtures, and the changes and properties of matter, while the rest were multiple choice questions on general knowledge of matter. Some of the questions were made, based on the computer program which the students used in the study. The students were made to explain their answers to determine their conceptions / misconceptions about the topic. The questionnaire was content - validated by four General Science professors and their comments and suggestions were considered. To determine if there were changes in their conceptions due to the instructional unit, the results of the posttest were compared with the results of the pretest. Reflective Journal Writing. The description of the beliefs of students gathered from the survey instruments, was supported by the analysis of the reflective journals. The 44 students were required to have a journal, but only the journals of six students were analyzed. The questions asked revolved around their beliefs about the lesson, the method and the use of technology. Exit Interview .
Another qualitative method used in this study was the exit interview with the six students. The semi-structured interview was conducted at the end of the implementation of the instructional unit to answer Research Question 3 and cross-validate results from the survey
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Teachers’ Beliefs instruments. The interview was aimed at assessing the participants’ consistency in their verbal statements when compared to their answers in the survey instruments and the reflective journals. The Technology-Aided Instructional Unit (TIU) The goal of the instructional unit was to facilitate and develop the conditions needed for the preservice teachers to alter their beliefs about teaching, learning and classroom computer use. The Instructional Unit consisted of five lessons. These lessons were designed to help preservice teachers progress toward a change in their beliefs. Each lesson is briefly described below, Lesson 1. The main objective of this lesson was to identify the existing conceptions and beliefs of the students about teaching and learning and classroom computer use. Through small group discussions, students’ prior ideas and beliefs were elicited. As part of the session, the students were made to experience the use of computers in the teaching-learning process . From initial findings, ten of these students (22.7%) have never used the computer, 16 have used it only once, while 18 have used it more than once for encoding.
Lesson 2. This session was centered on the comparison and contrasting of the traditional approach to teaching (behaviorism) with constructivism. The students were shown movie clips of classes taught using constructivist methods. A debate was set to determine which approach was better. The class was divided into two groups: one group defend the traditional approach and the other the Constructivist approach. Class discussion followed. Lesson 3. This lesson focused on the use of technology in the classroom. Two movie clips “Using multimedia as a teaching tool” and “Technology in the classroom”were shown. The first movie clip showed several ways of using multimedia to enhance and improve the
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Teachers’ Beliefs learning experience in teaching, while the other movie clip showed how teachers in some schools made use of technology to enhance the learning of their students. These movie clips were followed by class discussions on the use of multimedia in the classroom. Lesson 4. In this lesson, a computer simulation was used on basic science concepts . The computer simulation fits well within the constructivist framework. The computer simulation used was an interactive program on Matter and its Properties. After the presentation of the software, the students were given time to experience manipulating the program. Classroom discussion followed for their questions and comments on the lesson as well as the interactive program. As a final requirement, the students were grouped by threes and were given two weeks to design a 15-minute Science lesson. They were to use the Microsoft’s power point presentation and the method which they believe is best . Lesson 5. The groups were given 15 minutes to present their lesson in class. Three Science professors from the College of Education were asked to evaluate their presentations. After all presentations, class discussion followed wherein the students reviewed and reflected on the lessons they have learned. During the discussion, the students were given the opportunity to challenge the constructivist approach and articulate their newly constructed knowledge. This activity allowed for both evaluation of student understanding and measurement of the level of change within each student. Data Analysis. A summary of the data collected from the different instruments mentioned is as follows: a) Data used in the quantitative method were derived from three survey instruments mentioned. These instruments were answered by all the students in the intact class.
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Teachers’ Beliefs b) Data for the qualitative part were derived from the answers of the six General Science/Biology major students gleaned from their reflective journals and exit interview. Table 1 offers an overview of the research questions and the data used to answer them. Table 1 Research questions and the data used Research Question
Data Used
1.How did preservice science teachers respond to a) Data from the pretest and posttest of the the Instructional Unit in terms of their
questionnaires(TBS &BATT)answered
a) pedagogical beliefs
by the students at the start and at the end
b) capability beliefs
of the instructional unit(TIU).
c) context beliefs
b) reflective journals written by the six students after each of the 5 sessions. b) Exit Interview with the six students
2. To what extent are the preservice teachers’ a) Statistical analysis of data from TBS beliefs for teaching associated with their beliefs for subscales & BATT Questionnaires. utilizing microcomputers in science instruction? 3. What effect does the instructional unit have on a) Data from the pretest and posttest of preservice teachers’beliefs and understanding of
Questionnaire on Matter and its
basic science concepts.
properties
4. What is the effect of the technology-based a) Statistical analysis of data from BATT program used in the instructional unit on preservice Questionnaire answered by the students teachers
beliefs
with
respect
to
utilizing b) Reflective journals written by students
microcomputers in science instruction.
after using the IU c) Interview of students at the end of IU.
Results and Discussion The goal of the study was to examine the effect of a constructivist technology-aided instructional unit on pre-service teachers’beliefs to adopt constructivist teaching practices and utilize technology in science teaching. The discussion of the results will follow the research questions of the study.
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Teachers’ Beliefs 1. Research Question (1) How do preservice science teachers respond to the instructional unit in terms of their a) pedagogical beliefs, b) capability beliefs, and c) context beliefs? The quantitative sources of evidence with respect to this question were the analyses of the two survey instruments: the Teachers Belief Survey (TBS) for the pedagogical beliefs, and Belief about Teaching with Technology(BATT) for the capability beliefs and context beliefs. Excerpts pertaining to the question, taken from their reflective journals will be given in the qualitative results . 1. 1. Pedagogical Beliefs To determine the preservice teachers’ pedagogical beliefs, the Teacher Beliefs Scale (TBS) instrument was used. TBS is made up of four subscales: Behaviorist Teaching(BT), Behaviorist Management(BM), Constructivist Teaching(CT) and Constructivist Management(CM). The means and standard deviations of the responses were used to describe the preservice teachers’ pedagogical beliefs prior and subsequent to their participation in the constructivist technology-assisted instructional unit . Table 2 shows the average means and standard deviations for each of the four subscales in the TBS prior to (pretest) and after (posttest) their participation in the TIU. The data in Table 2 indicate a high average mean value for the four subscales before and after their participation in the instructional unit . These values suggest that the preservice teachers’ beliefs can be eclectic and contradictory, that they may be holding both behaviorist as well as constructivist views. While the participants in the study may have agreed with constructivist items, they did not simultaneously reject the behaviorist view of teaching. Klien (1996) argues that while “constructivism denotes a set of related beliefs for some educational theorists, these same beliefs can appear independent of one another to many students” (p. 369). Thus, many of the preservice teachers may hold contradictory sets of beliefs depending on the context and that these beliefs may reflect both a constructivist and
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Teachers’ Beliefs behaviorist philosophy at the same time, From the explanation of Klien(1996) , their beliefs “are not yet organized into a coherent body of knowledge or that the preservice teachers in some way may have reconciled the different approaches”(p. 370). Table 2 Pretest and Posttest Average Means and Standard deviations per Subscale of Teachers’ Beliefs Scale(TBS). Responses __________________________________________________ Pretest Posttest __________________________________________________ N Mean SD N Mean SD ______________________________________________________________________________________ A. Behaviorist Teaching 44 3.20 .45 44 3.11 .49 B. Behaviorist Management
44
3.09
.49
44
3.00
.42
C. Constructivist Teaching
44
3.22
.45
44
3.33
.49
D. Constructivist Management
44
3.19
.45
44
3.22
.44
To evaluate the impact of the teaching approach on the preservice teachers’ beliefs based on the changes in the average means of the four subscales, a paired sample t-test was conducted. Results indicate that the changes in means in the four subscales of TBS are not significant at the .10 level. Behavioral Teaching:
t(43) = 1.245, p> .10
Behavioral Management:
t(43) = 1.479, p> .10
Constructivist Teaching:
t(43) = - 1.588, p > .10
Constructivist Management: t(43) = -.433 , p> .10 These results indicate that the preservice teachers’ experience with the instructional unit was not enough to change their fundamental pedagogical beliefs, causing only a subtle change in their means. In this situation, the instrument may not be sensitive enough to be able to measure such subtle changes.
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1.2. Capability Beliefs To measure the capability beliefs of preservice science teachers as they responded to the Instructional unit, the Capability Belief subscale of the BATT instrument was used. The instrument has fourteen categories or descriptors impacting on teachers’ beliefs about technology use. The means and standard deviations of preservice teachers’ responses before and after the instructional unit were determined . Examination of the data showed that before their exposure to the instructional unit, the highest means were found in descriptors A (Resources) and C(Access to computers), while the lowest mean was on descriptor L(smaller class size). After instruction, descriptor F (Support from school administration) gave the highest mean, while descriptor L still had the lowest mean. To evaluate the impact of the teaching approach on the capability beliefs of the preservice teachers, a paired sample t-test was conducted between the means of the pretest (M = 3.65, SD = .24) and the posttest(M = 3.69, SD = .33) of the capability beliefs of BATT . Results indicated that the changes in the means as a result of their participation in the instructional unit were not significant at the .05 level of significance. t(43) = - .948 , p > .05 1.3. Context beliefs. To measure the context beliefs of teachers as they relate to utilizing computers for science instruction, the Context (likelihood) Belief subscale of BATT was used. The context (likelihood) belief of BATT has fourteen factors or descriptors impacting on the likelihood that these factors will occur if one were to teach in a school. The means and standard deviations of preservice teachers’ responses to context belief items of BATT before (pretest) and after instruction (posttest) were computed.
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Teachers’ Beliefs To evaluate whether changes in means were caused by their participation in the instructional unit, a paired sample t-test was conducted between the average means of the pretest (M = 3.49, SD = .39) and the posttest(M = 3.50, SD = .43) items. Results indicated that the changes in means were not significant. t(43) = .287 , p > .05.
2. Research Question (2) To what extent are the preservice teachers’ beliefs for teaching associated with their beliefs for utilizing microcomputers in science instruction? To examine the relationship of preservice teachers’ beliefs for teaching with their beliefs for utilizing microcomputers in science instruction, Pearson’s Product Correlation Coefficient was calculated. The Correlation coefficients between the four subscales of Teacher Beliefs System and the Capability beliefs and the Context beliefs subscales of BATT were determined (Table 3). Table 3 Correlation matrix between TBS and BATT Subscales (N = 44). Behaviorist Teaching
Behaviorist Management
Constructivist Teaching
Constructivist Management
Pretest Capability Belief
Context Belief
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
.125
.179
.212
.160
.419
.244
.167
.299
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
-.210
-.241
-.153
-.156
.172
.115
.320
.313
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
.130
.334*
.460**
.434**
.399
.027
.002
.003
-.148
-.144
-.052
-.096
.339
.351
.740
.535
Posttest Capability Beliefs
Context Beliefs
Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed)
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Teachers’ Beliefs For the pretest values, the results of the Pearson Product Correlation revealed that no significant relationship existed between capability beliefs and context beliefs of BATT with any of the subscales of TBS. However, using the posttest values, a significant relationship existed between the capability beliefs and three of the subscales of TBS, namely behaviorist management, constructivist teaching and constructivist management. The data indicate that there is an increase in the relationship of the preservice teachers’ capability beliefs towards the constructivist teaching approach, as a result of their exposure to the instructional unit.
3. Research Question (3) What effect does the instructional unit have on preservice teachers’ beliefs and understanding of basic science concepts? Pertinent data for Research question 3 may be derived from the results of the General Science Questionnaire on Matter and Its Properties administered to the preservice teachers before (pretest) and after(posttest) their participation in the constructivist technology-assisted instructional unit. The mean scores of the participants’ responses in the pretest and the posttest are shown in Table 4. The initial mean showed that the participants already held an adequate level of scientific knowledge before their participation in the instructional unit. After their participation in the instructional unit, an increase in the mean score was seen. To evaluate whether this increase in the means was due to their participation in the instructional unit , a paired sample t-test was conducted . Results showed that the increase was highly significant, t (43) = 8.879, p<.001, two tailed. This result indicates that the
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Teachers’ Beliefs instructional unit has improved the preservice teachers’ beliefs and understanding of basic science concepts. Table 4 Paired Samples Statistics and Paired Sample T-Test for General Science Questionnaire
Pretest
N
Mean
44
18.2
SD
Mean Paired Diff
SD Paired Diff
t
df
Sig 2-tailed
3.39
3.00 2.24 8.879 43 .000 Posttest 44 21.2 2.64 ______________________________________________________________________________________
4. Research Question (4) What is the effect of the technology-based programs used in the instructional unit on preservice teachers’ beliefs with respect to utilizing microcomputers in science instruction?
The effect of the instructional unit on the participants’ beliefs for computer use in science instruction was taken from the results of the exit interview and the reflective journals of the six students selected from the intact class. The six students, Jaya, Khay, Jenny, Manilyn, Beth, and Aiza (pseudonyms) , were selected on the basis of their being Biology or General Science majors. The six selected students were: Jaya, a 23 year old Biology major, who expressed moderate excitement toward education, since this course was not her choice but that of her parents. Khay. an 18-year old teacher education junior, is studying to be a high school biology teacher. Biology was not her first choice but after taking some biology courses, she became interested and has been enjoying her subjects. Jenny . is a 19-year old teacher education junior , majoring in Biology . Jenny was hard-working and has actively participated in class.
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Teachers’ Beliefs Manilyn, is a 20-year old Biology major education student. She does not intend to teach after her education course, for she plans to take up nursing. Beth is a 20 year-old Biology major , who wants to be a biology teacher in her hometown when she graduates. She majored in Biology for she enjoys laboratory work. Aiza. is a 20-year old education student, the only General Science major in the group. Her teacher in high school has influenced her to take up teacher education. Collective Results The study tried to find out how effective was the constructivist technology-aided instructional unit in creating the conditions necessary for the preservice teachers’ beliefs to change, and as a result of their participation in the instructional unit, alter their conceptions about the role of constructivism in classroom computers. This is bound within the stages of conceptual change, thus the data were interpreted on each participant’s progression through the stages of the conceptual change. Based on the qualitative data analysis, the data indicated that the extent of conceptual change experienced by each participant was unique based on their conceptions prior to engaging in the instructional unit and their individual learning experiences as the unit progressed . For one to change his or her understanding of a phenomenon, Posner et al.(1982) argued that the individual must progress through the four cognitive stages: The individual must become dissatisfied with his or her existing conceptions; find an alternative conception that is intelligible , reasonable for solving problems; and applicable to other related problems. It was believed that the participants began the instructional unit with naïve and behaviorist beliefs about teaching, learning and classroom computer use. Although most of the respondents began their study with similar preconceptions about teaching, learning and
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Teachers’ Beliefs classroom computer use, they were all at different states in the development of their epistemological beliefs. Prior to their participation in the instructional unit, Jaya, Khay, Beth, and Aiza expressed behaviorist beliefs about teaching, learning and classroom computer use. Jenny and Manilyn expressed holistic beliefs about teaching, learning and classroom computer use. Formal instruction of the class was the same, yet each student learned the content in her own way and in her own pace. Furthermore, each student entered the instructional unit with unique preconceptions about the topics of instruction. This differences may be due to in their different educational background and prior knowledge, thus the extent of their progression through the conceptual change process varied. The type and strength of the prior conception the preservice teachers possessed, affected their degree of dissatisfaction fostered by the instructional unit. To address the research question explored in this study, the data were organized around the stages of conceptual change namely: dissatisfaction, understanding /intelligibility , and acknowledgement of plausibility and fruitfulness. Descriptions of these stages are based on the rubric adapted from Sadera(2001) in Table 5. Dissatisfaction with their Existing Conception. Dissatisfaction was exhibited through understanding and acceptance of the constructivist practices, and the motivation and excitement towards it. The participants in the instructional unit exhibited varied levels of dissatisfaction with their existing conceptions. As early as the third lesson, the participants already exhibited dissatisfaction of their prior conception as indicated in the journals they wrote. Two participants (Jaya and Aiza) exhibited moderate to strong dissatisfaction with their existing conceptions, three participants (Khay, Jenny, Beth) exhibited weak dissatisfaction , and one( Manilyn) showed indifference towards it.
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Teachers’ Beliefs Among the respondents, Jaya, showed the strongest dissatisfaction of her existing beliefs. After Lesson 3, she wrote “I found that behaviorist teaching is ineffective…” During the discussion of the movie clips in Lesson 3 and the readings on Constructivism in Lesson 2, Jaya made and wrote many comments about teaching, learning and the role of the computer in her journal(J3) She was able to compare and contrast her initial conception (behaviorist) with her new found conception (constructivist). She used words such as real-world problems, creativity, self-exploration, to describe the new conception. Her dissatisfaction was exhibited through her recognition and understanding of the constructivist way. Table 5 Qualitative Data Rubric*
Research Question Conception altered
Measurement/Scale Strong change
Moderate change
Weak change
Dissatisfaction
Understanding
Acknowledgement
No change Strong dissatisfaction Moderate dissatisfaction Weak dissatisfaction Strong understanding Moderate understanding Weak understanding
Strong acknowledgement Moderate acknowledgement Weak acknowledgement *Adapted from Sadera(2001)
Behavior Strong motivation to expand upon constructivist teaching and apply it in multiple situations. Does not integrate the behaviorist beliefs. Expressed interest and strong ability to apply constructivist teaching/learning methods . Acceptance of constructivism but still has tendency to integrate initial beliefs
Data Source** J1- J5, E1, W1, MT
Motivation and excitement towards constructivism Strong acceptance and understanding of constructivism Acceptance of constructivism Strong ability to discuss, apply and write about constructivism Ability to discuss and write about constructivism Ability to answer questions about constructivism Explanation of beliefs to peers
J2 – J4, E1
J2-J5; E1, MT
J2, J5, MT, E1
Discuss classroom models and beliefs Complete classroom model assignment
** Data Source Legend: J1-J5 from Journals 1-5; EI is Exit Interview; W1 is write-up from activity 1; MT is micro-teaching
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Teachers’ Beliefs Understanding of the New Conception. Understanding the new conception was exhibited through their ability to discuss, apply and write about the new conception. With the exception of Manilyn, the respondents showed weak to moderate understanding of constructivist teaching and learning and computer use as shown in their Journals 2 and 3. Aiza exhibited moderate understanding of constructivist teaching after Lesson 2 . This was evident through her written and spoken definitions of teaching and learning , following her participation of Lesson 2. She described teaching as giving the students the tools necessary for learning or solving a problem, while letting them explore and discover answers on their own(Journal 4). She described learning as “to discover ways and means in solving their problems and applying this knowledge using constructivist teaching…”(Journal 5). Acknowledgement of the New conception. Acknowledgement of the new conception is exhibited in interest and motivation towards applying the new conception, as well as recognition and acceptance of the alternative conception. All the respondents, except Manilyn, exhibited moderate to strong acknowledgement of the constructivist methods as seen in the journals they wrote (J3 to J5). They acknowledged that the constructivist method is more effective and is the better method for the students to learn, yet they differed in their acceptance and implementation of it. Jenny, for example showed her ability to discuss the characteristics of constructivism , using the terms “guide” and “discover” yet failed to implement them in her lesson. On the other hand, Aiza, Khay, and Jaya implemented the constructivist method in their lesson. Summary.
With reference to the instructional unit’s ability to effectively create
the conditions necessary for conceptual change to occur, the participants showed dissatisfaction (weak to strong), understanding(weak to moderate) and acknowledgement
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Teachers’ Beliefs (moderate to strong) of the viability of the constructivist technology-assisted instructional unit. At the conclusion of the instructional unit, the degree to which the participants altered their beliefs about teaching, learning and classroom computer use varied. Three of the participants (Jaya, Khay, and Aiza) exhibited moderate conceptual change and two(Jenny and Beth) showed weak conceptual change as defined in the Qualitative Data Rubric . No conceptual change occurred with Manilyn. Jaya , Khay and Aiza, exhibiting moderate conceptual change, began the instructional unit with behaviorist beliefs about teaching and learning . While Jaya and Aiza showed moderate to strong dissatisfaction with their existing conceptions, Khay showed weak to moderate dissatisfaction with her existing beliefs. Although Khay started with a weaker dissatisfaction , yet her ideas have progressed towards constructivist learning so that she, with Jaya and Aiza, showed moderate understanding of constructivist teaching and learning and moderate to strong acknowledgement of the viability of the constructivist principles. Two participants (Jenny and Beth), who exhibited weak conceptual change, began the instructional unit with a range of preconceptions and varied levels of experiences. In addition, their levels of dissatisfaction with their preconceptions and understanding of the constructivist ways varied as did their acknowledgement of the viability of the constructivist principles. Manilyn began and ended with almost the same ideas. The instructional unit did not have any impact on her. She was happy to be a part of the study. Although she said she has learned a lot (Exit Interview), but this was not evident in her work. Her attitude of indifference at the start may have prevented her from getting anything out of the experience. On the whole, the instructional unit enabled most of the respondents to experience each stage of conceptual change at varying levels, and that it was effective in increasing the
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Teachers’ Beliefs knowledge and beliefs of preservice teachers in relation to computer use in science teaching. In addition, most of the participants altered their conceptions of teaching , learning, and classroom computer use as a result of the instructional unit. Implications. Based on the quantitative analysis of the data from the Teachers’ Beliefs Survey, the constructivist technology-assisted instructional unit did not cause any significant changes in the pedagogical beliefs of the preservice teachers .These results indicated that the instructional unit was not effective in causing a change in the pedagogical beliefs of the preservice teachers. However, the results of the qualitative data from the reflective journals and the exit interviews showed otherwise. The preservice teachers progressed through the cognitive stages of conceptual change as indicated in their writings. They became dissatisfied with their existing behaviorist conception ( exemplified in Jaya’s Journal #3 entry). They found the constructivist methods to be intelligible (from Aiza’s fourth and fifth journal entries), and applicable ( as acknowledged by the implementation of Khay’s micro-teaching lesson). The teaching approach of the instructional unit has helped change some of the preservice teachers’ pedagogical beliefs towards constructivist teaching , but because these changes were subtle, the instruments used were not powerful enough to detect said changes. The capability beliefs have shown a significant increase as a result of the instructional unit. Their hands-on experience in the instructional unit and the use of electronic models using the movie clips may have been effective in giving them confidence to use the computers for their teaching in the future. The changes in context beliefs of the preservice teachers were found to be insignificant using the BATT instrument. Since these are preservice teachers, they do not have the experience and knowledge that will help them evaluate the effects of outside factors
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Teachers’ Beliefs needed to support them in their aim for classroom instruction using computers. Besides, their future workplace and the kind of support such workplace will provide, are still uncertain. Results from the Pearson correlation coefficient showed inconsistency in assessing the association of the respondents’ beliefs for teaching and their beliefs for using computers in science instruction. However, changes in the beliefs of the respondents could be seen using the qualitative data. At the start of the lesson, some students saw technology as an improvement of a book (Jaya, Exit I; Manilyn, Journal 2) . At the end of the instructional unit, the students made use of the computers to present their micro-teaching lesson and they agreed that computers could be used to improve learning (Aiza, Exit I & Beth,Exit I ). In other words, the qualitative data were able to capture the gradual changes in the beliefs of the respondents to use technology for science instruction. The third research question was answered using the results from the paired t-test of the means from the General Science questionnaire. The results showed a highly significant change in the beliefs and understanding of basic science concepts of the respondents. Initial measurement of the means showed that the participants already held an adequate level of scientific knowledge before their participation in the instructional unit. Two programs were used in the instructional unit in enhancing their scientific understanding: a tutorial found in the internet, and an interactive program ( computer simulation) on basic science concepts. The students studied the tutorial , after which they were to discuss it within their small group. The next meeting, the tutorial was reinforced using an interactive program. This was again followed by group discussion. The highly significant changes in the understanding of the students as measured by the paired t-test of their pretest and posttest means of the General Science Questionnaire, have indicated that the instructional intervention was effective. The tutorial , as a computerassisted instruction(CAI) is considered a transmission model of instruction, yet it was found
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Teachers’ Beliefs to be effective when used in conjunction with other programs or media to provide complete instruction The computer simulation has been shown to be effective in increasing the ideas and understanding of the preservice teachers of science concepts . It provided a method for checking their understanding of the real world by modeling the structure and dynamics of a conceptual system of a real environment. It facilitated the “interactive practice” of real-world skills by focusing on essential elements of a material system. Because computer simulations are flexible and dynamic, they can guide the learner in the achievement of specific learning goals. The fourth research question was answered using the qualitative data from the exit interview and the reflective journals of the six students. Results showed that the participants showed dissatisfaction (weak to moderate), understanding (weak to moderate) and acknowledgement(moderate to strong) of the viability of the instructional unit. On the whole, the instructional unit enabled most of the respondents to experience each stage of the conceptual change, although in varying levels. With these experiences, it could be surmised that the instructional unit has increased the preservice teachers’ beliefs to use computers in science teaching. The use of the qualitative data in determining the changes in the beliefs of the preservice teachers has been found to be effective in this study. The subtle changes of the preservice teachers beliefs which registered a “not significant” result using quantitative data, became evident when qualitative data were analyzed. It could be argued that the quantitative analysis is more precise but the responses of people is not often precise for people change and social situations are too complex for numerical description. According to McBride & Schostak,(2005), people are often found to
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Teachers’ Beliefs have conflicting or unclear views thus, quantitative research has a tendency to ‘clarify’ where clarification is not appropriate . As seen in the results, quantified evidence can be very powerful but it can also hide a great deal about people, especially their beliefs and understanding.
Conclusions The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of a constructivist, technologyassisted instructional unit on preservice teachers’ beliefs to adopt constructivist teaching practices and utilize technology in science teaching. With the growing demand for teachers to integrate technology in their classrooms, teacher educators are to develop instruction that effectively prepares preservice teachers to integrate computer technology into the learning process. A review of relevant literature has suggested that teachers’ behavior is influenced by beliefs and beliefs about teaching with computers influence teachers’ use of computers in their teaching, Researches also showed that constructivist teaching method proved effective at enhancing beliefs. On the whole, the instructional unit enabled most of the respondents to experience each stage of conceptual change. The constructivist technology-aided instructional unit was moderately effective in developing the conditions necessary for conceptual change to occur with the respondents. However, the study showed that the process of changing beliefs takes time. The limited time used in the study was not enough to effect positive results in the quantitative analysis. It was the qualitative results of the study which showed that the respondents were at different stages in the development of their epistemological beliefs . It is believed that significant changes in beliefs will be seen within a longer period. Also if the number of respondents were increased , then results will show a higher inter-item correlation among the items.
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Teachers’ Beliefs This research is important since it addressed and confronted preservice teachers’ existing preconceptions and helped them alter and develop more expansive and comprehensive conceptions about teaching, learning, and classroom computer use. It was able to address certain aspects of preservice teachers’ beliefs on teaching and technology preparation and has provided insight to designing instruction beyond using technology for teaching. It also showed its effectivity in increasing the understanding of students of basic science concepts. What makes the technology-aided instructional unit unique was the combination and sequencing of technology programs found to be effective in enhancing meaningful learning. Since preservice teachers begin teacher preparation with strongly held preconceptions about teaching, learning and classroom computer use, teacher educators must continue to develop instructional strategies that will give preservice teachers new experiences as students. These new learning experiences should be structured to optimize their chances of embracing constructivist principles and effectively integrate these principles in their future practice as teachers.
References Benjamin , J.& Kefover, C.(2004). Development of an online questionnaire of teachers beliefs and its cost and effectiveness. http://conference.caerda.org/2004/benjamin2.pdf Bybee,R.W.(1993). Reforming science education. New York: Teachers College Press. Cooney, T.J. & Shealy, B.E.(1997). On understanding the structure of teachers’ beliefs and their relationship to change. In E. Fennema & B.S. Nelson (Eds) Mathematics Teacher in Transition. Hilldale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
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Teachers’ Beliefs Department Employment Education and Training(DEET) (1989). The discipline review of teacher education in mathematics and science. Volume 1 Report and Recommendations. Canberra: AGPS. Ford, M.E.(1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. Newbury Park, CA. Galligan, J., Buchanan,P., & Muller,M.(1999). Application of new technologies to enhance learning outcomes for students. Brisbane: Education, Queensland. Ibe,M.D.(2002). Teacher Education: Its implications to basic education. Retrieved, July 17,2004. Online: http://www.adnu.edu.ph/Research/bikolnon-3.asp. Klien, P. (1996). Preservice teachers’ beliefs about learning and knowledge. The Alberta Journal of Educational Research. Vol XLII. 4, 361-377. Lumpe, A.T., Haney, J.J. & Czerniak, C.(2000). Assessing teachers’ beliefs about their science teaching context. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(3), 275-292. McBride & Schostak(2005). Qualitative quantitative review versus. [On line: http://www.qualitative1.com/qualitative_quantitative_research_versus/.] Pajares, M.F.(1992). Teachers beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307-332. Papert, S.(1993). The children’s machine: Rethinking school in the age of the computer. New York: Basic Books. Posner,G.J., Strike,K.A., Hewson, P.W. & Gertzog, W.A.(1982). Accommodation of a scientific concept: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211-227. Sadera, W.A.( 2001).Conceptual change-based instruction and preservice teacher technology preparation: A collective case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
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Teachers’ Beliefs
Woolley,S.L.. & Woolley,A.W.(1999). Can we change teachers’ beliefs? A survey about constructivist and behavioral approaches. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association,(Montreal, Quebec, April 1923,1999).ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 430 965.
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Conceptual change using demonstration
Conceptual change using demonstration in EM and EMI
The effect of classroom demonstrations based on conceptual change instruction on students’ understanding of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction
Neo Chai Seng1 Assoc Prof Yap Kueh Chin2
1
2
Anderson Junior College, 4500, Ang Mo Kio Ave 6, Singapore 569843
Natural Science and Science Education Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technlogical University, 1, Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616
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Abstract: The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of classroom demonstrations based on conceptual change instruction on Junior College year 2 students’ understanding of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction. Based on conceptual change theory, a pedagogical approach called “PORE” was proposed for instruction using demonstrations. PORE comprises four stages: predict, observe, resolve and extent. Results showed that presenting classroom demonstration using “PORE” is more effective than traditional teaching methods.
The cognitive conflict level test (CCLT) developed by Lee et al. (2003) was used to determine the cognitive conflict experienced by students for each demonstration. Data from the CCLT can provide a useful dimension for evaluating the effectiveness of a demonstration for instruction.
Qualitative analysis of students’ written conceptual reasoning in this study contributed to the understanding of common conceptual difficulties faced by Junior College students in the learning of electromagnetism (EM) and electromagnetic induction (EMI). Students’ difficulties in transferring Newton’s laws to the context of EM and EMI found in this study suggested a need to integrate mechanics early in the teaching of EM and EMI.
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Conceptual change using demonstration
The effect of classroom demonstrations based on conceptual change instruction on students’ understanding of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction 1.
Introduction:
Backgroud: Is classroom demonstration an entertainment or educational tool? Classroom demonstration has been a common science instructional tool since the seventeenth century. But surprisingly there are still differences in opinion about its usefulness as an educational tool. Some educators, such as Beall (1996), criticised the use of demonstrations as time-consuming and merely for entertainment (as cited in Walton, 2002). While other educators (Schilling, 1959; Freier, 1981; Hilton, 1981; Shmaefsky, 2005; Black, 2005) have long advocated the use of classroom demonstration for its benefits in generating interest and promoting conceptual understanding in science.
Rationale of the study on classroom demonstrations In Singapore, Junior Colleges have implemented the new curriculum (H1, H2 Syllabus) since 2006. Curriculum time was shortened in line with the Singapore Ministry of Education’s direction of “Teach Less Learn More”. For H2 syllabus, practical periods are mainly used for the teaching of School based Science Practical Assessment (SPA), leaving little time for conducting experiments that help students acquire conceptual understanding in physics. For H1 syllabus, no curriculum time is allocated for practical. In my college, Physics teachers felt that physics demonstrations will help to improve students’ conceptual understanding and interest. However, the pedagogical approach adopted by most teachers for showing demonstrations is the traditional teacher-centered approach. As the use of demonstrations is more time consuming and curriculum time in the
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Conceptual change using demonstration
new syllabus is shorter, the main focus in this study is to find out how to use classroom demonstration not only as an entertaining but also an effective educational tool.
Significance of the study Through the study we will get a better understanding on how to use a conceptual change approach to enhance the effectiveness of classroom demonstrations. The learning gain from applying conceptual change theory can be transferred to other non-demonstration aspects of teaching such as the use of ICT simulations. The study will explore the feasibility of measuring the cognitive conflict experience by students during a demonstration and used this information to evaluate the demonstration’s effectiveness for teaching and learning. Furthermore, through the study we will gain some insights into the conceptions of Singapore Junior College students in the field of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction.
Research questions The study seeks to investigate the following questions: 1. Is the use of classroom demonstrations based on conceptual change instruction more effective than traditional teaching in enhancing students’ conceptual understanding in electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction? 2. Are the demonstrations developed in this study able to elicit cognitive conflict amongst students? 3. What common conceptual difficulties or misconceptions do Singapore junior college year 2 students in this study have in the topic of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction?
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2.
Review of the literature
Effectiveness of demonstration in enhancing conceptual understanding The effects of demonstrations on conceptual understanding reported by various research studies were not universally positive. A number of studies (Theng, 2005; Roth, McRobbie, Lucas, & Boutonne, 1997; Halloun & Hestenes, 1985) showed that demonstrations do not help students to understand the phenomena that are being demonstrated. Halloun and Hestenes (1985) cast doubt on the effectiveness of typical classroom physics demonstrations in altering mistaken physics beliefs unless the demonstrations are performed in a context that elicits and helps to resolve conflicts between common sense and specific scientific concepts. These studies highlighted several problems that need to be considered if demonstrations were to achieve its intended purpose of helping students understand scientific concepts: •
Students existing non-scientific beliefs are highly resistant to change.
•
Demonstrations presented in a traditional manner with the transmission perspective of teaching and learning do not lead to conceptual change.
•
Demonstrations could potentially cause more confusion rather than clarification of understanding if students are not provided with opportunities to openly discuss and check the suitability of their observations, interpretation and explanations of the concepts. On the other hand, many research studies have successfully used demonstrations to
foster conceptual understanding. Two main features amongst these studies appeared to have positive influence on the effectiveness of classroom demonstrations:
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Conceptual change using demonstration
•
Firstly, the demonstrations were designed to directly address known non-scientific conceptions. Studies such as Sokoloff and Thornton (1997), Reddish, Saul and Steinberg (1997),
Fagen (2003) and McDermott (1990, 2001) which used demonstrations that directly addressed known student misconceptions produced positive gain in conceptual understanding. Secondly, the demonstrations were used to elicit cognitive conflict. Many studies (Sokoloff & Thornton, 1997; Reddish et al., 1997; Crouch, Fagen, Callan, & Mazur, 2004; Fagen, 2003; Hynd, Alvermann, & Qian, 1997; Yavuz, 2005) tried to generate some form of cognitive conflict by requiring students to predict and explain the outcome of the demonstrations before showing the demonstrations. A meta-analysis of science studies in conceptual change (Guzzetti, Snyder, Glass, & Gamas, 1993) has documented the effectiveness, at least in the short term, of strategies believed to produce cognitive conflict. The need to elicit cognitive conflict is well known to be an important component of the conceptual change theory and this likely explains why all the researchers in these studies try to incorporate strategies to elicit cognitive conflict in their instructional technique. However, these studies have assumed that the demonstrations have caused cognitive conflict and did not assess whether students really experienced cognitive conflict. Thus, there is a possibility of a gap existing between what the researchers expected students to experience and what the students really experienced. In my present study, I will use a pen and paper instrument called Cognitive Conflict Level Test (CCLT) developed by Lee et al. (2003) to determine if students have really experience cognitive conflict during the demonstrations.
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Conceptual change theory In conceptual change theory, learning is viewed as a process where the learners realign, reorganise and replace existing conceptual structure in order to understand new knowledge. Learning Science is viewed as promoting conceptual change from students’ informal ideas to those of the scientific community. At the heart of conceptual change theory is the constructivist view of learning that knowledge cannot be transmitted from one knower to another but must be actively constructed by the learner. There are two types of conceptual change, known as assimilation and accommodation. When the new conception does not cause dissatisfaction, the new conception will be assimilated alongside the old conception by the learner. When the new conception causes dissatisfaction, then the learner will appraise the new conception against the existing old conception. If the old conception is more sensible conceptual may not occur. If the new conception makes more sense to the learner, accommodation will occur. Hynd et al. (1997) have shown that conceptual change proceeds in a piecemeal, sawtoothed fashion and documented that restructuring of knowledge may lead to new nonscientific conceptions. Conceptual change is not a quick or simple process and students spend some time in an unstable conceptual state, oscillating between their original conception and the target scientific conception (Grayson, 2004).
Classical view of conceptual change: Duit and Treagust (2003) did a review of the research in conceptual change in the past 3 decades and found that the best known conceptual change model in science education proposed by Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1982), Hewson and Hewson (1984, 1988, 1996), Strike and Posner (1985, 1992) believed that conceptual conflict is needed to initiate conceptual change:
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Conceptual change using demonstration
If the learner was dissatisfied with his/her prior conception and an available replacement conception was intelligible, plausible and/or fruitful, accommodation of the new conception may follow. (Duit & Treagust, 2003) Comtempory multi-perspective view of conceptual change: The classical view of conceptual change holds the individual constructivist perspective and consider learning largely as an individual activity where the learner actively discover and build knowledge for himself. More recent view of conceptual change advocated viewing the process of learning science from both the individual constructivism and social constructivism perspectives. (Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994). Social constructivism suggests that learners need to be encultured into the practices of Science through social interactions and the support of more experienced members such as teachers. But for this to occur, according to individual constructivism perspective, learners need to actively engage themselves in personal meaning making and construction of knowledge. Cognitive conflict Lee and Kwon (2001) developed the cognitive conflict process model to explain the cognitive conflict that occurs when a student is confronted with an anomalous situation that is incompatible with his or her perception in learning science (as cited in Lee et. al, 2003, p.586). This model has three stages : preliminary, conflict and resolution. The preliminary stage represents a process in which a student who has belief in a preexisting conception accepts an anomalous situation as genuine. In the second stage, cognitive conflict occurs when a learner recognizes an anomalous situation, expresses interest or anxiety about resolving the cognitive conflict, and
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engages in cognitive reappraisal of the situation. In the final stage, learners would resolve or dismiss the cognitive conflict. Based on the cognitive conflict process model, Lee et al. (2003) developed the pen and paper instrument Cognitive Conflict Level Test (CCLT) for measuring secondary students’ cognitive levels as they learned science. The results of their study indicated that the instrument is a valid and reliable tool for measuring cognitive conflict levels.
Misconceptions in Electromagnetism (EM) and Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) Unlike in mechanics, alternative conceptions in the domain of EM and EMI have not been investigated in great detail (McDermott & Reddish, 1999). The conceptual difficulties in EM and EMI found in the literature is synthesized and summarised in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 :
Summary of sources conceptual difficulties in EM and EMI
Sources of
Description of
conceptual
misconception
Evidence from research paper
difficulties Difficulties in transfer
Difficulty in transferring
Maloney, O’Kuma, Hieggeike and Heuvelen
of Newton’s laws
Newton’s third law
(2001) Galili (1995)
Difficulty in transferring
Bagno and Eylon (1997)
Newton’s second law
Itza-Ortiz, Rebello and Zollman (2004).
Inappropriate
A charge in a magnetic
Maloney et al. (2001)
analogies with E field
field will always
Itza-Oritz et al. (2004)
and charges
experience a force
Saglam and Millar (2006)
Magnetic force acts in
Maloney (1985)
the direction of the
Maloney et al. (2001)
magnetic field
Saglam and Millar (2006)
Misinterpretation of
Saglam and Millar (2006)
“Flow” interpretation
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Conceptual change using demonstration
of field lines
magnetic field lines as
Maloney et al. (2001)
flow lines Difficulties
Relating presence of
Mauk and Hingley (2005)
interpreting Faraday’s
induced current to flux
Saarelainen, Laaksonen and Hirvonen (2007)
Law
Maloney et al. (2001) Relating magnitude of
Maloney (1985)
induced current to
Maloney et al. (2001)
change of flux Difficulties
Relating direction of
Mauk and Hingley (2005)
interpreting Lenz’s
induced current to
Bagno and Eylon (1997)
Law
“resisting magnetic field”
3.
Methodology
In this section, the methodology for the study will be described for the following 3 areas: A. Effectiveness of Conceptual change instruction with demonstration B. Effectiveness of demonstrations in eliciting cognitive conflict C. Students’ learning difficulties in EM and EMI
A.
Effectiveness of Conceptual change instruction with demonstration
Experimental Design A within-subjects (or repeated-measures) experimental design was used to compare two treatment conditions for one single sample of students (Gravetter & Forzano, 2003). Each student participated in both treatment conditions and the design aimed to look for difference between the two treatment conditions within the same group of students.
Sample The sample consisted of two JC2 H2 Physics classes (class 1 and class 2). The total number of participants was 45 (22 from class 1 and 23 from class 2). Page 1355
Conceptual change using demonstration
Treatment Conditions The two treatment conditions are: i. Demo (PORE) Treatment Students were given the Demonstrations Observations and Explanation Worksheet (DOEW) (see Appendix I - Sample Demonstrations D3 & D5).
PORE The pedagogical approach for PORE is a based on conceptual change theory. There are 4 stages : a. Predict •
A concept question based on a demonstration is presented. Demonstration is designed to directly address known alternative conception. Students predict and explain the outcome of the demonstration individually.
b. Observe •
Students observe the outcome of the demonstrations. Cognitive conflict will be elicited if students predicted the outcome wrongly. Students are confronted to explain their thinking to help them see the errors in their alternate conceptions. According to Posner’s conceptual change model, for conceptual change to happen it is necessary for students to be dissatisfied with their prior conceptions.
c. Resolve •
Students engaged in collaborative group discussion to construct meaningful understanding of the scientific explanation. According to Posner’s conceptual
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Conceptual change using demonstration
change model, students will undergo conceptual change provided the scientific explanation is intelligible and plausible to them. d. Extend •
The purpose is to illustrate the usefulness of the scientific concepts in explaining problems of different contexts. According to Posner’s conceptual change model, conceptual change is more likely to occur if the scientific explanation is fruitful to students.
Traditional treatment Students were taught using traditional teacher-centered approach. Students were given a question similar to the demonstrations. They were given some time in class to solve the question individually. After that, the teacher revealed the answer of the question and explained the physics involved. Students were allowed to ask the teacher questions to clarify doubts. Students’ work was collected back by the teacher.
Development of demonstrations 8 demonstrations (D1 to D8) were developed in this study. 4 demonstrations (D1 to D4) were on electromagnetism (EM) and 4 demonstrations (D5 to D8) were on electromagnetic induction (EMI).
The demonstrations were developed to directly address and elicit known
misconceptions/difficulties in electromagnetism reported in physics educational research. Table 4A.1 summarises the demonstrations and the misconceptions that it intends to address.
Table 4A.1 Demonstrations and related misconceptions in EM / EMI
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Conceptual change using demonstration
Demo Physics Demo Title
Misconception to be elicited
Field D1
D2
D3
EM
EM
EM
Rod on rail (Magnetic
Inappropriate analogies with E field:
force on current in B field)
Eg. Force acts along field lines
Magnetic force on a
Inappropriate analogies with E field and charges
moving charge in B field
Eg. Force acts along field lines
Interaction of wire and
Difficulties transferring Newton’s 3rd law to EM
magnet (Newton's 3rd Law
phenomena
in EM context) D4
D5
EM
EMI
Turning effect of a coil in a Misinterpretation of magnetic field lines as B field
representing “flow” lines
Rotating aluminum can
Difficulties transferring Newton’s 3rd law to EMI
(Newton's 3rd Law in EMI
phenomena
context) D6
D7
EMI
EMI
Magnet falling through an
Difficulties in interpreting Faraday’s law and
aluminum tube
Lenz’s law
Magnet falling through a
Difficulties in interpreting Faraday’s law :
solenoid
Incorrectly relating induced emf to flux or change of flux rather than rate of change of flux.
Difficulties in interpreting Lenz’s law. D8
EMI
Magnet swinging pass a
Difficulties in interpreting Faraday’s law :
solenoid
Incorrectly relating induced emf to flux or change of flux rather than rate of change of flux.
Difficulties in interpreting Lenz’s law.
Counterbalancing As the duration of the study was long (2 months), counterbalancing was used to reduce order effects and time-related threats to the internal validity of the experiment.
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The sample was divided into two halves, class 1 and class 2. Both halves would receive both treatment conditions but in alternate order. Counterbalancing would ensure that each class receive demo (PORE) treatment in both EM and EMI areas.
Table 4A.2 shows how the counterbalancing was carried out in the study. Table 4A.2 Counterbalance of treatment conditions Demo Physics Class 1
Class 2
Field
(22 students)
(23 students)
D1
EM
Demo (PORE) treatment
Traditional treatment
D2
EM
Traditional treatment
Demo (PORE) treatment
D3
EM
Traditional treatment
Demo (PORE) treatment
D4
EM
Demo (PORE) treatment
Traditional treatment
D5
EMI
Demo (PORE) treatment
Traditional treatment
D6
EMI
Traditional treatment
Demo (PORE) treatment
D7
EMI
Demo (PORE) treatment
Traditional treatment
D8
EMI
Traditional treatment
Demo (PORE) treatment
Instrument A conceptual understanding test (CUT) consisting of 8 open ended questions similar in context to the 8 demonstrations was designed to evaluate students’ ability to provide the correct outcome and explanation. (Appendix II – Sample Q3 & Q5). CUT was administered once at the end of instruction on all 8 demonstrations. Page 1359
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Limitations of the experimental design •
Participant attrition
The original sample size was 48 but 3 students did not participate fully in the entire study as they were absent from school when some of the activities for the study was implemented. Hence the final sample size is only 45 students. •
External Validity
The study is only conducted on a small sample of 45 students from two H2 JC2 Physics classes. Therefore results should not be generalised to a large general student population. •
Long time delay before measurement of effectiveness
The study lasted about 2 months. The CUT to evaluate the effectiveness of the two treatment conditions was administered once at the end of the study. The effect of the conceptual change instruction may not be lasting. Any difference in effect between the two treatments for the first few demonstrations may be reduced due to the long time delay.
B. Measuring students’ cognitive conflict elicited by the demonstrations During the demonstration instruction using the PORE teaching approach, students were first required to predict and explain the outcome of a conceptual question. After which, the demonstration was performed to confront students prior conception and to elicit cognitive conflict. Immediately after observing the demonstration, students were told to complete the Cognitive Conflict Level Test (CCLT) developed by Lee et al. (2003). The administration of the CCLT was done before the resolve stage to measure the level of cognitive conflict experience by each student due to seeing the outcome of the demonstrations.
Instrument
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The CCLT is a pen and paper instrument consisting of 12 items on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = ‘not at all true’ to 4 = ‘very true’). CCLT identifies 4 components of cognitive conflict : recognition of anomalous situation, interests, anxiety and cognitive reappraisal of the cognitive situation. There are 3 items measuring each of the 4 components, making a total of 12 items for the CCLT as shown in the Table 4B.1.
Table 4B.1. CCLT test items CCLT Test Items
Components of Cognitive conflict Measured
1.
When I saw the result, I had doubts about the reasons.
Recognition of
2.
When I saw the result, I was surprised by it.
anomalous situation
3.
As the result is different from my expectation, I find the demonstration strange.
4.
The result of the demonstration is interesting.
5.
Since I saw the result, I have been curious about it.
6.
The result of the demonstration attracts my attention.
7.
The result of the demonstration confuses me.
8.
Since I cannot solve the problem, I am uncomfortable.
9.
As I cannot understand the reason for the result, I feel uneasy.
Interest
Anxiety
10. I would like to find out further whether my idea is incorrect.
Cognitive reappraisal
11. I need to think about the reason for the result a little longer.
of the cognitive
12. I need to find a proper explanation for the result.
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Conceptual change using demonstration
Lee et al. (2003) has reported CCLT to be a valid and reliable instrument for measuring students’ cognitive conflict. The researchers reported the content validity coefficient of CCLT among 6 experts ranging from 0.85 to 0.97 and the Cronbach alpha coefficient reliability coefficient for CCLT of over 0.86. For the present study, Cronbach alpha coefficient for the CCLT was found to be over 0.86. Table 4B.2 below summarises the Cronbach alpha coefficient for the present study by each demonstrations.
Table 4B.2 Demo
Cronbach alpha coefficient for CCLT by demonstrations
Cronbach alpha coefficient for CCLT
D1
0.891
D2
0.942
D3
0.924
D4
0.86
D5
0.936
D6
0.947
D7
0.916
D8
0.948
C
Students’ learning difficulties in EM and EMI
Students’ written explanations in the conceptual understanding test (CUT) were analysed and coded to identify common misconceptions in the fields of EM and EMI for JC students. The percentage of students exhibiting similar difficulties will be counted to provide an indication of common misconceptions that need to be addressed in the teaching of EM and EMI.
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Conceptual change using demonstration
4.
Findings and Discussion
In this section, the results and findings for the following 3 areas will be analysed and discussed: A. Effectiveness of Conceptual change instruction using demonstration B. Effectiveness of demonstrations in eliciting cognitive conflict C. Difficulties in EM and EMI
A.
Effectiveness of Conceptual change instruction using demonstration The conceptual understanding test (CUT) for EM and EMI was analysed for the
correctness of the prediction and explanation. Each question in the CUT corresponds to a demonstration used during instruction and serves to assess students’ understanding of the underlying physics concepts illustrated in the demonstration. The table below summarises the underlying physics domains of the demonstrations, the question in the CUT linked to the demonstration and the classes undergoing demo (PORE) treatment for each demonstration. Physics
Demonstration
Domain
CUT
Demo (PORE)
Traditional
Question
treatment
treatment
EM
D1
Q1
Class 1
Class 2
EM
D2
Q2
Class 2
Class 1
EM
D3
Q3
Class 2
Class 1
EM
D4
Q4
Class 1
Class 2
EMI
D5
Q5
Class 1
Class 2
EMI
D6
Q6
Class 2
Class 1
EMI
D7
Q7
Class 1
Class 2
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Conceptual change using demonstration
EMI
D8
Q8
Class 2
Class 1
The data were analysed to determine if the demo (PORE) instructional method is more effective than the tradition teaching method for ; •
the overall EM and EMI domains,
•
in the EM domain only and
•
in the EMI domain only.
1 tailed repeated measures t-Test was used to evaluate if the Demo (PORE) instruction is more effective than traditional teaching. A p value of < 0.05 is considered statistically significant. The Cohen’s effect size is computed as described in Graventer and Wallnau (2008) to evaluate the treatment effect of DEMO (PORE) :
d=
sample mean difference sample s tan dard deviation
Cohen’s suggested criteria for evaluating the size of the treatment effect are : Evaluation of treatment effect d between 0.2 to 0.5
Small effect
d between 0.5 to 0.8
Medium effect
d more than 0.8
Large effect
Analysis of overall performance in CUT (for combined EM and EMI domains)
Table 5A.1 and Fig 5A.1 show the overall prediction and explanation mean % score for all 8 demonstrations. Each student is given a Xoverall score and Yoverall score for questions instructed using demo (PORE) and traditional methods respectively. For class 1, Xoverall score
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is computed based on Q1,4,5,7 and Yoverall score is based on Q2,3,6,8. Whereas, for class 2, Xoverall score is computed based on Q2,3,6,8 and Yoverall is based on Q1,4,5,7.
Table 5A.1 Prediction and explanation mean % score (for all 8 EM and EMI demonstrations) Sample
Demo
Traditional
Mean
Standard
Significance
Cohen's
size
(PORE)
treatment
Difference
deviation
(1-tailed
Effect
treatment
Mean
overall
repeated-
size
Mean
Overall
score
measures t
Overall
Score (%)
(%)
Test)
Yoverall
Doverall
Score (%)
N
Xoverall
SDoverall
poverall
doverall
(D = X – Y)
Prediction
45
53.3
43.3
9.4
38.2
0.05
0.25
Explanation
45
36.1
26.7
9.4
34.2
0.036
0.28
Fig 5A.1 Comparison of prediction and explanation % score (for all 8 EM and EMI demonstrations) between demonstration (PORE) treatment and traditional treatment. Prediction and explanation % score (for all 8 EM & EMI demonstrations) 60
Mean score (%)
50 40 Demo (PORE) 30
Traditional
20 10 0 Prediction
Explanation
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Overall, the analysis of the CUT showed that students performed better for questions taught using the demo (PORE) for both prediction of outcomes and explanation of the underlying physics. For prediction of outcome, instruction using the demo (PORE) teaching method is more effective than traditional teaching method by a mean difference = 9.4% with SD = 38.2%. The treatment effect was statistically significant, t(44) = 1.66, p = 0.05, Cohern’s treatment effect size d = 0.25. There is a small treatment effect according to Cohen’s suggested criteria. For explanation of underlying physics, instruction using the demo (PORE) teaching method is more effective than traditional teaching method by a mean difference = 9.4% with SD = 34.2%. The treatment effect was statistically significant, t(44) = 1.85, p = 0.036, Cohern’s treatment effect size d = 0.28. There is a small treatment effect according to Cohen’s suggested criteria.
Analysis of performance in CUT (for EM domain)
Table 5A.2 and Fig 5A.2 show the prediction and explanation mean % score for EM demonstrations (D1 to D4). Each student is given a XEM score and YEM score for questions instructed using demo (PORE) and traditional methods respectively. For class 1, XEM score is computed based on Q1,4 and YEM score is based on Q2,3. Whereas, for class 2, XEM score is computed based on Q2,3 and YEM is based on Q1,4.
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Table 5A.2 : Prediction and explanation % score (for EM demonstrations) Sample
Demo
Traditional
Mean
Standard
Significance
size
(PORE)
treatment
Difference
deviation
(1-tailed
treatment
Mean Score
in
repeated-
Mean
(%)
treatments
measures t
score
Test)
Score (%)
Cohen's Effect size
(%)
N
XEM
YEM
DEM
SDEM
pEM
dEM
(D = X – Y)
Prediction
45
45.6
46.7
-1.1
48.3
0.44
45
38.9
32.2
6.7
50.7
0.19
-0.02
Explanatio n
Fig 5A.2 Comparison of prediction and explanation % score (for EM demonstrations) between demonstration (PORE) treatment and traditional treatment.
Prediction and explanation % score (for EM demonstrations)
Mean score (%)
50 45 40 35 30 25
Demo (PORE) Traditional
20 15 10 5 0 Prediction
Explanation
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In the domain of electromagnetism (EM), the analysis of the CUT showed similar performance for questions taught using the demo (PORE) for both prediction of outcomes and explanation of the underlying physics. A likely reason could be due to the long time lag between instructions and the final assessment of CUT. The teaching of EM demonstrations D1 to D4 took place from 3 Mar 2008 to 9 Apr 2008 while the CUT was administered on 12 May 2008. The long time delay of about a month could have affected students’ ability to recall the demonstrations and reduced the effect of instructions. For prediction of outcome, instruction using the demo (PORE) teaching method is as effective as traditional teaching method with a mean difference = -1.1% with SD = 48.3%. The treatment effect was not statistically significant, t(44) = -0.154, p = 0.44, Cohern’s treatment effect size d = -0.02. There is no treatment effect according to Cohen’s suggested criteria. For explanation of underlying physics, instruction using the demo (PORE) teaching method is more effective than traditional teaching method by a mean difference = 6.7% with SD = 50.7%. The treatment effect was not statistically significant, t(44) = 0.882, p = 0.19, Cohern’s treatment effect size d = 0.13. There is no treatment effect according to Cohen’s suggested criteria.
Analysis of performance in CUT (for EMI domain)
Table 5A.3 and Fig 5A.3 show the prediction and explanation mean % score for EMI demonstrations (D5 to D8). Each student is given a XEMI score and YEMI score for questions instructed using demo (PORE) and traditional methods respectively. For class 1, XEMI score is computed based on Q5,7 and YEMI score is based on Q6,8. Whereas, for class 2, XEMI score is computed based on Q6,8 and YEMI is based on Q5,7.
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Table 5A.3 : Prediction and explanation % score (for EMI demonstrations)
Demo
Mean
Standard
Difference
deviation
Significance
(PORE)
Traditional
in
(1-tailed
treatment
treatment
treatments
repeated-
Cohen's
Sample
Mean
Mean
score
measures t
Effect
size
Score (%)
Score (%)
(%)
Test)
size
N
XEMI
YEMI
DEMI
SDEMI
pEMI
dEMI
(D = X – Y)
Prediction
45
61.1
41.1
20.0
48.1
0.004
0.42
Explanation
45
33.3
21.1
12.2
42.8
0.031
0.29
Fig 5A.3 Comparison of prediction and explanation % score (for EMI demonstrations) between demonstration (PORE) treatment and traditional treatment. Prediction and explanation % score (for EMI demonstrations)
70
Mean score (%)
60 50 Demo (PORE)
40
Traditional
30 20 10 0 Prediction
Explanation
For the domain of electromagnetic induction (EMI), the analysis of the CUT showed that students performed much better for questions taught using the demo (PORE) for both prediction of outcomes and explanation of the underlying physics.
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For prediction of outcome, instruction using the demo (PORE) teaching method is more effective than traditional teaching method by a mean difference = 20.0% with SD = 48.1%. The treatment effect was statistically significant, t(44) = 2.787, p = 0.004, Cohern’s treatment effect size d = 0.42. There is a small treatment effect according to Cohen’s suggested criteria. For explanation of underlying physics, instruction using the demo (PORE) teaching method is more effective than traditional teaching method by a mean difference = 12.2% with SD = 42.8%. The treatment effect was statistically significant, t(44) = 1.914, p = 0.031, Cohern’s treatment effect size d = 0.29. There is a small treatment effect according to Cohen’s suggested criteria.
Comparison of Demo (PORE) and Traditional treatment across demonstrations
Fig 5A.4 below shows a comparison of the mean score (%) of prediction and explanation for Demo (PORE) and Traditional treatment by demonstrations. Comparison of Demo (PORE) Treatment vs Traditional Treatment for prediction and explanation across all demonstrations 100%
mean score (%)
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Q1predict Q1explain Q2predict Q2explain Q3predict Q3explain Q4predict Q4explain Q5predict Q5explain Q6predict Q6explain Q7predict Q7explain Q8predict Q8explain
Demo (PORE)
22.7%
18.2%
47.8%
47.8%
65.2%
52.2%
45.5%
36.4%
54.5%
18.2%
100.0%
47.8%
31.8%
27.3%
56.5%
39.1%
Traditional
17.4%
8.7%
45.5%
36.4%
72.7%
45.5%
52.2%
39.1%
39.1%
13.0%
81.8%
27.3%
17.4%
17.4%
27.3%
27.3%
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Conceptual change using demonstration
B.
Effectiveness of demonstrations in eliciting cognitive conflict
Students’ responses to the cognitive conflict level test (CCLT) was analysed for each demonstrations to determine the effectiveness of the demonstration in eliciting cognitive conflict in students. Table 5B.1 and Fig 5B.1 summarises the 4 subfactors and total CCLT by each demonstrations. Note the Likert scale used in CCLT is from 0 = ‘not at all true’ to 4 = ‘very true’.
Table 5B.1 CCLT Analysis by demonstrations
Demo Field
Demo Title
Reapprasal
Class
Anxiety
Physics
Interest
Recognition
Subfactors of CCLT
Total
CCLT
Rod on rail (Magnetic force on Class 1
D1
EM
current in B field)
0.50 2.00 0.68 2.17
1.34
0.74 1.62 0.90 1.88
1.29
2.07 2.41 1.91 2.41
2.20
0.64 1.44 0.73 2.09
1.22
2.14 2.44 1.82 2.73
2.28
Magnetic force on a moving Class 2
D2
EM
charge in B field Interaction of wire and magnet (Newton's 3rd Law in EM
Class 2
D3
EM
context) Turning effect of a coil in a B
Class 1
D4
EM
field Rotating aluminum can (Newton's
Class 1
D5
EMI
3rd Law in EMI context) Magnet falling through an
Class 2
D6
EMI
aluminum tube
1.25 2.46 1.07 2.29
1.77
Class 1
D7
EMI
Magnet falling through a solenoid
1.09 1.94 0.82 2.24
1.52
Class 2
D8
EMI
Magnet swinging pass a solenoid
0.75 1.65 0.90 2.13
1.36
EM Overall (demo D1 to D4)
0.99 1.87 1.06 2.14
1.51
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EMI Overall (demo D5 to D8)
1.31 2.12 1.15 2.35
1.73
Overall (demo D1 to D8)
1.15 2.00 1.10 2.24
1.62
Fig 5B.1 Analysis of CCLT by demonstrations
Analysis of CCLT by demonstrations 3.00 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8
2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 Recognition
Interest
Anxiety
Reapprasal
CCLT
It is interesting to note that the two demonstrations with highest CCLT level are D3 and D5 which are both designed to elicit difficulties in translating Newton’s 3rd law in electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction. The high CCLT score for these two demonstrations clearly suggested that students were surprised by the outcomes of the demonstrations. Overall, students found the demonstrations interesting (overall interest subfactor = 2.00) and is keen to find out the reasons for the outcomes of the demonstrations (overall reappraisal factor = 2.24). The other 2 subfactors on recognition of a discrepant event and anxiety were felt less strongly accept for demonstrations D3 and D5.
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It appeared that demonstrations D3 and D5 were most effective amongst the 8 demonstration in eliciting cognitive conflict as seen from the generally higher scores in total CCLT and the 4 subfactors.
C.
Difficulties in EM and EMI
Student common difficulties and wrong reasoning as shown in their answer in the EM & EMI Conceptual Understanding Test (CUT) are analysed. A detail discussion of all questions in the CUT is beyond the scope of this paper. The analysis presented below will focus on students’ difficulty in transferring Newton’s 3rd law to EM and EMI. Tables 5C.3 and 5C.5 show the breakdown of student explanations in the CUT for Q3 and Q5. Percentages are percentages of students who gave that reasoning in their answers. Note the percentages of acceptable and unacceptable explanations do not total to 100% because student answers frequently fell into more than one reasoning category. Also the categories include the most frequent reasoning, not all observed reasoning.
Analysis of Q3 Table 5C.3 : Interaction of wire and magnet (Newton’s 3rd Law in EM context) Demonstration
Traditional
Overall
treatment
treatment
Class 2
Class 1
Class 1 & 2
(23 students)
(22 students)
(45 students)
Correct prediction of outcome
65.2%
72.7%
68.9%
Acceptable explanation
52.2%
45.5%
48.9%
Difficulty transferring Newton 3rd Law 21.7%
22.7%
22.2%
Unacceptable explanations Wrong reasoning / Difficulties :
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to EM context Confuse EM with EMI.
17.4%
18.2%
17.8%
No explanation
0%
4.3%
2.2%
Q3 shows a horseshoe magnet suspended from a spring balance. A wire is situated between the poles of the magnet. Question ask students to compare the readings on the spring balance when there is no current in the wire, when a current flows in one direction in the wire and when the current flows in the opposite direction in the wire. To get the correct answer students need to deduce the magnetic force acting on the wire when a current flows. Apply Newton’s 3rd between the wire and the magnet to deduce the changes in the reading of the spring balance. 21.7% of class 2 (demonstration treatment) and 22.7% of class 1 (traditional treatment) did not transfer Newton’s 3rd law to the EM interaction between the current in the wire and the horseshoe magnet. Students showed a wrong conception that the direction of the force acting on the wire is the same as the direction of the force acting on the magnet. For instance, one student wrote: “With a current in the wire in the direction of YX, using FLHR, there will be an upward force acting on the wire, and thus the bar magnet” (student id 104) Other students applied Fleming’s left hand rule to deduce the direction of the magnetic force but wrongly reasoned that the magnetic force acts on the horseshoe magnet or on the spring instead of on the wire. The following is an example of such wrong reasoning : “Using Fleming’s left hand rule, when a current is passed from Y to X, there will be an upward force produced. This force would result in the horseshoe magnet being pushed upwards” (student id 106)
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17.4% of class 2 (demonstration treatment) and 18.2% of class 1 (traditional treatment) have confused EM with EMI concepts and inappropriately utilised EMI concepts such as Flemings RHR and Lenz’s law. It is possible that the discussion of application of Newton’s 3rd law during instruction has led some students to confuse “action and reaction” in Newton’s 3rd law with the term “oppose” stated in Lenz’s law.
Analysis of Q5 Table 5C.5 : Rotating aluminum disc (Newton’s 3rd law in EMI context) Demonstration
Traditional
Overall
treatment
treatment
Class 1
Class 2
Class 1 & 2
(22 students)
(23 students)
(45 students)
Correct prediction of outcome
54.5%
39.1%
46.7%
Acceptable explanation
18.2%
13.0%
15.6%
21.7%
15.6%
Unacceptable explanations Wrong reasoning / Difficulties :
Difficulty transferring Newton 3rd Law 9.1% to EMI context Difficulty in interpreting Lenz’s law
54.5%
56.5%
55.6%
No explanation
4.5%
8.7%
6.7%
Q5 shows an aluminum disc that is free to spin about the vertical axis passing through its centern. The question what will happen to the disc when a horseshoe magnet rotates clockwise above it. To get the correct answer students need to apply Lenz’s law to deduce that the magnet experience an anticlockwise torque against its motion. Apply Newton’s 3rd between the magnet and the disc to reason that a clockwise torque will cause the disc to rotate clockwise.
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The need to use both Lenz’s law and Newton’s 3rd law to explain this question drew up a multitude of incorrect reasoning which clearly showed students’ lack of understanding and ability to distinguish these two fundamental physics ideas. 9.1% of class 1 (demonstration treatment) and 21.7% of class 2 (traditional treatment) have difficulty applying Newton’s 3rd law to the EMI interaction between the magnet and the disc. Students showed a wrong conception that the direction of the force (or torque) opposing the magnet’s motion is also acting in the same direction on the disc. For instance, one student wrote: “The current produces a opposite magnetic field which opposes the movement of the magnet. By Newton’s third law, the force exerted on the magnet, causing it to spin the other direction will also be exerted back onto the disc. Thus it spins anticlockwise.” (student id 215) Such argument showed students failing to apply the idea that reaction is “equal but opposite in direction” to the action. 54.5% of class 1 (demonstration treatment) and 56.5% of class 2 (traditional treatment) have a fuzzy idea on “oppose” in Lenz’s law. Some students thought that oppose means the induced emf or current is opposite to the clockwise rotation of the magnet and gave wrong argument such as : “Using Lenz’s law, the induced emf will be in a direction to oppose the change and flowing in the anticlockwise direction” (student id 107) Many students tend to treat “oppose” intuitively as that the disc will rotate in opposite direction to oppose the motion of the magnet. For example, a student wrote: “eddy current would be induced in the aluminium disc to oppose motion of the magnet. The disc would thus spin in an opposite direction.” (student id 218)
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5.
Conclusion and recommendations
The main objective of this study was to determine if the use of classroom demonstration base on conceptual change instruction is more effective than traditional teaching in enhancing students’ conceptual understanding in electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction. Based on statistical analyses results given in section 5, it indicated that the proposed conceptual change instruction approach “PORE” is more effective than traditional teaching in terms of students’ ability to recall the correct prediction and explanation for the underlying physics in EM and EM1 phenomena. If only EMI demonstrations were considered, the statistical analyses results provided even greater evidence that conceptual change instruction approach “PORE” is more effective than traditional teaching in helping students’ recall the correct outcome and explaining the physics related to the demonstrations. However, if only EM demonstrations were considered, there was no statistical significance between “PORE” and traditional teaching. A possible reason was the long time lag of a month between the EM demonstrations and the conceptual understanding test (CUT). This could indicate that once off conceptual change instruction may not be long lasting as students’ prior conception are very resistant to change and students may revert back to their prior conception. In this study, the demonstrations were developed to address known misconceptions in EM and EMI. A conceptual question based on the demonstration was designed to get students to predict and explain the outcome of the demonstration so as to get students to think and make a personal intellectual commitment on the presented demonstration. Students who held alternative conceptions in their thinking would be confronted through the demonstration. The purpose was to generate cognitive conflict amongst students who may have inappropriate
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alternate conceptions. According to Posner’s conceptual change model, for conceptual change to happen it is necessary for students to be dissatisfied with their prior conceptions. In this study, unlike others reviewed in the literature, it was not assumed that students will experience cognitive conflict so long as they see a demonstration. The CCLT was used to determine if students really experienced high cognitive conflict through viewing the demonstrations. Two demonstrations D3 and D5 stood out by producing the highest CCLT level which indicated students had experienced high cognitive conflict during the presentation of these two demonstrations. For D3 and D5, analysis of the CCLT showed students scoring high level in all the 4 components related to cognitive conflict, namely recognition of anomalous situation, interests, anxiety and cognitive reappraisal of the cognitive situation. Both D3 and D5 were designed to elicit difficulties in translating Newton’s 3rd law in electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction. The high CCLT score for these two demonstrations clearly suggested that the students were surprised by the outcomes of the demonstrations. It also suggested that students had not made connections between Newton’s 3rd law and electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction before the instruction. In the CUT, students were able to predict the outcomes for D3 and D5 relatively better than the other demonstrations accept for D6 and D8. For the “PORE” treatment class, 65% and 55% students predicted D3 and D5 correctly; 100% and 57% predicted D6 and D8 correctly; less than 48% predicted the other demonstrations correctly (see results presented in Fig 5A.4). D6 appeared to be too easy for students even during the instruction. D8 was the last demonstration in the study and students probably would have a fresher impression of the demonstration. In terms of ability to explain the underlying physics, D3 was the most well answered demonstrations with 52% “PORE” treatment students able to provide acceptable explanations. However, only 18% of “PORE” treatment students were able to explain the
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outcome for D5, which was one the two lowest amongst all the demonstrations. D5 appeared to be conceptually more difficult for students to understand than D3. In the analysis of misconceptions shown by students for Q5 in the CUT, a high percentage of 54.5% students showed difficulty interpreting Lenz’s law. It is highly possible that the interplay of Lenz’s law and Newton’s 3rd law posed great conceptual difficulties and may have even led to new misconceptions for students.
Recommendations and Implications
Based on the results of the study, the following are recommended: •
Demonstration based on the proposed conceptual change approach “PORE” is more effective than traditional teaching in helping students change their prior conception to acceptable scientific conception.
•
The study can be improved by administering a conceptual understanding test after instruction of EM demonstrations rather than at the end of the entire study.
•
CCLT can be used as a tool to evaluate the ability of a demonstration in eliciting cognitive conflict. Such information will be useful in making improvements to a demonstration and in the selection of demonstrations to be used for instruction. Using demonstration in class involves more time, hence using effective demonstration is an important consideration for instruction.
•
Analysis of the CUT showed students have largely similar conceptual difficulties to those reported in the literature. Teachers should be aware of common students’ misconceptions to be more effective in helping students make changes to the acceptable scientific conceptions.
•
In the teaching of EM and EMI, there is a need to : o help students integrate EM and EMI with mechanics early in the instruction
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o to illustrate the difference between Newton’s 3rd law and Lenz’s law o clarify similarities and differences of EM & EMI with E field & g field
6.
References
Bagno, E., & Eylon, B. (1997). From problem solving to a knowledge structure: An example from the domain of electromagnetism. American Journal of Physics, 65(8), 726-736. Black, R. (2005). Why demonstration matter. Science and Children, 43(1), 52-55. Crouch, C.H., Fagan, A.P., Callan, J.P., & Mazur, E. (2004). Classroom demonstrations: Learning tools or entertainment? American Journal of Physics, 72(6), 835-838. Driver, R., Asoko, H., Leach, J., Mortimer, E., & Scott, P. (1994). Constructing Scientific Knowledge in the classroom. Educational Researcher, 23(7), 5-12. Duit, R., & Treagust, D.F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning. International Journal of Science Education, 25(6), 671-688. Fagen, A.P (2003). Assessing and enhancing the introductory science course in physics and biology: Peer instruction, classroom demonstrations and genetics vocabulary. Ph.D. Dissertation, Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts. Freier, G. (1981). The use of demonstrations in physics teaching. The Physics Teacher, 19(6), 384-386. Galili, I. (1995). Mechanics background influences students’ conceptions in electromagnetism. International Journal of Science Education, 17(3), 371-387. Gravetter, F.J., & Wallnau, L.B. (2008). Essentials of Statistics for the behavioural Sciences. Canada: Thomson Wadsworth. Gravetter, F.J., & Forzano, L.A.B. (2003). Research Methods for the behavioural Science s. United States of America: Thomson Wadsworth.
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Grayson, D.J. (2004). Concept substitution: A teaching strategy for helping students disentangle related physics concepts. American Journal of Physics, 72(8), 1126-1133. Guzzetti, B.J., Snyder, T.E., Glass, G.V., & Gamas, W.S. (1993). Promoting conceptual change in science: A comparative meta-analysis of instructional interventions from reading education and science education. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 116-159. Halloun, I.A., & Hestenes, D. (1985). Common sense concepts about motion. American Journal of Physics, 53(11), 1056-1065.
Hilton, W.A. (1981). Demonstrations as an aid in the teaching of physics. The Physics Teacher, 19(6), 389-390.
Hynd, C., Alvermann, D., & Qian, G. (1997). Preservice elementary school teachers’ conceptual change about projectile motion: Refutation text, demonstration, affective factors, and relevance. Science Education, 81, 1-27. Itza-Ortiz, S.F., Rebello, S., & Zollman, D. (2004). Students’ models of Newton’s second law in mechanics and electromagnetism. European Journal of Physics, 25, 81-89. Lee, G., Kwon, J., Park, S., Kim, J., Kwon, H., & Park, H. (2003). Development of an instrument for measuring cognitive conflict in secondary-level science classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(6), 583-603.
Maloney, D.P. (1985). Charged Poles? Physics Education, 20, 310-316. Maloney, D.P., O’Kuma, T.L., Hieggelke, C.J., & Heuvelen, A.V. (2001). Surveying students’ conceptual knowledge of electricity and magnetism. American Journal of Physics. Suppl., 69(7), S12-S23.
Mauk, H.V., & Hingley, D. (2005). Student understanding of induced current: Using tutorials in introductory physics to teach electricity and magnetism. American Journal of Physics, 73(12), 1164-1171.
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McDermott, L.C. (1990). Millikan lecture 1990: What we teach and what is learned-closing the gap. American Journal of Physics, 59(4), 301-315. McDermott, L.C. (2001). Oersted medal lecture 2001: “Physics education research-the key to student learning”. American Journal of Physics, 69(11), 1127-1137. McDermott, L.C., & Reddish, E.F. (1999). Resource letter: PER-1: Physics education research. American Journal of Physics, 67(9), 755-767. Redish, E.F., Saul, J.M., & Steinberg, R.N. (1997). On the effectiveness of activeengagement microcomputer-based laboratories. American Journal of Physics, 65(1), 45-54. Roth, W-M., Mcrobbie, C.J., Lucas, K.B., & Boutonne, S. (1997). Why may students fail to learn from demonstrations? A social practice perspective on learning in physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(5), 509-533.
Saarelainen, M., Laaksonen, A. & Hirvonen, P.E. (2007). Students’ initial knowledge of electric and magnetic fields-more profound explanations and reasoning models for undesired conceptions. European Journal of Physics, 28, 51-60. Saglam, M., & Millar, R. (2006). Upper high school students’ understanding of electromagnetism. International Journal of Science Education, 28(5), 543-566. Schilling, H.K. (1959). On the rationale of lecture demonstrations. Wesleyan Conference on Lecture Demonstrations, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT. Shmaefsky, B.R. (2005). MOS: The critical elements of doing effective classroom demonstrations. Journal of College Science Teaching, 35(3), 44-45. Sokoloff, D.R., & Thornton, R.K. (1997). Using interactive lecture demonstrations to create an active learning environment. The Physics Teacher, 35, 340-347. Theng, C.F.C. (2005). Studies on the use of demonstrations to foster conceptual understanding on the topics of levers and pulleys in primary students. MEd
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Dissertation, National Institude of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Walton, P.H. (2002). On the use of chemical demonstrations in lectures. University Chemistry Education, 6(1), 22-27.
Yavuz, A. (2005). Effectiveness of conceptual change instruction accompanied with demosntraions and computer assisted concept mapping on students’ understanding of matter concepts. Ph.D. Dissertation, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University.
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Appendix I Demonstration Observation and Explanation Worksheet (DOEW)
Question D3
A horseshoe magnet rests on a top-pan balance with a wire situated between the poles of the magnet. wire
X
horseshoe magnet
N S Y
With no current in the wire, the reading on the balance is Wo. With a current in the wire in the direction XY, the reading on the balance is W1. With a current in the wire in the direction YX, the reading on the balance is W2. Rank the readings Wo , W1 and W2 from greatest to smallest. (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
W1 W0 W1 W2 W1
= > = > >
W2 W1 Wo Wo Wo
> > = > >
Wo W2 W2 W1 W2
Section A : Prediction
What is your prediction? What are your reasons?
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Conceptual change using demonstration
Appendix I Demonstration Observation and Explanation Worksheet (DOEW)
Question D5
An empty aluminum can floats in a beaker of water. A magnet attached to the end of a stick is lowered into the aluminum can as shown in Fig 1.1. aluminum can
stick aluminum can
beaker
beaker N
S
N S
water
Magnet rotates clockwise water
Fig 1.1 (side view)
Fig 1.2 (top view)
When the magnet is rotated clockwise as viewed from the top (see Fig 1.2) without touching the aluminum can, the aluminum can will (A) (B) (C) (D)
remain stationary. rotate clockwise rotate anticlockwise. oscillate back and forth.
Section A : Prediction
What is your prediction? What are your reasons?
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Conceptual Understanding Test (CUT)
Appendix II
Q3. A horseshoe magnet is suspended from a spring balance. A wire XY is situated between the poles of the magnet. With no current in the wire, the reading on the spring balance is To. With a current in the wire in the direction XY, the reading on the spring balance is T1. With a current in the wire in the direction YX, the reading on the spring balance is T2. Rank the readings To , T1 and T2 from greatest to smallest. [5]
spring balance Y
horseshoe magnet
N
wire
S N
X
Answer : Explain your answer briefly.
Q5. An aluminum disk is free to spin about the vertical axis passing through its center. Suspended above the disk is a horseshoe magnet. The horseshoe magnet rotates about a vertical axis in a clockwise direction (as viewed from the top). What will happen to the disk as viewed from the top? [5]
Answer : Explain your answer briefly.
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rotating magnet N
S
aluminum disk
Questioning as learning strategy
Running head: QUESTIONING AS LEARNING STRATEGY
Questioning as a learning strategy in primary science
Joan S K Ng-Cheong Methodist Girls’ School (Primary)
Christine Chin National Institute of Education, Singapore
Paper presented at the International Science Education Conference (ISEC 2009) Singapore, 24-26 November 2009
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Abstract In 2008, there was a change in the local primary science syllabus. It moved from being theme-based and mainly knowledge-based to that of theme-based and inquiry-based. There are many aspects to inquiry-based learning, one of which is students using questioning as a learning strategy. The purpose of this study was to (a) examine the use of questioning as a learning strategy in primary science, and (b) discuss the relationship between student questioning and learning in science. A Primary Six class of thirty-five students was selected for this study. This class was taught special questioning techniques by the teacher which involved Dr Sandra Kaplan’s Model, a question web and question prompts. The study is centred on the socio-scientific issue of ‘Alternative Energy’. It included a debate which involved eight students with four of them having opposing points of view with regards to the issue of ‘Alternative Energy’. Data were collected from students’ written reflections, written reports, a questionnaire, a debate and pamphlet-making. To a large extent, students found that questioning helped them to probe deeper into the topic on ‘Alternative Energy’. Consequently, students were motivated to find out more and expressed what they had found out about the topic through their pamphlet-making. The pamphlets made by them were exhibited in public in a schools’ carnival at Suntec City.
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Questioning as a learning strategy in primary science
Introduction Students may adopt either a deep approach or surface approach to learning (Chin and Brown, 2000). Related to the two approaches are learning strategies that are characteristic of the respective approaches. Some learning strategies facilitate learning and these include summary-writing, prior knowledge activation, self-questioning and question-answering (Pressley et al, 1989). Other learning strategies focus on products of learning like rehearsal, repetition and categorization (Brown, Campione and Day, 1981), the emphasis being more on rote-learning skills. Over the years, there has been a shift from remembering facts to “learning how to learn” skills, which is towards more independent learning. This move is in the direction of transferring more of the responsibility of learning from the teachers to the learners. According to Schodell (1995), “In science, critical questioning is at the heart of the scientific approach.” It is also observed that there is a gradual shift in the research from teacher-questioning to student-questioning in the academic realm. There is an increasing number of educators who have begun to highlight the importance of student questions in the learning of science (Marbach-Ad and Sokolove, 2000; Chin, Brown and Bruce, 2002; Graesser and Olde, 2003). According to Harris (2000), questioning that is used appropriately by both teachers and students can transform a classroom from a traditional lecture setting into a lively student-centred community. Since the late 1970s, researchers like Rowe (1978) believed that questioning strategies was a key attribute of inquiry-based teaching. Students learn through asking their own questions, and not from just answering questions from teachers (Moll and Whitmore, 1993).
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By allowing students to generate questions, explore and interpret what they see, teachers can stimulate students’ appetite for explanation (Deal & Sterling, 1997). Background to the problem In the context of Singapore, primary students are required to purchase science textbooks in almost all mainstream schools. Perhaps, only the Gifted stream students are exempted from this. Primary science textbook writers have to follow guidelines laid down by the Ministry of Education. Students usually treat their textbooks as the main source of information and tend to memorize facts. This constitutes a surface approach to learning. Some students would also purchase ‘booster notes’ or assessment books which contain notes as study materials. Few use the learning strategy of self-questioning and the deep approach to learning (Gwan, 1996). In addition, learning in the local classroom tends to be the outcome of mainly teacherdirected instructions rather than on students’ own inquiry. Local school teachers frequently follow the IRE (Initiation, Response, Evaluation) method (Mehan,1979). Basically, the teacher will ask a question and wait for the students to respond. The teacher will evaluate the answer to the question and then follow up by some elaboration or further explanation. This does not allow for much student questioning and in fact, Dillion (1988) noted that students’ questions are rare and may be limited to the end of the lesson, which is the usual case in local schools. In some instances, when students’ questions occur, the teacher may interpret them as a challenge to authority and choose not to interrupt the flow of the lesson to consider them (Baird & Northfied, 1992). This is a common occurrence in local schools. In addition, teachers in the local primary schools are ‘generalists’, in that, they teach all subjects in the primary curriculum. The majority of primary science teachers are not trained specifically to teach science; many learnt on the job and accumulated science knowledge through years of Page 1390
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teaching science. As a result, some teachers may not be confident enough to answer the students’ questions. However, teachers are encouraged to move from teacher-centred teaching to student-centred learning. One aspect of student-centred learning is that of student questioning. As such, it will be helpful to find out more about the use of questioning as a learning strategy in student-centred activities. Students in our local schools have a common tendency to depend on their teachers to provide them with the knowledge and answers. In this twenty-first century with an emphasis on new skills in terms of learning, our students need to move towards taking ownership for their learning and turn from being passive learners to independent learners. Objective of the Study The objective of the study is to find out how the questioning strategy planned and implemented in this study may be used in the learning of science based on a socio-scientific issue of ‘Alternative Energy’.
Methodology The Participants and the School In this Primary Six class of 35 students, every one is a high achiever in terms of academic performance. This class is known as the Sophia Blackmore Class (SBC) and all of them have passed at least the first round of the Primary Three streaming test for Gifted Education. The school in the study is an all-girls government-aided school with a total enrolment of about 1 300 students. Sandra Kaplan’s Model and Icons In this study, students were trained to ask questions based on Dr Sandra Kaplan’s model on depth and complexity (Kaplan, 1997). The SK model or the depth and complexity model introduces 11 basic icons which represent various aspects of knowledge and Page 1391
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understanding with accompanying prompts and questions of inquiry, ranging from the most basic level to the higher thinking skills level. The icons provide the students with a structured flow in their thinking processes as each icon serves as a focal point to stimulate thinking, and it has the flexibility of any combination of the icons, depending on the subject matter. The 11 prompts are: language of the disciplines, details, patterns, unanswered questions, rules, trends, ethics, big ideas, interdisciplinary relationships, over time, and different perspectives. Sample questions for the prompts include the following: •
Language of the disciplines – What terms or words are specific to the work of _____ (disciplinarian)?
•
Unanswered questions – What is still not understood about this area?
•
Ethics – What dilemmas or controversies are involved in this area? Setting for the Study The topic for this study was on the social-environmental issue related to “Alternative
Energy”. This topic ties in with the Ministry of Education syllabus on the chapter of “Energy”. The main body of the chapter was first taught to provide the students with knowledge and conceptions on the sources, types and conversion of energy. The total duration of these lessons, which were held in weeks 3-4 of term 1, took 6 one-hour sessions over 2 weeks. The modes of teaching included direct teaching using Powerpoint slides from textbook resources and teacher questioning via IRE. The class was then divided into small groups of four members each. This was to facilitate the activities (i.e. Activities 1 – 5) in the later stage. These activities took about 9 one-hour sessions which were conducted during the post-examination periods in term 2 and term 4. Activity 6, an individual task, took another one hour after activity 5. The details are summarized in Table 1 below:
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Table 1. Summary of Activities Timeframe Term 2 Week 9
Duration
Activity
Term 2 Week 9 & 10
2 one-hour sessions Activity 2: Question Web
Term 2 Week 10
2 one-hour sessions Activity 3: Question Prompt Report-writing & Reflections
Term 4 Week 7
1 one-hour session
Term 4 Week 7
2 one-hour sessions Activity 5: & Homework Pamphlet-making
Term 4 Week 7
1 one-hour session
2 one-hour sessions Activity 1: KWHL chart with SK model
Activity 4: Debate
Activity 6: Questionnaire
Description 11 questions are formed by embedding key questions from SK model into the KWHL chart (by the teacher) The use of ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘who’, ‘how’ to form questions (by the students) The use of 8 process skills questions to elicit thinking (6 by the teacher and 2 by the students) 2 teams of 4 students each argue on the topic ‘Alternative Energy is Good for Mankind’ (A total of 8 students only) FAQ-style or informative-style of brochure done by individual students (a total of 35 students) 5 questions given to the 35 students and a 6th question given to the 8 debaters
Procedure The 35 students in this study were first introduced to the 11 icons of the SK Model which had been taught to them earlier in Primary 4 during their science lessons on topics like “Heat” and “Light”. The students were familiar with the use of these icons in terms of organizing their knowledge and concepts based on the associated questions of inquiry. Next, the students worked on tasks that were specifically designed for discussion and questioning on the topic of “Alternative Energy”. They had to compare the pros and cons of
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traditional energy sources against alternative energy sources and to write a report on it. They also discussed the different forms of alternative energy and any other issues related to alternative energy. There were 9 groups of 4 students each. After this preliminary discussion, the students were ready to start their activities. Activities There were altogether three questioning activities (viz. KWHL-chart with SK model, Question Web and Question Prompts) on Alternative Energy for which students first worked individually and then in small groups. Students were always briefed verbally by the teacher on the procedures of each activity. Activity 1: K-W-H-L Chart with SK Model The SK model’s key questions were embedded in the broader framework of the KWHL chart (Ogle, 1986), which is frequently used in primary school as an inquiry organizer. In this study, this organizer is used as the overarching framework for detailed questions from the SK model to be asked. K represents “What I Know” W represents “What I Want to know” H represents “How will I find information?” L represents “What I Learned” The students discussed in groups before individually writing their answers to each question, which was based on a certain aspect of the SK model. All the eleven SK icons which are related to the different aspects of questions of inquiry were parked into the KWHL chart according to similarity in terms of grouping. For example, students were taught key words relevant to the chapter on Energy. Hence, the SK prompt of “Language of the Discipline” with the question “What terms or words are specific to this topic” was parked under “What I Know” in the KWHL chart. Another example would be the question “What is Page 1394
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still not understood about this area?” The SK prompt of “Unanswered questions” would be appropriate for “What I Want to Know” in the KWHL chart. Students in the primary school are usually not fully aware of the ethical issues involved in the production of alternative energy. Hence, it was appropriate to include the SK prompt of “Ethics” with the question “What dilemmas or controversies are involved in this topic?” under “What I Learned” in the KWHL chart. A list of relevant websites was given to the students to source for answers to the questions. Activity 2: Question-Web Students were again given some time to think and then talk about questions they had in mind on Alternative Energy. This ‘pre-talk’ before doing the Question-web was necessary to facilitate the thinking process. The simple set-up of a Question-web was explained to the students. The use of ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘who’, and ‘how’ was prevalent in the Question-web. The students were required to individually plan their own question web on a given template. The usefulness of this activity in stimulating the students to find answers to their questions was determined from the data collected in the “Reflection” exercise. Activity 3: Question Prompts Questions based on Chin (2006)’s questions in developing students process skills were also implemented. Questions to tease out students understanding of process skills in comparing, generating, evaluating, decision-making, and creative problem-solving were asked in the form of question prompts. Students were given a short time to take a look at the eight given questions. They were then given four articles to read.
Three of these articles
were news and Forum-page articles taken from The Straits Times which were published at various times while the fourth article was a BBC article. Students were required to generate two questions by completing the questions that were given as starters. These two questions
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were “What would happen if …?” and “What are some possible reasons for …?”. Students were given time to write their individual reports and complete their own reflections. Debate At the end of the three questioning activities, the nine groups of four members each had to make a stand for or against the use of alternative energy based on the debate topic: Alternative Energy is Good for Mankind”. The word “Good” literally implies something positive for mankind. All 9 groups were given the chance to present their stand and the best speaker from each group was picked by the class to participate in the actual debate. Pamphlet-making This study culminated in the production of educational pamphlets. Some guidelines like doing it in the FAQ style or informative style were given. The pamphlets were exhibited in Suntec City during the November 2008 Schools’ Carnival which was organized by the National Environmental Agency, Singapore. This carnival is an annual affair to highlight environmental issues and promote environmental awareness among local school children. The 2008 theme for the carnival was “Clean and Green Singapore”. Perception Questionnaire Finally, a perception questionnaire was administered to the whole class at the end of this study. The aim of this questionnaire was to find out the extent to which questioning had helped students in their understanding of the topic on Alternative Energy from the students’ perspective.
Results Types of Questions In this study, the questions asked by the 35 students in the first three activities can be categorized in the following manner, with examples given below: Page 1396
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•
Knowledge-factual e.g. What are examples of alternative energy?
•
Comparison e.g. The general view is that traditional energy harm the earth. But is alternative energy any better?
•
Unanswered e.g. What would happen if we ran out of traditional energy?
•
Analysis and explanation e.g. Why can’t we switch to solar energy?
•
Problem-solving e.g. How can we face the problem of a dwindling supply of traditional energy?
•
Decision-making e.g. Why not make it mandatory for solar panels to be installed? Generally, students could provide reasonable answers to the knowledge-factual type
of questions with answers like “We can save energy through recycling, reusing and reducing” and “Alternative energy include energy from the sun, wind, hydroelectric power station, biomass, tides, nuclear power station and geothermal sources.” Students could answer factual questions posed by themselves or their classmates when they search the internet. By doing so, one student wrote that “I not only answered my question, but also chanced upon new facts and learned more.” In the students’ pamphlets, they also answered questions like “Why do we need alternative sources of energy?” and “What are the advantages and disadvantages of alternative energy?” In their written work, they reflected the importance of “using alternative energy carefully so as not to cause more pollution or increase global warming and in the
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current state of the world energy crisis, we are to use traditional energy wisely and not to waste what we have right now.” Open Report In the report-writing, students could express clearly the facts and information about the various types of alternative energy; the advantages and disadvantages and the environmental issues related to the use of fossil fuels. For example: “Resources from the sun (solar), earth (geothermal), wind (wind power), agricultural crops and animal waste (biomass), landfill and methane gases (biogas) and other sources like fuel cells are examples of alternative energy resources. These resources are abundant and are renewable.” (Student SO)
Repeatedly, the common themes that surfaced in these reports included the following: •
Financial cost of alternative energy e.g. “Cost is one factor. The price of alternative energy is much higher than the price of traditional energy. Thus people prefer traditional energy.” (Student BE)
•
Limitations of alternative energy e.g. “No country depends fully on wind to generate all their electricity as when there is no wind, no electricity is produced.” (Student SE)
•
The need to source for alternative energy e.g. “Alternative energy is much sought after nowadays as the supply of fossil fuels is running low…” (Student ET)
•
Alternative energy and the environment e.g. “Solar energy is free. It also does not cause pollution, unlike many other sources of energy.” (Student CL)
•
Students’ stand on alternative energy
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e.g. “Wind is a good alternative source of energy, but it is not good as a main source of energy because it is not reliable.” (Student SI) Students’ Reflections On the whole, students found that questions help them to gather information, organize the ideas, identify points of view, dig deeper and raise more issues related to alternative energy. Students wanted to use questioning as a learning strategy because it made them want to learn more. Examples of students’ responses include: “Yes, questions help me to think deeper into the topic and more ideas are formed. For example, when will we depend on alternative energy for more than half of our energy needs? I ask this question because the world seems to be using more and more energy, like electricity.” (Student ET) “Yes, questions help me to organize my thoughts better on the topic and as I question myself, I find my answers. For example, I want to know why alternative energy is expensive. I realize that the process of getting energy from alternative energy sources, like solar energy, comes from expensive materials and technology which needs a lot of money. So, if the items in the making of solar energy are expensive, then the cost of solar energy has to be expensive.” (Student JY)
Students also reflected that questions were helpful in their discussion on alternative energy. They had to support their answers with specific examples. Student PA wrote: “Questions widen and deepen discussion on this topic of alternative energy. For example, I don’t just accept that alternative energy is good and fossil fuel is bad. I want to know the advantages and disadvantages of both alternative energy and fossil fuel.”
Student SY also commented that “Questions help to identify points of view: what are different points of view of e.g. businessmen against environmentalist?” Student BE’s reflection was:
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“Yes, but I also want to ask (question) others. Using self-questioning gets me thinking and it makes me want to learn more. On the other hand, asking others and sharing your knowledge with them is good too because they get to learn as well.”
Based on the data collected from the students’ reflections, there appeared to be three recurring themes: •
Questioning is a way to clarify doubts and misconceptions
•
Questioning enables one to gain a better understanding of the topic
•
Questioning makes one think deeper and propels one to want to learn more Students had expressed in their reflections that they agreed on the common point
that questions are helpful and needful for them to work on the topic “Alternative Energy”. Through questionings, they understand the topic much better in terms of breadth and depth. This is often translated into their work. They are also motivated to find out more about the topic as one question would lead onto another in order to satisfy their quest for more knowledge and understanding. From the students’ reflections, a positive relationship between questioning and students’ work has surfaced. Debate The proposition team put forward the following claims, reasons and questions, to support their stand: •
The world’s population is increasing and since fossil fuels are non-renewable, there is a need for alternative energy.
•
The financial cost of the initial set-ups of some alternative energy is high but it is a justifiable cost and it will be recovered in the long run. Most other forms of alternative energy, like wind and solar energy, are free.
•
How much more harmful can alternative energy be as compared to traditional energy in polluting the environment?
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•
Countries are using alternative energy in greater numbers, so it cannot be wrong.
The opposition team rebutted and put forward the following claims, reasons and questions to support their stand: •
The returns are small as compared to the investment in alternative energy, as some evidence has shown (e.g. solar energy is only about 10% efficient currently). Is the payback in the long run for the huge investments in alternative energy worthwhile?
•
Since alternative energy is very expensive, it might be more worthwhile to use the money to repair the negative effects of using fossil fuels.
•
What happens if alternative energy causes more harm to the environment? For example, biofuel can cause carbon disruption in the air.
•
Strong political support is needed to substantiate the drive for alternative energy. Poorer countries won’t be able to do so. At the end of the debate, the judges had their discussion. The following are some
highlights and patterns that they had observed: •
Both teams had done intensive research and given deep thought to the presentation of their arguments. The advantages and disadvantages of whether alternative energy is good or bad were well argued.
•
The issue of sustainability was addressed by both teams.
•
The financial and environmental costs were addressed.
•
The opposition had pointed out several important issues like alternative energy could be pollutive and the low returns to large investment of alternative energy.
The team that won the debate was the opposition team.
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Pamphlet-making In addressing the types of questions asked by students, the pamphlets appeared to slant towards answering more of the lower-order type of questions. Basically, the content in the pamphlets dwelled on the knowledge-factual type of questions and providing appropriate answers. An example of a knowledge-factual question would be: “What are the different types of alternative energy?” and the answers would be: “Biomass, wind energy, solar energy, hydro power – with descriptions given of the stated alternative energy” (Student ME). However, there was a minority of students who tried to move beyond doing the lowerorder questions and the appropriate factual answers to more problem-solving type of questions and answers. Student IS presented her pamphlet by suggesting ways to conserve energy at home, in school and on the road. Student GL asked the question: “What can we do to help save the Mother Earth?” and she also tried to analyze the deeper issues into environmental damage by asking the question: “What are the linking problems to this issue?”. She wrote a small section in her pamphlet as follows: “When we burn fossil fuels, carbon dioxide is emitted into the air. Carbon dioxide is considered a green house gas, thus contributing to global warming. Global warming then in turn causes the thinning of the ozone layer and if humans are exposed too much to the ultra-violet rays, we might develop skin cancer and other skin diseases.”
Perception Questionnaire There were altogether six questions in this open-ended perception questionnaire on “Questioning as a Learning Strategy on the topic – Alternative Energy”. The number and percentages of students out of a total of 35 students who answered positively to questions 1 to 5 were recorded. The 6th question had only eight students answering since it was a question based on the debate. A summary of the quantitative findings is shown in Table 2 below:
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Table 2. Responses to Perception Questionnaire No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
Question Does the KWHL chart help you to learn better on this topic? Please explain. Does the SK model help you to question and learn better? Please explain. Does the ‘Question-Web’ activity help you to organize your questions better on the topic? Please explain. Does the ‘Question Prompts’ activity help you to think deeper about the topic? Please explain. Does doing the brochure on Alternative Energy help you to comprehend the issues with deeper insights? Please elaborate. (For those involved in the debate only) Does participating in the debate bring you to a higher level of understanding of the issues involved in Alternative Energy? Please elaborate.
No. who answered positively 28
80.0
29
82.9
26
74.3
26
74.3
30
85.7
8
100.0
%
Question 1 Does the KWHL chart help you to learn better on this topic? Please explain. 80.0% of the students in our sample group felt that the guided questions helped them to recall facts, think about issues related to the topic and lead them to ask more questions. However they were some who did not find it helpful. One student who did not find it helpful wrote, “No. I usually map things out in my mind and would not need a KWHL chart, although it might help if I need to recall a fact or question I have forgotten.” (Student ET). This student had her own preferred way of learning - using mapping to help her. Question 2 Does the SK model help you to question and learn better? Please explain. Altogether, 82.9% of the students in our sample group felt that using symbols/icons help them to question better by providing a way to approach the topic. One student wrote that “it makes learning and remembering things easier.” (Student JA). These students were usually
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visual learners who liked to associate different aspects of learning with icons. Some found the icons interesting as it was a refreshing change from the usual method of using words alone to describe scientific concepts. Question 3 Does the Question-Web activity help you to organize your questions better on the topic? Please explain. 74.3 % of the students in the sample group agreed that the web helped them to organize their ideas and thoughts which they could share with their friends. In addition, the web helped them to focus on key words and phrases (e.g. global warming) and this in turn assisted them to research more into these areas. Question 4 Does the Question Prompts activity help you to think deeper about the topic? 74.3% of the students in the focused sample group felt that the prompts directed them to think from different perspectives and think of areas related to alternative energy that they never knew even existed. However, some of the students did not find it helpful. One of them wrote, “No. I only thought of the basic concepts. I did not think deeper.” (Student XA). This student did not attempt to think more. Perhaps, she was not interested in the topic. Question 5 Does doing the brochure on alternative energy help you to comprehend the issues with deeper insights? Please elaborate. 85.7% of the students in focused sample group felt that doing the information brochure had an impact on their understanding of alternative energy. They had to research into the topic and in the process, they had gained useful knowledge. The majority expressed satisfaction in gaining more understanding and knowledge in doing the brochure. However, there were some who did not find it helpful. One of them wrote, Page 1404
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“Not really. It is just basically putting together what you have found out into a brochure.” (Student YS). Question 6 Does participating in the debate bring you to a higher level of understanding of the issues involved in alternative energy? Please elaborate. 100% of the students in the sample group felt that the debate posed arguments from different points of view and in preparing for the debate, they were motivated to dig deeper into areas in which they were uncertain of. Thus they had to think at a higher level and question more.
Discussion From the results of the activities and analysis of the information reports, perception questionnaire and debate, the following surfaced: •
Questioning helped students to think deep into the topic on alternative energy.
•
Students find questioning helps them in their learning. They understand the topic on alternative energy much better.
•
Questioning helped students to find answers to their own questions on alternative energy. Students posed questions after they had thought about what they wanted to ask and
summarized their learning in report-writing and reflections. Students’ questions helped them to build up their understanding and increase their knowledge to the extent that they had the confidence and content-matter to engage in arguments as shown by the debate and producing the pamphlets for public display. In carrying out this study, it was not easy to find time to conduct the study at shorter intervals between activities due to the tight school schedule and the curriculum. The only available periods were the window periods of post-examination weeks in May and October. Page 1405
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The wide time gap in between activities might have an effect on the results of the study. Some students might have forgotten what they had learnt. In fact, one student had expressed surprise when she was asked to complete the questionnaire because she had almost forgotten the series of activities that she was involved in from the beginning of the year. On the other hand, some students benefited from the long time lapse in between activities. These students were those who were the reflective type who needed time and space to think through questions and issues that had surfaced during the course of the various activities. A further point to note in the implementation of the activities is the sequencing of Activity 1 and 2. Activity 2 involved a simple question web with the 5 “W’s” for the students to focus their attention on the questions to be generated. The more ‘demanding’ Activity 1 involved a combination of KWHL-chart and SK model with 11 questions for the students to think about and provide answers. In terms of progression of the level of difficulty from a lighter task to a heavier task, it might make good sense to start off doing the question web first before moving onto the KWHL-chart with SK model. Another worthy point to note is in the design of the question web. Data collected from the students in this study showed that students could not focus on relevant aspects of Alternative Energy, like, the pros and cons of using alternative energy and traditional energy. It might be useful to redesign the question web by clustering perspectives on alternative energy from various people, like, politicians, environmentalists, industrialists, scientists and journalists. Implications From this study, the students from this Sophia Blackmore class had benefited both in terms of the amount of knowledge gained and the depth of understanding on the topic ‘Alternative Energy’ through the use of questioning as a learning strategy. The question asked then would be, “Is questioning as a learning strategy helpful in other science topics or even in other subjects?” One area that can be looked into involved small-group learning Page 1406
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through peer-questioning. In addition, the question that can surface would be: “What impact does this study have on the students’ desire to want to conserve energy?” It might be interesting to look into the change in thinking that may in turn affect students’ change in future behaviour. The bigger question would then become: “Could this study support the view that education is the basis to change behaviour?” Limitations The participants in this study were high-ability students. Using the same methodology in this study to work on another sample may not have the same results.
Conclusion There is evidence in this study from the students’ open report, reflections, debate, pamphlet-making and questionnaire to suggest that having student ask questions does affect their work positively. It would then mean that student questioning is a helpful and meaningful learning tool in primary science as shown in this study. In terms of classroom practice, this may translate to more student-centred learning through questioning. However, students must be guided to ask relevant questions that relate to their subject of study. Therefore, in terms of inquiry learning, the teacher’s role would then be that of a facilitator of the lesson instead of the giver of knowledge. In the context of primary science education in Singapore, it may be of interest to both the teachers, who are the instructional experts, and the students, who are the learners, to work towards a change in the way science is presently taught in the local classrooms. There is a reduction in content knowledge in the new science syllabus implemented in 2008. This may be an opportune time to discard didactic teaching methods in our classrooms and adopt the student-centred inquiry-based method of teaching for certain topics.
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References Baird, J. R., & Northfield, J.R. (1992). Learning from the PEEL experience. Melbourne, Australia: Monash University Printing Services. Brown, A.L., Campione, J.C., and Day, J.D. (1981). Learning to learn: On training students to learn from texts. Educational Researcher, 10, 14-21 Chin, C., & Brown, D.E.(2000). Learning in science: a comparison of deep and surface approaches. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(2), 109-138 Chin, C., Brown, D.E., & Bruce, B.C. (2002). Student-generated questions: A meaningful aspect of learning in science. International Journal of Science Education, 24, 521549. Chin, C. (2006). Using self-questioning to promote pupils’ process skills thinking. School Science Review, 87(321), 113-122. Deal,D. & Sterling,D. (1997). Kids ask the best questions. Educational Leadership, 54(6), 61-63. Dillion, J.T. (1988). The remedial status of student questioning. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 20, 197-210 Gwan, W.L.(1996). Effects of Systematic Training on Self-Questioning Technique on Secondary Students Science Achievement. A Dissertation. NTU, Singapore. Graesser, A.C., & Olde, B.A. (2003). How does one know whether a person understands a device? The quality of the questions the person asks when the device breaks down. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 524-536. Harris, R. L. (2000). Batting 1000: Questioning techniques in student-centred classrooms. Clearing House, 74(1), 25-26. Kaplan, S. (1997). Facilitating the Understanding of Depth & Complexity. Retrieved March 14th 2007 from www.texaspsp.org/all/DepthComplexity.pdf Page 1408
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Marbach-Ad, G. & Sokolove, P.G.(2000). Good Science Begins with Good Questions: Answering the Need for High-level Questions in Science. Journal of College Science Teaching, 30(3), 192-95. Mehan, H. (1979). Learning lessons: Social organization in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Moll, L., & Whitmore, K. (1993). Vygotsky in Classroom Practice: Moving from Individual Transmission to Societal Transaction. In Contexts for Learning, ed. by E. Forman. NY: Oxford University Press, p19-42. Ogle, D.M. (1986) “K-W-L: A Teaching Model that Develop Active Reading of Expository Text.” Reading Teacher 39, 564-570 Pressley, M., Goodchild, F., Fleet, J., Zajchowski, R., & Evans, E.D. (1989). The challenges of classroom strategy instruction. Elementary School Journal, 89, 301-342 Rowe, M. B. (1978). Teaching Science as Continuous Inquiry, 2nd ed. NY: McGraw-Hill. Schodell, M. (1995). The question-driven classroom. The American Biology Teacher, 57, 278-281.
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COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND STUDENTS’ HOLISTIC FORMATION
Cooperative Learning in Biology: Enhancing the Academic, Community, and Spiritual Lives of Second Year Seminarians of Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary
Noel F. Noble
Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary, 8958965, [email protected] Philippine Normal University, 4042325
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Abstract The study aimed at testing the potential of cooperative learning in enhancing the academic, community, and spiritual lives of second year seminarians. It involved an intact class of twenty-one (21) students of the Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary. Cooperative learning was used in teaching the participants the topics that focused on the Evolution and Diversity of Life which were covered during the entire third grading period of the School Year 2006-2007. The study was anchored to Morton Deustch’s theory of social interdependence, to the framework for curriculum alignment proposed by Reyes (2005), and to the combination of cooperative learning methods namely Jigsaw III and Team-GameTournament (TGT) designed by Stahl (1996). The study was descriptive-evaluative in terms of design. It involved a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods of collecting data that were made possible with the use of base scores and improvement point sheet, rubrics, and rating scales. Results showed that with cooperative learning, the participants’ academic life in terms of content knowledge improved with reference to their base scores. With the strategy, the participants’ skills in critical thinking, creativity, communication, and computer literacy were enhanced. Improvement was also evident on participants’ community life especially on servant-leadership and community building. The positive observation was also true with the participants’ spirituality specifically on prayer life and discipleship. In addition, the participants unanimously agreed that cooperative learning enhanced their academic, community, and spiritual lives when they were asked about their perception on its use in their biology class.
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INTRODUCTION The study was focused on testing and exploring the potential of cooperative learning in actualizing institutional vision/mission. It delved into how cooperative learning in biology enhance the second year seminarians’ academic lives in terms of content knowledge and academic skills; community lives in terms of servant-leadership and community building; and spiritual lives in terms of prayer life and discipleship. It also sought answers about the seminarians’ perception of the use of cooperative learning in teaching Evolution and Diversity of Life. Specifically, the study was done by deriving the Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary´s ideal graduate attributes from the institution´s vision and mission statements and aligning those to instructional objectives, content, strategies, and evaluation in the process called integration. The study was conceptualized on the following reasons: First, cooperative learning was used because the strategy is considered as today’s most promising practice in education (Holt et al, 1991). Other approaches in teaching could be incorporated into the strategy by exposing students to varied collaborative activities. Second, evident in the review of studies that most works on cooperative learning were focused on assessing its effects on academic achievement (Neri, 1997; Venus, 1998; Zisk, 1998; Piedad, 1999; Johnson et al., 2000; and Norman, 2005), social skills (Sawit, 2000; Kwen Boo et al., 2001; Divaharan and Atputhasamy, 2002; and Neri, 2005), and other variables like motivation (McCurdy, 1996), self-concept (Zisk, 1998; Sawit, 2000; and Neri, 2005) and attitudes (Kim-Eng Lee et al., 1996; Neri, 1997, Reyes 1999; Yu, 2004; and Norman, 2005). Many failed to try the strategy with the development of other variables like on students’ spiritual aspect. Third, almost all of the studies conducted regarding cooperative learning were experimental and quasi-experimental, research designs that are generally quantitative in nature. Only a few usually foreign studies employed descriptive designs (McCurdy, 1996; Kwen Boo et al., 2001; and Divaharan and Page 1412
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Atputhasamy, 2002). Fourth, the researcher believes that the seminary’s vision of forming a well-balanced and integral person (OLGMS Manual of Formation, 2005) may be realized if all aspects of formation work together through the use of cooperative learning. Fifth, content lessons in science contribute to seminarians’ academic growth but offer not much evidence and assurance in the development of seminarians’ spiritual and community lives. The researcher believes that maturity of seminarians in these two aspects can be made possible through teachers’ effective implementation of strategies like the use cooperative learning in the science classroom. The study was anchored to Morton Deustch’s theory of Social Interdependence. The theory provides the foundation of cooperative learning. Based on it, when individuals share common goals, each individual’s outcomes are affected by the actions of others. The theory was first extended and applied to education by authorities at the University of Minnesota (Johnson and Johnson 1998; Tanner et al., 2003).
METHODOLOGY The study was descriptive-evaluative in terms of design. It employed the qualitative and quantitative methods in collecting data using three instruments: a Base Score and Improvement Point Sheet used to assess the content knowledge of participants, a set of rubrics used in monitoring how cooperative learning enhanced their academic skills, and two Scale Type instruments, a rating scale used to assess the participants’ skills in the aspects of community and spirituality and a Likert Scale that was used to measure the participants perception of the use of the cooperative strategy in their Biology lessons. The first instrument was adapted from Stahl (1996) while the second and third instruments were developed by the researcher and were validated by experts. The study was conducted at the Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary, located at EDSA corner Bernardino Street, Page 1413
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Guadalupe Viejo, Makati City. Data were gathered from the Biology class of twenty-one second year seminarians where they were taught facts and concepts on Evolution and Diversity of Life using a combination of two cooperative learning methods: Jigsaw III and Team-Game-Tournament. This was done during the entire third grading period of School Year 2006-2007. Data were analyzed and interpreted using frequency count, percentage, arithmetic mean, and weighted arithmetic mean. Refer to the Figure 1 for the procedural framework of modified Jigsaw III cooperative learning activities.
Figure 1. Procedural Framework for Modified Jigsaw III Cooperative Learning Activities
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Based on the problems stated, the following are the significant findings of the study. 1. Cooperative Learning’s Contributions to the Participants’ Academic, Community and Spiritual Lives
1.1 Academic Life
1.1.1
On Content Knowledge
Analysis of Base Score and Improvement Point Sheet using frequency count and percentage revealed that cooperative learning contributed to the improvement of the participants’ content knowledge in biology. Data are shown in the tables below:
Table 1. Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution of Participants Who Met and Exceeded their Base Scores Group
Quiz Number 1
2
3
4
5
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
High
0
0
7
33.33
6
28.57
6
28.57
7
33.33
Average
1
4.76
6
28.57
3
14.29
4
19.05
2
9.52
Low
4
19.05
7
33.33
5
23.81
4
19.05
6
28.57
Total
5
23.81
20
95.24
14
66.67
14
66.67
15
71.43
Table 2. Participants' Second and Third Quarter Ratings for Quizzes and Periodic Examination in Biology for School Year 2006-2007 Group
Participants
Quizzes
Periodic Examination
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
1
87
87
91
86
2
88
89
93
87
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3
83
89
88
89
4
85
88
89
88
5
83
86
85
84
6
79
84
82
84
7
74
83
88
84
8
81
88
84
89
9
76
80
79
78
10
74
76
85
77
11
74
77
84
84
12
74
79
76
76
13
77
77
73
80
14
73
81
74
85
15
74
78
73
79
16
74
78
74
75
17
74
87
79
87
18
73
74
73
79
19
74
82
74
77
20
73
79
74
77
21
72
80
71
71
High
Average
Low
Passing Rate: 75
As shown in Tables 1 and 2, cooperative learning significantly improved the participants’ content knowledge in biology. This is evident in the high percentage of participants who met and exceeded their base scores. According to Stahl (1996), it is not easy for students to meet and exceed base scores because they are dealing with new lesson content. A major contributory factor that possibly contributed to the enhancement of the participants’ academic performance was the alignment of tests with
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the objectives, content and cooperative strategy. Quizzes 1 to 5 were prepared with the great consideration of the mentioned elements of curricular instructions through the preparation of a table of specification for each set of test. The participants got good scores because the tests that they took were all aligned with what they encountered through jigsaw cooperative activities particularly during the expert group tasks. Generally, results affirm previous findings that the strategy promotes better academic achievement such as in Physics (Venus, 1998; Piedad, 1999), Chemistry (Zisk, 1998; Sawit 2000; Biton, 2001), Math (Reyes, 1999), Remedial Teaching Program (Romero, 2002), Social Studies (Neri, 2005), and Elementary English (Norman, 2005). Findings also support the notion that cooperative learning promotes long-term retention of information (Johnson et al., 1984) and produces a higher level of academic achievement (Kagan, 1989; Streeter, 1999). Furthermore, marked improvement in content knowledge among low-performers affirmed that truly in cooperative learning, students become resources and partners in learning, and that the success of students is in part dependent on the involvement of their peers (Tanner et al., 2003).
1.1.2 On Academic Skills Assessment of participants’ products using rubrics and their analysis using frequency count and percentage gave a picture of cooperative learning’s contribution to the enhancement of their critical thinking skills, creativity, communication skills, and computer literacy. On critical thinking, data obtained are presented in the following table:
Table 3. Participants’ Development in Terms of Critical Thinking Based on their Five Performance Products in Cooperative Learning Activities Page 1417
Students’ Holistic Development
Group
High
Average
Low
Participants
Performance Products
Average
1
2
3
4
5
1
93
91
91
94
93
92
2
91
85
89
92
93
90
3
93
89
94
93
93
92
4
88
89
93
92
91
91
5
89
89
94
83
93
90
6
87
87
90
92
90
89
7
83
84
89
83
93
86
8
81
85
88
83
91
86
9
85
87
91
91
93
89
10
85
89
91
91
89
89
11
82
81
84
81
81
82
12
84
82
84
81
89
84
13
81
81
91
87
92
86
14
87
89
90
91
91
90
15
87
85
90
82
93
87
16
88
89
91
89
90
89
17
88
87
89
83
91
88
18
87
88
91
86
93
89
19
88
88
89
91
91
89
20
86
88
90
88
90
88
21
79
81
84
91
87
84
As shown in Table 3, a total of 20 (95.23%) participants benefited from the use of cooperative learning in their class regardless of academic abilities. The high percentage of those who showed improvement reveals that the strategy has the capacity to challenge the participants to make correct judgments. The very nature of the
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cooperative learning gives the learners enough time to clarify and purify their thoughts, leading them to make wise decisions. The products of the participants showing that they learned to follow instructions clearly, answer questions accurately and present their ideas in a logical manner serve as evidence for this notion. In addition, the participants’ level of critical thinking is also revealed in the previous table. The participants’ average ratings for the five products prove this. The following table summarizes this information:
Table 4. Ratings, Frequency Count, Percentage Distribution, and Participants’ Level of Critical Thinking Ratings
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
91-95
3
14.29
Level 4
86-90
15
71.43
Level 3
81-85
3
14.29
Level 2
75-80
0
00.00
Level 1
N=21
100.00
With reference to Table 4, majority of the participants belong to level 3 and 4. They analyzed and interpreted questions thoughtfully, answered questions accurately, presented their ideas logically and supported their arguments with examples. They also had organized and neat products. Generally, findings on this particular skill validate the claim that cooperative learning challenges students to use a higher level of reasoning, and that the strategy promotes greater critical-thinking competencies more than competitive and individualistic learning strategies do (Johnson and Johnson, 1983). Findings also affirm Sawit (2000) who concluded in her study that cooperative learning improves students’ decision making abilities. Page 1419
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On creativity, results are shown in the table below: Table 5. Participants’ Development in Terms of Creativity Based on their Five Performance Products in Cooperative Learning Activities Group
High
Average
Low
Participants
Performance Products
Average
1
2
3
4
5
1
86
84
86
93
93
88
2
87
79
85
91
93
87
3
93
82
95
91
90
90
4
83
83
88
91
89
87
5
84
87
89
81
89
86
6
81
83
85
88
87
85
7
81
83
86
81
93
85
8
77
86
85
83
87
84
9
81
81
86
88
95
86
10
81
79
86
88
89
85
11
85
79
83
81
83
82
12
82
83
83
87
83
84
13
80
80
83
86
87
83
14
81
87
85
88
83
85
15
81
77
93
79
89
84
16
83
84
85
85
89
85
17
80
79
85
83
89
83
18
82
86
83
81
91
85
19
83
83
83
88
86
85
20
81
83
89
83
86
84
21
81
83
88
88
83
85
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Looking at Table 5, there are of 15 (68.43%) participants who gained from the strategy. This percentage shows that the cooperative strategy assures the enhancement of students’ creativity if constantly used in class. Cooperative group activities particularly Jigsaw and Team-Game-Tournament where recognition and rewards are inherent motivate creative members to be patient in helping and challenging their teammates who fall short of the skill. In this notion, cooperative learning as a strategy provides students the needed exposure to learn to be more creative. Furthermore, the participants’ level of creativity is also revealed in the average grade of the participants on their five performance products. This is shown on the table the follows:
Table 6. Ratings, Frequency Count, Percentage Distribution, and Participants’ Level of Creativity Ratings
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
91-95
0
00.00
Level 4
86-90
6
28.57
Level 3
81-85
15
71.43
Level 2
75-80
0
00.00
Level 1
N=21
100.00
Participants’ creativity was assessed depending on whether they were able to recognize and nurture their God-given talents through cooperative learning. It was made possible by looking at the following indicators in their five products: their reflection papers should be based on their significant personal experiences; should be incorporated with quotations, mottos, proverbs, and anecdotes; and should use symbols, graphic and illustrations. Their posters and artworks should be original or modification of others’ works; should be exceptionally attractive in terms of design and layout; and should be Page 1421
Students’ Holistic Development
exceptionally attractive in terms of color scheme. Their power point presentations should be incorporated with original or modified graphics, sounds, readable font, animations and video clips. With reference to the aforementioned indicators, Table 6 shows that majority of the participants belong to levels 2 and 3 and thus are generally creative in coming up with their products. Most indicators expected of a creative person were exhibited in the process of accomplishing their tasks. Assessment shows that cooperative learning is a potent tool in developing the creativity of students of varying academic abilities. With regard to the participants’ communication skills, data are shown in the following table:
Table 7. Participants’ Development in Terms of Communication Skills Based on their Three Performance Products in Cooperative Learning Activities Group
Participants
Performance Products 1
High
Average
2
3
4
Average 5
1
89
88
89
89
2
87
87
93
89
3
92
93
88
91
4
87
91
88
89
5
84
90
86
87
6
82
83
83
83
7
82
83
89
85
8
80
83
88
84
9
80
85
90
85
10
80
87
87
85
11
84
83
87
85
12
80
85
83
83
13
82
83
83
83
14
81
87
86
85
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Students’ Holistic Development
Low
15
81
86
87
85
16
81
83
89
84
17
83
85
87
85
18
83
88
93
88
19
83
85
86
85
20
80
83
86
83
21
80
87
80
82
As revealed in Table 7, there are 14 (63.67%) participants who improved their communication skills with the use of cooperative learning in their class. Among them, the low performing ones benefited a lot from the strategy. Data also show that the low frequency count of high-performing participants does not really imply that they did not improve; some of them need only to maintain their good output at the start and so they appear to be not improving. The great number of participants who developed in terms of communication skills reveals that cooperative learning, when employed efficiently, makes the learners aware of their grammar, spelling and punctuation. Interaction inherent to it challenges highperforming ones to reach out to members who are lacking in the said skill. It provides the low-performing ones a better opportunity to improve their communication skills through constant consultations with skilled teammates. The participants’ products give the concrete evidence to this observation. Another way of interpreting the above data is looking at the level of communication of all the participants as a whole. Results are presented on the following table:
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Table 8. Ratings, Frequency Count, Percentage Distribution, and Participants’ Level of Communication Skills Ratings
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
91-95
1
4.76
Level 4
86-90
5
23.81
Level 3
81-85
15
71.43
Level 2
75-80
0
00.00
Level 1
N=21
100.00
With reference to Table 8, majority of the participants belong to levels 2, 3 and 4. The data show that with cooperative learning, the participants learned to accomplish their written outputs in English with clarity. The strategy also made them aware of correct grammar, spelling and punctuations. Overall assessment of findings show that cooperative learning contributed a significant improvement to the participants’ communication skills because its interactive nature provided a venue to develop awareness on the use of correct grammar, spelling and punctuation. These findings affirm previous findings that in cooperative learning, students become resources and partners in learning, and that the success of students is in part dependent on the involvement of their peers (Tanner et al., 2003). Results also support the idea that the strategy is more superior to the traditional way of teaching in terms of enhancing students’ communicative competence (Sawit, 2000; Caperida, 2004).
On the enhancement of skills in information and computer technology, data obtained are plotted in the table that follows:
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Students’ Holistic Development
Table 9. Participants’ Development in Terms of Computer Literacy Based on their Two Performance Products in Cooperative Learning Activities Group
Participants
Performance Products 1
High
Average
Low
2
3
4
Average 5
1
86
93
90
2
85
93
89
3
95
90
93
4
88
89
89
5
89
89
89
6
85
87
86
7
86
93
90
8
85
87
86
9
86
95
91
10
86
89
88
11
83
83
83
12
83
83
83
13
83
87
85
14
85
83
84
15
93
89
91
16
85
89
87
17
85
89
87
18
83
91
87
19
83
86
85
20
89
86
88
21
88
83
86
Considering Table 9, there are 14 (63.67%) participants who benefited from the strategy. The data show that an implementation of cooperative learning in class will produce learners who are equipped with skills in tapping the computer for their studies.
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This is possible because with the said strategy, learners have the chance to discuss with one another things like what to include, how to present their products, and what other essential elements need to be incorporated in their products. With cooperative learning, participants explored the use of computer technology in coming up with outputs such as the introduction of sounds, animations, observance of proper font size, coming up with proper resolution, the use of hyperlink and insertion of video clips. Further analysis of the above data indicates the participants’ level of computer literacy. The data regarding this is reinforced by the following table:
Table 10. Ratings, Frequency Count, Percentage Distribution, and Participants’ Level of Computer Literacy Ratings
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
91-95
3
14.29
Level 4
86-90
13
61.90
Level 3
81-85
5
23.81
Level 2
75-80
0
00.00
Level 1
N=21
100.00
Based on Table 10, a great percentage of the participants belong to levels 3 and 4. The data reveal that majority of them met the criteria set for a computer literate person. Their products contained original graphics. They accomplished their work with images in proper sizes and resolutions. They incorporated sounds, animations and video clips. They also made use of the concept of hyperlink for slide transition purposes. Overall findings show that cooperative learning could be used as an efficient strategy in promoting and enhancing students’ skills in information and computer technology.
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Students’ Holistic Development
1.2 Community Life
1.2.1
On Servant-Leadership
The data, which was collected using a Rating Scale and analyzed using Using frequency count, percentage distribution, and arithmetic mean, showed that The five cooperative learning activities in biology contributed to the development of the value of servant-leadership. Data obtained are shown in the table that follows:
Table 11. Mean, Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution of Participants Who Practiced the Value of Servant-leadership in Five Cooperative Learning Activities in Biology Mean
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
4.51-5.00
0
0
Always
3.51-4.50
18
85.7
Often
2.51- 3.50
3
14.2
Moderately
1.51-2.50
0
0
Seldom
1.01-1.50
0
0
Never
N=21
100.00
As revealed in Table 11, participants generally practiced the value of servantleadership through cooperative learning activities. This is evident in the high percentage of participants who often exhibited the values expected of a servant-leader. This qualitative interpretation shows that effective use of the strategy promotes the inculcation of this specific attribute to the lives of learners. Group activities gearing towards a common goal, a characteristic of cooperative learning, require the
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participants to learn to adjust with one another, to deal with difficulties with humility and to accept others despite their limitations.
1.2.2
On Community Building
On the building of a community, results of assessment are plotted on the table that follows:
Table 12. Mean, Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution of Participants Who Practiced the Value of Community Building in Five Cooperative Learning Activities in Biology Mean
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
4.51-5.00
2
9.5
Always
3.51-4.50
16
76.1
Often
2.51- 3.50
3
14.2
Moderately
1.51-2.50
0
0
Seldom
1.01-1.50
0
0
Never
N=21
100.00
As shown in Table 12, a high percentage of participants often practiced the skill. The scenario is indicative of the great potential of cooperative learning in promoting community-building skills among learners. Cooperative groups created with Jigsaw are usually composed of members with specific responsibilities for the group to function properly. From this point of view, the strategy provides the training ground for participants to acquire a sense of community initiative, a characteristic which, as pointed out in the SANGKAN Formators’ Meeting (2005) needs, to be developed in order to uplift the seminarians’ community lives.
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Students’ Holistic Development
Findings of cooperative learning’s contributions to the enhancement of the participants’ community lives validated the idea that the strategy gives students opportunities to improve their interpersonal skills (Putnam, 1997), that it provides a venue for greater personal and social development than either competitive or individualistic instructional conditions (Streeter, 1999). They also affirm previous studies that the strategy promotes real collaboration and participation among students (Divaharan and Atputhasamy, 2002), and that it develops a positive relationship and social support (Slavin, 1983; Neri, 2005).
1.3 Spiritual Life
1.3.1 On Prayer life
An analysis of the home team and the expert group’s evaluation using arithmetic mean shows cooperative learning’s contribution to the enrichment of the participants’ prayer lives. Results obtained are shown on the following table:
Table 13. Mean, Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution of Participants Who Observed the Value of Prayer in Five Cooperative Learning Activities in Biology Mean
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
4.51-5.00
0
0
Always
3.51-4.50
16
76.19%
Often
2.51-3.50
5
23.81%
Moderately
1.51-2.50
0
0
Seldom
1.01-1.50
0
0
Never
N=21
100.00
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Students’ Holistic Development
Table 13 shows that majority of the participants practiced the values expected of a prayerful person. Results reveal that cooperative learning, if continuously used as a strategy in teaching, can contribute significantly to the development of the students’ prayer lives. This is because the practice of proper vocal prayers before and after classes and observing external silence while doing group activities assure the development of a person’s prayer life (SANGKAN Formators’ Meeting, 2005). In a cooperative group, members remind one another of group functions and responsibilities, particularly the aforementioned values.
1.3.2
On Discipleship
On discipleship, results of assessment are presented in the table below:
Table 14. Mean, Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution of Participants Who Observed the Value of Discipleship in Five Cooperative Learning Activities in Biology Mean
f
%
Qualitative Interpretation
4.51-5.00
0
0
Always
3.51-4.50
17
80.95
Often
2.51- 3.50
4
19.05
Moderately
1.51-2.50
0
0
Seldom
1.01-1.50
0
0
Never
N=21
100.00
As shown in Table 14, majority of the participants often exhibited signs of being good disciples. The information reveals that constant use of cooperative learning in class may inculcate the value of discipleship in the lives of learners, particularly minor
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seminarians. Discipleship emphasizes the capacity of a person to follow the examples of Jesus. This may start from simple expressions like following instructions in class, following institutional rules and obedience to superiors. Generally, the results of the assessment of cooperative learning’s contributions to participants’ spiritual lives strengthened the notion that social interaction inherent to the strategy nurtures students’ faith in God. This is based on the premise that faith itself is a personal relationship with God (Gaikwad, 1996).
2. Participants’ Perceptions on the use of Cooperative Learning in Biology Class
2.1 On Academic Life
The data, collected through the Likert Scale and analyzed using weighted arithmetic mean, revealed that cooperative learning was appreciated by the participants as an alternative strategy for the enhancement of their academic lives. The data are shown in the table that follows:
Table 15. Ratings, Weighted Arithmetic Mean, and Interpretation of Participants’ Perception of Cooperative Learning’s Contribution to their Academic Lives _ Academic Life Indicators
5
4
3
13
5
3
2
1
WX
Interpretation
4.38
Agree
1. Improved my content knowledge about Evolution and Diversity of Life 2. Led me to develop my critical
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Students’ Holistic Development
thinking skills.
13
3
5
12
8
12
5
4
11
7
2
4.38
Agree
4.48
Agree
4.38
Agree
4.29
Agree
4.38
Agree
3. Strategy where I was able to recognize, nurture and use my
1
God-given talents. 4. Led me to develop my communication skills.
5. Led me to discover and develop my skills in information
1
and computer technology.
General Weighted Average
As plotted in Table 15, All participants generally agreed on all items (WX=4.38). They said cooperative learning contributed to the improvement of their content knowledge on topics about Evolution and Diversity of Life. It developed their critical thinking skills. They believed that they become more creative because the strategy helped them recognize, nurture and use their God-given talents. Cooperative learning helped them develop their communication skills as well as led them to discover and develop their skills in information and computer technology. Furthermore, the participants’ views of the strategy when they were asked to comment after the study support the aforementioned data. They found cooperative learning an easy and effective way of learning (Participants 1, 7, 8 and 11), for coping with and understanding the content of lessons (Participant 4). Using the strategy, they learned to develop the habit of reading and discovered that to have a good academic life; one must go
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beyond what is written in the books (Participant 3). It also led them to develop good study habits and enhanced the quality of their studies (Participant 10). For some, the strategy was a key factor for the improvement of their academic performance (Participants 5, 6, 9,15,17,20, and 21) because through it they gained much knowledge about the subject matter (Participant 12). It was also instrumental in motivating them to be more creative and artistic in coming up with outputs (Participant 18). Cooperative learning also developed their communication skills (Participants 20 and 21). They suggested a repeat of it. They believe that the strategy still hides more surprises that may help and astound them in their studies (Participants 2 and 8).
2.2 On Community Life
The positive effect to their academic formation is also true with the participants’ perception of the strategy’s contribution to their community lives. Results are presented in the table below:
Table 16. Ratings, Weighted Arithmetic Mean, and Interpretation of Participants’ Perception on Cooperative Learning’s Contribution to their Community Lives _ Community Life Indicators
5
4
3
2
6
13
1
1
7
8
6
1
WX
Interpretation
4.14
Agree
4.05
Agree
1. I learned to lead with humility by giving fellow seminarians the chance to express themselves freely. 2. I learned to lead with proper attitude and to accept everybody without distinction and aggregation.
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Students’ Holistic Development
3. I learned to be prudent in giving comments, criticisms, and
7
9
5
4.10
Agree
12
7
2
4.48
Agree
suggestions. 4. I realized the value of being open to corrections, constructive criticisms and suggestions. Strongly
5. I learned the value of working together toward a common goal.
18
3
General Weighted Average
4.86
Agree
4.33
Agree
As shown in Table 16, the participants generally agreed on all items (WX=4.33). Based on data, they learned to be humble regardless of whether they are assuming the roles of being leaders or subordinates, as well as to lead with proper attitude, and accept everybody without distinction and aggregation. They agreed that cooperative learning provided a venue for them to learn to be prudent in giving comments, criticisms, and suggestions. The strategy made them realize the value of being open to corrections, constructive criticisms, and suggestions. They strongly agreed with Item 5, saying that they learned the value of working together toward a common goal through cooperative learning activities in class. The responses of participants were also favorable when they were asked to reflect on its effects on their community lives. The qualitative data show consistency with the tabulated results above. They said that cooperative learning provided them a venue to practice values with regard to team building. It motivated them to work for a common goal (Participants 1, 12, and 16). It taught them the importance of brotherhood (Participants 3 and 6) and how to work with a group (Participant 4) and cooperate as teammates Page 1434
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(Participant 8). They also said that they became closer to one another (Participant 5), that through the strategy, they learned to be friendly, humble in accepting their mistakes, and prudent in giving suggestions (Participants 8, 10, 13, and 20). It was also valuable in developing their social skills (Participant 10). It slowly molded in them a positive attitude and character (Participant 17). With cooperative learning, they also improved and became more responsible either as leaders or followers (Participants 18 and 20).
2.3 On Spiritual Life
On the spiritual aspects of their formation, the data obtained are shown in the following table:
Table 17. Ratings, Weighted Arithmetic Mean, and Interpretation of Participants’ Perception of Cooperative Learning’s Contribution to their Spiritual Lives _ Spiritual Life Indicators
5
4
3
2
1
WX
Interpretation
4
11
4
1
1
3.81
Agree
7
9
4
1
4.05
Agree
9
6
4
2
4.05
Agree
1. I learned to appreciate vocal prayers.
2. I deepened my relationship with God by learning to pray with proper disposition. 3. Led me to develop a sense of interior silence by quietly participating during group activities. 4. Taught me a sense of discipleship
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Students’ Holistic Development
by being obedient to superiors and
11
7
1
10
10
1
2
4.29
Agree
4.43
Agree
4.13
Agree
following seminary rules. 5. Made me realize that becoming a good disciple of Christ may start with following instructions in class.
General Weighted Average
As evident in Table 17, the participants agreed that the strategy helped them in developing their prayer lives as well as in promoting their sense of discipleship (4.13). They agreed on Items 1–5, saying that cooperative learning taught them to appreciate vocal prayers, pray with proper disposition, and develop a sense of internal silence. They also claimed that the use of cooperative learning in class made them realize that sense of discipleship can be developed by being obedient to superiors and through following rules. It can even be cultivated by simply following instructions in class. The participants’ responses when they were asked to reflect on cooperative learning’s contribution to their spiritual lives affirmed the results stated above. According to them, they grew in terms of spirituality, specifically in their prayer life (Participant 3). Praying as a group inherent with the strategy made this possible (Participants 6, 11, and 17) because it enhanced the quality of their prayer (Participant 10). Cooperative learning was helpful in developing a closer relationship with God (Participant 16).
CONCLUSIONS Based on significant findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn:
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On academic life, the participants’ content knowledge on evolution and diversity of life was enhanced by cooperative learning. Their critical thinking, creativity, communication, and computer literacy skills were also developed with the help of the strategy. On community life, the participants’ servant-leadership skills were enhanced by cooperative learning’s interactive nature. Their skills in community building were also developed through collaboration and active participation. On Spiritual life, the participants’ prayer life and sense of discipleship were both improved through the social interaction inherent to cooperative learning. On perception, enhancement in their academic lives in terms of content knowledge and academic skills; community lives on the basis of servant-leadership and community building; and spiritual lives on the aspects of prayer and discipleship were unanimously agreed upon by the participants’ as an outcome of the use of cooperative learning in their Biology class.
RECOMMENDATIONS Based on findings and conclusions of this study, the researcher recommends the following: 1. Continuous implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the curriculum alignment in the seminary. 2. Enhanced management support for in-service training programs of teachers particularly on the advantages of using different cooperative learning methods in the classroom. 3. Enhanced management support to in-service teachers with regard to the development of materials for instructions appropriate for cooperative learning activities in class. 4. Conduction of similar studies in other fields of science discipline as well as to other major subject areas prescribed by the Department of Education for Secondary Education.
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5. Conduction of parallel studies involving participants coming from regular private and public educational institutions.
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REFERENCES Biton, F. (2001). “Cooperative Learning: Effects on the Achievement of Deep and Surface Learners in High School Chemistry.” MA Thesis. Technological University of the Philippines, 2001. Caperida, L. (2004). “Cooperative Learning and the Communicative Competence of English I Students.” MA Thesis. University of Southern Philippines, 2004. Divaharan, S. and Atputhasamy, L. (2002). An Attempt to Enhance the Quality of Cooperative Learning through Peer Assessment. Journal of Educational Enquiry, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2002. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://www. Vol3No2/Paper5. Pdf. Gaikwad, P. (1996) Cooperative Learning: Setting the Stage for Faith and Learning in the Classroom. Retrieved July 17, 2006, from http://www.aiias.edu/ict/vol_18/18cc_039062 htm. Holt, D., Chips, B. and Wallace, D. (1991). Cooperative Learning in the Secondary School: Maximizing Language Acquisition, Academic Achievement, and Social Development. NCBE Program Information Guide Series, Number 12, Summer 1991. Retrieved from htpp://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/pigs/pig12.htm. Johnson D. and Johnson, R. (1998). Cooperative Learning and Social Interdependence Theory. Social Psychological Applications To Social Issues. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http;//www.co-operation.org/pages/SIT.html. Johnson et al. (1984). Circle of Circle: Cooperation in the Classroom. University of Minnesota, U.S.A.: ASCD Publications. Kagan, S. (1989). Cooperative Learning: Resources for Teachers. University of California, U.S.A.: Resources for Teachers. Kim-Eng Lee et al. (1996). Effects of Cooperative Learning Structure on Self-esteem and
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Classroom Climate in Social Studies. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://www.aare.edu.au/96pap/leeke96512.txt. Kwen Boo et al. (2001). Challenge of Integrating Cooperative Learning in Primary Science Classrooms. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http:// www.aare.edu.au/01pap/boo01079.htm. McCurdy, A. (1996). A Study of the Effects of Cooperative Learning Strategies on the Motivation of a High-Ability Student. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from
http://www.amybmccurdy.com/arp.htm
Neri, V. (1997). “Effectiveness of Cooperative Learning Strategy in Teaching Biology.” MA Thesis. Osias Educational Foundation, 1997. Neri, M. (2005). “Cooperative Learning and Pupils’ Achievement in Geography, History and Civics.” MA Thesis. University of the Philippines System, 2005. Norman, D. (2005). Using STAD in an EFL Elementary School Classroom in South Korea: Effect on Student Achievement, Motivation, and Attitudes toward Cooperative Learning. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://www.asian-efljournal.com/Norman_thesis_2006.pdf. Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary. (2005). Manual of Formation. Makati City Philippines. Piedad, K. (1999). “Concept Mapping and High School Physics Achievement in Cooperative and Traditional Learning Modes.” MA Thesis. University of the Philippines System, 1999. Putnam, J. (1997). Cooperative Learning in Diverse Classrooms. United States of America: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Report of Minor Seminary Rectors on Minor Seminary Formation (2005), Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary, Makati City, Philippines. Page 1440
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Reyes, O. (1999). “The Effect of Cooperative Learning Strategy on the Achievement in Math of Grade Six Pupils of Orion Elementary School, Division of Bataan.” MA Thesis. St. Anthony College of Technology, 1999. Romero, J. (2002). “The Comparative Effects of Authority Teaching and Cooperative Learning in the Remedial Teaching Program in Basic Mathematics.” MA Thesis. Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, 2002. SANGKAN Formators’ Meeting, (2005). Our Lady of Guadalupe Minor Seminary Sawit, R. (2000). “The Effects of Cooperative Learning in the Academic Performance of Science and Technology III Students.” MA Thesis. College of the Immaculate Conception, 2000. Slavin, R. (1983). Cooperative Learning. New York, U.S.A.: Longman Inc. Stahl, R. (1996). Cooperative Learning in Science: A Handbook for Teachers. Arizona State University, U.S.A.: Addison-Wesley publishing Company, Inc. Streeter, A. (1999). Cooperative Learning Strategies. Retrieved from http:// www.education.uiowa.edu/schpsych/handouts/cooperative learning.pdf Tanner, K., Chatman, L. and Allen, D. (2003). Approaches to Cell Biology Teaching: Cooperative Learning in the Science Classroom-Beyond Students Working in Groups. Cell Biology Education Volume 1, 1-5, Spring, 2003. Retrieved July 17, 2006 from
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlereader.fcgi?artid=152788
Venus, V. (1998). “The Effect of Cooperative Learning On Science Process Skills and Physics Achievement.” MA Thesis. University of Northern Philippines, 1998. Yu, T. (2004). “Cooperative Learning Strategies and Student Achievement in and Attitude towards Secondary Social Studies.” MA Thesis. University of the Philippines Systems, 2004. Zisk, J. (1998). The Effects of Cooperative Learning on Academic Self-Concept and Page 1441
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Achievement of Secondary Chemistry Students. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from http://www.sciteched.org/research/Dis.htm.
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Running head: EXPERIMENTAL KITS
Learning on Basic Chemistry Using Experimental kits
Kulthida Nugultham * Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd. Rachathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand;* [email protected] Juwadee Shiowatana * Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd. Rachathewi, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand;* [email protected]
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Abstract This study was to develop in-house test kit as a tool for experimental kits and design learning process on Thai secondary schools science teaching. pH, phosphate, dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide test kits provide a rapid analyte determination. The test kits used in the study were based on colorimetric and turbidimetric analyses. The experimental kits were designed to support students exploring and guided inquiry learning issues associated with substances, solution and their properties of detergents, beverages. They were consisted of instructional manuals for teacher and student activities, lesson plans, assessment items in addition to the test kits provided to help students’ learning effectively. Pre and post tests were conducted before and after using the experimental kits. The data were analyzed both in quantitative and qualitative views. Findings showed that the experimental kits could increase understanding of basic chemistry and students enjoyed using the experimental kits while gaining knowledge about water quality and constituents in soft drinks and making more discussion in chemistry and environmental science.
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Learning on Basic Chemistry Using Experimental kits Introduction Chemistry is the one of central subject for science. The characteristics of chemistry education are learn fundamental chemistry knowledge, theories and laws, undertake the processes of chemistry through inquiry learning, practical work and appreciate the work of scientists, develop positive attitudes towards chemistry and scientists communicative skills related to oral, written symbolic and graphical formats and apply the uses of chemistry to society and appreciate ethical issues faced by scientists. The inquiry-base learning process is suitable for improving an achievement and attitude toward science. As the mention and reformation of the nation curriculum in Thailand, a scientific strand of the basic education curriculum B.E. 2544(A.D. 2001) has been developed by the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). The vision is for a knowledge-based society and scientific literacy for all. The science strand of the basic education curriculum consists of eight sub- strands. Three of which: life and the environment, properties of matter and the nature of science and technology, are the main topics developed through experiments in a classroom. Solution is one of important concepts such as types of solutions, physical properties of solutions for learning and understanding chemistry. A good way to learn chemistry is to study in context providing from their daily life. In science education, this idea claim to be context based approach, origins in the early 1980s (Bennett & Lubben, 2006). The vision is that when teachers and students are introduced to the topics in this way, they will understand the problems in the value of investigating the problems scientifically. The critical role of the laboratory in the process of learning science has been highlighted (NSTA, 2006). However in many places the cost and availability of equipment and laboratory facilities mean that teachers fall back on textbooks and other means of Page 1445
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visualizing ideas for students. Low cost kits that allow students to collect real data outside the classroom, can provide an alternative, especially if accompanied by resources to guide the teacher both through background information about the science and through suggestions that support the teachers’ pedagogy(Bradley, 1999). Working in the field is a particularly effective way of developing students’ scientific process skills, helping students develop long term life-long learning skills so that they can learn and search for knowledge by themselves. A number of introductory chemistry programs such as ChemCom (ChemCom, 1988) place a strong emphasis in environmental chemistry and water quality in particular. In this example, “The Riverwood Fish Kill”, students investigate dissolved oxygen and acidity as well as temperature, heavy metal ion concentration while solving the pollution problems. The environmental problems of eutrofication of waterways caused by phosphate pollution is also used at the introductory level for students to examine the effects of phosphate on the ecosystem and go onto evaluate the social and political issue in the “Lake Wingra” unit (Howe, A.C., Cizmas L. and Bereman R., 1999). Student evaluation of the effectiveness of the unit showed strong increases in interest, and understanding of the complexity of environmental problems and commitment to environmental action. We found the problems that obstacle to introduce practical work in the Thai classrooms such as lengthy time-consumption for preparing chemicals and equipment , cost of imported commercial test kits and limited time for teaching content. The experimental kits were designed to promote for practical work in the classroom. According to the health promotion from Thai Health Promotion Foundation, the common health problems of school student include the obesity and nutritional deficiencies typically suffered by heavy soda drinkers. From the research to survey the frequency of carbonated consumption, it showed that Thai students,14 provinces, drink soft drink more than other beverages 37.3%. So students have a obesity, reduce the mass of bone in their Page 1446
Experimental kits
body and decayed tooth from sugar in soft drink. All problems can lead to poor health students. This paper describes a project focused on the measurement of detergent and soft drink components for learning basic concepts in chemistry. It outlines the development and evaluation of low-cost experimental kits. The initial target of the kits is secondary schools students. The paper describes the designing and testing of two experimental kits that were developed to support teachers’ teaching and students’ learning and exploring towards achievement of learning in solution concept and concerning health problems via water resource quality and soft drink. The experimental kit consists of instructional manuals for teacher and student, activities, lesson plans, assessment items as well as experimental kits in one package for 3-4 student per group. The objectives of the development of instructional teaching are to -
Develop simple test kits for supporting in the experimental kit.
-
Create the experimental kit for instructional teaching.
-
Foster inquiry into learning process, lesson plan and activities.
-
Introduce students to learn about the solution concepts and raise awareness about health problems in relative to their favorite carbonate drinks. For educational objectives, learning science through inquiry is emphasized in the
National Science Education Standards in the United State (National Research Council [NRC], 1996) as well as in Thailand. However, scientific inquiry, referred to as a way of questioning ,seeking knowledge or information and finding out about phenomena, is a teaching and learning method which consists of five features of science inquiry. In the circle of five features, the learner observes is curious, engages in scientifically oriented questions, gives priority to evidence in responding to question, formulates explanations from evidence, connects explanations to scientific knowledge and communicates and justifies explanation Page 1447
Experimental kits
(SCALE, 2007). The expected outcomes when inquiry was introduced for students is the ability for them to know how scientist works, to practice scientific skills, to think in a critical way, to communicate science topics and to be an active , confident personal to learn more science phenomena in long-life learning. Development of the test kits There are many problems that exist in developing experiment in the classrooms; such as more time consumption to teach and the need to prepare chemicals, glassware and instructional teaching. For these reasons, the experimental kits will be developed for instructional teaching. The idea for developing such kit, is easy to use, cost effective for chemical and equipment and hands-on experience. In the last several decades, spot reactions have been successfully applied in analytical problems in clinical analysis, control tests of air quality, food and water analysis, geochemical prospecting and soil testing. Colorimetry, the simplest method of spot test analysis , involve the mere mixing of a drop of the unknown substance and a drop of reagent solution by visual color comparison. A principle of this method is find the reaction which specifically reacts with an element or substances and detect the color generated from the reaction using color scale. Three test kits for CO2, phosphate and pH, have been developed as investigating tool in Exprimental Kit. Developing each test kit involves selection of reaction, standardization and designing of procedure and set-up. For phosphate test kit, it has been developed using molybdenum blue method which can detect amount of phosphate in a range 0-5 ppm within 2 min. Carbon dioxide (CO2) test kit has been developed using turbidimetric method which can detect amount of carbon dioxide in a range 0-8 mg CO2 within 5 min. pH test kit has been developed using red cabbage extract that changes color. Red cabbage was extracted by using
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Experimental kits
filtred water in an appropriate concentration proportion to be able to distinguish pH in the range 1-7. Test kit set has been constructed from low-cost materials that are available in Thailand. The kits consisted of reagent bottles, reaction bottles, syringes and plastic dropper. The use of reagents and samples is realized in small scale to reduce cost and waste generation. Development of the experimental kits The experimental kits has been developed to help students connect science to their surrounding. The kit is simple, inexpensive and proven in classrooms. Student are expected to learn about pH scale in relation to acidity/basicity, discussion of effect of phosphate content leading to health problems such as discussion on the relationship between pH, phosphate, CO2 and the properties of solution can be encouraged. The learning process was designed to translate “Inquiry” into “Activity” and into “Discussion” (Huber R.A, 2001). Additional activity to induce students includes, students observe demonstrations then they discuss about properties of solution and are encouraged them to ask scientific question to find the fact and related scienc in the demonstrations. After they carry out and investigate the amount of CO2, pH and phosphate and dissloved oxygen, some of the question may be answered by the result of the testing to evidence in responding to question by using test kits. Finally they use the relations between CO2, pH and phosphate and dissloved oxygen to explain and analyze the results. In addition, they communicate about their explanation. For assessment, pre-test and post test , data worksheet and questionnaire were designed. The experimental kit 1: “Detergents and water quality” This experimental kit focuses on student responses to the effect of detergent use to our environment. It was developed to help students connect science with their own environment. The kit consists of test kits for pH, phosphate and dissolved oxygen. For objectives, students
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Experimental kits
learn to investigate about various cleaning products through measurement of pH, phosphate content and to understand the reason for addition of phosphate in many cleaning products and its effect. Students tested for water quality (DO, pH, phosphate) in real situation of water resources around them and discuss about the relationship between DO level and water quality and discuss the relationship between pH, phosphate, DO and the environment. For the learning process, we introduced the colorful demonstration of pH indicators both from nature and syntheses. It was a show which indicator changed the color when it is in different pH solution. Student can observe and make a guess of the kind of solution and pH they were given. Then they investigated the amount of phosphate and pH level in detergent products and the water quality in their school’s water resources. The experimental kit 2: “Secret of soft drink” Chemical constituents in things are frequently asked questions by school children. Being able to answer the question by them can stimulate their interest in science. This experimental kit aims to encourage students to investigate about chemistry of their favorite drink. Study revealed that obesity and reduced bone mass as well as tooth decay were related to the excessive consumption of soft drink. This experimental kit was developed to help students connect science to their consumption habit. The kit is simple, inexpensive and proven in classrooms. Students learn about pH scale in relation to acidity from acids and mixed acids. Discussion of effect of phosphate content leading on health problems can be encouraged to change students’ drinking habit towards better health. The learning process was designed to translate “Inquiry” into “Activity”. Additional activity to induce students attention includes, a demonstration of Coke fountain experiment demonstration (Eichler J.K, Patrick H, Harman B., Coonce J., 2007), pre-class questions such as “What’s in Coke” then they discuss about properties of solution and the discussion encouraged them to ask scientific questions to find the fact through this Page 1450
Experimental kits
practice of investigation of chemical additives in the soft drink. Students learn that soft drink contains phosphoric acid and carbonic acid and they also are aware of health problems when they consume excessive soft drink. For assessment, pre-test and post test, data worksheet and questionnaire were designed. Testing and implementing in classroom Before students use the experimental kits in practical class, they have to do preknowledge test. Then they separate in a group of 4-5 persons. Teachers introduce guided inquiry into activities. Beginning with problems and demonstration can make concepts more interesting. Some of the results of testing of pH and phosphate in various cleaning products are presented in the (see table 1). Then, students performed an investigation on survey of water quality of waters around them for the values of DO, phosphate and pH in various manmade water reservoirs (see table2). They found the highest phosphate and the lowest dissolved oxygen was from the canteen wastewater’s settling well. In contrast the lowest phosphate and highest dissolved oxygen was from decorated pond with fountain. Moreover students could analyze the water quality and present the data in an interesting format as shown in fig 1. The shape of the fish varies resulting from three water quality parameters (DO, phosphate and pH). From the graphs, students can distinguish the quality of water by the shape graph. The shape of a normal healthy fish (high DO) indicates good water quality. The graph can be used to predict where the water resource is. Graphs a, b and d represent water of high DO values of the natural water resources while graphs c and e, showed relatively high phosphate content by the size of the fish tails. The position of the fish’s eye represents the pH value of the water sample.
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For the experimental kit 2, students used test kit to measure the amount of CO2, phosphate and pH in the soft drink samples. Some results are given in table 4. Students were encouraged to confirm the contribution to pH value of carbonic acid and phosphoric acids by comparing measured pH and calculated pH from carbonic and phosphoric acids. Results and Discussion The experimental kit was tried out in a classroom with 111 students, grade 8. 26 % of which were male and 74% of students were female. In the beginning, students had to manage in their group. There were 4 students in one group who was header ,manager, presenter and data manager all of whom had to do experiment. They must do pre test and the teacher followed the learning process . In the same time researcher had to observe the students. On using the experimental kits, students can enjoy learning essential concepts. Not only we designed the experimental kits but also we introduced demonstration, questioning, training into the main learning process: inquiry. Some of the data was collected by students while they do activities of experimental 1 and 2. Table 1. The example of data’s student of pH and phosphate content for some commercial cleaning products (n=3) on the experimental kit 1. Sample
Labeled ingredients
pH ± SD
Phosphate (ppm P) ± SD
1. Bathroom cleaner
Hydrochloric acid, ethoxylated alcohol Sodium
1.0 ± 0
0±0
and dodecyl benzene sulfonate 2. Vegetable and washing
Sodium lauryl ether sulfate
4.0 ± 0
80.0 ± 0
3. Baby shampoo A
Peg- 80 sorbitan laurate, Cocoamidopropyl betaine
5.0 ± 0
5.0 ± 0
and Polyquaternium 10 4. Shampoo B
Climbazole, Sunflower oil and Vitamin E acetate
6.0 ± 0
5.0 ± 0
5. Hair conditioner
Cetyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, Hydroxyethyl
5.0 ± 0
5.0 ± 0
6.0 ± 0
80.0 ± 0
cetyldimonium phosphate, 6. Stain remover (phosphate free)
Sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, nonyl phenol and Polyethyleneglycol ether
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Experimental kits
Table 2. The data from activity 2 of the experimental kit 1: “Detergents and water quality” (N=3) Chemistry parameter Man-made water
pH ± SD
description
reservoirs
Phosphate
DO
(ppm P) ± SD
(ppm) ± SD
1.Decorated pond with
guppy, mosquito larva, duckweed
8.0 ± 0
0.1 ± 0
8±0
2.Fish pond
fishes, water hyacinth
7.5 ± 0
0.025 ± 0
8±0
3.Water hyacinth Pond
water hyacinth, aquatic animals
7.5 ± 0
0.4 ± 0
8±0
4.Big Fish pond
fishes, algae
8.5 ± 0
0.025 ± 0
8±0
5.Canteen wastewater’s
garbage, sediment, oil
5.0 ± 0
0.6 ± 0
0±0
6.5-8.0 ±0
< 0.1 ± 0
>3 ± 0
fountain
settling well Accepted range
.
Table 3. The results of composition in soft drink.
Soft drink
CO2
[H2CO3 ]
Phosphate
[H3PO4 ]
pH
(mg CO2/10
(M)
(ppm P) ±
(M)
(measured)
SD
mL ) ± SD -6
± SD
190 ± 10
1.93×10
-3
2.7 ± 0.6
Coke
7.0 ± 0
1.59×10
Pepsi
6.7 ± 0.3
1.54×10-6
190 ± 10
1.93×10-3
2.7 ± 0.6
Mirinda (orange)
6.8 ± 0.3
1.54×10-6
0±0
0
3.0 ± 0
Sprite
6.8 ± 0.3
1.54×10
-6
0±0
0
4.0 ± 0
Capico soda
2.7 ± 0.6
6.14×10-7
40 ± 30
4.08×10-4
4.0 ± 0
-6
0±0
0
3.0 ± 0
0±0
0
3.0 ± 0
Fanta (orange)
6.5 ± 0
1.47×10
Fanta
6.5 ± 0
1.47×10-6
(strawberry)
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Figure 1 Fish graph
Feedbacks from students and instructors through questionnaires showed that students appreciated the use of experimental kits through inquiry learning process (see table 4). The experimental kits are considered to be useful in inquiry learning in classroom. Although lesson plans and activities were previously designed completely in this project, instructors can modify them to fit their students and classroom. The most effectiveness of this experimental kits are that students are able to investigate, discuss, relate the data through their scientific knowledge and raise awareness of their own environmental context and relevant problems. Moreover they can use the idea the experimental kit to create their own activities and investigate on the related topics. For the awaerness of health, students received serious effect of soft drinks on people’s health is the correlation between soft drink consumption and the increased risk of bone Page 1454
Experimental kits
fractures, obesity, osteoporosis, nutritional deficiencies, and tooth decay through infromation sheets and detemination of the amount of CO2, Phosphate and pH on activities. Before teaching, a result of the frequency of consumption of soft drink showed that 8 % of students do not drink in a regular basis and 92 % of students drink 2 cans / week. After this class, it appeared that students decreased the frequency of consumption of soft drink about 20 %.
Table 4. Examples of results form questionnaires on using the experimental kits in classroom
results Descriptions X
SD
1. I enjoyed using the kit.
3.96
0.79
2. I feel confident using the kit.
3.75
0.70
3. I understand the measurements we took.
3.71
0.94
4. I can relate my knowledge of science to the experiment.
4.11
0.92
3.82
0.94
5. The experimental kit has increased my curiosity to learn more science.
Note: N = Number of students (116), X = Mean, SD = Standard deviation. The level can category score in 1.00-1.49 = least, 1.50- 2.49 = less, 2.50-3.49 = average, 3.50-4.49 = much and 4.50-5.00 = very much
Table 5. Descriptive statistics of percentage gain score Group
X
SD
Min
Max
1
0.654
0.101
0.077
0.857
The overall results from this study show that students can be prompted to improve their understanding of substance and its properties concepts and their scientific skills by the use of the experimental kits. The reasons are: firstly, the experimental kit can be used to prompt students to propose questions about substance and its properties concepts that they
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Experimental kits
can find the answered through scientific investigation in the sense of water quality problems in their school or community and health problems. Using test kits is adequate to allow students to gain clear pictures of reaction by color scale. Secondly, the experimental kits can be used to engage students to pay more attention to science. Thirdly, the experimental kit as a source of real experimental data can be used to promote students’ new understanding of chemistry concepts. Fourthly, the experimental kits directly promote investigation and communication in classroom because students have to discuss and communicate in small groups. Moreover, the use the experimental kits can save a period of setup time and allow for easy repeatability and provide a powerful way for students to learn chemistry concepts. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all teachers and students who have participated in this research,Mahidol University for support and feedback. Financial support has been provided by the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, Thailand. References Bradley, J.D. (1999). Hands-on practical chemistry for all. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 71(5), 817-823. Bloom, Bs.(1956). Taxonomy of educational objective .Handbook I .cognitive domain. McKay Publishing, new york. Bricke,C.E. (1967). College Chemistry , A Laboratory Manual. Harcourt ,Brace and World. Inc, USA. Chen, C. D., Murgado, J. S., Patricia, B. (1996). 1996 Cost-Effective, Hands-on Chemistry Education Conference. Journal of Chemical Education, 73(10), A236. Boltz, D.F. (1958). Colorimetric Determination of Nonmetals. Interscience publishers. INC, USA.
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Experimental kits
Department of curriculum and instruction development , ministry of education. (2002). Basic Education Curriculum B.E. 2544 (A.D.2001). Bangkok. The Express Transportation Organization of Thailand (ETO). George I. Sackheim. (1968). Laboratory Chemistry for the Health Sciences. The McMillan Company , USA. Harper W. Frantz. (1966). Chemical Principles in the Laboratory. W.H.Freeman and Company, USA. Harper,W. F. (1968). Essentials of Chemistry in the Laboratory. 2nd Edition. W.H.Freeman and Company, USA. Howe, A.C., Cizmas L. and Bereman R., (1999), Eutrophication of lake wingra: a chemistrybased environmental science module, Journal of Chemical Education, 76, 924. Huber R.A and Moore C.J. (2001). A Model for Extending Hands-On Science to Be Inquiry Based. School Science and Mathermatics,101(1),32-41. Jack F.E., Heather P., Brenda H. and Lanet C., (2007), Mentos and the scientific method: A sweet combination, Journal of Chemical Education, 84, 1120-1123. Julie B.E., James L.E.Jr., (1995), Visualizing Chemistry , Investigations for Teachers, American Chemical Society, USA. Liz M., (2004), Soft drinks, childhood overweight, and the role of nutrition educators: let’s base our solutions on reality and sound science, Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 36, 258-265. McMurry, J.& Fay B.C. (2004). Chemistry .4th Edition .Pearson Education ,Inc.USA. National science teachers association (NSTA), (2006), NSTA position statement: professional development in science instruction.
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Experimental kits
Schwartz R.S., Lederman N.G. and Crawrord B.A., (2004), Developing views of nature of science in an authentic context: an explicit approach to bridging the gap between nature of science and scientific inquiry, Science Education, 88, 610-645. The American Chemical Society, (1988), ChemCom:Chemistry in the Community. Kendall /Hunt publishing company, USA. Vanderwerf, C.A. (1961). Acid, Bases, and the chemistry of the covalent bond. Reinhold publishing corporation.USA;. Victor L. Heasley. (1978). Chemistry and life in the laboratory. Burgess Publishing Company, USA.
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Teachers’ Questioning Techniques and their Potential in Heightening Pupils’ Inquiry
Siti Omairah Omar, Rehanna Dawood, Anne Roman Punggol Primary School
Abstract Meaningful teaching and learning of Science stress the need for inquiry-based methods. Through effective teacher questioning techniques, these methods provide pupils with opportunities to arouse their curiosity, stimulate their imagination, and motivate them to seek out new knowledge. The Socratic method of questioning that encourages countering, analysis, and verification of information is indeed the central aspect of any classroom interaction, more so in inquiry-directed learning, as it serves so many functions. However, it is still an underresearched area in the Singaporean classroom context, encouraging the misconception among educators that echoes the conventional wisdom, “ask a higher level question at anytime, obtain a higher level answer”. This study, Project IBL Ignite, is a professional development effort in Punggol Primary School designed to assist teachers integrate inquiry-centred Science methods in their classrooms that focuses on teachers’ classroom questioning techniques (which include ample wait-time and matching pupils’ readiness) and pupil inquiry. It synthesizes research findings and implications for teachers who wish to make informed choices about improving classroom questioning behaviour in the teaching of Science at the primary level. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the project suggest that it was generally successful in promoting positive teacher perceptions, fostering learner-centred classroom approaches, and leading to implementation of inquiry-based science in many classrooms.
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Introduction The teaching and learning of Science has indeed evolved tremendously over the past few decades. It has taken to the direction from mainly deductive teaching to inquiry-based method (NSES, 1996), in which, it has the means to increase interest in Science. The National Science Education Standards defines scientific inquiry as "the activities through which students develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural, in which pupils learn to ask questions and answer them”. This "learning by doing method", in which the teacher facilitates pupils in discovering Science, stimulates the child's observation skills, imagination and reasoning capacity (Brussels, 2007). In Singapore’s Primary Science Syllabus, the inculcation of spirit of Science inquiry is central to the latest curriculum framework (MOE, 2007), where effective questioning by teachers is the catalyst in inquiry-Science learning. Questioning has a long and venerable history as an educational strategy (Cotton, 2001) and always been identified as the fundamental to outstanding teaching (Klein, Peterson, & Simington, 1991; Frazee & Rudnitski,1995; Nunan & Lamb, 1996; Hussin, H., 2006). Questions can be effectively categorised at differing levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of School Learning (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation) or simply classified as higher or lower cognitive questions. Lower cognitive questions, basically do include recalling of facts, whereas higher cognitive questions allow for pupils to mentally manipulate learnt information to create an answer (Cotton, 2001). Effective questioning by the teacher directs pupils into understanding lesson content, arouse their curiosity, stimulate their imagination, and motivate them to seek out new knowledge. If executed skilfully, questioning would elevate pupils' level of thinking (Muth & Alverman, 1992; Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Kauchak, & Gibson, 1994; Ornstein, 1995; Hussin, H., 2006). Page 1460
Correspondingly, this elevates pupils’ inquiry in the form of challenging assumptions and exposing contradictions that lead to acquisition of new knowledge. Within the global and local context however, effective questioning by teachers that promotes inquiry, does not always materialise in our Science classrooms, due to time constraints and structured curriculum of subject-bound time-tabling as opposed to the more flexible, modular based and seamless classrooms. More alarmingly, educational researchers who had done extensive research on classroom questioning in inquiry-based lessons revealed that many educators who do question extensively practice the myth that advocates increasing the use of higher cognitive questions to produce superior learning gains as compared to low cognitive questions. According to Bonwell & Eison (1991), techniques for more effective questioning include stating concise questions, considering a pupil’s cognitive abilities when determining the level of questioning, maintaining a logical and sequential order of the questions, encouraging extension to a response, allowing sufficient time for a pupil to answer a question and encouraging the pupil to ask questions as well. In the contrary, in the attempt of classroom questioning, teachers would also often disregard the two most crucial components of questioning - the consideration of pupils’ abilities and wait-time, totally shutting off pupils’ interests and inquisitiveness. This can be detrimental in the cognitive nurturing of our pupils as well as in their learning of Science, where inquiry takes the lead in preparing them for the highly unknown world of the twenty-first century. As Chaudron (1988) cautioned, poor-questioning practice can actually be counter-productive. Wait-time is equally important as the consideration of pupils’ abilities as it is a type of pause in teacher’s discourse where learners have more time to process the question and formulate a response (Chaudron, 1988; Moritoshi, P., 2001) and more learners attempt to respond (Richards and Lockhart, 1994).
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Through a series of videoed and obtrusive observations, survey and analysis of three inquirybased lessons, this paper attempts to identify the major classifications relating to teacher questions (pegged to Bloom’s Taxonomy of School Learning and Bonwell & Eison’s techniques in effective questioning), and how these questions affect pupils’ inquiry in the classroom. It also aims to confirm that if given ample wait-time and pupils’ readiness are met, a higher frequency of High Order Thinking Questions (HOT) posed by a Science teacher will be positively responded with higher levels of pupils’ scientific inquiry. Utilising these findings, this paper hopes to be able to enhance teachers’ competency in teaching Science through inquiry. The research question posed in this study is as follows: To what extent do teachers’ questioning techniques in P5 Science Lessons influence pupils’ levels of inquiry? Within the context of this study, teachers’ questioning techniques is defined as the nature of questions posed by the teachers in class, as to whether these questions are Higher Order Thinking Questions (HOT) that meet pupils’ readiness and scaffold pupils’ thinking processes or otherwise (LOT), and pupils’ inquiry as a set of specific behaviours suggested by the Standards-Based Science Indicators of Pupil Scientific Inquiry Behaviour. This set of behaviours includes exhibiting curiosity, pondering observations, and making connections to previously held ideas. Method Subjects Two Science teachers and two intact Primary Five classes (Mixed Ability) of Punggol Primary School participated in the study. The teachers were selected based on accessibility. Their academic qualifications and training were in English and their experience of teaching Science ranged from 3 to 9 years. The two teachers took part in observations conducted
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throughout the study. Their selection for observation was based on the fact that they were teaching the two classes observed (5A and 5B), they were teaching the subject observed (Science), they had been trained in Science Inquiry-Based Learning, and that they had substantial experience in teaching Science, of at least three years. The two equivalent Primary 5 classes formed the pupil participants of the study. They were selected based on the grounds of similar scientific inquiry scores attained through an observation session that was conducted prior to the study. These two classes were involved in the study through observation sessions, and a perception survey. Procedure The study made use of the post-test only equivalent groups design. The study was conducted over a period of 8 weeks, in Terms 3 and 4 of the academic year (Diagram 1). Both classes were furnished with similar Science lesson plans that consisted of a total of nine activities. These lesson plans were based on P5 topics of Electricity (5 lesson plans) and Water (4 lesson plans) with matching specific instructional objectives as those laid out by the Primary Science Curriculum. To provide a platform for teacher questioning and pupil inquiry, these lessons were developed incalculating features of the 5Es (Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation) of Science Inquiry. The first lesson on the topic of Electricity spread over four weeks, while the remaining topic, Water, spread over the remaining four weeks. In addition, to allow for both the teachers who participated in the study to utilise the questioning platform provided by the lesson plans, they attended a comprehensive Science Inquiry-Based Workshop, followed by a series of handholding sessions in familiarizing themselves with the three lessons, which they attended prior to conducting the lessons.
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The teachers executed the lessons over the same period of time, between the first week of Term 3 and eighth week of Term 4 of the school academic year, where, teachers’ and pupils’ were observed through video recordings and obtrusive observations by a Senior Teacher. A perception survey (Annex A), relating to classroom questioning in teaching and learning, was conducted for all participating pupils after the third lesson. Modelling after lesson study, the two teachers also met up for feedback sessions after each of their lessons to share learning points in terms of their questioning techniques and how they could further value-add pupils’ inquiry through their questioning techniques in the following lesson.
teacher observation (cognitive level of questioning and fulfillment of Bonwell & Eison’s techniques in effective questioning)
handholding sessions Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
teacher feedback Perception Survey (pupils)
pupil observation (demonstration of inquisitiveness)
Reflection Log (pupils)
Diagram 1: An overview of the study’s project design
Measures Two research instruments, observations and surveys, were used in the study. Two lessons (consisting of seven activities) were observed by a Senior Teacher (ST) and video recorded with the purpose of capturing occurrences of the teachers’ use of Higher Order Thinking Questions and pupils’ inquisitive behaviour. In these observations, the Senior Teacher transcribed all the questions asked by the Science teachers, before categorising them as either High or Low Order Thinking Questions (HOT/LOT) (Annex B). To determine the nature of each of the teachers’ questions, the Senior Teacher referred to a checklist that provided
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descriptors of the differing levels of questioning in Bloom’s Taxonomy of School Learning and distinctive features of Bonwell & Eison’s techniques in effective questioning. A sample of the transcription is as follows: Teacher’s Transcript – Lesson One (Control Group) What are the three states? When in solid what is water called? Why does it feel good? What has it got to do with the feeling of the heat on your face? Now, can you think of other ways to produce heat? What is involved in burning? Higher Order Thinking Questions Lower Order Thinking Questions (HOT) (LOT) Why does it feel good? What are the three states? What has it got to do with the feeling of When in solid what is water called? the heat on your face? Now, can you think of other ways to What is involved in burning? produce heat? The scoring of pupils’ scientific inquiry were executed through pegging the evidences of pupils’ scientific inquiry captured by the video recordings to a checklist adapted from The Context for Continuous Assessment: Student Inquiry (2006). The checklist listed twenty-six descriptors (1 point per descriptor) of Standards-Based Science Indicators of Pupil Scientific Inquiry Behaviour and had a total score ceiling of 24 (Annex C). Some examples of the listed descriptors are as follows: Descriptors
Pupils express ideas in a variety of ways: through journals, reporting, drawing, graphing, charting, and so on. They use the language used by scientists to describe their approaches to explorations and investigations.
They describe their current thinking/theories about concepts and phenomena.
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Score
To further validate these evidences, a survey and pupils’ reflection log were used with the purpose of triangulation. All 74 pupils participated in the survey that was conducted to gather information on pupils’ perceptions of the questions that their teachers asked in their Science lessons (the effect on their individual learning processes and inquisitiveness). The survey consisted of nine Likert items and four open-ended questions. Each Likert item consisted of evaluative statement about the nature of the Science teachers’ questioning and a 5 response scale (Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree and Strongly Disagree). Questions posed in the pupil survey were based within the parameters of the research questions. Some examples of the Likert items used in the survey are as follows: Our Science teacher gives us enough time to think about the questions he/she asked before the answer… 1 2 3 4 5 Most of the questions that our Science teacher asks us require us to discuss further as the answers cannot be easily found in our textbooks. 1 2 3 4 5
Analysis For the purpose of analysis, all the questions posed by both teachers in the observations were transcribed, word for word, before being categorised as either High or Low Order Thinking Questions. The questions were matched against Bloom’s Taxonomy’s Level of Questioning, and those questions that had features similar to questions on the second level and above were categorised as High Order Thinking Questions. The evidences of pupils’ scientific inquiry captured by the video recordings were matched against a checklist adapted from The Context for Continuous Assessment: Student Inquiry (2006). Both the project and control groups can achieve a maximum score of 24 for each observation session. Two main statistical procedures, Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) and Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients (r), were used to analyse the findings obtained from the
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study. Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference was employed to measure the magnitude of the Effect Size (ES) High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher has on pupils’ level of scientific inquiry, using the following statistical formula: Effect Size (ES) =
Mean (project) – Mean (control) Standard Deviation (control)
,
In addition to this, the study also made use of Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients (r) to calculate the correlation between the High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher and the pupils’ demonstrated scientific inquiry, followed by the use of Hopkins’ Values (2002) to determine the effect of the correlation. Results Table 1 and 2 below show the observations from the two-month study: Table 1. Frequency of Occurrence of Teachers’ HOT Questions and Pupils’ Scientific Inquiry
Frequency of Occurrences (%) Measure
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Mean
Teacher’s HOT Qns (Exp)
46.66
23
14.28
27.98
Teacher’s LOT Qns (Exp)
53.34
77
85.72
24.01
Pupils’ Inquiry (Exp)
50
29.17
12.5
30.56
Teacher’s HOT Qns (Ctrl)
12
19.05
10
13.68
Teacher’s LOT Qns (Ctrl)
88
80.95
70
79.65
Pupils’ Inquiry (Ctrl)
20.83
25.00
16.67
20.83
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Table 2. Frequency of Occurrence (Project Group Over Control Group) Frequency of Occurrences (%) Measure
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
Lesson 3
Mean
Teacher’s Hot Qns (Exp)
46.66
23
14.28
27.98
Teacher’s Hot Qns (Ctrl)
12
19.05
10
13.68
Exp vs Ctrl
+288.83
+20.73
+42.8
+117.45
Pupils’ Inquiry (Exp)
50
29.17
12.5
30.56
Pupils’ Inquiry (Ctrl)
20.83
25.00
16.67
20.83
Exp vs Ctrl
+40.04
+16.68
-25.01
+10.57
The teacher in the project group asked more High Order Thinking Questions (46.66%) as compared to her colleague in the control group (12%). Comparatively, in terms of the frequency of occurrences, the teacher in the project class asked a mean of 117.45% High Order Thinking Questions more frequently than her colleague in the control group. In terms of pupils’ levels of scientific inquiry, the pupils’ in the project group attained higher inquiry scores (50%, 29.17%, 12.5%) over the three lessons as compared to their counterparts in the control group (20.83%, 25.00%, 16.67%). The same group of pupils in the project group attained a mean inquiry score of 30.56%; 9.73% more than the score achieved by the control group. In addition to this, the pupils’ in the project group demonstrated inquisitive behaviour 10.57% more frequently than those pupils in the control group. The results of measurements using Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) to calculate the effect of teachers’ High Order Thinking Questions on pupils’ levels of inquiry in this study (Table 3) showed a medium effect size of 0.336645.
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Table 3. Measurements using Cohen’s Standardized Mean Difference (SMD) Measure (post-test)
Project group (N=37)
Control group (N=37)
Effect size
Remarks
Pupils’ Inquiry (Behavioural)
Mean = 30.56
Mean = 20.83
-
-
0.336645
Medium Effect
SD = 18.78842 SD = 4.165001
When plotted in a graphical form as shown below (Graphs 3 & 4), a positive correlation is evident between the amount of High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teachers and the pupils’ scores in terms of scientific inquiry, both in the project and control group. Although the result was expected for the project group, it was not so for the control group. Graph 3. Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Project)
Frequency of Occurance (%)
Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Project) 60 40 20 0 Teacher's HOT Qns Pupils' Inquiry
1
2
3
46.66
23
14.28
50
29.17
12.5
Lessons
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Graph 4. Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Ctrl)
Frequency of Occurance (%)
Correlation Between Teacher’s HOT Questions and Pupils’ Inquiry (Control) 30 20 10 0 Teacher's HOT Qns Pupils' Inquiry
1
2
3
12
19.05
10
20.83
25
16.67
Lessons
When measured using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients (r) to calculate the effect of teachers’ High Order Thinking Questions on pupils’ levels of inquiry in this study showed a very large correlation for control group (r = 0.95) and an almost perfect correlation for the project group ( r = 0.98). This meant that for both the project and control groups, the greater the number of High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher, the level of pupils’ scientific inquiry (in terms of scores) was also correspondingly elevated. Pertaining to the issue of wait-time as discussed in the introduction above, the study recorded the teacher in the project group to have allowed an average of 1.5 minutes of wait-time after each question posed to the pupils, as opposed to the teacher in the control group, who allowed for an average of <1 minute of wait-time. In terms of scaffolding pupils’ participation through questioning, both the teachers in the observations often posed a series of question following a main question before elaborating on a pupil’s answer rather than to provide answers to own questions, as follows:
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T: T: T: T:
Why is it that it gets hotter and hotter? How do I know friction produces heat? If that is the case, I put my hands in my water bottle, do I need to shove my fingers in and rub? Why is is when I take out ice and blow at it, it doesn’t melt?
A confirmatory review of the Pupil Survey revealed that both the teachers had, over the period of study, indeed frequently asked their pupils questions that required them to think; had given the pupils enough time to think about the questions before answering; and had also frequently asked questions that made the pupils want to find out more information related to the topic. Discussion The findings can be categorised under two main themes: teachers’ questioning disposition and Pupils’ Levels of Scientific Inquiry, and the positive influence of the frequency of occurrences of High Order Thinking Questions on Pupils’ Levels of Scientific Inquiry. Regardless of the lower frequency of High Order Thinking Questions in the control group, a positive correlation was observed between teachers’ posed High Order Thinking Questions to pupils’ level of scientific inquiry in both the project and control groups, instead of just in the expected project group. This could be due, in this study, to the high levels of teacher disposition in terms of scaffolding pupils’ learning in both groups that ensured the effectiveness of utilising High Order Thinking Questions to elicit higher levels of pupil inquiry. Both the teachers’ provided ample wait-time between questions (average 1.25 minutes between both the groups), and they consistently used an effective scaffolding methods in elevating their pupils’ thinking processes by posing a good blend of High Order and Low Order Thinking Questions throughout the study, posing a series of questions (that their pupils’ could understand and relate to), following a main question before elaborating on
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a pupil’s answer, rather than to provide answers to their own questions. These observations affirmed Bonwell & Eison’s theory that suggested techniques for more effective questioning should include stating concise questions (main questions in the case of the study), considering a pupil’s cognitive abilities when determining the level of questioning (questions that pupils could understand, relate and respond to), maintaining a logical and sequential order of the questions, encouraging extension to a response (posing of a series of questions succeeding the main question), allowing sufficient time for a pupil to answer a question and encouraging the pupil to ask questions as well. Another finding from the study is the greater influence that a higher frequency of occurrences of High Order Thinking Questions (along with sufficient wait-time, appropriate scaffolding etc.) within the classroom has on pupils’ levels of scientific inquiry. The project group had a mean of 117.45% occurrences of High Order Thinking Questions posed by the teacher more than the control group. Interestingly, this was responded by a mean of 10.57% more occurrences of scientific inquisitiveness by the pupils in the project group when compared to the control group. This observation suggests that in any case, teachers have the ultimate power in elevating and stretching their pupils’ level of scientific inquiry through manipulating the frequency of High Order Thinking Questions that they pose in any one lesson. Provided the conditions of asking effective questions is met, teachers will be able to increase the levels of their pupils’ scientific inquisitiveness at any one time by simply increasing the frequency of High Order Thinking Questions in their lessons, as in the case of the teacher in the project group. Conclusion Within the local context, there are still many issues pertaining to teachers’ questioning (in terms of the use of High Order Thinking Questions) that can be further improved on. This could be due to the teachers’ assumptions that High Order Thinking Questions are only
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appropriate for the higher-ability classes and not so for the average classes, that they are not competent enough to execute High Order Thinking Questions skilfully, that their pupils’ are not ready as Asian pupils are generally passive learners etc. The first step that schools can take to improve the current situation is to modify the current Scheme of Work into inquirybased lesson plans for teachers to follow through. In this way, both the teachers and pupils are supplied with avenues for questioning (due to the nature of IBL lessons), which can also double up as the practising ground for questioning and a catalyst for pupils’ inquiry. Given ample execution of such natured lessons, teachers’ levels of confidence will also be heightened and eventually, they would be able to appropriately utilise High Order Thinking Questions within any classroom they step into.
References Bonwell, C. & Eison, J. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom AEHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No.1. Washington, D.C.: Jossey-Bass. Chaudron, C. (1988). Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Cotton, K. (2001). Close-up #5: Classroom Questioning.Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved June 14, 2008, from http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/3/cu5.html Frazee, B., & Rudnitski, R. A. (1995). Integrated teaching methods: Theory, classroom applications, field-based connections. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers. Habsah Hussin. (2006). Dimensions of questioning: A qualitative study of current classroom practice in Malaysia. TESL-EJ 10 (2). Retrieved May 10, 2008, from wwwwriting.berkeley.edu/tesl-ej/ej38/a3.pdf Klein, M. L., Peterson, S., & Simington, L. (1991). Teaching reading in the elementary grades. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.
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Ministry of Education of Singapore. (2007). Primary Science Syllabus. Ministry of Education of Singapore: Curriculum Planning & Development Division. Moritoshi, P. (2001). Teacher questioning, modification and feedback behaviours and their implications for learner production: an action research case study. Sanyo Gakuen University. Retrieved May 21, 2008, from www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/Moritoshi1.PDF Muth, K. D., & Alverman, D. E. (1992). Teaching and learning in the middle grades. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The self-directed teacher: Managing the learning process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Orlich, D. C., Harder, R. J., Callahan, R. C., Kauchak, D. P., & Gibson, H. W. (1994). Teaching Strategies: A guide to better instruction (4th ed.). Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company. Ornstein, A. C. (1995). Strategies for effective teaching (2nd ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. Richards, J.C. and C. Lockhart (1994). Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Appendix Annex A – Pupils’ Perception Survey 1.
Our Science teacher asks the class questions at all times when he/she is teaching … 1 2 3 4 5 2. We can understand the questions that our Science teacher asks us in Science lessons… 1 2 3 4 5 3. When most of us could not understand the questions our Science teacher asks, he/she would… 4.
At anytime when none of us could answer the question asked by our Science teacher, the would answer the question for us. 1 2 3 4 5 5. When our Science teacher asks a question, many of our classmates are eager to answer the … 1 2 3 4 5 6. When our Science teacher asks a question, many of our classmates are eager to answer the because… 7. When our Science teacher asks a question, many of our classmates are NOT eager to answer tion because… 8. The questions that our teacher asks us in Science lessons need us to think… 1 2 3 4 5 9. Our Science teacher gives us enough time to think about the questions he/she asked before or the answer… 1 2 3 4 5 10. Most of the questions that our Science teacher asks us require us to discuss further as the cannot be easily found in our textbooks. 1 2 3 4 5 11. The questions that our teacher asks us in Science lessons help us learn new information… 1 2 3 4 5 12. The questions that our teacher asks us in Science lessons make us want to find out more ion related to the topic… 1 2 3 4 5 13. When anyone of us has any questions to ask in our Science lessons, our teacher would…
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Annex B – Sample Teacher’s Transcription (Control, Lesson 1) You can go into three states? What are the three states? What are the three states, Alan? When in solid what is water called? You can go into three states am I right? What are the three states? What have you learnt the other time? Ok…ice..Liquid? Now put your hands on your face. Does it feel good? Ok Salipas says no..why? Why does it feel good? Okay..how does your hands feel now? Your face feel hot right, your hands feel hot right? Why do you think their hands feel hot, Jeremy? What is friction? Okay..what has it got to do with the feeling of the heat on your face? Okay..now can you think of other ways to produce heat? Anyone? What else? Yi Ting? Now the word burning, what is involved in burning? So, one way to produce heat is also again to use a magnifying glass but what is the one that actually gives the heat? How are you going to make the ice melt?
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Have you found your two ways to make ice melt? Put ice under running water. What kind of water? Burn the ice so is it similar to putting ice over a fire? What do you mean by burn the ice? Put ice under the fan. So, where would your fan be? I want to make it cooler. So how does your fan actually helps to melt your ice? Where you get the hot air? Higher Order Thinking Questions
Lower Order Thinking Questions
(HOT)
(LOTS)
Why do you think their hands feel
What are the three states?
hot? What has it got to do with the feelinf
When in solid what is water called?
of the heat on your face? Can you think of other ways to
How does your hand feel now?
produce heat? How does your fan actually helps to
What is involved in burning?
melt your ice?
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Annex B – Sample Teacher’s Transcription (Project, Lesson 1) How do we define the shape of the ice? How many of yours is the shape of Strepsils? Apart from shape, what else can we talk about? Now, before the ice cubes are solid, what stage is it in? Now, tell me why I feel warm? These are my hands..I rub my hands together..it causes some…? Why is it that it gets hotter and hotter? Why does friction cause heat? How do I know friction cause heat? How do I know that friction produces heat? What is the origin of heat? How is plant able to store heat? What is the purpose of stomata? The energy is stored in plants. Which organism benefit from it? What is it that you need to do to make your ice melt? Do you think when it condenses, do you think it will be really orange juice? When you boil soup, reaching boiling point, you put a lid on the pot, why the water will not dry up? Higher Order Thinking Questions
Lower Order Thinking Questions
(HOT)
(LOTS)
How do I know friction cause heat?
What is the origin of heat?
Why does friction cause heat?
What is the purpose of stomata?
Why is it that it gets hotter and hotter? Which organism benefit from it?
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When you boil soup, reaching boiling
Before the ice cubes are solid, what
point, you put a lid on the pot, why the stage is it in? water will not dry up? Do you think when it condenses, do you think it will be really orange juice?
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Annex C – Observer’s Checklist : Pupil’s Inquiry
Inquiry/Standards-Based Science: What Does It Look Like? Document1 Characteristics of Pupil Inquiry Adapted from (The Context for Continuous Assesment : Student Inquiry; 2006)
1)
Pupils view themselves as scientists in the process of learning
They demonstrate a desire to learn more.
They seek to collaborate and work cooperatively with their peers.
They are confident in doing Science: they take risks, display healthy skepticism, and demonstrate a willingness to modify ideas.
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2)
Pupils accept an “invitation to learn” and readily engage in the exploration process
Pupils exhibit curiosity and ponder observations.
They take opportunity and time to try out and persevere with their own ideas.
3)
Pupils observe.
Pupils observe carefully, as opposed to just looking.
Pupils see details, seek patterns, detect sequences and events, notices changes, similarities and differences.
Pupils make connections to previously held ideas.
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4)
Pupils communicate using a variety of methods
Pupils express ideas in a variety of ways: through journals, reporting out, drawing, graphing, charting, and so on.
They use the language used by scientists to describe their approaches to explorations and investigations.
They describe their current thinking/theories about concepts and phenomena
5)
Pupils propose explanations and solutions and build a deeper understanding of science concepts
Pupils offer explanations both from their previous experiences and from knowledge and evidence gained as a result of ongoing investigations.
Pupils use and seek evidences to justify their own and others’ statements.
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Pupils sort out information and decide what is important (what does and doesn’t work).
Pupils are willing to revise explanations and consider new ideas as they gain knowledge (build understanding).
6)
Pupils raise questions
Pupils ask questions (verbally or through actions.
Pupils use questions that lead them to investigations that generate or redefine further questions and ideas.
Pupils value and enjoy asking questions as an important part of science.
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7)
Pupils plan and carry out investigations.
Pupils design fair tests as a way to try out their ideas.
Pupils plan ways to verify, extend or discard ideas.
Pupils carry out investigations by handling materials with care, observing, measuring, and recording data that will allow them to develop and evaluate their explanations.
8)
Pupils critique their science practices.
Pupils create and use quality indicators to assess their work.
Pupils report and celebrate their strengths and identify what they’d like to improve.
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Pupils reflect on their work with adults and their peers.
Total possible score: 24 (1 point per recorded observation)
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Pedagogical practices and Science learning
Pedagogical practices and Science learning with a focus on sustainability for Pre-service Primary and Middle Years educators: Directions and challenges
Dr Kathryn Paige and Dr David Lloyd School of Education, University of South Australia
Abstract The central challenge of preparing pre-service teachers for the important task of science learning in primary and middle years at the University of South Australia is deciding on the science content vehicles and pedagogical practices that will best prepare them for teaching science. The paper describes a number of strategies of how this challenge has been tackled. Place-based learning, futures thinking, integrated learning, and transdisciplinary problemsolving have all informed our practice. These wide-ranging and complex practices have been the foci to deliver both a rigorous and sound curriculum in science with equal attention paid to educating for sustainability. On going feedback from students on the impact of our approach on their thinking and confidence to teach science provides a reflective perspective and informs future directions.
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Pedagogical practices and Science learning with a focus on sustainability for Pre-service Primary and Middle Years educators: Directions and challenges Background The pedagogical practices we discuss here are associated with an undergraduate primary (Years 3-5) and middle school (Years 7 to 9) Bachelor of Education program (LBPM) offered at the Mawson Lakes Campus of the University of South Australia. The LBPM program meets the need for teachers of pre-adolescent and adolescent students. Graduates are qualified to teach in primary school, junior secondary school and middle schools (Years 6-9). The program is structured through four components: educational studies major, curriculum studies, practicum (Professional Applications and Reflection, PAR), and general studies. The discussion in this paper is concerned with courses which we have created and manage: four mathematics/science curriculum courses.
The LBPM program, which has been offered for the last five years, aims “to prepare educators who are professionally competent and primarily concerned with learners’ wellbeing and who are committed to social justice, futures thinking, sustainability, education for community living, and sound pedagogical reasoning that is enquiry based”. The aim has been informed by a range of interconnected literatures and is based on the understanding that globally and locally we are undergoing rapid changes and that past practices were unlikely to meet the needs of immediate and longer term futures (Beare & Slaughter, 1993; Fensham, 2003; Smith, 2002; Sterling, 2001).
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Literatures that has informed our practice The literature that informed the development of the program aim and our pedagogical approach to science and mathematics education is the basis of this review and is arranged around the following headings science education, middle schooling, educating for sustainability, futures thinking, place –based education and the integral/transdisciplinary thinking. Science Education literature The science education literature provides a rich source of ideas on how science can be taught in ways that relate to student lives and interests. We have in our curriculum and general studies courses worked to shift students’ perceptions of science learning as being primarily about knowledge acquisition delivered using a transmissive style of pedagogy; an approach that Fensham (2003, p.18) suggests leads to a combination of low interest and too high a cognitive demand. Goodrum (2006), Goodrum, Hackling & Rennie (2001), Rennie (2006) and Tytler (2007) have all pointed out the failure of many teachers of science to provide relevant and engaging science experiences for their students. We emphasise that science courses must be situated, engaging and relevant; that is, connect to student life worlds and “located in the multiple societal contexts within which citizens are involved - at home, in their neighbourhood, in their work, at leisure, and as members of local, regional and national communities (Fensham, 2003, p. 8). Middle School literature Middle school research provides clear directions for effective student learning. Carrington (2006, pp. 146-147) points out that central to effective middle school learning is quality learning for teachers who can transfer their learning into classroom practice. Quality teaching
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requires expertise in both subject content knowledge that is relevant, integrative and exploratory, and student focused pedagogy – that is pedagogical content knowledge (Luke et al, 2003). Carrington (2006) uses the term “glocal” to indicate that curriculum should link local and the global concerns. Education for Sustainability Educating for sustainability seeks to provide knowledge and understanding of the physical, biological, and human world, the skills of critical argument and the capacity and motivation to work towards harmony and sustainability through practical action. This approach involves students making decisions about ethical, social, cultural, environmental, gender, economic and health issues, and acting upon them. Education for Sustainability embodies the theory and practice of social, economic and ecological sustainability, and in turn ecologically sustainable development depends on sustainable education and learning (Sterling, 2001, p. 23). So, an important aspect of our practice is to encourage students to make a positive difference in their world, and to live more sustainably as empathetic companions of all the Earth’s creatures and structures. We have drawn on the work of Jucker (2002), Sterling (2001) and local and national reports (ARIES, 2009; DECS, 2007; Gough & Sharpley, 2005) in the area of education for sustainability and other sustainability advocates such as Capra (1996, 2002), Lowe (2005, n.d.), and Suzuki (Suzuki & McConnell, 1997). Education for Sustainability is the basis of many of the science and mathematics workshops and three examples will be described in the next section. Futures Thinking Futures in education is considered by many educators (Beare & Slaughter, 1993; Gough, 1990; Gidley, 2002; Hicks, 2002; Page, 1996) as being a neglected but essential dimension of education. Essential primarily because “visions and views of desirable futures always come
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before their realisation. Yet today positive visions are in very short supply” (Beare & Slaughter, 1993, p. 105). We believe that students should develop the skills and foresight to manage and instigate change within educational settings. We argue that because learning is a life-long process and education is an integral component of constantly changing environments, and that images of futures affect powerfully what people believe and how they respond in the present, that learning settings have a special responsibility to ensure that all members of a learning community are prepared for and proactive about their future (Lloyd, 2005). We make explicit the development of foresight when predicting what the campus will look like in 50 years time in a series of workshops in which students study, using mathematics, science and local knowledge, a chosen tree and its environment. Place-based education Authentic education, as Sterling (2001) argues, has always been rooted in place and tradition. We see our teacher education courses as a necessary component of community living that occurs in a diversity of settings and which “connects education to locality” (Jucker, 2002, p. 294). This place-based learning takes hands-on experiential learning, extending it beyond the classroom curriculum, and encourages students to be co-managers of their learning (Smith, 2002; Woodhouse, & Knapp, 2000). Ideally the result becomes a constructivist’s idea of what education can best be: students responsible for their own learning and learning that takes place by “doing” in authentic situations.
We see the primary value of place-based education as lying in the way that it serves to strengthen children’s connections to others and to the regions in which they live. It serves both individuals and communities, helping individuals to experience what they value and hold for others, and allowing communities to benefit from the commitment and contributions
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of their members (Woodhouse & Knapp, 2000). In the fourth course students complete a placement in an urban ecological setting and work in a voluntary capacity undertaking such tasks as revegetation and removing non indigenous plants (Borgelt, Brooks, Innes, Seelander &Paige,2009) Integral and Trandisciplinary Education While the School of Education and the schools that it serves maintain a quite rigid silo curriculum structure made up of subjects or learning areas, we have, within the confines of imposed structures, started to explore integral views of curriculum, teaching and learning. By integral is meant valuing equally both the internal (subjective) world and the external (objective) world of ourselves and other things and their interaction, through relational exchange, with the internal (intersubjective - cultural) world and external (interobjective – ecological and systems) worlds. Learning, from an integral perspective, considers more than a study of the external world of things and systems and includes the associated aesthetic/spiritual and social/cultural aspects. Science learning forms an important part of this integral picture (Lloyd, 2003, 2006; Lloyd & Wallace, 2004).
Science learning focuses primarily on the study of the external world of things and systems but, from an integral perspective, always connects to students’ life worlds, interests and developmental needs. Often, science learning will contribute to the study of issues or topics that require an interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approach. We are using interdisciplinarity to indicate that many disciplines are used in the study of a problem or theme (Wallace, Venville & Rennie, 2005), and transdisciplinarity to refer to an approach that uses many disciplines and the grounded, local knowledge and needs of those in a particular social setting to approach a problem (Balsiger, 2004; Després, Brais, & Avellan, 2004). Balsiger (2004, p. 407) states that transdisciplinarity is a scientific approach to
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understanding the world with a strong orientation towards societal problems. The pressure to adopt transdisciplinary practices comes from the need to solve complex socio-scientific problems, where one discipline on its own cannot provide an answer (Bruce, Lyall, Tait, & Williams, 2004; Horlick-Jones & Sime, 2004) and in education this is certainly an issue for education as a social process and for curriculum delivery in the learning setting. Structure of the curriculum Over the last decade a team of science and mathematics primary/middle educators have worked collaboratively to develop a cohesive suite of courses, some compulsory and others optional. The three compulsory curriculum courses (soon to become four) involve a semester long course in each of the first three years of the four year program. The optional courses involve an elective general study sub major in science, which we do not have space to elaborate upon here. A second optional course is taken in their fourth year where students select a learning area specialisation based on their general study option which leads to their final practicum placement. In our context the pathway into a profession is as champions for science and mathematics in primary/ middle school settings. There are two major challenges that need to be highlighted about the professional pathway. Firstly the small numbers who enrol. This small number correlates with the lack of background and confidence in science and mathematics that students bring with them to this programme (Paige, Lloyd & Chartres, 2008). Each year we have between 8 and 10 students. In comparison Health and PE have 30 or 40. Secondly, because of the small numbers it is difficult to justify the resources (staff, rooms) used to support the course. A positive aspect is that those students who complete the pathway do manage to gain employment as there is a shortage of teachers with a specialisation in science and mathematics.
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All courses are characterised by such pedagogy as participation in interactive workshops, a focus on developing pre-service teachers science and mathematic conceptual understanding and thinking and working scientifically and mathematically and a focus on integrated curriculum with a leaning towards educating towards ecological sustainability and planning for learning (Table 1).
Table 1 Overview of curriculum courses Curriculum
Content/Vehicles
Courses
Pedagogical Focus/teaching for
Planning for
learning
learning/authentic assessment
•
•
Understanding the disciplines of what makes science, science, mathematics, mathematics
Working with three
•
Intro Interactive Teaching sequence
science and
•
Understanding of key concepts, thinking and working
and plan next lesson
• Measurement
•Developing student’s questions
Plan, implement and
•Electrical circuits and
•Exploratory
evaluate sequence of
energy use
beyond chn’s prior knowledge
three lessons in both
•Spatial sense
•Integration
science and
•Properties of 2 D
•Lesson Planning sequence
mathematics to teach in
•Soil science
•Resources, teacher, students
PAR 2
Mathematics &
•Chance
Unit planning
Plan, implement and
Learning
•Rational number
evaluate a unit of work
•Acids and bases
in science and
SME 1
SME 2
Sorting and Classifying
•
Vertebrates Invertebrates
•
Pattern
•
Number-cultural
•
Forces and movement
students to ascertain prior knowledge of
mathematics concept
investigations
mathematics in PAR 3 Professional
•Sustainability
•Transdisciplinary planning
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Digital narrative
Pedagogical practices and Science learning
pathway
•Futures thinking
•Placed based experience
Year planner in science
•Using technology
•Middle schooling
and mathematics
The structure has several features and subsequent benefits. Firstly each of the courses builds on the previous course so that over the three years students build their confidence to teach science and mathematics. They are not one off, stand alone courses but a sequence of coherent courses with each building in complexity as seen by the table above. In the first course students are exploring the ideas of property and attribute through a series of practical workshops where natural objects such as rocks and shells are sorted and classified using both a science and mathematics way of knowing. They plan a prior knowledge experience with three children. In the second course the students experience different vehicles, surface area and angle in mathematics and electrical circuits and soils in science, and plan three lessons to teach to their practicum class. In the third course the content focuses on fractions and acid and bases and planning units of work to teach.
Secondly, it provides an opportunity to see the students more than once and hence develop relationships. Whilst there has been a reduction in staff we have managed to maintain the cohesion through the dedication and commitment of both tenured and sessional staff. Staff work in combinations of curriculum courses, general study and practicum courses which supports students to develop as generalist teachers in the 3-7 setting and specialists in an 8/9 setting.
Thirdly, a major part of the integration is linked to the pedagogy. The way we learn mathematics and science has many aspects of similarity. Our practice has been informed by a constructivist approach to teaching and learning and building on the ideas through each of the
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courses ensures a high level of understanding for those students who engage (Skamp, 2008; Van de Walle 2010). Hence our commitment to interactive workshops rather than lecture tutorial model more common in universities. So whilst it is perhaps not time efficient in the transmission of knowledge, it provides an opportunity to model effective practice and develop deep learning. Workshops are dominated by linking theory with practice eg, interacting with manipulative material, engaging with on line learning tools and spending time in the outdoors. Making connections with other learning areas and literacy and numeracy are also features of these courses.
Three examples of how ecological sustainability is woven through the courses are the focus of the next three paragraphs.
In the second year course there is a series of three workshops that focus on electrical circuits and energy use. The first workshop the students explore their prior knowledge of electrical circuits through annotated diagrams of torches and are provided with opportunities to develop their understandings of circuitry, currents, voltage, conductivity and electrical energy measurement. The second workshop the students are involved in investigating their own questions around parallel and series circuits, current and voltage. Students are exposed to a range of models for recording their investigations including those presented by Primary Connections (Australian Academy of Science, 2007). In the third workshop students are asked to bring in the wattage reading from an appliance that they commonly use such as a hair straightener and a microwave and a recent electricity bill. Students measure the amount of electrical energy they use for their appliance and then work out using indirect measurement their greenhouse emissions for that appliance for the billing period. It is quite a
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powerful learning experience. This is a good example of how the sustainability focus is evident but the science and mathematics is still central.
The second workshop example, titled Exploring mathematics for citizenship through data handling, is covered in a series of two workshops. In the first workshop the students explore ideas of mean, median and mode through collecting data about themselves, for example their height and neck circumference, and representing it in a range of ways including using software packages such as Tinkerplots. In the second workshop the students are asked to collect and bring data about their personal water consumption. For example, the amount of water to wash, amount of water flushed via toilet, amount of water consumed in washing / cleaning clothes, cars, home, dishes, personal items, the amount of water consumed preparing food and the amount of water consumed in their garden. The students use stem and leaf and box and whisker graphs to represent and compare aspects of the data. The workshop is closed by exploring different countries’ water use, using data from the New Internationalist magazine and Anita Roddick’s Body Shop website.
The third example occurs in the professional pathway which is held in the semester before their final practicum and is issues based. It is in this course that ecological sustainability is a key focus. The course consists of three components. These include; a) researching a topic to present to colleagues. Topics that are covered include Educating for sustainability, Futures thinking, Transdisciplinary planning and Middle schooling philosophy; b) a focus on planning and programming where students plan a transdisciplinary unit of work and a year’s science program for a nominated level of schooling; and c)undertaking a place-based experience and constructing a digital narrative. In the place-based experience students spend time in an urban ecological setting undertaking such tasks as removing non indigenous plants Page 1496
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from national parks and collecting data about water quality in local rivers. This voluntary work over the semester results in pre-service teachers adding to their knowledge of ecological science, developing a sense of belonging with a community, connecting to a new place and developing an appreciation for the needs of future generations. Feedback from students indicate that the course prepares them well as a beginning teacher of science and mathematics. Comments from the 2009 cohort reflect the positive impact on student. The in depth look at the subject matter. This subject allowed me to strengthen my understandings of these two learning area. This has been one of the best courses that I have done. And Overall interesting course, that was taught incredibly well by the teaching team. The lecturers understood what we needed to know and catered everything towards that. Evaluation of student data What impact does participating in the courses have on developing pre-service teachers confidence to teach science? At the end of each semester students are invited to complete an on line course evaluation.
Examining the 2008 data for the first year course provides some useful insights. Of the 143 students who took part 58 (41%) completed the survey. For the question, “Overall I was satisfied with the quality of this course”, 71% either agreed or strongly agreed. Only 9% replied in the negative. Two other questions relevant here were asked 1) What are the strengths of the course? 2) What ways has this course supported you to develop confidence to teach science and mathematics?
Comments about the strength of the course have been organised around the following themes, Pedagogy, Building content knowledge, Learning theory, Resources and Assessment.
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Recurring themes about pedagogy include the hands on approach to learning (over 30% of responses), modelling good practice (20%), having the opportunity to put ideas into practice (26%) and resources. Highlights of responses are included in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Examples of student responses to the on line evaluation questions
Example responses for “Overall, what are the strengths of this course?” Pedagogy: (34%)
“Hands On” •
The 'hands-on' approach to learning, eg. the structured play time was very helpful
•
Being active in manipulating materials and 'getting your hands dirty' to better understand concepts.
•
The hands on approach-and actually teaching us HOW to teach
Modelling Good Practice •
How the tutor models the constructivist strategies we are required to learn
•
Use engagement activities, proved very successful!
•
The class/lesson based focus on teaching and learning
•
the many different techniques of constructivist teaching and how the teacher exhibited them to us
Putting things into practice •
Having an opportunity to put some things into practice by conducting the prior knowledge activities with learners for the assignments.
•
It explored how to start to construct a learning experience which
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will undoubtedly help with future teaching. Content
•
knowledge (19%)
Providing a good basic understanding of some key mathematical and science concepts
•
Given me more understanding on the background of science and maths.
Learning theory
•
The relevance of content to what we will be teaching in schools
•
how it makes you understand how children learn maths and
(9%)
Resources (22%)
science concepts •
learnt how to become a constructivist teacher
•
The course has highlighted some good resources to assist in teaching science and maths.
•
provided endless ideas of how to approach lessons and activities for the students to participate in
Assessment (8%)
•
The assignments were practical tasks which we will eventually use in our teaching careers.
•
I believed a strength was the assignments where we were able to interact with students and were able to get an understanding of their learning and enjoyment.
Comments about ways the course has supported students to teach science and mathematics have been organised around three themes; inspiration (21%), confidence (28%) and engagement (16%). Examples are found in Table 3.
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Table 3: Examples of student responses to the on line evaluation questions Examples of reposes for “What ways has this course supported you to develop confidence to teach science and mathematics?” Inspiration
•
The Enthusiastic teachers and useful information.
(21%)
•
How we cover what is needed by you as the teacher as well gives us clear knowledge of what is expected of us in the future.
•
Workshops were fun and interactive
•
I thought science and mathematics would be two boring subjects to teach, however, the course has shown me fun ways to approach where these subjects could be boring and make it fun.
Confidence
•
I feel comfortable to teach science and maths.
(28%)
•
Its made me realise its not that hard after all
•
It makes me feel confident to teach science at a primary and middle level.
•
The assignments on creating lesson plans and understanding prior knowledge has given me a confidence boost
•
Made me realise how exciting science and maths can be when it is taught such an engaging, manipulative, active and relevant way.
•
That it actually makes you more equipped and confident to teach maths and science, despite your lack of prior knowledge in both subjects. The course actually seemed very relevant to future teaching.
Engagement
•
The ways in which we learnt, new things they were always
(16%)
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Pedagogical practices and Science learning
interesting. •
Being active in manipulating materials and 'getting your hands dirty' to better understand concepts.
•
Showed ways in which mathematics and science can be fun and engaging.
•
Understanding that maths and science is not all hard and boring, it can be fun and easy to understand. I have lots of readings and lesson plans that i can learn from.
•
High demand subject
•
To go the extra length to actively participate in workshop discussions.
Student reflection on pedagogical practices from the second course that help them develop confidence in their first school teaching experience Examining the 2008 data for the second compulsory course also provides some useful insights. Of the 115 student who took the second course 35 (30%) completed the survey. For the question, “Overall I was satisfied with the quality of this course”, 80% either agreed or strongly agreed. Only 3 students (8%) replied in the negative. This course is connected with students’ second practicum experience in which they are required to plan and teach units of work. What students found of particular value with this second course was the way it prepared them for teaching in their practicum placement. Particular aspects they refer to include planning for learning, knowing the importance of, and how to elicit students’ prior knowledge. One student commented with respect to this aspect, “Not having a sound
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Pedagogical practices and Science learning
background or confidence in either learning areas I surprised myself and my ability to teach in these areas”, Table 4 provides further examples of student comments.
Table 4: Student comments on preparation for teaching Mathematics and Science Examples of responses for “How did this course prepare you to teach mathematics and science in your PAR 2 practicum?” •
The assignments related directly to the PAR 2 practicum which I used
•
The assignments really helped to develop this (topics). Also, the teacher made it really clear what was expected.
•
The first two assignments were a great preparation for planning for student learning. This was a huge help for our work in PAR 2.
•
It was good because it meant we had a science and maths lesson planned but it also needed to be modified to suit the class I was working with. It's good to teach our assignments in class ….
•
The second assignment was very helpful in helping me to plan and put onto paper my lesson ideas and final decisions for lessons. I feel more confident in using SACSA, and what to look for in the document specific for Math and Science.
•
Constructing successful lesson plans. Guidance with learning the interactive teaching model through the workshops.
•
One of the main elements that this course taught was to always find out the 'before views' of the students before proceeding with a lesson plan.
•
This course gave me the confidence to teach mathematics and science in my practicum, my mentor noted on my report my passion for my science teaching.
•
The structure of the workshops and assignments provide a bank of knowledge and
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resources which enabled me to engage students in both learning sequences. Thank you for a course which related to our real worlds and to that of our students. •
Has really helped me in PAR - having a series of learning experiences was great
Discussion The opportunity to reflect on the impact of each of the courses has highlighted some emerging themes. Firstly feedback indicates that preservice teachers are developing their confidence to teach science and mathematics. The approach modelled in interactive workshops actively engages students in constructing their conceptual understanding. Comments reflect the positive impact this has on their learning. It appears that the first two courses are coherent, that the students can see each course builds on the previous and the passion and inspiration of the teacher is crucial. Secondly the links with practicum in their second course enables the students to practise their planning for learning within an authentic context. Students acknowledge how much they appreciate being scaffolded within the assessment framework to construct lesson plans which are transferrable into the classroom.
Comments can also be made about what was not evident in the feedback. Firstly no comments appeared about the integration between science and mathematics either negative or positive. In a previous iteration of the courses society and environment was also included and feedback from students clearly indicated that the integration was confusing and requested the separation. It seems that the integrated approach in two learning areas works well for both students and staff.
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Secondly there is a lack of comments referring to the impact of the focus of ecological and social sustainability. It appears in the first two years that students are in ‘suvival’ mode and need to start with developing conceptual understanding in each learning area and strategies for teaching the before planning within an interdisciplinary framework.
When looking at the feedback from the fourth year Professional Pathway course favourable comments are made about both the transdisciplinary approach to planning and the place based experience. While the workload of this couse was high it was a very practical and beneficial course. I also found the long term and short term planning very valuable and something that I could possbily use parts of in the future. The place based experience was also very valuable and gave us an opportunity to look at how we can use our communities in our future classrooms. What seems to be evident is that by the fourth course students are ready to take on board the complex issues associated with educating for sustainability confirming the impact of sequential approach to teaching science and mathematics.
Looking forward the focus of the new course which is timetabled for the fourth year will explore in more depth the notion of transdisciplinary teaching and learning as espoused by Jucker (2002). Students will use a range of ways of knowing and undertake a three workshop sequence titled ‘A place in time’ where students will think and work scientifically to develop a sense of belonging and connectivity to place. The new course will be run for the first time in 2010 and evaluation of student feedback will indicate whether ecologically sustainability becomes an integral part of the course. Perhaps the complex ideas are really more appropriate for beginning teachers to experience during post graduate study.
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Directions and challenges While not an exhaustive evaluation of the courses we offer in the Bachelor of Education (Primary and Middle), we have illustrated the flavour of the courses that prepare students for teaching science and mathematics in primary, junior secondary and middle schooling and provided evidence of their effectiveness. In these courses, we have attempted to balance traditional pedagogical content knowledge with the emerging need to far more strongly connect curriculum to student life worlds and the emerging issues around sustainability. Such an approach takes science knowledge beyond the technical, to include personal well-being, ethical living and the political action as suggested by Fensham, Hodson (2003), Tytler (2007) and others. We use the content knowledge as vehicles to illustrate effective teaching practice so that students can experience what their students will experience and, as educators, reflect upon the value/effectiveness of our approach. The learning experiences are interactive, placebased and situated in an explicitly identified integral space.
However, it seems from student responses, at least in the first two courses, that our vision of an integral curriculum is not recognised or valued. This is in part likely a legacy of the silo like quality of secondary school curriculum that most of the students have just left. Will school curriculum change to meet the challenges of an integral world needing systems thinking, or will it be our job to make this evident through more explicit means? How would we do this? Or is it more appropriate to leave such complexity to higher degree programs? We have given thought to this problem and have taken the opportunity to use the introduction of a course in numeracy, a university priority, to advance our ideas. The introduction of this fourth year course which uses issues as the vehicle to develop science and mathematics concepts and processes is an example of the on going development. The issues will be local
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as well as global, focussed upon ecological sustainability and transition to a low carbon society and develop ideas of intra and inter-generational equity. This course, along with the others in the program, will complement the School of Educations focus on reducing its ecological footprint and developing confident, well informed, futures thinking “green” teachers.
Our challenges will be with our own ability to learn and adapt in a rapidly changing and globalising world and to do so within the resource limits placed upon us by the university administration.
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References ARIES. (2009). Education for Sustainability: The role of education in engaging and equipping people for change. Retrieved 19 August 2009. from http://www.aries.mq.edu.au/publications.htm. Australian Academy of Science (2007). Primary Connections – linking science with literacy. Retrieved 14 October, 2009, from http://www.science.org.au/primaryconnections/index.htm Balsiger, P. W. (2004). Supradisciplinary research practices: History, objectives and rationale. Futures, 36, 407–421. Beare, H., & Slaughter, R. (1993). Education for the twenty-first century. London: Routledge. Borgelt, I., Brooks, K., Innes,J., Seelander, A., & Paige, K. (2009) Using digital narratives to communicate about place based experiences in science. Teaching Science vol 55,no 1, March, 41-46 Bruce, A., Lyall, C., Tait, J., & Williams, R. (2004). Interdisciplinary integration in Europe: The case of the Fifth Framework programme. Futures, 36(4), 457-470. Capra, F. (1996). The web of life: A new synthesis of the mind and matter. London: Flamingo. Capra, F. (2002). The hidden connection: Integrating the biological, cognitive, and social dimensions of life into a science of sustainability. London: Flamingo. Carrington, V. (2006). Rethinking middle years: Early adolescents, schooling and digital culture. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. DECS. (2007). Education for Sustainability: A guide to becoming a sustainable school. Adelaide, SA: Department of Education and Children’s Services. Després, C., Brais, N., & Avellan, S. (2004). Collaborative planning for retrofitting suburbs: Transdisciplinarity and intersubjectivity in action. Futures, 36(4), 471-486.
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Fensham, P., J. (2003). What do the “All” need in science education? In D. Fisher & T. Marsh (Eds.), Third Conference on Science, Mathematics and Technology Education (pp. 1-20). East London, South Africa: Key Centre for School Science and Mathematics, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia. Gidley, J. (2002). Global youth culture: A transdisciplinary perspective. In J. Gidley & s. Inayatulla (Eds.), Youth futures: Comparative research and transformative visions. (pp. 3-18). Westport, CA: Praeger. Goodrum, D. (2006). Inquiry in science classrooms: Rhetoric or reality? Retrieved 27 November, 2007, from http://www.acer.edu.au/research_conferences/2006.html Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, L. (2001). The status and quality of teaching and learning of science in Australian Schools. Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Gough, A., & Sharpley, B. (2005). Educating for a Sustainable Future: A National Environmental Education Statement for Australian Schools. Retrieved 19 August 2009. from http://www.environment.gov.au/education/publications/pubs/sustainablefuture.pdf. Gough, N. (1990). Futures in Australian education: Tacit, token and taken for granted. Futures, 22(3), 298-310. Hicks, D. (2002). Lessons for the future: The missing dimension in education. London: Routledge. Hodson, D. (2003). Time for action: Science education for an alternative future. International Journal of Science Education, 25(6), 645-670. Horlick-Jones, T., & Sime, J. (2004). Living on the border: Knowledge, risk and transdisciplinarity. Futures, 36(4), 407-421.
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Jucker, R. (2002). Our Common Illiteracy: Education as if the Earth and people mattered. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Lloyd, D. (2003). An Integral approach to Science Learning: Exploratory thoughts. In D. Fisher & T. Nash (Eds.), Third International Conference on Science, Mathematics and Technology Education (Vol. 1, pp. 415-421). East London, South Africa. Lloyd, D. (2005). Educating for the 21st Century: Planning A teacher education program for primary and middle schooling [Electronic Version] from http://www.aaee.org.au/docs/2004conference/Lloyd%20D.doc. Lloyd, D. (2006). An Integral approach to learning: Learning for environments in middle schooling teacher education. The International Journal of Environmental, Cultural, Economic and Social Sustainability, 2(6), 27-34. Lloyd, D., & Wallace, J. (2004). Imaging the future of science education: The case for making futures studies explicit in student learning. Studies in Science Education, 40, 139-178. Lowe, I. (2005). A big fix: Radical solutions for Australia's environmental crisis. Melbourne, Australia: Black Inc. Lowe, I. (n.d.). The need for environment literacy [Electronic Version]. Retrieved January 2009 from http://www.staff.vu.edu.au/alnarc/onlineforum/AL_pap_lowe.htm. Luke, A., Elkins, J., Weir, K., Land, R., Carrington, V., Sole, S., Pendergast, D., Kapitzke, C., van Kraagenoord, C., Moni, K., McIntosh, A., Mayer, D., Bahr, M., Hunter, L., Chadbourne, R., Bean, T., Alverman, T., & Stevens, L. (2003). Beyond the Middle: a report about literacy and numeracy development of target group students in the middle years of schooling. Nathan: Griffith University.
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Page, J. (1996). Education systems as agents of change: An overview of futures education. In R. A. Slaughter (Ed.), New thinking for a new millennium (pp. 126-136). London:: Routledge. Paige, K., Lloyd, D., & Chartres, M. (2008). Moving towards transdisciplinarity: An ecological sustainable focus for science and mathematics pre-service education in the primary/middle years. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), 19-33. Rennie, L. (2006). The community’s contribution to science learning: Making it count. Retrieved 23 September, 2006, from http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/RC2006_Rennie.pdf Skamp, K. (Ed.). (2008). Teaching primary science constructively (3 ed.). Southbank, Victoria: Thompson. Smith, G. A. (2002). Place-based education: Learning to be where we are. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(8), 584-594. Sterling, S. R. (2001). Sustainable education : Re-visioning learning and change. Totnes: Green Books for The Schumacher Society. Suzuki, D., & McConnell, A. (1997). The sacred balance: Rediscovering our place in nature. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Tytler, R. (2007). Re-imagining Science Education: Engaging students in science for Australia’s future. Camberwell, Victoria: ACER Press. Van de Walle, J. A. (2010). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally (7th ed.). New York: Pearson. Wallace, J., Venville, G., & Rennie, L. J. (2005). Integrating the curricuIum. In D. Pendergast & N. Bahr (Eds.), Teaching middle years (pp. 149-163). Crows Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
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Woodhouse, J., & Knapp, C. (2000). Place-Based Curriculum and Instruction: Outdoor and Environmental Education Approaches. Eric Digest, from http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/place.htm
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Development and Application of Curious Note Program Teaching-Learning Model (CNP Model) for Enhancing the Creativity of Scientifically Gifted Students
Jongseok Park, Yohan Hwang, Eunju Park, Jaeheon Park
Kyungpook National University Daegu, Korea
Corresponding author: Jongseok Park ( [email protected] )
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Abstract One of the purposes in scientifically gifted education is to enhance learners' ability to inquire independently, creatively, and autonomically as scientists do in their real inquiry activities. In order to achieve this purpose of scientifically gifted education, systematic education program is needed to explore the gifted students' potential ability to inquire about their surroundings, and give opportunities to find and solve problems for themselves as scientists seek for questions in the real world and get a conclusion to those questions and problems. Therefore, we developed CNP model that combines various types of autonomic inquiry with Integrated Process Skills and Science Writing Heuristic for nurturing the creativity of scientifically gifted in this study. We attempted to verify whether the model was appropriate or not by applying it to scientifically gifted classes. We observed 38 middle school students in CNP Model in KNU SEIGY (Science Education Institute for Gifted Youth) for eight weeks and looked into their learning and problem solving. The study found that scientifically gifted students' creative problem-finding ability, problem-solving ability and self-learning initiative ability were improved and the model helped enhance their attitudes toward science affirmatively. Educational implications of our research will be discussed during the presentation.
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Development and Application of Curious Note Program Teaching-Learning Model (CNP Model) for Enhancing the Creativity of Scientifically Gifted Students Introduction Creativity is always recognized importantly in science education, it is set as aim of education in science education curriculum, too (Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development, 2007). Despite enhancing creativity is important aim of science education, it is difficult to execute education for enhancing creativity in general school education. In questionnaire which is executed science teacher as object in Korea, teacher answer that it is difficult to execute education for enhancing creativity through science education in school(Chung et al., 2000). But, in part of field, in order to concentrate to the record improvement of the students, some people kept the creativity in mind as 'confusion' and had a strong antipathy about creativity(Deming, 1982). It is reported that the education, that considers creativity importantly, wasn't executed well from variable reason in several research (Kang, 2008; Kim, 2004). In that case, how do we operate education for enhancing creativity in school? Choi et al.(1998) mentioned next five conditions for enhancing creative problem solving ability. They are (1)question that allow variable thinking, (2)experiment lesson that is possible divergent thinking and students-centered, (3)lesson that students can think for themselves and apply to new situation or real life and provide opportunities, (4)free themselves from teaching-learning method of knowledge-centered and (5)reforming interruptible elements. But most teachers mentioned the rate of lesson progress, evaluation, excessive number of students, knowledge-centered subject contents, lack of teachers' preparation as reason to be not executed lesson for enhancing creativity(Choi et al., 1998; Chung et al., 2000), getting Page 1514
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accomplished five condition for enhancing creativity is difficult in school science education. But, in scientifically gifted education, given conditions are possible to prepare to execute creativity education. Because scientifically gifted education has the purpose that is to educate learners with the ability to inquire independently, creatively, autonomically as scientists in the authentic inquiry activity (Betts, 2004; Treffinger, 1975; Watters & Diezmann, 2003). Already, in several study, it is reported that scientifically gifted have creativity, Renzulli(1978) mentioned Intelligence over average, Creativity, Task Commitment as their features, Shin et al.(2000) mentioned excellence of creativity thinking ability, Lim et al.(2003) and Kim et al.(2005) mentioned that scientifically gifted has excellent creativity. Accordingly, scientifically gifted education head toward creativity education for developing scientifically gifted students' potential ability (Watters & Diezman, 2003). Moreover, in scientifically gifted education, it is possible to execute education for creativity development that is appropriate to the purpose because scientifically gifted education is without regard to curriculum rather than general education as free from control instruction time and number of students and lesson. In Korea, the creativity development is emphasized as the purpose of nurturing creative problem-solvers who will lead the future society (Chun et al., 2008). But, a lot of programs for gifted are presenting only preceding-centered contents, extremely difficult problem explanation-centered programs and consisting only level of knowledge or understanding (Han, 2006). The education for creativity development is not executed well like these. This reason is lack of teaching-learning method for enhancing creativity. In science education society, it is reported that research about teaching strategy for enhancing advanced thinking ability as creative thinking ability is unsatisfactory (Park and Kang, 2007). Therefore in scientifically gifted education, systematic education program is offered to solve scientifically gifted students' demand and to enhance scientifically gifted students' potential ability as creativity (Park & Kim, 2005; Watters & Diezman, 2003). Page 1515
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Which components are teaching-learning model for enhancing creativity needed? Adolf (1982) reported that creative thinking is increased by using thinking question and scientific method. Choi et al. (1998) reported that concrete research about not only conceptional knowledge but procedural knowledge (inquiry method) and appropriated and opened problem situation of being able to use inquiry method is needed for enhancing creativity. And, Bloom (1985) and Carolyn et al. (2004) reported scientifically gifted students are able to become creative producers and more interested and active through activity of finding problem and seeking alternate solutions to authentic problems within their field of intense interest. In the other study, researcher reported that the necessary condition for creative education is freedom and 'creative' is the freedom to do, to think, to lead oneself in an autonomous way. Scientifically gifted students can develop creativity in situation that they can show their autonomy in freedom, but it is needed well-defined frameworks of freedom (Erez, 2004). And Linn et al. (2000) wrote down as follow: 'Promotes Autonomous Inquiry' in scientific inquiry activity pedagogical screening criteria for emphasizing autonomy. From these studies, it is needed teaching-learning method to educate concrete inquiry method with procedural knowledge about their field of intense interest in freely and opened situation that students can show autonomy. Precisely, teaching-learning model is needed that make students can inquire using scientific method. Actually, many researcher developed program that students not only observe exacting of natural object but explain creatively, make variable idea and problem in process making explanation, and solve for themselves(Bandiera & Brino, 2006; Linn et al., 2000; 2003; Windschitl & Buttemer, 2000). From combining these, if students execute all of process of inquiry activity from discovering problem for themselves autonomically, their creativity will be enhanced. Therefore in this study, we developed Curious Note Program teaching-learning model (CNP model) that is emphasized autonomic inquiry as enhancing the creativity of Page 1516
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scientifically gifted and applied to students for confirming to enhance creativity. Through analyzing research results, we suggest CNP model as new teaching-learning model for enhancing scientifically gifted students' creativity. Background In order to develop CNP model, we researched related theories from important source as autonomous inquiry and problem recognizing. As a result, three strategies are found out as backgrounds. They are Curious Note, Integrated Process Skills, and Science Writing Heuristic. 1. Curious Note (CN) (1) Features of CN Problem-Finding (PF) is the most important element for creative achievement(Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976), the different point of creative problem solving from existing Problem-Solving(PS) is to emphasize process that students find new problem for themselves(Treffinger et al., 2000). PF is emphasized in CNP model, CN is used for this part. CN is learning material that is developed to complement Why Note (Shin, 2006) newly. CN has features of Why Note that made for improvement of students' scientific attitude and curiosity maintain. CN was complemented to have purpose that is acquirement of advanced scientific knowledge through individual PS process and development of scientific PFA in usual life. (2) Application of CN in CNP model In this study, we emphasized autonomous inquiry that is regarded students as autonomic researcher. The root of concept that is regarded students as autonomic researcher is John Dewey's Experience Centered Education Philosophy. Dewey told Education is not acquirement existing knowledge but process that students get curiosity about their around of world and develop new attitude, emphasized improvement ability that students observe their environment for themselves.
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(Dewey, 1901; Moore, 2001; Jung et al., 2004 Re-reference). CN include Dewey's education contents well. In this study, students begin PF process that is important part of autonomous inquiry through CN. CNP model is developed as process of solving found problem through CN. CN's composition and writing method are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Composition and writing method of Curious Note Composition of Curious Note (only title)
Writing method of Curious Note
1.Today's Curious Topic & Content
1. Whenever if you have some curiosity,
- Why did this phenomenon happen? 2. When did you feel curiosity?
write down on the note. NOT specialty. 2. If you can't have curiosity, try to have
3. How do you feel curiosity?
curiosity like "Why do this happen?"
Which situation do you feel in?
when you observe some materials
4. Let's find theoretical & data solution 5. How long time do you solve
or phenomenon. 3. Find out theoretical solution
this curiosity?
related curiosity
6. Which one is helpful for you?
4. If you have other curiosity
7. Do you get another question on your solving process?
during solving curiosity, write down. 5. Write down methods, period, helpness
Please write down.
for solving curiosity.
2. Integrated Process Skills (IPS) PS is as important as PF in science inquiry. In this study, suggesting autonomous inquiry in scientifically gifted education is to provide self-PS process to scientifically gifted students.
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IPS is suggested suitable phases for autonomous inquiry, because IPS is representative process of scientific inquiry progress. In addition, it's important to educate experiment design ability. As experiment design opportunity is seldom provide to students in science experiment class (Yang et al., 2006a, 2006b), experiment design must not be omitted in science inquiry. CNP model that is developed progress according to IPS' step and composited to perform experiment design for themselves. Students can enhance their creativity through scientist’s inquiry. 3. Science Writing Heuristic (SWH) Also, students can enhance their creativity to experiment writing and discussion. Enhancing of writing ability or discussion ability is able to recognize enhancing creativity. Except enhancing creativity, acquirement scientific knowledge is important part through autonomous inquiry too. In order that students acquire scientific knowledge through inquiry, we must make students understand about inquiry accurately and guide students inquire appropriately. SWH emphasized discussion and writing in science inquiry. Students can understand inquiry accurately through discussion and readjust their thinking and changing through writing. Furthermore, there are many results that writing is effective to understand accurately in science subject (Burke et al., 2006; Hohenshell & Hand, 2006). Methods
1. Development of CNP model (1) Setting up standards of model development We set up three standards for developing related teaching-learning model to scientifically gifted in scientifically gifted education. First, develop adapted model to scientifically gifted education's goal. Second, develop model that can guide scientifically gifted students to inquire
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autonomically. Third, develop model that contribute enhancing creativity. We determined theoretical basis that is need to inquire autonomically. And we searched the teaching strategy that would be model's main elements and determined model's element through discussion for developing appropriate model to three standards.
Figure 1 Research process for development CNP model (2) Theoretical basis for development of CNP model First of all, in this study we selected improving of Problem Finding Ability (PFA), Self-directed Learning Ability, that is Problem Embodying Ability (PEA) and Problem Solving Ability (PSA) to be theoretical basis related creativity development for development of appropriate model for creativity development. These theoretical bases are revealed in scientifically gifted education's goal. The applied teaching strategy on PFA development is Curious Note, the applied strategy on PEA and PSA are Integrated Process Skills (IPS) and Science Writing Heuristic (SWH). Each teaching strategy is introduced in research result section. Developed model's appropriateness is verified by one science education professor and several graduated school students at doctor & master course and teachers.
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2. Development of the lesson process applied CNP model (1) Outline of lesson process We developed outline of lesson process adjusted CNP model for applying to class. This outline helps to apply to lesson easily because this outline includes required activity of each phase. (2) Work sheets We developed the work sheets that students can use to put frame of CNP model class progress. The work sheets include all contents of outline of lesson process and important point or instruction in each phase. The work sheet is formed for maintaining students' curiosity. 3. Application and Analysis (1) Participants and lessons In order to verify whether CNP model is valid or not for improving creativity in scientifically gifted education, we applied CNP model to students of Science Education Institute for Gifted Youth in K. University and analyzed these effect. Students' class composition is the same table 2.
Table 2. Participants composition of CNP model's application (C class, M class , S class) Period
Class name
Grade
male
female
total
First season(08.09-11)
C class
1, 2
10
7
17
First season(08.09-11)
M class
1, 2
9
7
16
Second season(09.01-04)
S class
3
5
·
5
C class students executed three times (18 instructions)' lesson applied CNP model, M class
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students executed four times (24 instructions)' lesson applied CNP model. Totally seven subjects were determined, seven sorts of experiment were operated. And, for reverifying model's appropriateness, we applied lesson of CNP model to S class students for seven times (42 instructions). (2) Application method of lesson The lesson applied CNP model was progressed to use work sheets. CNP models work sheets were attached in the appendix. At the first applying CNP model, we executed 'Introduction phase' and from next time, 'Introduction phase' was not executed. In real lesson, application was executed to exclude introduction and homework steps in instruction, second and third phase were executed in 'Discussion and Designing experiment' lesson for three instructions, fifth and sixth phase were executed in 'experiment and draw a conclusion' lesson for three instructions. Totally six instructions was executed, one time lesson was applied for two weeks as 3 instructions per week. Every instructions were 45 minutes, between each instruction was attached 5 minutes' rest time. (3) Analysis method of observation and interview data One professor in science education, several instructors and assistant instructors in Science Education Institute for Gifted Youth observed how students act in each phase applied CNP model for observing and analyzing enhancing creativity of scientifically gifted. We considered that fields of creativity, which is enhanced through lesson applied CNP model, are creative PFA, PEA and PSA. We observed process how students find scientific problems, embody found problem and solve for themselves. And we took down or recorded communication between students or teacher and students in shorthand in order to draw out creativity elements in their communications. According to increase the number of applications, we focused in showing students' creativity acting or ability well. This observation's results analyzed with each phase of CNP model through
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discussion. And through the interview, we verified effect of CNP model from analyzing that what students changed with experiencing lesson applied CNP model repeatedly. Results and Discussion
1. Developed CNP model (1) Curious Note for CNP model development Curious Note is used for PF process. First part of this model is PF step. Students began the inquiry by using CN, CN located first and second phase in model. This is presented in Figure 3. (2) Combination IPS with SWH for CNP model development Figure 2 shows which point are elements of IPS and SWH applied for development CNP model.
Figure 2 Applied IPS and SWH in CNP model
In whole process, order of IPS as it does to make advance with, in order for the scientific self-satisfaction quest to become accomplished well. Also, it makes select in all phases and it arranges SWH Template with, with discussion, negotiation and writing that are SWH features, from each phase appropriately, it could be used in order. After model
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developing it respects the activation of discussion even real used work sheets and from each phase to make my thought, the thought of the group and the thought of class draw up it is becoming. (3) 6 phases of developed CNP model Developed CNP model is like figure 3 and composed with six phases.
Figure 3 Developed six phases of CNP model
The left side part of figure 3 is important phase of CNP models. First 'introduction' phases introductions step about CN writing , second 'Finding out question' phase is problem finding and problem recognizing step, third 'Discussion & Determination' phase is step of inquiry activity until experiment designing, fourth 'Study related theory' phase is step of data collection for modifying and complementing designed experiment, drawing a conclusion, generalizing, acquiring scientific knowledge, fifth 'Inquiry activity' phase is step of confirming before experiment, experiment executing and result analyzing. And last sixth 'Conclusion' phase is step of drawing a conclusion, generalizing and reflection. (4) Each phase’s features of CNP model First phase: Introduction · Orientation step - Introduce writing method of CN
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- First of all, it is important to discover a problem, because a CNP model is the model to solve the problem that the students discover for themselves. - Guide writing method of CN that can seek a scientific question
Second phase: Finding out question · PF step. - Guide students to solve their curiosity, which is gotten by writing CN, through inquire. · Discussion for problem selection - Students experience discussion learning to determine curiosity's verifiability through discussing in this phase.
Figure 4 Detail process of 'Finding out question' phase
Third phase: Discussion & Determination · This phase is the most difficult process to students. - Determine experiment title · hypothesis · variables and design experiment for themselves through discussion about topic that is determined in second phase. - It's important part for improvement creative PSA of scientifically gifted.
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The students are difficult in hypothesizing(Park and Kang, 2006), With the independence variables where hypothesis affects in result of actual condition there is not relation or it doesn't seeks variables relationships well(Park, 2001), the case, that it cannot seeks variables oneself well, also happens frequently. From reason of like this, the activity that happens from third phase didn't almost execute in middle and high school site actually, it is a process certainly must be executed for creative PS. Discussion & Determination phase indicated with a shade in figure 5, it expressed the progress location with D&D.
Figure 5 Location of Discussion & Determination phase
Fourth phase: Study Related Theory · Fourth phase can't find in general experiment class. · It's operated homework or middle time class that is allotted between first class and second class. · Reason of setting up phase - Before experiment, modify error on designing properly through research reference. - Research reference that need in generalize step. - Data for changing thinking and acquiring scientific knowledge in 6th phase's reflection.
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Figure 6 Location of 'Study related theory' phase
Fifth phase: Inquiry activity · First step of CNP model's second class. - Execute experiment that is determined in first class. Execute experiment to apply modified contents. · Emphasized point that is different from general class. - Confirm condition of experiment preparation and recognizing hypothesis and variables. If modified contents of experiment are existed through researched reference in 4th phase, student will reflect them. - Make students write all phenomena except related hypothesis verification - Improve observation ability. - When students analyze and converse results, without allowed frame or question, students consider what methods did students converse results. And students analyze properly through discussion, students improve their ability of making a conclusion for themselves.
Sixth phase: Conclusion · Draw up conclusion which form is of claim and reason that is gotten in 5th phase. · Experience learning process through discussion. Students experience sophistication process by discussion with conclusion of each student in group.
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· Before discussion about conclusion in class, students complement each conclusion to apply scientific theory and role by using reference that students researched in 4th phase. · Acquire scientific knowledge through method of not the cramming or memorizing but inquiring and researching for themselves.
Figure 7 Detail process of Conclusion phase 2. Developed lesson process for applying CNP model The lesson process applied CNP is same with figure 8. After executing an 'Introduction' phase from the first one model application, each one-time model application is executed not to include 1st and 4th phase from second time application. it executes second and third phases on 'discussion and designing experiment' class in first class and other it executes fifth and sixth phases on 'experiment & drawing a conclusion' class in second class. This was advanced in whole six instructions. Per week with three instruction studies, it extended at two weeks and it applied one model. The progress of the class that used CNP model is executed CNP model work sheets that are developed in this research. CNP models work sheets is attached in the appendix.
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Figure 8 Outline of Lesson process applied CNP model and question in work sheets
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3. Analysis of observation and interview Students showed creativity in PF, PE and PS process like next. In PF process, we guided students to find out their curiosity to use CN, three curiosities per one week. First applying, students are difficult in finding their curiosity because they don’t consider their environment as scientific object well. Even though students found out lots of curiosities, rarely found out scientific curiosity for the first time. But, students experienced lessons applied CNP model several times, students found out scientific curiosities more than past time. And, after several time experience lesson, original-creativecuriosities are found out more than for the first time. As simple test, before and after students were taken a lesson applied CNP model, students look at a tree and made write down occurred curiosities when they looked at tree. Number of curiosity or scientific problem which students occurred after look at tree is increased and their originality and scientific level is improved too. In PE process, Third, 'Discussion and Determination' phase is applied PEA. Students experienced process of problem recognizing through discussing with found curiosity using CN. Students set a hypothesis to have acquired problem in this process and design an experiment. At first lesson, students didn't understand hypothesis's definition exactly and didn't set a correct hypothesis. But after taking several lessons, students set variable and original hypothesis. And the case of designing experiment is same aspect with case of hypothesis. At first lesson, students wrote only 3-4 lines as experiment process. But after taking several lessons, students wrote detail experiment process and creative design as teacher is not able to think at all. In generally, PS process means to include PF and PE process, but we defined from
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executing experiment to generalizing in this study and found out creativity that is showed in this process. In PS process, students showed their creativity in their experiment modify process through related theory and knowledge that they found out. Students sometimes show the designing experiment that teacher didn't think at all. And, work sheets include empty space of writing observation as 1 page. When students write their observation, teacher guides to write not only results for verifying hypothesis but also variable observations for showing fluency. At first lesson, students didn't write observation contents except related inquiry results of them. But after taking several lessons, students wrote variable phenomenon and conditions. Furthermore, observation contents in this process are able to be another source of creative PF. And, we analyzed students' conclusion writing that is written having form of claim and reason. Writing results as form of claim and reason is one of feature of SWH applied to all of model, students write their claim with reason like experiment results. In this process, students become to write originally and with fluency for better discussion, therefore students' creativity is enhancing. Actually, at first lesson, students didn't write results clearly and their writing didn't form claim and reason properly. But after taking several lessons, students wrote clear claim related hypothesis verification and proper reason using their experiment results. Conclusion Jung et al.(2004) reported when considering the quality of the gifted students from gifted education the form of the study, that must be treated most importantly, is 'autonomous inquiry'. It was presented the lesson model that is able to help students execute autonomous inquiry, actually it is insufficient the depth deep discussion about what 'autonomous research' is and what demanded that students accomplish autonomous inquiry successfully.
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In this study, we developed Curious Note Program Teaching-Learning Model that is new teaching-learning model for scientifically gifted education. CNP model is autonomous inquiry model that students follow phases applied IPS and SWH. Students for themselves design and execute experiment about discovered problem through CN that is developed for PF and curiosity continuity and draw a conclusion. When we applied to students this model, students' creativity PFA, PEA, PSA are improved and totally scientific inquiry ability is improved. CNP model help students learn scientific methods, experience to inquire like scientist. And CNP model provides process to acquire scientific knowledge for them and enhances creative PFA, PEA and PSA. The model that presents from the research is difficult at first applying. Students spent time to adapt because they experience CNP model for the first time. Moreover most of students experience inquiry step as not only hypothesizing, controlling variables but also problem recognizing process for the first time. Because students are difficult in this, teachers may be difficult in guiding. Therefore, guides are needed how teachers guide in autonomous inquiry environment. Except CNP model, we must develop more teaching-learning model or teaching strategy that is for improving features like creativity of scientifically gifted or developing of potential ability. And when sorts of this model is developed or applied, students will experience some part for the first time. Therefore teacher's guidebook or frame for learning evaluation have to be developed and evaluating sheets to verify creativity improvement of students has to be complemented.
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Reference Adolf, J. (1982). Creative thinking through science. ED 232-785 Bandiera, M. & Bruno, C. (2006). Active/cooperative learning in schools. Journal of Biological Education, 40(3), 130-134. Betts, G. T. (2004). Fostering autonomous learners through levels of differentiation. Roeper Review, 26(4), 190-191. Bloom, B. S. (1985). Developing talent in young people. New York: Ballantine Books. Burke, K. A., Greenbowe, T. J. & Hand, B. M. (2006). Implementing the science writing heuristic in the chemistry laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education, 83(7), 1032-1038. Choi, K., Cho, Y. & Cho, D.(1998). A study for the middle school science curriculum to enhance creative problem solving abilities - Focusing on the 6th national curriculum and classroom observations - Korean Association for Science Education, 18(2), 149-160. Chun, M., Shin, Y., Lee, S. & Choe, S. (2008). Perception of the Scientifically Gifted and Long-term Effects of Science Gifted Education Program - from the Students' Perspectives. Journal of the Korean Association for Science Education, 28(3), 241-252. Chung, W., Kim, Y., Kwon, Y. & Park, Y. (2000). An Analysis on contents, evaluation and scientific thinking ability in Primary and Secondary School. ’99 winter conference of The Korea society of biology education. Incheon National University of Education. Cooper, C. R., Baum, S. M. & Neu, T. W. (2004). Developing Scientific Talent in Students with Special Needs: An Alternative Model for Identification, Curriculum, and Assessment. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 15(4), 162-169. Dewey, J. (1901). Psychology and social practice. University of Chicago contributions to education, no. 11 Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Erez, R. (2004). Freedom and Creativity: An Approach to Science Education for Excellent Page 1533
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Students and Its Realization in the Israel Arts and Science Academy's Curriculum. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 15(4), 133-140. Getzels, J. W. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The creative vision: A longitudinal study of problem finding in art. New York: John Wiley. Han, K. (2006). Current status and future prospect of gifted education programs. The Journal of the Korean society for the gifted and talented, 5(1), 109-129. Hohenshell, L. M. & Hand, B. (2006). Writing-to-learn strategies in secondary school cell biology: A mixed method study. International Journal of Science Education, 28(2-3), 261-289. Jung, H., Cho, S., Seo, H, Shin, M. & Heo, N. (2004). An Exploratory Study on the Self-Directed Research Ability of the Gifted. Korean Educational Development Institute. Requisition research CR 2004-43. Linn, M. C., Clark, D. & Slotta, J. D. (2003). WISE design for knowledge integration. Science Education, 87(4), 517-538. Linn, M. C., Slotta, J. D. & Baumgartner, E. (2000). Teaching high school science in the information age: A review of courses and technology for inquiry-based learning. Retrieved October 20, 2008, from http://www.mff.org/pubs/HSscience.pdf Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development (2007). Science curriculum. Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development Notification 2007-79 [separate volume 9] in Korea. Moore, B. (2001). Developing research skills in gifted students. In F. A. and Bean, S. M. (Eds.) Methods and materials for teaching the gifted, Karnes, TX: Prufrock Press Inc. Park, E. & Kang, S. (2006). The effects of offering similar experiences for hypothesis-generation based on abduction. Journal of the Korean Association for Science Education, 26(3), 356-366. Park, E., & Kang, S. (2007). The influence of hypothetic-deductive teaching programs on Page 1534
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creative thinking, critical thinking and scientific attitude. Journal of the Korean Association for Science Education, 27(3), 225-234. Park, J. (2001). Analysis of students' processes of generating scientific explanatory hypothesis Focused in the analysis of university students' responses - Journal of the Korean Association for Science Education, 21(3), 609-621. Roiser, M. J. & Keeves, J. P. (1991). The IEA study of science: science education and curricula in twenty-three country. N. Y.: Pergamon Press. Rudd , J. A., Greenbowe, T. J., Hand, B. M. & Legg, M. J. (2001). Using the science writing heuristic to move toward an inquiry-based laboratory curriculum: An example from physical equilibrium. Journal of Chemical Education, 78(12), 1680-1686. Shin, S. (2006). Analyzing the scientific curiosity in concern with everyday living of the middle school students recorded on the WHY NOTE. Master Dissertation, Daegu, Kyungpook National University. Treffinger, D. J. (1975). Teaching for self-directed learning: A priority for the gifted and talented. Gifted Child Quarterly, 12(1), 46-59. Treffinger, D. J., Isaksen, S. G. & Dorval, K. B. (2000). Creative problem solving: An introduction (3rd Eds.), Texas: Prufrock Press. Watters, J. J. & Diezmann, C. M. (2003). The gifted student in science: Fulfilling potential. Australian Science Teachers Journal, 49(3), 46-53. Windschitl, M. & Buttemer, H. (2000). What should the inquiry experience be for the learner? The American Biology Teacher, 62(5), 346-350. Yang, I., Jeong J., Kim, Y., Kim, M. & Cho, H. (2006a). Analyses of the Aims of Laboratory Activity, Interaction, and Inquiry Process within Laboratory Instruction in Secondary School Science. Journal of Korean Earth Science Society, 27(5), 509-520. Yang, I., Jeong, J., Hur, M., Kim, Y., Kim, J., Cho, H. & Oh, C. (2006b). An Analysis of Page 1535
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Laboratory Instructions in Elementary School Science. Journal of elementary science education, 25(3), 281-295.
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Appendix
1. Curious Note
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2. Work sheets for lesson process applied CNP models (1) Three introduction work sheets for Add number week (p.1-4) - Discussion & designing experiment
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(2) Three introduction work sheets for Even number week (p.5-9) - Experiment & drawing a conclusion
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Images on science teaching-learning
Images on science teaching-learning
Characteristics of images on science teaching-learning, depicted on science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus”: focusing on the analysis of teacher-student interactions
Sohye Park, Hee K. Chae Seoul National University
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Abstract
This study investigated the characteristics of images on science teaching-learning, depicted on the science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus.”, focusing on the analysis of teacher-student interactions. The analysis steps emerged inductively through interactions with the data on the cartoon. Every episode in “Magic School Bus” can be categorized according to the NSES content standards. Among them, six episodes were randomly chosen for analysis in detail and their class flow was charted. Discourse between the teacher and students was macrocoded and microcoded. Based on these data, interactions between the teacher and students were considered in each step of class flow. As a result, the images on science teaching-learning depicted on “Magic School Bus” were much likely to be considered in a point of constructivism. But in some aspects, there was discordance between the overall images from “Magic School Bus” and some characteristics of the teacher. That is, the role of the teacher was very trimmed and the importance of the teacher’s questions was not very weighted. Educational implications of these findings were discussed.
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Characteristics of image on science teaching-learning depicted on science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus”: focused on the analysis of teacher-student interactions
Recently, it is frequently examined to reflect the conservative approach and to perform more based on the constructivism as the need of science education reform has been discussed a lot by many researchers. Consequently, the interest about informal learning has increased at the same time while formal learning in a school has been reflected. Informal learning represents in various forms of setting such as visiting museums, astronomical observatories, science halls as well as watching science movies. Informal learning is not limited to time and locations, and produces interactions between a teacher and students as well as multiinteraction possible. However, the research on informal learning was limited to the topic of how to utilize the informal learning setting in science education. Few researchers considered how the informal learning represents or affects the conceptions of science teaching and learning although the topic matters. Conceptions of science teaching and learning perform as a frame to teach or learn, as formed by value, educational philosophy and social standards. Until now, the conceptions of science teaching and learning of a teacher and students were only investigated in school settings. However, the effect of informal learning to the conceptions cannot be eliminated due to its durability, implicitness and accessibility. Images of learning and teaching have been come to light as an important concept in science education. Images of learning might influence conceptions of learning(Lodge, 2007). In the same way, images of teaching might influence conceptions of teaching as well. Calderhead and Robson reminded us that “images of teaching could also be associated with particular conceptions of a subject or to ideas about how children learn…. Images of teaching appeared to be the ways of representing knowledge that could readily be transferred into
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actions, sometimes synthesizing quite large amounts of knowledge about teachers, children, teaching methods, and so on”(Calderhead & Robson, 1991). Why images of learning and teaching should be understood is based on the significant relevance between images and conceptions. John Berger said that “the way we see things is affected by what we know or what we believe”(Berger, 1972). Sontag has noted how visual images have determined what peoples’ attention has been directed(Sontag, 2004). Our understandings of the world are shaped by the way we see things. Through images of teaching and learning we might understand the conceptions of teachers’ and students’ roles, and we will understand better teachers’ and students’ actions in science classes. Due to the importance of images in science education, the Draw-A-Scientist-Test(DAST) developed by Chambers(1983) has been used as an instrument to get understandings of perceptions about scientists. By Finson, Beaver and Cramond(1995), the Draw-A-ScientistTest-Checklist(DAST-C) was developed to consider alternative images and facilitate ease of assessment. Consecutively, Thomas, Pedersen and Finson developed the Draw-A-ScienceTeacher-Test-Checklist(DASTT-C) “in order to determine a clearer picture of preservice teachers’ self-conceptions of themselves as science teachers “(Thomas, Pedersen, & Finson, 2001). To figure out how teachers view learning and teaching, some researchers have interviewed pre-service teachers, beginning teachers and prospective teachers. Some have asked teachers to draw themselves and to answer the questions. Some have observed their teaching performance in classes and analyzed them and compared their analysis with teachers’ selfperception as teachers (Adams & Krockover, 1997; BouJaoude, 2000; Brown & Melear, 2006; Calderhead & Robson, 1991; Haney & McArthur, 2002; Markic, Eilks, & Valanides, 2008; Simmons et al., 1999; Widodo, Duit, & Müller, 2002). They have consistently focused on the relevance between teachers’ action and beliefs or images.
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But not so many researchers have concerned about where these beliefs or images comes from. A few pointed out the image source for science teachers as school experiences. Calderhead and Robson(1991) reported that preservice teachers formed vivid images of teaching from the most negative points and positive points of several teachers they had encountered when they were students. Goodman(1988) discovered that teachers were influenced by the guiding images from past events that created intuitive screens through which new information was filtered. Goodman’s research further suggested early childhood school experiences have a significant impact on one’s professional perspectives. Others noted media sources as the image source for scientists. Song and Kim showed that the main sources of the scientists’ images which children held were shown to be ‘films’, ‘animated movies’, ‘science journals and books’, and ‘cartoons’(Song & Kim, 1999). Steinke et al. also reported that television and films were the top choice as sources of ideas for Drawa-Scientist-Test(DAST) drawings for 304 seventh grade students in three different conditional groups (Steinke et al., 2007). There is, however, still lacking in researches about how these image source work in one’s mind to sustain some images of science learning and teaching and persist them whereas many researches were conducted to apply the advantages of media programs in science classes(Cavanaugh & Cavanaugh, 2004; Donovan & Smolkin, 2002; Dubeck, 1988, 1993; Dubeck, Bruce, Schmucker, Moshier, & Boss, 1990; Dubeck, Moshier, & Boss, 2004; Saul, 2004). Here, we determined to focus on the image of science learning and teaching, described in children’s science education television program as we take the remarkable effect of television on children into consideration. Images are implicit, deeply embedded and even prolonged memories in one’s mind. Television is the instrument which not only produces vivid images prolonged but also purveys notable memories, and allows people to experience them through indirect ways. Indirect as well as vivid experiences through television might be
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piled up in one’s memory and work as one of strong image sources. Both social learning theory and the cultivation perspective suggest that the televised world can become the reality to children(Bandura, 2001; Greenberg, 1988). Social learning theory suggests that children watching television may learn attitudes, values, and behaviors depicted on screen. In particular, social learning theory suggests that identification with television characters may increase learning from television. Favorite television characters can have a substantial impact on viewers. They may shape viewers’ beliefs, attitudes, and expectations about a group or a role according to Greenberg’s “drench hypothesis”(Greenberg, 1988). In views of cultivation perspective, children’s social beliefs will be affected by the television they view(Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1994). Discussion of children and television has been limited to some specific topics. Potts and Martinez investigated the relationship between television viewing patterns and children’s beliefs about scientists and their activities(Potts & Martinez, 1994). Long et al. analyzed characters in four children’s science education television programs about gender and racial counter-stereotypes(Long, Boiarsky, & Thayer, 2001). Leaper, Hoffman and Perlman also examined the gender-stereotyped content of children’s television cartoons across four genres(Leaper, Breed, Hoffman, & Perlman, 2002). Some researched the effectiveness of science learning in use of television, film and animated cartoons. From these studies elaborated previously, it can be obviously speculated that children, who are taking or will be taking science classes and some of whom will be science teachers in future, have become accustomed to depictions and images of science learning and teaching in children’s science education television programs such as science educational cartoons. Our aim is to research the characteristics of images of science teaching-learning. We focused on interactions that comprise images. The way of interactions is the way of transferring science concepts between a teacher and students, and reflects how a teacher and
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students found science teaching and learning. Accordingly, we conducted to collect data of interactions between a teacher and students in order to have conceptions of science teaching and learning. Research questions are: What are the characteristics of the interactions between a teacher and students in the science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus”?
Sample In this study, we analyzed “Magic School Bus”(MSB), which is a science television educational cartoon. MSB is originally published as a series of children’s books from 1986 to 2006. It aimed at teaching scientific concepts to children by Joanna Cole with illustrations by Bruce Degen. In MSB, a school teacher took her eight students on field trips to teach scientific principles by a Magic School Bus. The Magic School Bus could bring them to the solar system, the earth, the human body or to any other physically inaccessible locations. The series is composed of 52 episodes of which each running time is approximately thirty minutes. The books have been adapted into a television series with the same name to be aired on PBS from 1994 to 1997, on Fox network from 1998 to 2002, currently released on DVD. It was committed as one of the best children’s TV series, taking several awards such as an outstanding performer in an animation “Lily Tomlin” by Daytime Emmy Awards in 1995, a children’s animation by Environmental Media Awards in 1995 and a nomination as an outstanding program for children or youth for three times. The reason that we chose MSB for analysis of characteristics of image on science teachinglearning is its uniqueness for giving a closer approach on science class through TV while there are only few TV shows related to science class, and MSB is highly recommended for their quality and popularity. Page 1547
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Methodology The sequence of analysis steps was not predetermined, but rather emerged inductively through interactions with the data (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The first step of data analysis consisted of the daily exposure of a sample and its transcripts, initial coding of sample and memo writing. The emphasis at this step was to extract codes from the sample by watching and simultaneously writing memos. Memos are stated as a technique to convert data into a recognizable cluster(Miles & Huberman, 1994). The second step of data analysis involved re-watching of the sample, elaborating codes in the sample and designing research steps more in detail. Coding schemes were refined through iterations of interactions with several transcripts and comparison of previous studies. Once the codes could describe all of the transcripts satisfactorily, the coding schemes were established. The third step of data analysis involved recoding all of the samples, using the final coding schemes. Overview of each analysis step is described in detail below.
Figure 1. Analysis steps Analysis steps
Unit of analysis
Codes
Step 1: Classify the sample by
Episodes
NSES contents area (physical, life,
contents area
earth and space, technology, personal, social perspectives, nature and history)
Step 2: Classify class stages
Transitions of class flow in
Before field trip, during field trip, after
episodes
field trip
Step 3: Codes type of
Statement units: the smallest
Macrocodes (narrative, informational)
statements
meaningful, codable unit
Step 4: Codes type of
Statement units
Microcodes list
Conversational interaction
Qualitative interpretation of patterns
statements Step 5: Pattern teacher-student
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interaction
between a teacher and students in each class stage
At the first step of analysis, every episode was categorized by contents area, provided by U.S National Science Education Standards (NSES) (Council, 1995) so as to narrow down the number of the analysis sample to six. It shows imbalance between the numbers of episodes in NSES contents area. Each analysis of six samples was randomly chosen from each category of NSES contents area in order to avoid quoting a particular contents area.
Figure 2. MSB episodes categorized by NSES content area NSES Contents area
Number of episodes
%
Physical science
12
23.1
Life science
23
44.2
Earth and space science
8
15.4
Technology science
4
7.7
Personal, social perspectives
3
5.8
Nature and history
2
3.8
Total
52
100.0
Figure 3. Analysis samples for each contents area No.
NSES contents area
English title
Topic
1
Physical
Plays ball
Forces
2
Life
In a beehive
Honeybees
3
Earth and space
Sees stars
Stars
4
Technology
Gets programmed
Computers
5
Personal, social
Holiday special
Recycling
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perspectives 6
Nature and history
Shows and tells
Archaeology
The second step of analysis was to classify class stages of episodes before coding scheme was applied in detail. Episodes were largely consisted of three periods of class: before-fieldtrip, during-field-trip, after-field-trip since the field trip is the major event of MSB. Afterwards, three periods of class were sub-categorized by their class flow level. The third step of analysis comprised macrocoding. It performed to distinguish narrative statements from informational statements. According to Donovan and Smolkin(2002), MSB belongs to the genre of dual purpose book, which are intended by their authors to present facts, and provide a story with a dual format of a non-narrative information book and a storybook, which allows to approach readers. Based on the fact that MSB contains both narrative and informative characteristics in the text, each sample statement was macrocoded in a narrative and informative way. The next step of analysis was to microcode every statement in sample episodes. A unit for microcoding was the statement units were the smallest meaningful codable unit of speech within a turn. Statements of only main characters such as a school science teacher and eight students were microcoded without considerations of any extra characters. In this microcoding step, eight students were viewed as one uniform student. Any discordance for macrocoding and microcoding between two analyzers has been discussed sufficiently to reach the agreement. Microcodes were extracted from the sample through inductive iteration based on Grounded theory(Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Microcodes list was elaborated via the process of comparison with the other research(Allen, 2002; Hogan, Nastasi, & Pressley, 1999). Final microcodes list used in this research was composed of 6 main categories and 32 microcodes. Main categories were conceptual statements, meta-cognitive statements, questions-queries, collaborative
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statements, strategic statements and affective statements. The conceptual statements include many forms, such as ideas, observations, guesses, hints and elaboration; for example, “Yeah! Squeezed together hard enough to make a new baby star shine. The hot gas keeps the star shining like fuel for a fire for millions and millions of years. And when the fuel finally runs out, the stars die out.” Metacognitive statements were of two types: evaluative statements that assessed students’ ideas, teacher’s ideas, task difficulty and class flow (e.g., “Okay, we’re making progress.”), and standards-based statements that reflect personal experience, purpose of class and understanding (e.g., “Excuse me, but in case you’ve forgotten – we still don’t have a present for D.A.’s birthday!”). Questions and queries category comprised only two microcodes. Questions were simple and direct requests for information (e.g., “Where’s your rock collection?”), whereas queries articulated unknowns as large issues to ponder rather than as questions for an immediate answer (e.g., “So how do we figure out what this things is if the people who used it aren’t around to tell us?”). Collaborative statements consisted of helping each other, complimenting, encouraging and stimulating others; “Over to you, Ms. Frizzle! Give them the hype while I type”, “Oh, what a splendid idea!” Strategic statements were of two types: suggesting statements that suggest methodological way and technological way on the task confronted (e.g., “What if we gather up all the leftover gas and dust and squeeze it together till it gets hot enough to shine?”), and regulatory statements that directed action on the task (e.g., “Bus, do your stuff!”). Affective statements were composed of showing pleasure, displeasure, curiosity and embarrassment (e.g., “Please, oh, please, oh, please, let this be a dream…”). Two analyzers performed the step of macrocoding and microcoding simultaneously with
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watching episodes and its script. The last step of the analysis in this research was to pattern and interpret the interaction between the teacher and the students in science classes, based on the class flow and the result of coding previously performed.
Figure 4. List of Microcodes Statement
Statement Type
Microcode
Category Conceptual
Metacognitive
Questionqueries Collaborative
Presents idea
P-Id
Presents observation
P-Ob
Presents information
P-In
Presents guess/prediction
P-GP
Presents hint
P-H
Presents summary
P-Su
Elaborates self/other
El
Repeats self/other
Rp
Evaluates students’ idea
Ev-SI
Evaluates teacher’s idea
Ev-TI
Evaluates task difficulty
Ev-TD
Evaluates class flow
Ev-CF
Reflects on personal experiences
Rf-PE
Reflects on purpose
Rf-Pp
Reflects on positive understanding
Rf-U+
Reflects on lack of understanding
Rf-U-
Presents query
P-Qy
Requests information
Rq-In
Requests help
Rq-H
Provides help
Pv-H
Stimulates others
St
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Strategic
Affective
Nonsubstantive
Others
Encourages others
En
Gives compliments
G-Cp
Suggests methodological way
Sg-M
Suggests technological way
Sg-T
Regulates action
Rg-A
Shows pleasure
Sh-Pl
Shows displeasure
Sh-Dp
Shows curiosity
Sh-Cu
Shows embarrassment
Sh-Em
Reacts agrees
R-A
Reacts disagrees
R-D
Uncodable
U-C
Result – class flow In MSB, since a filed trip is heavily emphasized, MSB is always involved in a field trip at science class. Each episode can be divided by three sections: before field trip, during field trip and after field trip. At the start of the class, a class topic popped up from the place of daily life. The cartoon has various forms such as the students’ interests, school event and usual field trip. The forms are limited to be under daily dimensional situations. The students’ curiosity or problems initiated field trips in order to give a closer look upon the topic and the teacher transferred the students to scientific and imaginary dimensions as field trips by Magic School Bus. The core of the classes in MSB is that MSB provides various imaginary but scientific background: a world without friction, a beehive, the space, a world with no recycling, inside a computer, inside a flower, Arctic region, the atmosphere, inside the human body, the desert, the rain forest and the Mesozoic age. MSB episodes often begin at a classroom but never have a science class in the classroom as usual science classes. Places chosen for a field trip Page 1553
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are practically not accessible to explore and observe for the lack of sufficient technological advancement . Likewise, places for a field trip in MSB are unrealistic due to the inaccessibility, and definitely require an extraordinary way to get approach, that is, a Magic School Bus. In the first step of the class, a field trip initiate with the students and a class goal, and places are suggested by the students as well. However, in the second step of the class, a transition occurred by a teacher. Various places for a field trip can be all labeled under the name of scientific imaginary world. In this imaginary world, the students experience and observe phenomena and objects, which are not observable in our normal daily lives. Where the students visited satisfies their scientific curiosity and solves their questions. The students play a major role in the process of approaching scientific knowledge through observation. In every field trip, the students face problems that cause them to be embarrassed and to stimulate them to suggest a solution at the same time. The students suggest a solution based on scientific knowledge they gain from their observation and experience in field trip. The unrealistic solution in the unrealistic world is examined by the teacher who knows how to handle the Magic School Bus. Afterwards, the teacher and the students come back to their daily life, which is located in a different dimension, and the students start to re-interpret the identical objects and phenomena. This daily life does not reflect the identical daily life to the students in that they have changed their point of view on the world. At the end of the class, the students discuss with other students and the teacher on what they have learned from the field trip or they present, and explain what they have got to recognize through the field trip to the third person. Through the whole procedure in MSB, the students can appraoch the new horizon of scientific daily life. Each class flow step in MSB is generally charted below.
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Figure 5. Class flow in MSB Section
Dimension
Before
Usual daily
field trip
life
Transition
During
World with
field trip
scientific
Class flow
Subject
Problems/interest/curiosity
Student
Go to the Magic School Bus!
Teacher
Observation and experience
Student
imagination Problem appears.
Understanding problems, proposing alternative plans
Student
Solve problems with MSB’s help
After
Scientific
field trip
daily life
Teacher
Explain scientific principles
Student Apply concepts to daily life
In consideration of inquiry in the national science education standards(Council, 2000), class flow in MSB has things in common. The first essential feature of an inquiry is that learners engage in scientifically-oriented questions. A topic of a field trip is supposed to provide not by the teacher, but by the students. However, there is a point of difference that
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questions posed by MSB students are either closely related not to scientific concept but only daily problems or not provided in a form of a question but only in a form of their curiosity. Furthermore, MSB learners question by themselves, but sometimes the teacher provides a question of what learners have wanted to know. In this sense, the interpretation about the question in class is quite polarized between a question provided by the teacher and another question by the students. This leads bi-polarized aspects to exist: learner self-directed and directed from teacher or material. The second essential feature of NSES is that learners can give a priority to evidences in responding to questions. This feature is lying on the variations ranging from that a learner is given data and told how to analyze to that a learner determines what constitutes evidence and collects it. However, in MSB, the students do not design labs to collect data. They observe and experience the scientific facts, which are primarily provided by the teacher using the Magic School Bus. Consequently, the learners in MSB are directed to collect certain data by limiting the world they experience. The students collect certain data by themselves for satisfying their curiosity. The third and fourth features are not separated in MSB field trips. At the time of solving problems, the students remind themselves of observations and experiences and suggest the alternative solution on the ground of their observation. The last essential feature is that learners communicate and justifies explanations. The process of communicating within the class students or with the third person is represented in MSB without the teacher’s intervention or help. The students spontaneously talk about the scientific fact and apply the concept to their reality to interpret them. In a comparison to the essential features stated by NSES, MSB learners are quite selfdirected.
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Result – coding Samples were macrocoded by narrative and informational statements since the structure of MSB context has aspects of both storytelling and providing science knowledge, same as MSB books belonging to the genre of dual purpose(Donovan & Smolkin, 2002). In six samples, both the teacher and the students had narrative statements more than informational statements. The number of statements appeared in order of during-field-trip, before-field-trip and afterfield-trip in narrative statements and informational statements respectively. But in episode number 4 and 5, the number of statements appeared in order of before-field-trip, during-fieldtrip and after-field-trip. The reason that narrative appeared apparently more than informational is that MSB was placed in the context of stories of each episode. Informational statements were concentrated on the section of during-field-trip, which covered scientific knowledge most. At the after-field-trip section, the teacher’s statements started to decrease, specifically in informational statements. Informational statements after-field-trip were usually given by the students. Each of 6 episodes has a mixed form of narrative and informational statements and does not lean toward one side. It may imply that the knowledge in the story context on MSB is a familiar to the students.
Figure 6. Macrocoding 1
Episode No.
2
3
4
5
6
T
Ss
T
Ss
T
Ss
T
Ss
T
Ss
T
Ss
Before
N
12
71
10
51
9
36
24
89
9
79
10
59
field trip
I
0
17
0
2
3
12
8
7
4
3
5
6
total
12
88
10
53
12
48
32
96
13
82
15
65
During
N
36
129
35
99
21
58
7
47
16
55
25
68
field trip
I
6
18
13
82
25
46
5
25
3
52
8
43
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total
42
147
48
181
46
104
12
72
19
107
33
111
After
N
2
16
2
4
3
20
4
33
3
42
1
41
field trip
I
0
4
0
0
0
8
3
10
1
3
0
25
total
2
20
2
4
3
28
7
43
4
45
1
66
Whole
N
50
216
47
154
33
114
35
169
28
176
36
168
episode
I
6
39
13
84
28
66
16
42
8
58
13
74
total
56
255
60
238
61
180
51
211
36
234
49
242
The result of microcoding is presented below. (see figure. 7, 8) Three sections of each class were divided in whole 6 episodes. We ranked microcodes in order of frequency and the most frequent part of students’ narrative statements appears presenting information and presenting idea. The result shows the order of frequent statements; presenting information (69), requesting information(57), presenting idea(56) and regulating action(34) before field trip; presenting idea(86), regulating action(68), and presenting idea(59) during field trip; presenting idea(35), presenting information(32) and showing pleasure(19) after field trip. Requesting information appears relatively higher in the section of before-field-trip and regulating action in the sections of during-field-trip and afterfield-trip. It shows that the students expressed their opinions and ideas with regulating or suggesting action during the classes. In addition, showing pleasure, displeasure, and embarrassment was also remarkable. The frequent part of students’ informational statements appears in order of presenting information and presenting idea. In the order of frequency of students’ informational statements, microcodes are arranged as presenting information(10), presenting query(9), requesting information(9) and presenting idea(8) before field trip, presenting observation(54), presenting idea(38), presenting information(36), presenting query(26), requesting information(17) and presenting summary(9), presenting information(6), presenting idea(5)
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and reflecting on personal experience(5). During a field trip, presenting observation is prominent. The MSB students ask questions before a field trip, and they are more likely to ask questions during a field trip. But questions after a field trip turned out to be rare. The students experience field trips with observation, reflect on the purpose of a field trip, and present a summary of what they have found through a class. In the case of the teacher’s narrative statement, regulating action(19) and presenting information(13) are frequent before-field-trip, regulating action(28), giving compliment(21), presenting information(20) and presenting idea(16) during-field-trip and giving compliment(3) after-field-trip. The most significant part of the teacher’s narrative statement is regulating action through classes. A transition of class steps takes a major role of the teacher in MSB. Presenting information and giving compliment also appears much, and giving compliments does appear specifically during-field-trip and after-field-trip in that compliments act as a feedback to the students’ idea, guess, suggestion and acts. The result of the teacher’s informational statements shows that presenting information(13) before-field-trip, presenting information(32) and presenting query(8) during-field-trip and presenting information(3) after-field-trip are remarkable. Although the teacher’s presenting information is the most prominent over the whole samples, it was limited to introduce new terms, concepts and simple explanations. Both the teacher’s infrequent question and the student’s concentration on the time of field trip can accelerate the learning process of the students in the process of observation.
Figure 7. Result of microcoding (Students) Before
Statement
During
After
Microcode Category Conceptual
P-Id
N
I
N
I
N
I
56
8
86
38
35
5
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P-Ob
8
3
11
54
1
4
P-In
69
10
59
36
32
6
P-GP
14
2
16
29
3
4
P-H
2
P-Su
1
El
Metacognitive
1 1
11
9
2
1
8
3
Rp
7
6
15
6
2
3
total
157
31
189
182
74
34
Ev-SI
2
6
1
1
1
Ev-TI
1
1
Ev-TD
1
5
2
Ev-CF
1
7
2
1
Rf-PE
7
6
5
1
1
5
12
Rf-Pp
5 3
Rf-U+
1
Rf-U-
5
1
4
1
1
total
18
2
34
23
4
9
1
26
9
Question-
P-Qy
queries
Rq-In
57
9
59
17
17
4
total
57
18
60
43
17
5
Rq-H
10
7
1
Pv-H
3
1
Collaborative
St
Strategic
1
1
1
En
1
2
1
G-Cp
3
2
4
total
17
Sg-M
8
0
Sg-T Rg-A
12
2
5
6
5
1
1 34
2
68
1 4
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1
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Affective
Nonsubstantive
Others
total
42
2
75
9
15
0
Sh-Pl
19
1
31
1
19
1
Sh-Dp
20
Sh-Cu
2
Sh-Em
14
total
55
R-A
30
R-D
10
total
40
U-C
Total
33 2
4
4
1
30
1
1
3
98
6
27
1
29
1
11
7 1
1
13
29 57
504
1
2
36
25 386
6
0 12
266
155
50
Figure 8. Result of microcoding (teacher) Before
Statement
During
After
Microcode Category Conceptual
P-Id
N
I
N
I
N
5
2
16
2
2
32
1
P-Ob P-In
2 13
13
P-GP P-H
I
20 1
5
1
4
3 1
1
2
P-Su El
Metacognitive
1
1
Rp
3
total
26
Ev-SI
5
5
1
2
17
43
36
1
Ev-TI Ev-TD Ev-CF
5
1
1
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Rf-PE Rf-Pp
1
2
9
3
Rf-U+ Rf-Utotal
6
Question-
P-Qy
queries
Rq-In
6
total
6
Collaborative
Strategic
Affective
0
1
0
0
0
8
0
Rq-H
8
1
8
9
1
Pv-H
1
1
St
5
1
En
1
2
1
G-Cp
1
21
3
total
8
0
25
2
Sg-M
2
1
5
4
Sg-T
3
1
5
Rg-A
19
1
28
4
2
total
24
3
38
8
2
Sh-Pl
3
2
1
6
0
0
10
Sh-Dp
1
Sh-Cu
1
Sh-Em
Nonsubstantive
total
3
R-A
3
0
Others Total
3
U-C
1
0
0
1
2
8
2
0
0
60
15
4
6 76
0
7
R-D total
11
4 20
142
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The result of microcoding is rearranged with consideration of statement category and without consideration of section of class. The teacher and students have the conceptual statements most. The next frequent category of the teacher’s discourse appears the strategic (e.g. “To the bus!”, “Single file!”), the collaborative and question-queries. Question-queries are inclined to a part of informational statements and not so many in comparison to the conceptual. In the part of the students’ discourse, the conceptual, the question-queries, the affective and the strategic appear in order of frequency. The fact that students’ major activity is presenting their opinions, information, and prediction is the reason that the conceptual statements are prominent. Consecutively, question-queries and affective statements are followed since MSB is involved in the science concept as well as in the story structure.
Figure 9. Frequency of each statement category (%) (teacher and student) Teacher
Statement
Students
Category
N
I
N
I
Conceptual
31.8
67.9
40.2
66.2
Metacognitive
6.9
3.6
5.4
9.1
6.0
10.7
12.8
17.7
Collaborative
16.7
2.4
3.3
0.8
Strategic
27.5
13.1
12.6
2.9
Affective
6.4
0.0
17.2
2.7
Nonsubstantive
4.7
2.4
8.5
0.5
Questionqueries
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Results – characteristics of interaction between the teacher and the students 1. Initiated by the students and chosen by the teacher According to Brooks and Brooks (1999), the first principle of Constructivism is that the class topic should have relevance with students. It does not mean that teachers should always introduce a topic in which the students are interested, but it means that they have to mediate between the students and a class topic. While Ralphie was playing baseball, Dorothy started to talk about force(7,25) and a baseball field without friction(33). Other students wanted to ignore what Dorothy was talking and continued their game, but the game stopped by the teacher’s intervention(39). The fact that the force drives things to move and stop was not attractive to every student. While only Dorothy was very much interested in it(1,3), the rest of the class was not. At this point, the teacher’s role was to mediate between two groups. Many interesting topics such as baseball game, forces, sports and friction were introduced by the students, but the time of field trip and the class topic was determined by the teacher(39,47). The teacher solved the problem by choosing ‘baseball field without friction’ which was the common interest. She stopped the baseball game and met Ralphie’s approval(48). The students presented many interests and problems. They were allowed to introduce some topics to their class and initiate the class. Then the teacher chose specific topics or situations among several interests initiated by the students. The class topic was accepted for the students as it was related to their reality.
Episode #1 1.
D: Hey you guys! Check this out! I just found out the coolest thing!!
2.
R: Dorothy Ann!! Not now! I’m one swing away from hitting my way into the record books.
3.
D: But you’ve got to see this! It’ll change your lives!!
4.
R: Whatever it is, it can’t be more important than our baseball game.
5.
D: I just finished this book! “A Child’s Garden of Physics!!”
6.
R: I’m really happy for you, D.A. We can’t wait to hear the book report. But right now, I’ve got a
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game-winning homer to hit… So if you could just get off the field. 7.
D: But Ralphie! You don’t understand! This book’s all about what gets things moving, and what makes them stop! Forces! Friction! Pushed! Pulls!
[omitted] 25.
D: Friction slows down and stops nearly every motion on earth!
26.
R: You stopped our game to tell us that?
[omitted] 31.
D: And look at this, Ralphie!! Page 97!
32.
R: Hey! It’s a baseball field!
33.
D: But it would be impossible to play normal baseball there! There’s no friction!
[omitted] 39.
F: All aboard!
40.
R: Now? But…but, Ms. Frizzle we’re in the middle of the most important competition in athe history of sports.
41.
F: Just a delay of game, Ralphie.
42.
R: Delay of game? What for?
43.
F: Field trip delay! It’s time to explore the unknown! Be adventurous, brave and bold!
[omitted] 47.
F: Don’t worry, Arnold. That’s not until next week. Today we’re going to a baseball game!!
48.
R: All right!!
(note: F represents Ms. Frizzle, who is a science teacher in MSB, other initial letters come from starting letter of each student in MSB)
This characteristic repeatedly appeared in other episode. In episode 3, Keesha insisted that she should see and confirm the stars which were suggested to buy by other students(1). Some students did not willingly accept that and some complained about them(6,8). While the students were free to explore, discuss and propose, the teacher had authority to choose the topic to make progress(7). Sometimes, the opposite opinion to a field trip was not considered(8,9).
Episode #3 1.
K: Wait a minute! Slow down! My grandma once bought a mop from the “Home Mopping Network”, and it didn’t mop! So, I’m not spending my money on anything I haven’t checked out myself!
2.
T: But, Keesha…
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3.
F: Keesha’s right, Tim! We don’t have to buy a star sight unseen!
4.
Ss: We don’t?
5.
F: To the bus!
6.
A: But what about D.A.’s party? Stop!! Wait!! I.. Uh-oh! I hate when this happens.
7.
F: I’ll give you a hand, Arnold. We’re going star shopping!
8.
A: Oh..Couldn’t we just go to the mall?
9.
(School bus changed its shape to spaceship and flew to the space)
2. Hesitated by the students and challenged by the teacher The teacher let the students be exposed to the new world, led them to compose the knowledge, and theorize by themselves based on the information given by situation. It is consistent with the point of view that constructive teachers request students to response and think about the unusual questions and they also provide the time and material for the students’ responses(Brooks & Brooks, 1999). The MSB teacher and most students, with interest, participate in field trips. Field trips are always located in a imaginary place, interesting and attractive to the students. Barzun and Philipson mentioned that it is not the contents but imagination of a teacher and students that make class interesting(Barzun & Philipson, 1991). However, the responses were revealed in different ways. In episode 1, the students hesitated to get approach the new world(2-6). The teacher was enjoying stepping on the ground without friction(1,11) and the students were impressed by her positive attitude. Then, the students felt more relief and started enjoying the situation just as game(12,16,17). Or they tried to be adapted to the situation even though they were still embarrassed(18). The teacher’s role was to expose the students to the new environment and therefore they could experience and realize a scientific concept. She did not deliver any scientific explanations before the students understood the phenomena by themselves.
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Episode #1 1.
F: (singing) Take me out of the friction, where things just slow to a stop… La la la la… This way, class!
2.
A: Something tells me I should have stayed home today.
3.
K: Who knew it winds up inside a drawing? I wonder what would happen if I tried to run…
4.
R: Whoa!!
5.
K: Not a good idea!!
6.
T: Oh, boy, is this every weird.
[omitted] 11.
F: How about a force to get you going, Dorothy Ann? Like a push!
12.
D: Whee!! Never, fear, Ralphie!! A push to the rescue!!
[omitted] 16.
C: Hey, DA, looks like Ralphie gave you the push off!
17.
D: That’s the last time I save him!
18.
A: Whew.. that was close… Oof!! Look on the bright side, Arnold. No friction, no grass stains.
Attitudes of the teacher and the students were apparently different when they confronted with a problem(1). For example, in episode 3, the students were embarrassed and afraid of an accident(2,3,5,6). In any accident, the teacher was not at a loss and acted even with interest(4). Likewise, the teacher’s calm, positive attitude with curiosity contributed to the students’ boldness and thus the students could adapt easily to new circumstances and react spontaneously.
Episode #3 1.
Computer: Warning .Warning. Due to a large ball of hot gas, we are out of control.
2.
Ss: Oh, no!!
3.
P: At my old school, we never got pulled into the boiling-hot center of a swirling cloud of dust and
gas! 4.
F: I know, Phoebe! Isn’t this fantastic? Nobody’s ever seen what we’re seeing!
5.
R: Lucky nobody..!
6.
W: What are we going to do? What are we going to do? What are we going to do?
7.
T: Unless we want to end up where all that dust and gas is, we’d better use….reverse!!
8.
Ss: It worked. We’re safe! Good one, Tim!!
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3. Questions encouraged and delayed answers Piaget stated that the first Socratic feature is the respect for intelligence in the phase of development(Piaget, 1969). Constructive teachers encourage students to think and research. Through students’ cognitive process, a teacher’s role is to help them to analyze results and understand them. A teacher respects their taking control of themselves and class , so that each student is in charge of his/her own studying. The students question, analyze data and answer the questions. Accordingly, a pursuit of the students’ question is highly valued in the constructive class.
Episode #3 1.
C: Hey, Ms. Frizzle, is our sun a star – just like all the other stars out here?
2.
F: Yep! Makes you think, doesn’t it? Computer, star chart, please. Ah, yes. Right on course. Constellation Taurus, here we come! We should be seeing the baby star right about…
As it is shown in episode 3, direct answers to the question(1) were not provided. Her response was positive about the fact that he questioned so(2). Avoiding giving a direct answer, she made a response in various forms. In episode 2, the students were talking about how and why honey was made, and asking questions continuously (1,5,8,12). However, none of the question was solved by the teacher. The teacher guided the students to have a close look(2). For the questions (5, 8, 12), she didn’t interfere in the students’ discussion. The teacher’s intervention was represented as encouragement and compliments in the script. The students’ questions and conceptconstruction were encouraged by the teacher and the teacher’s intervention was minimized during the process of the students’ concept development. The students did not point out who to answer since every question was open to everyone (1, 5, 12, 87). The question was
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encouraged and elaborated by the teacher (88) and the teacher provided the students with the material by which they could get some information (97).
Episode #2 1.
W: So is that nectar they’re upchucking into these honeycomb cells?
2.
F: Taste it and see!
3.
W: It is nectar!
4.
K: There may be nectar in that cell, but there’s honey in this one. Mmmmm.
5.
R: So where did the honey come from?
6.
C: Look at this! It looks like these bees are stirring the nectar.
7.
P: And these bees are fanning the cells with their wings.
8.
T: Nectar is thin and watery, right?
9.
R: Mmmm, but honey is thick and syrupy.
10.
T: Well… maybe the bees fan and stir the nectar to evaporate the water. That would make it thicker, wouldn’t it?
11.
F: Bee’s eye, Tim! Honey is made from thickened nectar!
12.
R: But nectar is seriously yummy as it is – why turn it into honey?
13.
K: I bet it last longer when it’s thicker – like my grandma’s strawberry preserves. Yum!
14.
F: A Bee-dazzling process, isn’t it?
[omitted] 86.
W: Wait! We can help them! We know where there’s lots of delicious nectar, remember?
87.
T: Yeah… but how do we tell them?
88.
F: beauty of a question, Tim. How would you communicate with a bee? Sting it a song? Press a
buzzer? Drop it a bee-line? 89.
T: Well, I’m not sure. Since they don’t understand words..maybe we could use some kind of sign language.
90.
F: Lets’ take chances, make mistakes, get bizzzzzyyyy!!
[omitted] 93.
P: Wait, Tim! You’ve got their attention!
94.
R: It’s like they’re waiting for you to do something.
95.
T: Yeah, but what?
96.
D: Too bad I don’t have a book on ‘Bee Communication’!
97.
F: But I do! Toss me my ‘Buzbee Bumble’s Bee Dances for Beginners’, Liz!
98.
W: Dances? You mean bees communicate by dancing?
99.
F: You better beee-lieve it!
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The teacher encouraged the students to construct the concepts actively, express their point of view and discuss about them and regulated class flow through the students’ spontaneous reaction. One thing that can get the students involved in problems and make them express their viewpoint is the teacher’s question according to the previous researches. Researchers stated that questions proposed by a teacher affect the depth of answer which the students suggest. But in MSB, it is rare to see the teacher ask a question to the students. While the students were giving shape to the problem and getting closer to the answer, the teacher’s role was far minimized.
4. Relationship of the common emotion The MSB teacher allowed the students to regulate the class flow as described in episode 2, 5 below. The purpose of the students’ talk was not to control the class flow but rather to express their feeling. However, the teacher accepted their feeling and initiated the class transition based on that the students felt the class topic more individual. The teacher emotionally communicated with her students and agreed with their suggestions in order that she would convert the place into the new world to meet the students’ requirements.
Episode #2 1.
W: Too bad we’re not one of those bees – then they’d leave us alone.
2.
F: Dynamic deduction!
3.
A: Wanda! Quick! Take it back!
4.
F: Oh, bee calm, Arnold! Wanda’s made a most bee-fitting suggestion!
Episode #5 1.
W: Just, just forget it! I wish recycling had never been invented!
2.
F: Oh, what a fascinating idea!
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3.
A: You don’t mean that, do you, Wanda?
4.
F: Mmm.. Let’s see, what’s the best way to get rid of recycling?
5.
M: Whoaa, I wouldn’t get rid of recycling if I were you, Val, uh uh. It won’t be a pretty sight.
6.
F: well pretty is as pretty does, Murph! It’s time to take chances, make mistakes and get messy!
Students’ making mistakes was not blamed but rather highly encouraged by the teacher. The learner-centered learning places a heavy emphasis on the learning with self-process.
Episode #4 1.
M: Me? Mistake? I doubt it, but there’s a first time for everything.
[omitted] 2.
M: Every minute? It’s supposed to say every day!! I…I made a mistake!
3.
F: It’s the only way to take chances and get messy!!
Making compliments to the students was also the teacher’s role. At the same time, the teacher provided information for the students.
Episode #3 1.
K: Wait a second, Tim. This is not a happy star.
2.
P: Poor thing. It look like it’s got gas.
3.
F: Very good, Phoebe! All stars have gas – that’s what they’re made of. But this two-million-year-old baby just hasn’t settled down yet. You know, its’ at the awkward age.
Conclusions This research focused on the characteristics of teacher-student interactions on the science educational television cartoon “Magic School Bus”. As a result, the class steps in MSB were categorized in three sections – before-field-trip, during-field-trip and after-field-trip – and Page 1571
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seven segments (figure 5). The characteristics of the class flow in MSB had things in common with the five essential features from NSES inquiry. The MSB students start a field trip with a problem in their daily lives and learn scientific information through observation and experience. When they face a problematic situation, the students suggest how to solve the problem based on what they have learned through the field trips. After field trips, the students summarize and present what they get to know to other students or to the third person. As a result of macrocoding, scientific information was embodied in narrative talk although the frequency was higher in the narrative statements than in the informational statements. And the informational talks concentrated in the section of during-field-trip in both cases of the teacher and the students. In the case of microcoding, the teacher’s statements were found most in the conceptual and the strategic categories while the students’ were dispersed in the conceptual, the questionqueries, the affective and the strategic categories. Based on those data, the four characteristics of interactions were interpreted by the analyzers. Firstly, the students had freedom to introduce the problems for the class and initiate them and the teacher had authority to choose the specific problem for the class. Secondly, the students had a tendency to hesitate to overcome the problems whereas the teacher challenged the students. Thirdly, the students were encouraged to ask the questions but the teacher did not usually answer them directly and immediately. And fourthly, the MSB teacher and the students had emotional communication with the teacher’s positive feedback to the students such as agreements, compliments and encouragements. Through this analysis of interactions, it is found that MSB was closely related to the constructive science class. Learning and teaching was balanced and the students and the teacher cooperated to accomplish the goal. The students’ opinions were accepted to regulate the class flow based on the belief that the students are the thinkers to make the theories on the
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world and the phenomena. And the students were collaborative to solve the mutual problem. However, the teacher’s questions were insufficient and limited because the students’ performance was further emphasized.
Implications The implications of this research can be discussed in three ways – the research about the potential effect of images on science educational television cartoon, the provision of the constructive science classes and the provision of the research method of science educational televised programs. Firstly, it can be viewed that how science educational television cartoon potentially affect students’ conception of science teaching-learning. The images depicted on the televised program might be an acknowledgement of what is learning and teaching science as well as a model proposed by media. Presently, the researches on the conceptions of science teachinglearning were limited to the teacher and the students’ viewpoints while they may be distinguished from the point of media’s view. Secondly, the practical images of the constructive science classes can be provided for the teachers. Many teachers want to be constructive rather than conservative. However some teachers appeal heir difficulties and some teachers are evaluated not as constructive teachers even though they are satisfied with their classes. It seems that they do not understand what the constructive class really means and do not embody the mental images of the reformed science classes. This research has a possibility to provide the actual image and therefore it can build helpful criteria for teachers to compare with. Thirdly, it also provides the research methodology for the science educational televised programs. Previous researches only focused on the issue of gender and race. Accordingly, the
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science educational television programs rarely approached in a qualitative way. Through this reaction, how to conduct research can be discussed more. The limitation of this research is that the result cannot be generalized due to the small sample collection, and analyzer’s subjectivity cannot be eliminated. It is suggested that the successive research should be developed in the analysis of interactions described in many television programs with the comparison of the conceptions of science learning and teaching in the primary schools.
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References Adams, P., & Krockover, G. (1997). Beginning science teacher cognition and its origins in the preservice secondary science teacher program. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(6), 633-653. Allen, S. (2002). Looking for learning in visitor talk: A methodological exploration. Learning conversations in museums, 259-303. Bandura, A. (2001). Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication. Media Psychology, 3(3), 265-299. Barzun, J., & Philipson, M. (1991). Begin here: The forgotten conditions of teaching and learning: University of Chicago Press Chicago. Berger, J. (1972). Ways of Seeing: Based on the BBC Television Series with John Berger: British Broadcasting Corporation. BouJaoude, S. (2000). Conceptions of Science Teaching Revealed by Metaphors and by Answers to Open-Ended Questions. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 11(2), 173-186. Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1999). In Search of Understanding. The Case for Constructivist Classrooms.[Revised.]. Brown, S., & Melear, C. (2006). Investigation of secondary science teachers beliefs and practices after authentic inquiry-based experiences. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(9), 938. Calderhead, J., & Robson, M. (1991). Images of teaching: Student teachers’ early conceptions of classroom practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 7(1), 1-8. Cavanaugh, T., & Cavanaugh, C. (2004). Teach Science with Science Fiction Films: A Guide for Teachers and Library Media Specialists: Linworth Pub.
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Chambers, D. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The draw-a-scientist test. Science Education, 67(2), 255-265. Council, N. R. (1995). National science education standards: National Academy Press Washington, DC. Council, N. R. (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Donovan, C., & Smolkin, L. (2002). Considering Genre, Content, and Visual Features in the Selection of Trade Books for Science Instruction. Reading Teacher, 55(6), 502-520. Dubeck, L. (1988). Science in Cinema. Teaching Science Fact through Science Fiction Films. Dubeck, L. (1993). Finding the Facts in Science Fiction Films. Science Teacher, 60(4), 46-48. Dubeck, L., Bruce, M., Schmucker, J., Moshier, S., & Boss, J. (1990). Science fiction aids science teaching. The Physics Teacher, 28, 316. Dubeck, L., Moshier, S., & Boss, J. (2004). Fantastic voyages: learning science through science fiction films: Springer. Finson, K. (1995). Development and Field Test of a Checklist for the Draw-a-Scientist Test. School Science and Mathematics, 95(4), 195-205. Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television: The cultivation perspective. Media effects: Advances in theory and research, 17-41. Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Aldine de Gruyter New York. Goodman, J. (1988). Constructing a Practical Philosophy of Teaching: A Study of Preservice Teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(2), 121-137. Greenberg, B. (1988). Some uncommon television images and the drench hypothesis. Television as a social issue, 88?102. Haney, J., & McArthur, J. (2002). Four case studies of prospective science teachers' beliefs
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concerning constructivist teaching practices. Science Education, 86(6), 783-802. Hogan, K., Nastasi, B., & Pressley, M. (1999). Discourse Patterns and Collaborative Scientific Reasoning in Peer and Teacher-Guided Discussions. Cognition and Instruction, 17(4), 379-432. Leaper, C., Breed, L., Hoffman, L., & Perlman, C. (2002). Variations in the GenderStereotyped Content of Children's Television Cartoons Across Genres. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(8), 1653-1662. Lodge, C. (2007). Regarding learning: Children’s drawings of learning in the classroom. Learning Environments Research, 10(2), 145-156. Long, M., Boiarsky, G., & Thayer, G. (2001). Gender and racial counter-stereotypes in science education television: A content analysis. Public Understanding of Science, 10(3), 255. Markic, S., Eilks, I., & Valanides, N. (2008). Developing a Tool to Evaluate Differences in Beliefs About Science Teaching and Learning Among Freshman Science Student Teachers from Different Science. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 4(2), 109-120. Miles, M., & Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook: Sage Pubns. Piaget, J. (1969). The mechanisms of perception: Basic Books. Potts, R., & Martinez, I. (1994). Television viewing and children's beliefs about scientists. Journal of applied developmental psychology, 15(2), 287-300. Saul, W. (2004). Crossing Borders in Literacy and Science Instruction: Perspectives on Theory and Practice: International Reading Association. Simmons, P., Emory, A., Carter, T., Coker, T., Finnegan, B., Crockett, D., et al. (1999). Beginning Teachers: Beliefs and Classroom Actions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(8), 930-954.
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Song, J., & Kim, K. (1999). How Korean students see scientists: the images of the scientist. International Journal of Science Education, 21(9), 957-977. Sontag, S. (2004). Regarding the Pain of Others: Picador USA. Steinke, J., Lapinski, M., Crocker, N., Zietsman-Thomas, A., Williams, Y., Evergreen, S., et al. (2007). Assessing Media Influences on Middle School Aged Children's Perceptions of Women in Science Using the Draw-A-Scientist Test (DAST). Science Communication, 29(1), 35. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory: Sage Publications Inc. Thomas, J., Pedersen, J., & Finson, K. (2001). Validating the Draw-A-Science-Teacher-Test Checklist (DASTT-C): Exploring Mental Models and Teacher Beliefs. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 12(4), 295-310. Widodo, A., Duit, R., & Müller, C. (2002). Constructivist views of teaching and learning in practice: Teachers’ views and classroom behaviour.
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Creativity Methodology
Running head: CREATIVITY METHODOLOGY
Creativity Methodologies in performing scientific experiments
Phu Chi Hoa (1), Pham Hong Quy (2), Bui Tuan Anh (3)
(1)
University of Dalat, (2) Yersin University of Dalat, (3) Binh Dinh Department of Education
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Abstract After Agriculture, Industry and Information Technology, Creativity Methodology is a scientific subject as a “fourth wave” in expanding human’s thoughts. On the other hand, creativity methodology stresses the role of the creative thinking in the XXI century. In Viet Nam, the Department of Education is in the process of innovating the content and the method of learning and teaching. The creations and the performances of all scientific experiments in accordance with curriculums are encouraged. However, the role of physical experiments is limited by practicability. A teacher is a creative educator. In this paper, basing on TRIZ creativity methodology, we propose some solutions and experiments in order to replace several complex experiments which are difficult to do. These experiments are simple, accurate, easy doing and they can achieve the objectives successfully.
Keywords: TRIZ, the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (Теория решения изобретательских задач)
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Creativity Methodologies in performing scientific experiments
Introduction Physics experiments in these days are not very effective due to many reasons: the lack of laboratory equipments, experiments in textbooks are poorly created, many of them are difficult to perform and do not guarantee to succeed. To overcome these difficulties, teachers must be more creative. Therefore, instead of performing complex experiments, teachers should look for more simple and accurate solutions to successfully achieve their purposes. Content TRIZ is the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving and a creativity methodology which can provide technical methods to solve many different problems satisfactorily. So, it is very suitable for teaching and learning science subjects. (Atshuller,1994) Teachers can apply TRIZ to design feasible experiments that are in accordance with practical conditions. This contributes to improve the quality of teaching physics in schools. TRIZ was developed in Russia by Genrikh Saulovich Altshuller in 1946. It has been evolving ever since. From 1991, TRIZ has been widespread in The West, America. Nowadays, many schools in America, England, French, Japan, Korea and Singapore apply TRIZ in curriculums. In Vietnam, TRIZ had been popularized quite early and many universities have applied TRIZ in syllabuses. The center where has arranged many activities about Creativity Methodology is the center for scientific and technical creativity (CSTC) in Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCM) ( Phan, 2005). The basic premise of TRIZ is technical systems governed by certain objective laws. They were discovered and used to solve a problem with a sense of invention. TRIZ is built as
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The meaning of TRIZ and ARIZ orient to the solution in the shortest way which is based on the developed law of technical systems and programs using in succession .This links to four factors: psychology, logic, knowledge and imagination. TRIZ is used in combination with other methods to power up your mind (Bill, 2002). This creates synthetic tools and has strong validity to impact on the development of technology.
Applying TRIZ in performing physical experiments Physics is a science subject that helps human to aware of natural world. Physics is an experimental science. Almost all physical laws are set up and checked by collecting and comparing experimental data. Laws constructed by pure theory only have real significance when they are confirmed by experimental physics. Therefore, conducting experiments is very important in learning and researching physics (Halliday, 2005). Among all commonly cognitive methods are used in senior high schools, physical experiment plays an important role. In reality, some experiments in textbook are complex, difficult to perform. So teachers and students don’t have enough condition to perform them. The main reason in that problem is that these experiments contain some contradictions such as the contradiction between reality equipment and necessary equipment, necessary time and time permitting, the ideal conditions and specific conditions in the classroom, the requirements of accurate results and the relative results... To construct a feasible experiment like the research process, Inventive Problem Solving finds a suitably technical solution. In this case, we use the tools of TRIZ to have
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logical thought and to improve existing systems in accordance with practical conditions in order to apply in education (Marsh, 2002). Here are plans about some simple experiments designed by applying TRIZ: The experiment illustrates Archimedes’s law in liquid Experiment’s purpose: Illustrate the dependence of propulsive force on occupied liquid’s volume by increasing or reducing the volume of the object. Practical difficulties: - Quantitative testing in textbook has not made clear the dependence of Archimedes’s propulsive force on the occupied volume. - Performing experiments often have to use multiple materials with different volumes, so the task is complex, takes time. - Because value of Archimedes’s propulsive force is very small, it is difficult to observe the results when we use dynamometer to measure. Solving problems by TRIZ: - Use a balloon connected to an air pump. Use this pump to vary the volume of the ball. - Hang a heavy object in balance with the ball. Mark the position of heavy object by laser pen to identify the change of Archimedes’s propulsive force when the ball’s volume changes (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: The experiment illustrates Archimedes’s law in liquid
The experiment proves that sound transmission is not in vacuum. Experiment’s purpose: Prove that the less air density is, the less sound is transmitted. Sound does not transmit in vacuum. Practical difficulties: To conduct this experiment, air density needs to be reduced by a vacuum pump to create a vacuum environment. But in fact, the majority of schools do not have this facility.
Figure 2: The experiment proves that
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Solving problems by TRIZ: Use a syringe sealed as a vacuum pump to perform experiment simply. When pulling up the piston, the air density in piston will reduce nearly as vacuum (Figure 2). . Put a sound source inside the syringe to generate sound. Listen to the generated sound when changing the piston’s position to consider sound transmission in vacuum (relatively). The experiment demonstrates an interference phenomenon of light Experiment’s purpose:
Figure 3.The experiment demonstrates an
Prove the coherent interference of two light waves. Let students see the image of interference on screen in different cases. Practical difficulties: If we perform as Young’s experiment in textbook, it is very difficult to arrange for students to experiment and observe the result. In fact, this experiment is rarely successful. Solving the problem by TRIZ: - Use a laser pen (with small lighting hole) as a monochromatic light source to create a monochromatic beam of red light.
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- Use a length of thin copper wire which is stretched to split the beam of red laser light into two interference beams. Put the screen behind a copper wire to observe the image of interference (Figure 3). . The experiment proves the interaction force of two wires carrying electric current Experiment’s purpose:
Figure 4: The experiment
proves the interaction force of two wires carrying electric current Demonstrate the interaction between two parallel electric wires in all cases that electric currents have different dimensions. Let students observe clearly and see how the phenomenon occurs. Practical difficulties: The force intensity of interaction force between two wires carrying current is very small. Therefore, to observe how the phenomenon occurs, wires must be thin, light, elastic and the current intensity in each wire must be large enough. In fact, it is very difficult to find these wires. When conducting this experiment, it is difficult for students to realize the dimension of electric current in each wire. So, they can not understand clearly about the relationship between the dimension of interaction force and the dimension of electric current in two wires.
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Solving the problem by TRIZ: - Aluminum leafs wrapped in capacitor of the mouse (stacte) in fluorescent lamps are used as electric wire. - Thin bronze springs are put at two tips of each wire to increase the elasticity of the wires. - Take one tip outside of each wire connect to the source, add LED with different colors to identify the dimension in electric current in each wire (Figure 4). Conclusions When applying TRIZ, we have achieved certain results. We design some feasible experiments and overcome many practical difficulties to conduct these experiments effectively. Under the present circumstances, we believe that physical teachers can research and apply TRIZ to find creative solutions, overcome the practical difficulties, contribute to improve the quality of teaching and learning physics in schools.
References Altshuller,G.(1994). The Art of Inventing ( And Suddenly the Inventor Appeared). Technical Innovation Center. Altshuller,G.(1999). The Innovation Algorithm.Technical Innovation Center. Bill, L. (2002). Power Up Your Mind: Learn faster, work smarter. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Halliday, D., & Resnik, R. (2005). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Marsh, D ., Waters, F., & Mann, D. (2002). 40 Inventive Principles with Applications in Education. The TRIZ Journal. Phan, D. (2005). Scientific and technical Creativity Methodology. Solve problem then make decision.TSK, Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCM). Page 1587
Quick Time Measurement
Running head: QUICK TIME MEASURING METHOD IN VIETNAM PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT
Creating Real Experiments in Teaching Scientific Subjects
Phu Chi Hoa, Pham Hong Quy, and Pham Viet Thang University of Dalat, Yersin University of Dalat, Binh Dinh Department of Education
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Abstract The explosion of information technology as well as the technique for the microelectronic all over the world has been helping educators to apply scientific achievements in teaching advantageously. The method of measuring quick time of doing real experiments is a topical problem. My paper is about the creations of some experiments. They are performed by using a precise time measurement system owing to vibratory units or sensor. These experiments are built from mechanical system to electronic circuits and circuits interfacing with computer. All softwares control experiments by using computer’s program. Then, the data is collected and processed. At last, the results are displayed as required. These real experiments are very useful in the process of comprehending physical knowledge. An example of real experiments is the discovery of gravitational accelerator. It is discovered by researching free fall and harmonic oscillation of simple pendulum.
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Creating Real Experiments in Teaching Scientific Subjects Introduction Physics is an experimental science and plays an important role in creation of scientific thoughts. But many schools in Vietnam lack of laboratory equipments, one of the important factor to help students in acquiring physic lessons (Nguyen, et al, 1999). Although physical experiment software is convenient, it cannot replace the role of real experiments in physics learning and teaching. Therefore, the design of experiments with high accuracy is essential to observe physical phenomena easily and to increase the reliability of received data. The support of microelectronics technology and information technology in setting up real experiments will satisfy our requirements in high fidelity (Ngo, 2000). This paper focuses in the survey and construction of several real experiments in General Physics syllabus to support physics teaching and learning. Doing real experiments helps us to measure the very quick time in some physics phenomena and concurrently, we use the determined time to calculate related parameter through established formulas. Content Today, in the trend of innovation in education, more and more laboratory equipments are interested in. However, the accuracy and durability of many experiments did not fulfill the requirement of teaching and doing research. Because experimental errors exceed the set of standard, they lead to inaccurate result in measuring and cannot reflect the phenomena and laws correctly. This makes student doubt about the result. Because some imported experiments have high cost, they cannot be equipped to all (Nguyen, et al, 1999). Real experiment designed in this paper satisfy a need in teaching, learning and doing research by using common materials with reasonable price. The process of conducting
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General Principles to Perform a Connection Between Real Experiment and Computer Measured
Sensor
Microcontroller
Computer
object
Figure 1: Experimental diagram of microcontroller system and computer
Measured object is a physical quantity specific for the system and changing with the status of the system (Tong & Hoang, 2001). Sensor collects measured data on object, changes non-electrical quantities into electrical signals (Tong & Hoang, 2001). Microcontroller receives and processes signals from the output of the sensor to computer and receives commands control from the computer to control the process of experiment (Tong & Hoang, 2001). Computer receives and processes information submitted by the microcontroller (Tong & Hoang, 2001). General Structure of the Designed Experiment Hardware Hardware include mechanical system, electronic circuits and computer. Electronic circuits are used in the experiments including following main parts: Sensor: each sensor is designed from two diodes arranged opposite each other. An Photodiode and a LED (Light Emitting Diode). Normally, photodiodes always receive the
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Quick Time Measurement
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Connection interface with computer: this experiment is connected to computer by RS232 port. The interface circuit used chip Max232, port D-9 (COM1). The interface diagram connected to computer by RS-232 port is described in figure 3.
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Quick Time Measurement
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Figure 3: Data connection interface with computer by RS-232 port Control circuit: Microcontroller used in this experiment is AT89S52. Software for AT89S52 is written by assembly language, the assembly language compiler is Keil uVision2. The software was loaded into the microcontroller in the circuit by ProLoad4.1 Sunrom. 5V 5V
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Quick Time Measurement
The power: equipments and components in electronic circuits operate at direct voltage from 5V to 12V. Power supply circuit performs the function of the voltage conversion alternating voltage 220V to direct voltage (from 5V to 12V). The circuit includes transformer, diode bridges and stabilized voltage source. 1000 1
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Figure 5: Power supplying circuit diagram for microcontroller Software There are two softwares in microcontrollers and computer. Software for microcontrollers was written by assembly language. Software for computer was written by Visual Basic. As the principles and general structure above, the technology of time measurement took place rapidly in physical phenomena, we designed and built the following experiments: o Free fall experiment, measures the acceleration of gravity by time measuring device. o Experiment surveys uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion by Atwood machine. o Experiment tests the viscosity coefficient of liquid by Stokes method. o Experiment measures the acceleration of gravity by mathematical pendulum. o Experiment surveys harmonic vibration of spring on air cushion. o Equipment measures time in experiment surveying motion of Maxwell wheel.
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Quick Time Measurement
In this paper, we presents specific about free-fall experiment, measures the acceleration of gravity by time measuring device. Free Fall Experiment The purpose of this experiment is to survey a process of falling objects near the ground in condition of ignoring factors such as the air resistance force, and influence of wind. This experiment will be calculated the acceleration of gravity at location position on the ground by the existing formula using falling time and falling distance of the object. Experiment will demonstrate the process of falling object is a uniformly accelerated motion. The whole process of free-fall experiment is controlled automatically by a computer through the microcontroller system. Structures of hardware and software programs of this experiment are presented below: Hardware Hardware include an 2cm diameter iron ball and an electromagnet to keep the ball. Ball stand is designed with four steel bars 1.6 m in length, with wide sole to keep balance. Six sensors are arranged on two bars. In this experiment, we used an electromagnet and a direct current motor to bring the ball from the ground to necessary altitude. The direct current motor is attached on the top of the stand. Rotation axis of the motor is connected to the electromagnets by a non-slacken string. Electromagnet can move easily up and down along the stand with a slide bar. On the sole of stand, we put a box to catch the ball not flying away. Electronic circuits include microcontroller, powers that supply for the circuit, for electromagnet and for direct current motor, interface connection with computers and other support components. Hardware structure of this experiment is presented in Figure 6.
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Figure 6: Hardware structure of free fall experiment Procedures At first, the ball is in the box. Then electromagnet moves down and gets the ball. When electronic control device receives “start” command sent by the computer, the process of experiment will take place. The microcontroller is predetermined a delay time enough to pull the electromagnet up to the top of the stand and wait for the ball is in steady state at necessary altitude, then electromagnets is interrupt that make the ball falling down and the measurement process that started. The timer counter will be automatically turns to measure the falling time of the ball between two sensors. Everytime the ball interrupted infrared ray emitted by the LED, the
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Quick Time Measurement
time data is sent to computer. To detect some common errors may occur in the process of experiment (such as the stand is inclined, the ball fall down before up to the top or the electromagnet does not attract the ball). When errors occur, on interface screen will appear an error messages such as: “The system is not balance" or "no ball". After displaying the error message on the computer screen, the entire system will be reset back to the standard initial state and ready for the next measure. “No ball” error will be detected when the magnet was pulling up to the highest position, but photodiode still receive the infrared signals emitted from the LED. If the ball’s stand is not balance, the ball will not interrupt infrared ray emitted by the LED of the lowest position during the falling. Therefore, the measuring process will not occur. To detect and eliminate this error, software programs will be based on the maximum time the ball falling from the first position sensor (the highest position) until passing the last sensor (position lowest): If the sensor in the lowest position receives signals in the allowed time (the period time the ball drop from the first sensor to last sensor less than or equal maximum time), then the process of experiment occurs normally (the system was balance) If the limit time is end but the last sensor is not received signals so means that the system has been tilted so ball cannot pass through the location of the last sensor, so the microcontroller will send error message and reset the system.
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Quick Time Measurement
Figure 7: Real experiment of free fall Comments and Conclusions In the current development trend, in order to keep up with the development of the world, the investment in renovating education and training is an essential work. Therefore, experiments presented in this paper are an effective application. They apply the advanced technologies in the process of teaching and learning to overcome above disadvantages. These real experiments are designed from hardware to software. Electronic circuits are designed independently to the mechanical system. So, each circuit can be used to measure the same kind quantity in many different experiments. If these set of real experiments are produced with large amount, they will be very convenient for learning and they have significance for science with high economic value.
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Quick Time Measurement
Moreover, they are pedagogical, aesthetic and scientific. Especially these real experiments have high fidelity and they can overcome the difficulties in laboratory equipment to improve training quality. The explosion of information and electronic technology on over the world has reduced the price of computers and electronic components. With the economic situation in Vietnam, this fact creates favorable conditions for applying advanced technology to teaching and learning at school. Hope that this paper will contribute to the renovation of education with a view to improve the educational quality and efficiency, to fulfill the requirement and essential demands of the whole society.
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References Halliday, D., & Resnik, R. (2005). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Ngo, D. T. (2000). Measurement and control by computer. Science and technology Publishers. Nguyen, D. T., Nguyen, N. H., & Pham, X. Q. (1999). Physic teaching method in high school. Education University Publisher. Tong, V. O., & Hoang D. H. (2001). 8051 Micro Controller. Labor and Social Publishers. Tran Q. V. (2003). Hardware principle and computer connected technology. Educational Publishers.
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Using a T5 Instructional Design Model in the Large-Enrolment Biology Classes: Method to Promote Cooperative Learning in an Undergraduate Study
Supaporn Porntrai Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Ubon Rajathanee University, Thailand, 34190 E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT Lecture-based teaching style is commonly used in any undergraduate teaching at the university around the country including Ubon Rajathanee University. Although student’s ratings of those lecture-based courses and instructors were high because they were just enjoyed listening to their teachers, most of the students did not qualify to proceed in any advance courses. In addition, the students do not get enough change to work as a group, share the idea, as well as develop their critical thinking skills. To promote all of these meaningful learning, the Faculty of Science, Ubon Rajathanee University implemented an instructional design model called T5 to provide a shared campus-wide vocabulary for active learning online. The model is embedded as a gateway to existing learning management systems; the model promotes the creation of a learning environment with a collaborative-constructivist approach to online learning integrated with discussion-based lecture. In this paper, I describe the components of T5 instructional design model, how the model promotes an integrated instructional approach and how this model fit into the large biology class, as well as the integrating of T5-based learning with the discussion-based lecture. In addition, I describe how students responded to this learning model, how the model cultivated cooperative
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learning and helped students learned better, as well as the using of T5 instructional learning model small and non-available internet classes. Keywords: T5 instructional Design Model, Biology, Undergraduate Study, Cooperative Learning
1. INTRODUCTION Most people would agree that one of the best formats for teaching is one-to-one interaction between an instructor and student. In this setting, continuous feedback is possible, enabling the student to work at his/her own pace and level and for the instructor to tailor the lesson to each student’s individual needs. Close interaction with the instructor also helps to engage students and encourages them to become an active partner in the learning process (Bloom, 1984). Unfortunately, large-format introductory-level science classes are a fact of life at many colleges and universities. This circumstance prevails due to resource limitations, not for sound pedagogical reasons based on how people learn (Bransford et al., 2000). Students in such classes, assuming they are present and alert, often sit passively, listen to the instructor, and perhaps take notes. However, even when students sit passively in a lecture, for learning to occur they must be mentally active selectively taking in and attending to information, and connecting and comparing it with prior knowledge and additional incoming information in an attempt to make sense of what is being received. Encouraging these meta-cognitive acts is challenging in large classes. Cooper and Robinson (2000) write, “It is a sad commentary on our universities that the least engaging class sizes and the least engaging pedagogy is foisted upon the students at the most pivotal time of their undergraduate careers: when they are beginning college”. Therefore, a significant challenge facing many instructors today is how to help students learn in situations where it is not possible to interact with them on an individual
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level. One partial solution to this dilemma that has grown in prominence over the past few decades is the use of cooperative learning strategies. Cooperative learning encompasses a variety of approaches that encourage students to work together in small groups to achieve success rather than compete for a grade. Collaborating in this manner encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning and provides a nonthreatening environment in which they can receive help from their peers. Students who provide help to others actually clarify their own knowledge of the concepts they are trying to explain and construct a more elaborate and sophisticated understanding of the material themselves. Conversely, the students who receive individualized attention fill in gaps in their knowledge and correct their misconceptions. When explaining a concept, students may also use terms or examples that differ from the instructor’s and that other students may find more familiar. Lastly, cooperative learning can make large classes less impersonal and can increase participation, especially by quieter students. Increased participation can, in turn, help the instructor identify those topics that need further exploration (Lord, 1994; Cooper, 1995; Webb et al., 1995; Johnson et al., 1995). A good learning environment requires opportunities for interaction and feedback (Chickering and Ehrmann, 1996). Cognitive theorists describe how discussion and feedback promote learning through cognitive dissonance (Piaget, 1954; Festinger, 1964) as students confront and discuss conflicting opinions with peers. Many learning theories, such as constructivism, socially shared cognition and distributed learning theory, support the view that student learning is enhanced through opportunities to work collaboratively. Cognitive researchers today commonly test and refine these theories in classroom settings with important implications for educators (Bransford et al., 2001). The results of a meta-analysis of 122 studies involving 11,317 learners supported the benefit of online interactions to promote learning within a social context. However, historically, the most common use of
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computers by students is for individual work (Lou et al., 2001). The potential of computer technology to enhance learning outcomes will not be maximized without careful consideration of empirical research on learning and application of these principles to the design of the online learning environment. Most research examining cooperative learning and achievement in science courses has examined the effectiveness of this strategy in relatively small classes (≤100 students). Few studies have looked at large university courses that can enrol hundreds of students in a single section. Furthermore, schools that have used cooperative learning in large classes have often relied on time and additional classroom support (Posner and Markstein, 1994; Klionsky, 1998; Udovic et al., 2002; Anderson et al., 2005). Unfortunately, many schools do not have the resources to hire additional personnel. Also, although cooperative learning had a positive impact on student learning in these studies, it cannot be ruled out that students may have performed better in these classes, in part, because of the additional resources and time that were available. The T5 model was developed as an approach to instructional design that emphasizes Tasks (learning tasks with deliverables and feedback), Tools (for students to produce the deliverables associated with the tasks), Tutorials (online support/feedback for the tasks, integrated with the tasks), Topics (content resources to support the activities) and Teamwork (role definitions and online supports for collaborative work). Learning tasks require students to engage with the course content to produce a deliverable artifact. The deliverables and feedback to these deliverables are the primary vehicles for learning. The guiding principles, in the design of the T5 model, include flexibility to allow for re-use of the many learning objects, defined as any digital resource that can be re-used to support learning (Wiley, 2000), that have been developed and can be incorporated into the model. The development of learning objects and digital repositories is expanding. As new learning management systems
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are developed, a consideration of how new technologies can facilitate the sharing of resources is an important element. The study reported here investigated the use of T5 instructional design model as a mechanism for encouraging students in cooperative learning in a very large course (≥200 students per section). I hypothesized that the T5 model would improve students’ appreciation and understanding in learning biology.
2. MATERIALS ANS METHODS
2.1 Participants and Classroom Setting All of the participants in the study were enrolled in an Introductory Biology II and Biology II courses taught in the second semester of 2008. The goal for this course is for students to develop a conceptual understanding of basic biology and to be able to apply their understanding to solve biological questions. Topics covered during the study included animal tissue, digestive system, circulatory system, and muscular system. The Introductory Biology II is designed for non-science majors and Biology II is designed for science majors. From previous surveys, I know that the vast majority of students who take the class do so primarily to meet a university graduation requirement. All of the students (100%) were in their first 1 yr of study. Each course had an initial enrolment of more than 240 students. During the semester, the courses met for three 50-min sessions per week. All lecture sections met in the same classroom equipped with stadium-style seating. Approximately two-thirds of the students in the lecture portion of the courses also enrolled in an optional 3-h weekly laboratory section. On the first day of class, the researchers explained the goals of the study to the students and requested their participation.
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2.2 Classroom Instruction and Activities At the beginning of this study, students participated in learning the concept of T5 model and learned how to use the D4L+P. They were required to register in the system to use as a gateway for their self and cooperative learning. Two learning environments (digestive system, and muscular system) were applied for students to works on 4 tasks for each LE: Task 1is an individual work, Task 2 is peer review and feedback, Task 3 is peer feedback. And Task 4 is team task where students have to work in group to finish the learning environment. At the end of each learning environment instructor met with the students to discuss and/or answer students’ questions.
2.3 Assessment of Content Learning We examined the relative impacts of discussion-based lecture and cooperative learning approaches on student learning using the sections of the course taught in the second semester of 2008. To examine whether the cooperative learning and discussion-based lecture sections were equivalent before the study, the students were given a survey at the beginning of the semester asking them to provide demographic information regarding their gender, selfreported grade point average (GPA), and previous college science courses taken. Student achievement was measured in two ways: 1) individual performance on in-class exams, and 2) individual performance on a cumulative midterm and final exam.
2.4 Student Attendance and Perception To determine if the instructional method used affected classroom attendance, we photographed the sections taught during the semester. In addition, students’ participations in using D4L+P were counted. At the end of the semester, numerous favourable comments
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from the questionnaire were received regarding the instructional approach used in the cooperative learning sections.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Difference before the study No significant difference was seen between the discussion-based lecture and cooperative learning approaches using T5 model in regards to their performance on the pretest, indicating that students in the different sections had similar levels of biology knowledge at the beginning of the class. The individual sections did differ somewhat in regards to their gender ratios. Students in the Biology II course took slightly more science courses than those in the Introductory Biology II course before this study, but the two groups did not differ significantly.
3.2 Student Performance Student performance on questions demonstrating comprehension of course material was significantly affected by the Instructor. Sections taught by discussion-based lecture tended to have higher scores on conceptual questions than sections taught by cooperative learning approaches using T5 model. In addition, there was a significant interactive effect between Instructor and Experimental Treatment for three of the five performance measures examined. More specifically, the control section taught by instructor 1 performed significantly worse than the treatment section on the final exam as well as on questions requiring factual knowledge and comprehension. The reverse trend was seen for these measures in the treatment and control sections taught by instructor 2 though the differences between these two sections were not significant. When we compared the final exam and pretest scores, we
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found that students in the cooperative learning sections showed significantly more improvement than students in the control sections. On average, the control sections showed a 44.7% improvement in score, whereas the treatment sections improved by 47.6%. This effect was consistent across instructors as indicated by a non-significant interaction between the instructor and the experimental treatment. Lastly, student performance on all five measures examined was significantly influenced by prior GPA.
3.3 Student Attendance and Perception Average classroom attendance was significantly higher in the cooperative learning sections relative to the controls (P ≤0.001). Attendance was particularly low in discussionbased lecture section. This section also showed a substantially higher dropout rate than the other sections (11.9 vs. <5%). When students in the course were surveyed regarding the instructional methods used for cooperative learning, the response was highly favourable. Students indicated that the group activities and tests helped them understand the course material better. More than 92% of the students indicated that the cooperative learning strategies using T5 model should be used in other classes. When asked to respond to the prompt, “Feel free to comment on the course or offer suggestions on how the course could be improved” students most frequently remarked that the cooperative learning activities helped them to understand the material better and that group work made the class more personal and enjoyable. They also indicated that using the D4L+P encouraged them to interact more effectively with their groups and that the problems they were asked to work on forced them to think about and apply the concepts they were trying to learn. Several students indicated that the group tests encouraged them to prepare more rigorously than they might have otherwise. Students who viewed cooperative learning less favourably appeared to do so primarily because they did not like being randomly assigned to groups or indicated that their groups
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were dysfunctional in some manner. Others did not like evaluating their peers or being evaluated by them. Very few students indicated that they did not like group work or found it unhelpful.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of cooperative learning strategies using T5 model on student achievement and attitudes in a very large introductory biology class. In particular, we wanted to determine if activities designed such that a single instructor could administer them would help students learn the course material better than a discussionbased lecture format. We found that, although overall test scores did not differ significantly between the treatment and control groups, students in the cooperative learning sections showed greater improvement from the beginning to the end of the semester than students taught using a traditional lecture approach. This finding suggests that cooperative learning activities can improve student outcomes even in very large classes. However, the difference in improvement observed was fairly small (a 3.2% difference in the improvement), indicating that the impact of cooperative learning was relatively weak though statistically significant. In addition, instructor and treatment interacted strongly for three of the five performance measures examined, suggesting that these results provide preliminary evidence only until the study is replicated with a larger cohort of instructors. A factor that may have influenced the outcome of this study is the manner in which content learning was measured. Cooperative learning activities are proposed to encourage a deeper understanding of course material and promote higher-level thinking skills (Cooper, 1995; Anderson et al., 2005; Cortright et al., 2005). As is common in many large science classes, personnel limitations demanded that the classes examined in this study use multiplechoice exams as a primary means of evaluating students’ understanding of course content.
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However, Darling-Hammond et al. (1995) have argued that multiple-choice exams are not an effective tool for evaluating higher-order thinking skills, and it is possible that greater differences existed among students in our study than could be detected by our assessment method. Indeed, the effect of PBL, as well as other instructional approaches thought to promote higher levels of cognition, has been found to depend on the type of assessment used (Boyles et al., 1994; Hand et al., 2002; Gijbels et al., 2005). Future experiments that examine cooperative learning should address this issue by incorporating questions that more effectively measure higher-order thinking skills into the assessments used. When asked to comment on instruction of the cooperative learning sections, students viewed the methods used very positively. Most felt that this approach helped them to understand the material better as well as made the course more interesting, personal, and enjoyable. The students also appeared to sense a greater level of support for their learning through interactions with their peers. Very few students felt that group work was unhelpful. This finding is noteworthy because student attitude is considered to be an important component of overall engagement (National Research Council, 2004). Students who find a course more interesting and enjoyable and who feel they are supported are more likely to invest more effort into the course, potentially leading to improved learning outcomes (Handelsman et al., 2005). This study suggests that, even in very large classes and with minimal personnel, it is possible to implement cooperative learning activities and that students find groups enjoyable and useful. However, additional studies are necessary in order to determine if these activities improve student engagement relative to a traditional lecture format. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of cooperative learning strategies using T5 model on student achievement and attitudes in a very large introductory biology class. In particular, we wanted to determine if activities designed such that a single instructor
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could administer them would help students learn the course material better than a discussionbased lecture format. We found that, although overall test scores did not differ significantly between the treatment and control groups, students in the cooperative learning.
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Engaging Pupils through Questioning
Engaging Pupils in an Inquiry-based Science Lesson through Questioning
Quek, Grace
Yio Chu Kang Primary School Ministry of Education
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Engaging Pupils through Questioning
Abstract How does questioning in an inquiry-based learning engage the pupils and promote positive attitudes such as curiosity and creativity towards Science? This action research project explored the use of teacher’s questioning in an inquiry-based lesson to engage the pupils. In this study, an inquiry-based lesson using the BSCS 5E Instructional Model was adopted, and teacher’s questions were formulated using the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (2001). One Primary Five class was selected and the class was divided into control and experimental group. A pre-lesson survey was conducted to assess pupils’ level of understanding about teacher’s questioning in Science. The control group received minimal guidance in the activities given while the experimental group was given questions to guide them throughout the activities. Qualitative data from the pupils was gathered in the pre-and post-lesson survey and the results compared. It was evident that teachers’ questioning guides the pupils in their learning and provoke their thinking. Effective questioning using different types of question can help scaffold pupils’ learning and hence plays an important role in the teaching and learning process. The results reinforce the belief that teachers are the primary driving force behind effective teaching in engaging the pupils in inquiry through questioning and help them acquire the skills, abilities and attitudes in Science.
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Engaging Pupils through Questioning
Engaging pupils in an inquiry-based Science lesson through questioning
Introduction Inquiry is the hallmark of Science. In an inquiry-based learning classroom, the teacher plans and delivers engaging Science lessons to develop pupils’ scientific knowledge, skills and attitudes. This is in alignment with the Science Curriculum Framework which aims to inculcate the spirit of scientific inquiry in our pupils.
Source: 2008 Syllabus Science Primary Standard/Foundation, CPDD, MOE, Singapore
The curriculum focuses on pupil as an inquirer, and pupils are required to perform some tasks and make relevant observations to learn scientific principles. They are engaged in thinking skills and processes and show curiosity and enthusiasm. They are active learners. The teacher is the leader of inquiry, playing the role of a facilitator, rather than a knowledge dispenser, and is a role model of the inquiry process in the classroom. Thus applying skills and processes of inquiry and developing attitudes and values are essential to the practice of Science.
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The National Science Education Standards (NSES) stated that Science is a process in which pupils learn skills such as observing, inferring and experimenting. Pupils should combine processes and scientific knowledge (1996). The approach was similar to what Schwab (1962) and Rutherford (1964) intended Science instruction to be promoting pupil understanding of scientific concepts and processes, and not teaching skills and strategies and content in isolation. One of the essential features of science as inquiry is questioning (NRC, 2000). Questioning is a tool in the scientific inquiry process. Questions lead to good thinking and helps direct attention. It helps unravel any misconception or alternative conception that pupils may have (Wandersee, Mintzes & Novak, 1994). In a typical Science classroom, pupils are required to carry out some activities and record their observations. The teacher facilitates the lesson by prompting and guiding the pupils along. The teacher may ask low-level and recall questions. Gall (1971) concluded that teachers typically ask between one to three questions per minute. Marzano et al. (2001) noted that too often teachers structure questions around information that is unusual or that they perceive as interesting, as opposed to information that is critical to the topic being studied. He pointed out that most questions teachers ask are lower order in nature. Hence teachers must practise the art of asking good questions in the context of Science, and thought-provoking questions should be an integral part of the lesson plan. Questions may be added as the lessons evolved, but a set of questions written into the plan will ensure that pupils have the opportunity to think critically and logically throughout the inquiry process. Questions will also help to keep the lesson focused and provide important feedback about pupil learning (Hammerman, 2006). Paul and Elder (2006) encourage us to ask questions that lead to good thinking. We should practise Socratic questioning as Socratic thinking is an integrated, disciplined
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approach to thinking. Teachers can improve their ability to ask questions of different cognitive levels by familiarizing themselves with question taxonomies. The most widely known is Bloom’s Taxonomy formulated in 1956 and was revised in 2001. As pupils answer questions at different cognitive levels, especially higher levels, pupils develop criticalthinking and communication skills. How does questioning in an inquiry-based learning engage the pupils and promote positive attitudes such as curiosity and creativity towards Science? In this study, an inquirybased lesson using the 5E Instructional Model framework was adopted. The teacher crafted the questions using the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Using 5E Instructional Model Bybee (2004) argued that there is a necessity to structure science teaching and that lessons should be coherent, logical and sequential. There should be a systematic approach to instruction and the focus on the learning outcomes of inquiry. He proposed the use of the 5E Instructional Model which structures the learning experience for pupils. With well-articulated learning experiences, pupils will be able to make connections between new concepts and the prior knowledge they may have.
Engagement
Evaluation
Exploration
BSCS 5E Instructional
Explanation
Elaboration
Figure 1. The 5E Instructional Model
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The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (2001) There are six cognitive levels of increasing complexity in Bloom’s Taxonomy. The three fundamental levels are Knowledge, Comprehension and Application. The highest three levels are Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation. Bloom’s hierarchical taxonomy of cognitive processes is often used to evaluate whether higher levels of thinking are being developed in classrooms. Questions or tasks involving analysis, synthesis or evaluation are deemed to be more challenging and demanding than those that require only recall or comprehension. The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (Anderson et al, 2001) changed all the levels to verb forms Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating and Creating.
Method Subject One Primary 5 class consisting of mixed ability pupils was selected for the study. The pupils were randomly assigned – odd number registered number formed the control group and the even number registered number formed the experimental group.
Design The topic of Heat was selected as pupils had difficulty understanding heat transfer concept. The teacher demonstrated a discrepant event (Engage) to capitalize on pupils’ curiosity. Pupils had to Predict-Observe-Explain the demonstration. Then pupils were tasked to conduct a scientific investigation (Explore). Teacher’s questions were crafted using the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy. In the experimental group, guided inquiry approach was used and questions were asked in each part of the activity. In the control group, minimal questions were asked.
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Measure A pre-lesson survey was conducted to assess pupils’ level of understanding about teacher’s questioning in Science. This would serve as a comparison against the post-lesson survey results to gauge whether teacher’s questioning in an inquiry-based lesson had been effective in engaging pupils in their learning.
Procedure The one-hour lesson was conducted for the control group. During the course of the lesson, pupils had to carry out the tasks and complete the worksheets. The teacher asked questions and the pupils were allowed to discuss the answers. There was a teacher observer whose task was to take note of the type of questions the teacher asked. After the lesson, a post-lesson survey was given. After the lesson for the control group, a similar lesson was conducted for the experimental group immediately.
Analysis Pupils’ responses on the survey questionnaire were used as primary data sources. In presenting the findings of pupils’ comments, only descriptive statistics were used as this was an exploratory study based on a very small sample size. A teacher observer was present to monitor the teacher’s behavioural use of questioning during the delivery of lesson. The observation checklist was used as a secondary data source.
Results Pupils’ Surveys The qualitative data from the pre-and-post surveys were compared. Table 1 shows the post lesson surveys feedback from pupils.
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Table 1. Post-lesson survey feedback from control and experimental group respondents Control Gp (n=19) Pre Post (%) (%)
Statements
Experimental Gp (n=18) Pre Post (%) (%)
The questions asked provoke my thinking.
47
63
72
94
I want to find out more after my teacher asked questions.
58
63
78
82
47% of the control group respondents found that the Engage activity was the most interesting as compared to 21% for the Explore activity. In the experimental group, 41% indicated that the Engage and Explore activities were equally interesting (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Post-lesson survey feedback from control and experimental group respondents for the Engage and Explore activities
Engage Activity
% 100 90 80 70 60 50
Control
40
Experimental
30 20 10 0 There was enough questioning.
Qns were of closed & open type
Qns were thoughtprovoking.
Qns from simple to complex.
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Qns guided me in my thinking.
Engaging Pupils through Questioning
Explore Activity
% 100 90 80 70 60 50
Control
40
Experimental
30 20 10 0 There was enough questioning.
Qns were of closed & open type
Qns were thoughtprovoking.
Qns from simple Qns guided me to complex. in my thinking.
Evaluation of pupils’ work As the pre-and-post surveys’ findings were based on pupils’ perception, pupils’ work were evaluated with the construct of a simple rubric. Table 2 shows pupils’ performance for the Explore activity. Table 2. Evaluation of pupils’ work. DME – Did not meet expectation; ME – meeting expectation; EE – exceeding expectation DME (%)
ME (%)
EE (%)
Control (n= 19)
47
53
0
Experimental (n=18)
5
67
28
NB: EE – able to explain results/data and draw conclusion ME – able to explain results/data or draw conclusion DME – unable to explain results/data and draw conclusion
Teacher’s Observations Teacher’s observation checklists on questioning were also gathered. It was observed that the teacher asked 75% and 25% of closed and open type of questions respectively for the
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control group, as compared to 70% and 30% of closed and open type of questions respectively for the experimental group. The data also showed that the teacher asked questions that lead to good thinking and included questions at higher cognitive levels. The teacher asked fewer questions but gave more ‘wait-time’ for the control group to allow pupils to think through the question before repeating the question.
Discussion It is clear that teachers should ask both closed and open type of questions to engage pupils. Questions trigger thinking and play an important role in engaging pupils’ minds (Chin, 2004). Teachers should be more conscious of asking good questions to engage pupils at varied and appropriate cognitive levels (Walsh& Sattes, 2005). Pupils in the experimental group were asked more higher order questions and hence that could explain for their good performance in the work (Table 2). Scaffolding allows the teacher to structure the inquiry experiences from ‘guided’ to ‘open’ inquiry-based teaching (Eick et al. and Bell et al, 2005). A gradual progression to high-level inquiry with appropriate scaffolding will enhance inquiry learning (Bell et al, 2005). Pupils in the control group would like the teachers to ask questions to help them in their learning. Although fewer questions were asked, these pupils were given more wait time to allow them to make connections and the questions asked had guided them in their thinking (Figure 2). For the qualitative observations, there is a need to focus on asking more open-ended questions. Carr (1998) argued that teachers need to think more carefully about the use of questions and develop questioning minds in the pupils by providing opportunities for the pupils to do so. Pupils should be encouraged to question their learning as a step to mature reflection and action.
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Conclusion The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy is useful in helping teachers craft questions and enable pupils to progress to varying levels of difficulty. Employing the right questioning techniques arouse pupils’ interest and stimulate their thinking. Teachers should ask closed and open type of questions to invoke thinking such that pupils will have opportunity to think and think deeply. Effective questioning using questions at different cognitive levels can help scaffold pupils’ learning and hence plays an important role in the teaching and learning process. Hence, teachers are the primary driving force behind effective teaching in engaging the pupils in inquiry through questioning and help them acquire the skills, abilities and attitudes in Science. Future Research Future studies could include collaborative conversations where pupils engage in productive dialogues among themselves. Collaborative conversations will become a valuable learning situation whereby pupils talk and reason with one another. They will be actively thinking and have the ability to reason logically. There could also be a platform to encourage pupils’ questioning to help them direct their own inquiry. Self-questioning will develop pupils to be independent learners as they stimulate their thinking (Chin, 2006).
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References
Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J. & Wittrock, M.C. (Eds.) 2001. A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing – A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Bell, R. L., Smetana, L. & Binns, I. (2005). Simplifying inquiry instruction. The science teacher, 31-33 Bybee, R.W. (2004). Scientific inquiry and science teaching. In: Flick, L.B. & Lederman, N.G. (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and nature of science (pp. 1-14). Kluwer Academic Publishers. Carr, D. (1998). The art of asking questions in the teaching of science. School Science Review, 79(289), 47-50. Chin, C. (2004). Student’s questions: fostering a culture of inquisitiveness in science classrooms. School Science Review, 86(314), 107-112. Chin, C. (2006). Using self-questioning to promote pupils’ process skills thinking. School Science Review, 87(321), 113-122. Eick, C, Meadows, L. & Balkcom, R. (2005). Breaking into inquiry. The science Teacher, 49-53. Gall, M. (1971). The use of questions in teaching. Review of Educational Research, 40, 707721. Hammerman, E. (2006). Becoming a better Science teacher. Corwin Press. Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J. & Pollock, J. E. (2001) .Classroom Instruction that works. Pearson Press.
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National Research Council (NRC). (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Research Council (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: a guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2006, 2nd ed.). Critical Thinking Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life. Pearson Prentice Hill. Rutherford, F. J. (1964). The role of inquiry in science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2, 80-84. Schwab, J. J. (1962). The teaching of science as enquiry. In J. J. Schwab & P.F. Brandwein (Eds.), The teaching of science (pp.3-103). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Walsh, J. A., & Sattes, B. D. (2005). Quality Questioning: Research-Based Practice to Engage Every Learner. Corwin Press. Wandersee, J. H., Mintzes, J. J., & Novak, J. D. (1994). Alternative Conceptions in Science. In D.L. Gabel(Ed) handbook of Research on Science Teaching and learning. NY: Macmillan.
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Engaging Pupils through Questioning Appendix 1: Activity Sheet for Experimental Group
Teacher’s Copy
Explore – ‘Keeping it warm’ Activity Process skills: investigating, communicating Q1 (Understand) What is the aim of the experiment? To investigate _____________________________________________________ Q2 (Remember) What are the materials needed in this experiment?
Q3 (Understand) What are the variables in the experiment?
Q4 (Understand & evaluate) What is/are the variable(s) that should be kept the same? Changed? Variables kept the same
Variables changed
Q5 (Understand) a. Pour 100ml of warm water into each cup. Measure the temperature of the water in each cup. b. Measure the temperature of the water in each cup again after 15 minutes. c. How would you present your results? d. Record your results in space below. Cup
Temperature at the start (°C)
Temperature after 15 minutes (°C)
A B C Q6 (Analyse) What can you infer from your results above?
Q7 (Evaluate) What conclusion can you make?
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Exploring pupils’ engagement
Exploring pupils’ engagement in an inquiry-based lesson through Lesson Study
Quek, Grace Wan, Edwin Kaur, Sabrina Cai, Elaine Chen, Junhua Cher, Veronica Yean, Sok Kheng Teo, Nora
Yio Chu Kang Primary School Ministry of Education
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Exploring pupils’ engagement
Abstract In the light of Teach Less Learn More (TLLM) initiative, how effective are our Science teachers in engaging our pupils? How does the pedagogical approach in inquiry-based learning influence pupils’ engagement and support pupils’ acquisition of Science concepts? This paper constitutes a Lesson Study that explores pupils’ engagement in an inquiry-based lesson. The Lesson Study model serves as a controlled platform to scrutinize pupils’ engagement. Through the process of Lesson Study, the teachers were engaged in deep conversation and reflection of their teaching practices, thus enhancing their professional development. The study was carried out with two Primary Five classes of mixed ability. A team of eight Science teachers was engaged in the lesson planning, execution of the lesson with group observations, and the critique reflections and refinement of the lesson. During the conduct of the lesson, teachers observed the pupils if they displayed boredom or showed enthusiasm in their learning. A second lesson was conducted after improvement was made to the first lesson. The teachers’ voices were the primary qualitative data source. Through the qualitative data analysis of the teachers’ feedback, teachers were more aware of pupils’ engagement in learning. It reinforces the benefit of crafting inquiry-based lesson that engages pupils in multiple domains.
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Exploring pupils’ engagement
Exploring pupils’ engagement in an inquiry-based lesson through Lesson Study Introduction There is a need for primary teachers to be afforded opportunities to engage in highquality professional development (Goodnough, 2002). In agreement with his point of view, a group of Primary 5 teachers came together to embark on a lesson study so as to improve teaching and learning. The success of lesson study can be found in two main areas: improvement in teacher practice and the promotion of collaboration among teachers. Improvement in teacher practice has taken place through the usage of concrete practical materials to focus on meaningful problems, taking explicit account of the contexts of teaching and experiences of teachers. Teachers collaborate through reflection of the problem, plan and conduct lessons based on research and observation in order to apply the long-term goals to actual classroom practices for particular academic content, observation of pupils’ learning, engagement and behaviour during the lesson and hold debriefing sessions to discuss and modify the lesson accordingly (Lewis, 2002b). During the initial sessions, the team shared their experiences when conducting Science lessons. Common observations were that during our Science lessons, some pupils get bored easily, are disinterested and unable to connect what they have learnt with their daily lives. They are often dependent on the teacher and their attention span is short. This has resulted in poor quality of work. The teachers shared that they wish to increase pupils’ engagement during Science lessons. Engagement is associated with active involvement, commitment, concentrated attention, in contrast to superficial participation, apathy or lack of interest (Newmann et al., 1992). Finn (1993), in explaining engagement with a participationidentification model, found a strong linear association of participation with academic achievement. A higher participation level will result in higher achievement scores in Science. Page 1628
Exploring pupils’ engagement
To increase the pupils’ level of engagement, we created an inquiry-based lesson. Why inquiry? Yap et al., (2004) pointed out that inquiry has been accepted by Science educators as one of the core strategies for teaching-learning Science. Central to the Science curriculum framework is the inculcation of the spirit of scientific inquiry. The curriculum design seeks to enable pupils to view the pursuit of Science as meaningful and useful. According to Piaget (1970), knowledge is not out there somewhere, waiting to be discovered but, rather, is acquired and constructed through a process of interaction with materials. He theorized that children construct their own understanding on the basis of their explorations and interactions with peers, adults, and objects within their environment. Many inquiry-based lessons are designed to bring about this form of learning. Millar and Driver (1987, p.56) stated: We share that commitment to a form of science education in which children learn science by doing things, doing them both in the hand and in the head. Thus, in designing and executing an inquiry-based lesson, we have tried to engage the pupils in higher cognitive interaction. Some of the ways of introducing a Science inquiry lesson, given by Yap et al. (2004) is to use Discrepant Event or a Problem Presentation, which was incorporated into our lesson plan. The group discussed on the research topic and the teaching techniques that would be employed in the design of the lesson. The teachers were the designers as well as active learners in the lesson study. The goals of the lesson study were to engage and motivate our Science learners and to evaluate the effectiveness of the inquiry-based lesson in increasing pupils’ engagement. Through collaboration, the teachers involved hope to reap the benefits of lesson studies. Method Subject Two Primary Five classes of mixed ability were identified for the conduct of the research lesson. Page 1629
Exploring pupils’ engagement
Design A pre-lesson survey was carried out for the two classes to find out if they like or dislike Science lessons. Post-lesson survey was given after the lesson to gather pupils’ feedback on the inquiry-based lesson. During the lesson, observation checklists were used by the teacher observers to assess pupils’ engagement. The first lesson study cycle was conducted to a class of 39 pupils. The second lesson was conducted in another class of 35 pupils. The class Science teacher conducted the lesson a week later. The lesson content and objectives were similar to the first lesson. Measure Qualitative data from the observation checklists, pre-and-post surveys were used to measure the engagement level of the pupils. Teachers’ reflections and observations provided data for the team to evaluate the benefits of the lesson study approach. Procedure Discussion on pupils’ engagement during Science lessons
Discussion on ways to increase level of engagement
Post-lesson observation conference Teachers’ Reflection Revising the lesson and observation checklist
Observation of pupils’ engagement using lesson study (1st cycle)
Observation of pupils’ engagement using lesson study (2nd cycle)
Post-lesson observation conference Teachers’ Reflection Drawing conclusion
Refer Annexes for Lesson Plans 1 and 2.
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Selection of research theme and topic to enhance engagement
Crafting of inquirybased lesson and observation checklist
Exploring pupils’ engagement
Results and Analysis Lesson Cycle 1 From the first lesson cycle, the team indicated that there were too many procedural questions by the teacher during the conduct of the lesson. Two important learning points were highlighted – the teacher should focus on questioning techniques and scaffolding pupils’ learning. Pupils were generally engaged and showed enthusiasm in learning. They participated actively in the hands-on activity. However from the written assignment, it was reflected that the pupils did not understand the Science concept being taught. While the lesson design included group discussions, there was minimal discussion among the pupils. During the hands-on activity, the pupils were clearly engaged but were unable to achieve the objective of the lesson which was to understand and apply the concept of condensation in their daily lives. Based on the teachers’ recommendations, refinements were made to the lesson plan. Improvements were also made to the observation checklist.
Lesson Cycle 2 In the second lesson study cycle, pupils were once again engaged when carrying out the hands-on activities. The revised lesson plan included scaffolding of the Science concepts through the better use of probing questions. The lesson plan also included expected answers from the pupils to prepare the teacher. From the verbal and written responses of the pupils, it was observed that the pupils had a better understanding of the concepts compared to the previous group. Although there were still areas for improvement, the second lesson observation reflected that the pupils were better engaged physically as well as mentally as they were better able to apply the Science concepts to the activities and questions. In addition, the observation checklist was simpler and the team was able to give a better description of the groups they observed.
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Exploring pupils’ engagement
The results of the pre-and-post surveys showed that an increase of 54% of pupils liked the Science lessons as they could ask questions. 75% liked the lesson conducted because the teacher asked questions as compared to only 13.5% in the pre survey. 70% of the pupils surveyed indicated that they could link what they had learnt to their daily life. Discussion We engaged the pupils in hands-on activities and observed that they were paying attention. We assumed that since they enjoyed the activities, learning has taken place and learning is the result of teaching. However Constructivist Learning Theory asserts that learning is not the result of teaching, but rather the result of what the pupils do with the new information they are presented with. It was observed that pupils were unable to apply the concepts from the Engage activity to the worksheet activity. Unless we build on the pupils’ correct understanding of concepts, whatever Science activities we carried out are a waste of time (Sewell, 2002). It was evident that pupils enjoyed the lesson when the teacher asked questions and that pupils could link what they had learnt to their daily life. Few pupils are able to construct understanding simply by engaging in an activity. Questions would enable the teacher to create a bridge between the activities and the pupils. Hence effective teaching should incorporate strategies for identifying, acknowledging, and challenging pupils’ non-scientific conceptions (Tytler, 2002). The lesson study had made the teachers more aware of pupils’ abilities and created a deeper awareness of looking from the pupils’ perspective. There was a sense of ownership and collaborative spirit among the teachers. Most importantly, the lesson study journey had raised the teachers’ competency in lesson delivery.
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Exploring pupils’ engagement
Conclusion This study has heightened the teachers’ awareness of the advantages in using inquirybased lessons to engage the pupils and to spark their interest. It has also built the capability of the teacher by enhancing their observation skills as well as further arousing their interest in designing inquiry-based lessons for their pupils. Using the lesson study as a platform has also helped the teachers develop professionally and question the way they teach through their reflections. Lesson Study provides a key element for professional development and is an effective way to improve teaching and learning through active participation in a community of practice.
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Exploring pupils’ engagement
References
Finn, J. D. (1993). School Engagement and Students at Risk. Washington DC: National Center for Educational Statistics Research and Development Reports. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 362322) Goodnough, K. (2002). Teacher Development through Collaborative Inquiry: Primary Teachers Enhance Their Professional Knowledge of Science Teaching and Learning. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (New Orleans, LA, April, 2002). Lewis, C. (2002b). Does Lesson Study Have a Future in the United States? Journal of the Nagoya University Department of Education. Nagoya Journal of Education and Human Development, January 2002, No. 1, 1-23. Millar, R. & Driver, R. (1987). Beyond processes. Studies in education, 14, 33-36.
Newmann, F. M., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D. (1992). The significance and sources of student engagement. In F. M. Newmann (Ed.,) (1992) Student engagement and achievement in American Secondary Schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Piaget, J. (1970). The science of education and the psychology of the child. New York: Orion. Sewell, A. (2002). Constructivism and student misconceptions. Australian Science Teachers’ Journal, 48(4), 24-28. Tytler, R. (2002). Teaching for understanding in science. Australian Science Teachers’ Journal, 48(4), 30-35. Yap, K. C., Goh, N. K., Toh, K. A. & Bak, H. K. (2004). Teaching Primary Science. Pearson Hall.
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Annex 1 YIO CHU KANG PRIMARY SCHOOL P5 Science Lesson Studies 2009 – Lesson Plan 1 Steps of the lesson: learning activities and key questions and time allocation ENGAGE / TUNING IN (15 min) To engage and arouse pupils’ curiosity Place an apple on the table for each group. (The apples should have been refrigerated the day before the lesson begins.)
Pupils’ activities/expected pupil reactions or responses
Teacher’s response to pupil reaction/Things to remember
Goals and Method(s) of evaluation (if activity has been successful)
Pupils to observe the apple individually and note down their observations on the worksheet given. Pupils to share their observations with their team mates and list down any new observations in their worksheets.
Instruction to pupils: List as many observations as you can
Get some pupils to contribute their observations.
Share with your group Add new observations to your list • Ensure pupils observe and note details • Ask probing questions
When pupils give accurate and precise observation When pupils talk about the new observations they learn from their group Verbal feedback/contributions by pupils
Class discussion on the observations
Process skill: observation Each group is provided with: An apple Magnifying glass Post-it pad Individual work: pupils to make observation of apple 2. Class discussion 3. Group discussion and to write a question they would like to ask based on their discussion Rationale: Opportunity for pupils to be creative and apply what they have observed and learnt in the first activity (15 min)
Tr to encourage groups to share as a class by listing observations they made on the whiteboard (At this stage, teacher is not to highlight the concept of condensation. Emphasis should instead be given on the observations such as water droplets formed, the cool surface of the apple and the warmer surroundings.)
1.
Group contribution of question derived from their observations and discussions
Write down a question that your group would like to ask based on your observations on the post-it given and post it on the board.
Water-droplets challenge Introduction to activity
Explain what ‘staining’ means, show if possible
Development 1 Group activity
Each group will be given a variety of materials.
Each group is provided with: A chilled beaker of coloured ice-cubes A packet of coffee ice
Pupils to participate in the class challenge: to wet a piece of cloth without staining it in as short a time as possible
Write Challenge on the board: To wet a piece of cloth in the shortest time possible To distribute materials Think of the cold apple just now to help you with your challenge. Probing question: Where are you going to get the water to wet the cloth?
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When pupils observed 2 common observations: • The apple is cold. • The apple is wet. Tr to observe whether pupils show what observation means ie using of the 5 senses (minus taste unless told by the teacher) Type of question groups put up- HOT or LOT question
When pupils can explain what staining means in their own words When pupils can answer question: What is the aim of your experiment/activity When they can connect the condensed water droplets to how they are going to get the water to wet the cloth
Exploring pupils’ engagement
A plastic bag A small piece of cloth A piece of aluminium foil A tray Stop watch
Pupils are to design an experiment that will help them produce water to wet the cloth.
Development 2 (15 min)
Group report:
1. Groups to show their cloth.
Each group to show their cloth and explain the process
2. Winning group to share how they wet the cloth without staining it.
Wining group(s) to share how they wet their cloth without staining it
3. Pupils to compare the various designs 4. In what ways are they similar /different?
Conclusion (10 min) Qn: what is condensation?
Tr to facilitate process in the pupils’ investigation by asking probing questions e.g. Why are you doing this? How are you going to get your cloth wet? Do you need to keep time? Why? Tr to response to pupils’ answers by explaining or introducing ‘condensation’ To write word on the board Qns leading to ‘condensation concept: Why did you place the coloured ice in the plastic bag? Why must the plastic bag be cooled? Teacher’s questions should elicit from the pupils the following: Water vapour in the air changes into water droplets when they come into contact with the cold surface of the container/plastic bag/ aluminium foil etc. The water vapour must lose heat in order to change into water droplets.
To complete worksheet
Share with your shoulder partner
Pupils to write 2 things they have learnt and 1 example of condensation in their daily life.
When pupils can explain how they get the water to wet their cloth and where the water come from
When pupils can answer or explain what is condensation
Individual feedback Pupils to explain what is condensation Listen-think-pair-share
Explain in your own words
Evaluation of experimental design: Observing pupils at work Types of questions pupils ask Observable signs of excitement and engagement Communication skills: pupils are able to explain clearly using science words eg water vapour, condensed water droplets, water spreads, etc
To ask pupils to complete passage in worksheet When the warmer water vapour in the surrounding comes into contact with a cooler surface like the cold apple or cool container, the water vapour loses heat and becomes water droplets. When this happens, condensation has occurred. Thus condensation is a change of the gas state to liquid state when heat is lost.
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From answers given by pupils in their worksheets
When pupils can give an example of condensation in their daily lives
Exploring pupils’ engagement
Annex 2 YIO CHU KANG PRIMARY SCHOOL P5 Science Lesson Studies 2009 – Lesson Plan 2 Steps of the lesson: learning activities / key questions / time allocation ENGAGE / TUNING IN (15 min) To engage and arouse pupils’ curiosity Place an apple on the table for each group. (The apples should have been refrigerated the day before the lesson begins.) Process skill: observation Each group is provided with: an apple magnifying glass post-it pad 1. Individual work: pupils to make observation of apple 2. Class discussion 3. Group discussion and to write a question they would like to ask based on their discussion
Pupils’ activities / expected pupil reactions or responses
Teacher’s response to pupil reactions / Things to remember
Goals and Method(s) of evaluation (if activity has been successful)
Pupils to observe the apple individually.
Instruction to pupils: List as many observations as you can. Tr: What senses should you use? What should you observe? Tr should not give out worksheet yet. Share with your group. Add new observations to your list. Write at least one. • Ensure pupils observe and note details
Get some pupils to contribute their observations. Are pupils actively looking and recording their observations?
Write down their observations on the worksheet given. Pupils to share their observations with their team mates. CL strategy- Round Robin Possible answers: It is smooth. It is red. It is round. It is hard. It is wet. It is cold. It looks tasty. It’s crunchy.
Class discussion on the observations
Give praise to pupils or groups who did a great job of providing accurate details or observations. Do not praise ‘correct’ questions. Remind pupils what scientists do during observation. • Ask probing questions Why do you say it is wet? Illicit response ‘There are water droplets on the outside of the apple.’ Tr to encourage groups to share as a class by listing observations they made on the whiteboard. What senses have you used in observing the apple? What are the observations you have made? What observations are common in all your groups? What do scientists do when they observe? Are you doing what scientists do? (At this stage, teacher is not to highlight the concept of condensation. Emphasis should instead be given on the observations such as water droplets formed, the cool surface of the apple and the warmer surroundings.)
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When pupils give accurate and precise observation. When pupils share the new observations they learn from their group.
Verbal feedback/contributions by pupils Were pupils able to answer questions? Did they ask questions? When pupils observed 2 common observations: • The apple is cold. • The apple is wet. Tr to observe whether pupils show what observation means ie using the necessary senses.
Exploring pupils’ engagement
Group contribution of question derived from their observations and discussions. Can we tell where the water comes from?
Steps of the lesson: learning activities / key questions / time allocation Rationale: Opportunity for pupils to be creative and apply what they have observed and learnt in the first activity (15 min)
Pupils’ activities / expected pupil reactions or responses Pupils to compare a block of coloured ice and apple.
Development 1 Group activity Each group is provided with: a chilled beaker of coffee ice-cubes – labelled A a packet of coffee ice – labelled B a plastic bag a small piece of cloth a piece of aluminium foil a tray stop watch
Water-droplets challenge Introduction to activity How do we challenge? What must we do?
Write down a question that your group would like to ask based on your observations on the post-it given and post it on the board. Possible questions: Where did the water droplets come from? What is the temperature of the apple? Does the temperature of the surrounding affect the amount of water on the apple? Teacher to classify questions relevant to lesson and those which can be answered another time. Is the question ‘do-able’? Can it be investigated? Teacher’s response to pupil reactions / Things to remember Scaffolding from tr Tr to show the pupils one block of coloured ice. Tr: Look at this block of coloured ice. What are the similarities and differences that you observe between the block of ice and the apple that you have just observed? Tr to remind pupils to observe apple first, then observe block of ice. Now compare the two. Tr to use the observations given before for the apple in the engagement activity as a guide and place a tick beside the similarities and write down the differences. Expected similar observations to focus on. • Both are cold. • Both have water droplets on the surface. Expected differences. • The block of ice is colder. • The block of ice is bigger. Tr: Using the observations that you have made about the apple and the block of ice, you are now going to do a challenge.
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Type of question groups put up - HOT or LOT question
Goals and Method(s) of evaluation (if activity has been successful) When pupils are able to observe and compare the block of ice and the apple by stating the similarities and differences.
When pupils can explain what staining means in their own words Did pupils understand what a stain is? Did they understand what they
Exploring pupils’ engagement
What can we use? Do we use all the ice provided? What is a stain? Where can we get the water?
Write Challenge on the board: • To wet a piece of cloth within 5 minutes without staining it. The group with the wettest cloth will be the winner. Teacher to explain what staining is and show a stained cloth.
Each group will be given a variety of materials.
T: Each group will be given the materials. You may use all of the materials or only some of them. The choice is up to your group. Tr to state the criteria clearly. Do not cut or open the bag. You’re not supposed to open the packet of ice. Before you start on the challenge, you are to plan the steps that your group will take in order to achieve the aim. List clearly the materials that you will use and write down the steps. You will be given 5 minutes to do this. Groups who start on the challenge without planning will be disqualified.
Pupils to participate in the class challenge: to wet a piece of cloth within 5 mins without staining it .The group with the wettest cloth will be the winner.
needed to do? When pupils can discuss and answer questions: • What is the aim of your experiment/ activity? • What are the materials they will use? • What are the steps that they will follow when carrying out the challenge? When they can connect the condensed water droplets to how they are going to get the water to wet the cloth Was there discussion and decision-making before they proceed with the experiment? Were the pupils able to carry out the experiment? Was there consensus?
In order to help you plan, think about the following questions: • Where are you going to get the water to wet the cloth? • How are you going to get the most amount of water in order to make your cloth very wet? • How do you avoid staining the cloth? Tr to distribute materials.
Pupils are to design an experiment that will wet the piece of cloth within
Tr to walk and observe pupils as they conduct experiment. The observations can be used as learning points during discussion of the lesson. Tr to facilitate process in the pupils’ investigation by asking probing questions
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Evaluation of experimental design: Observing pupils at
Exploring pupils’ engagement
5 mins without staining it. What materials do we need? How do we wet the cloth without staining it?
e.g. Why are you doing this?
Steps of the lesson: learning activities / key questions / time allocation Development 2 (15 min)
Pupils’ activities / expected pupil reactions or responses
Teacher’s response to pupil reactions / Things to remember
Group report:
5. Groups to show their cloth.
Each group to show their cloth and explain the process
Communication skills: pupils are able to explain clearly using science words eg water vapour, condensed water droplets, water spreads, etc
6. Winning group to share how they wet the cloth without staining it.
Winning group(s) to share how they wet their cloth within 5 mins without staining it .
Tr to respond to pupils’ answers by introducing ‘condensation’ To write word on the board Tr to display or write key words on board: condensation water droplets water vapour loses heat temperature surrounding air cooler surface
7. Pupils to compare the various designs
How is it we have stains? Great! Ours is wet and there are no stains. Where does the water come from? Can we make it wet at a faster rate? How to win this challenge?
Tr to see possible scenario of how pupils wet the cloth. - use plastic bag - use aluminium foil
The water vapour in the surrounding air loses heat. It changes into water droplets. It comes into contact with the cold plastic bag/aluminium foil. The water vapour must lose heat.
8. In what ways are they similar /different?
Qns leading to ‘condensation concept: Why did you place the coloured ice in the plastic bag? Why must the plastic bag be cooled? Where do you think the water come from? ( Tr’s questions should elicit from the pupils the following : Water vapour in the air changes into water droplets when they come into contact with the cold surface of the container/plastic bag/ aluminium foil etc. The water vapour must lose heat in order to change into water droplets. Possible misconception: “The water droplet came from the ice.”
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work Types of questions pupils ask Observable signs of excitement and engagement Did the pupils write procedures for their investigation? Goals and Method(s) of evaluation (if activity has been successful)
When pupils can explain how they get the water to wet their cloth and where the water come from.
Exploring pupils’ engagement
Steps of the lesson: learning activities / key questions / time allocation Conclusion (10 min) Each pair is provided with: a coloured picture card Each pupil has a worksheet
Qn: What is condensation? Explain in your own words. Share with your shoulder partner.
Tr to point out to pupils that the water droplet is clear so it did not come from the ice. Tr to point out that a process results in a change. Hence, pupils must include the original state and the new state in their explanation of the process. Teacher’s response to pupil reactions / Things to remember
Pupils’ activities / expected pupil reactions or responses
Pupils to be given pictures showing examples of process of condensation taking place. Individual feedback Pupils to explain what is condensation Listen-think-pair-share Condensation is when water vapour loses heat to the surrounding and changes into water.
Tr to give out picture cards showing condensation (one card for 2 pupils) – - A. water droplets inside bottle garden - B. water droplets on the underside of the steamer cover - C. spectacles turning misty after taken out from an airconditioned room - D. water droplets on the inner side of container and underside of cover Tr to give out worksheet (pictures on worksheet - no colour). Tr; Tick the picture that you have. Explain how condensation has taken place.
Goals and Method(s) of evaluation (if activity has been successful) When pupils can identify examples of condensation in their daily lives. When pupils can answer or explain what is condensation. From answers given by pupils in their explanation. Pupils to explain: When the warmer water vapour in the surrounding air comes into contact with the cooler surface of the spectacles, the water vapour loses heat and becomes water droplets. When this happens, condensation has occurred. Thus condensation is a change of the gas state to liquid state when heat is lost.
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CCAR 2009
Use of Concept Cartoons as a strategy to address pupils’ misconceptions in Primary 4 Science topic on Matter
Farah Aida Rahmat
Pasir Ris Primary School Email: [email protected]
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CCAR 2009
Use of Concept Cartoons as a strategy to address pupils’ misconceptions in Primary 4 Science topic on Matter.
ABSTRACT This study was carried out as part of the Science and Health Education Department initiative. The purpose of this action research was to observe the impact of concept cartoons as a teaching strategy in addressing misconceptions that arise in the learning of the topic on Matter at the Primary 4 level. A class of 40 high-ability pupils sat through two lessons on Matter and they made a presentation in the third lesson. The concept cartoons were introduced at different stages of learning. Using the 5E-inquiry model of teaching and learning, the concept cartoons were utilized at the Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation stages. The data corpus included a pen and paper pre-test, video recording during the lessons, pupils’ written responses and pupils’ reflections.
INTRODUCTION Science concepts are often abstract and involve understanding at a level which is sometimes invisible to the naked eyes. It is frequently a challenge for teachers of primary school pupils to explain abstract complex concepts without over-simplifying them. As some of these concepts can be difficult to grasp, teachers anticipate possible misconceptions that may arise in the course of their lessons and attempt to address them in a number of ways. The possible interventions which teachers can use include demonstrating, explicit teaching, pupil-teacher oral exchanges and regular written class Page 1643
CCAR 2009 work. For the purposes of this study, we felt that another strategy namely concept cartoons may be employed to anticipate possible confusion related to concepts of Matter and to address misconceptions in a more creative and engaging manner. RATIONALE Concept cartoons as a strategy in science teaching took shape as far back as 1992 (Keogh, 1999). Concept cartoons basically compose of “written text in dialogue form with a visual stimulus.” (Keogh, 1999, p.432). However the simplicity of their structure should not reduce the value of use as a teaching strategy. Research into concept cartoons revealed the depth and range of their versatility as a strategy for teaching. They may be employed across subjects such as the development of reading skills (Demetrulias, 1982 as cited in Keogh, 1999) and vocabulary (Goldstein, 1986 as cited in Keogh, 1999). They may also be used for a number of purposes such as a trigger to a lesson as “capturing the learners’ attention … is considered to be important in the model of generative learning …” (Wittrock, 1994 as cited in Keogh, 1999). Another purpose is their use as “an elicitation strategy which helps pupils clarify their thinking.” (Keogh, Naylor, & Downing, 2003, p.3). It is the flexible nature of this strategy that has enabled the researchers of this study to work with their concept cartoons in a variety of ways at different points of learning. Design of the concept cartoons At the onset of the study, it was quickly agreed that the concept cartoons to be used should be familiar to the target pupils. This understanding is consistent with Keogh’s emphasis that such cartoons should be positioned within a familiar perspective so that science learning becomes meaningful and practical to the learner (Keogh, 1999).
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CCAR 2009 The school’s mascots, Master Bob and Missy Bob became the main characters in a series of concept cartoons. These cartoons were drawn in color for visual attractiveness. Key concepts in the topic on Matter were identified and their possible misconceptions were discussed and included into the series of cartoons. 5E-Inquiry Model The 5E-Inquiry model also known as the BSCS 5E Instructional Model, provides a framework by which teachers and learners actively participate in the teaching and learning process. It consists of five phases- Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation. Each phase serves a specific purpose and “contributes to the teacher’s coherent instruction and to the learners’ formulation of a better understanding of scientific and technological knowledge, attitudes, and skills” (Bybee, Taylor, Gardner et al, 2006, p.1). Therefore a variety of activities and experiences may be organized at the unit, chapter, lesson and even program level. In choosing to adopt this instructional model for these lessons, we wanted to provide an avenue for pupils to engage in discussions and exploration of the concepts through group activities. In addition we wanted to enable the teacher to ask probing questions to lead pupils to their own deductions. The teacher in these lessons is a facilitator of learning rather than a disseminator of knowledge. DATA COLLECTION The written pre-test Together with a team of Science teachers, a pen and paper test was designed before the lesson planning and carried out about three months before the execution of lessons. The long break between pre-test and lessons was mainly due to time constraints. The objective
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CCAR 2009 of the pre-test was to gauge pupils’ entry-level understanding and the extent of misunderstanding on the topic that they might have. Subsequent lessons were planned to meet the pupils’ needs. This is in keeping with the constructivist view that “learners can only make sense of new situations in terms of their existing understanding.” (Keogh & Naylor, 1996) There were a total of 10 questions and based on Bloom’s Learning Taxonomy, they ranged in difficulty from Knowledge-based to Comprehension-based. Lesson Plans (video taped) Two one-hour lessons over two days were conducted out with a one-hour pupil presentation carried out on the third day. The 5E-Inquiry Model was used to identify the stages in each segment of lesson. In the first hour of lesson, the concept cartoons were introduced at the Evaluation stage. In the second hour of lesson and during the presentation, the concept cartoons were used in the Exploration and Explanation stages. Apart from the teacher’s instructions and explanation at the beginning of the lesson, the main activity revolved around hands-on group work. The lessons took place in the Science room and were video taped to obtain pupils’ responses during the activities. Activities The following were the learning outcomes in the first one-hour lesson: By the end of the lesson, pupils should be able to: a) show an understanding that solids have fixed shapes b) differentiate between a solid and a liquid At the Engagement stage, three pupils presented a short skit demonstrating a misunderstanding between solids and liquids. This is followed by a discussion to tap on
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CCAR 2009 pupils’ prior knowledge. At the Exploration stage pupils carried out a hands-on activity to address the misconception presented earlier. In this lesson, the concept cartoon was introduced at the Evaluation stage as a means of assessing pupils’ understanding. The cartoon, Missy Bob, was presented to groups with a blank speech bubble. Acting as the “fourth character” in the skit presented at the beginning of the lesson, groups were required to write Missy Bob’s script as a response to the three characters. In their script they were required to explain why sand is solid even though it takes on the shape of its container. In the second one-hour lesson, the following were the learning outcomes: a) show an understanding that matter occupies space and has mass b) demonstrate that matter exists in three different states c) differentiate between the three states of matter in terms of volume and shape Seven groups sat at stations and were given a fixed amount of time to carry out activities specified at learning stations. There were a total of seven stations and five stations offered a different concept cartoon and accompanying activity while the remaining two stations offered a repeated cartoon and activity. Pupils in their groups were required to perform tasks to investigate the truths of statements made in the concept cartoons. After the activity, pupils would draw their own concept cartoons to explain their deductions. Groups were given about forty minutes to complete tasks at two stations. On the third day, groups presented their concept cartoons to the class for further discussion and as part of the Evaluation stage for the teacher to assess the extent of learning that had taken place the day before.
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CCAR 2009 A sample of the Concept Cartoon used is included in Appendix A. The complete lesson plans are included in Appendix B. Pupils’ Written responses during lessons Pupils’ written responses in the first lesson comprised of an activity sheet to direct pupils’ thinking the course of the group work and another activity sheet to introduce pupils to the idea of responding to science concepts using speech bubbles in a concept cartoon. In the second lesson, pupils were given blank papers to draw their own concept cartoons to illustrate or explain the concepts demonstrated in the hands-on activities. Pupils’ Reflection at the end of the lessons At the end of the presentation, the pupils’ were asked to complete a 3-2-1 reflection. The aim of this reflection exercise was to determine the extent of learning that has taken place from the perspective of the pupils, the points of enjoyment and the ability to transfer their understanding onto their immediate environment. Pupils’ Focus Group Discussion In order to triangulate the data collected, a pupils’ focus group discussion was carried out about three months after the lessons. The aim was to hear the pupils’ personal thoughts and feelings on the use of concept cartoons in teaching them science. 19 pupils (9 girls and 10 boys) participated in this discussion.
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CCAR 2009 DATA ANALYSIS The written pre-test
54%
68%
Knowledge Comprehension Application & Analysis
76%
Figure 1: Percentage of scores achieved in KCA components of pre-test
Only 38 out of 40 pupils participated in the pre-test because two pupils were absent. The test indicated that the pupils generally scored high in the knowledge (K) and comprehension (C)-based questions. In the comprehension-based questions, about 28.9% of the pupils scored 6 out of 7 and 21% scored full marks. Although the scores were more varied for the knowledge-based questions, 26.3% of the pupils scored 8 to 8.5 with 10.5% scored full marks. The lowest scores came from the Application and Analysis (AA) questions with 42.1% scoring 0 – 1 mark. It is generally noted that the pupils who scored low in the AA questions had average marks in the K and C questions. However there were exceptions in which pupils achieved low scores in AA questions but did managed to score high in the K and/or C questions.
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CCAR 2009 Lessons Transcript of video Time (duration in minutes)
Target
[Teacher] [Brandon] [Bryan] [Pupil] 5:57
Teacher All pupils
Observations made / Remarks
Day 1:A skit by a few pupils… and follow-up What are your thoughts? Flour has a definite shape because one piece…. Water takes the shape of the container Flour looks like liquid, but it is not. Pupils eagerly listening to instructions given by teacher. Pupils could complete the task [draw a bean on a given worksheet] within a minute.
8:01
Question requiring ‘yes / no’ answers:13:24 [Teacher] [Brandon]
Did the beans take the shape of the container? Yes
[Teacher] [Clifton]
Did the shape of each bean change? No
[Teacher] [Bryan]
Does that mean the beans have indefinite shapes? No
[Shannon]
Further explanations are sought It cannot be compressed.
[Jonathan]
There are a lot of seeds, so they take the shape of the container. A bean by itself has a definite shape.
15:00
Relating this theory to the skit [Bryan]
The flour alone has a definite shape, that is, one grain on its own.
[Stacy]
Stacy is not sure of the concept. Shannon immediately responded to explain concept to Stacy.
[Shannon]
One grain itself has a definite shape. Many grains take the shape of the container. Page 1650
CCAR 2009 The grains fill up the space in the container. [There are air spaces in between the grains.]
19:15
Teacher All pupils
All pupils had eye contact with teacher. Noise level builds up. Pupils are very excited about the next activity
21:00
Teacher All pupils
Teacher gives out examples of such solids :Milk powder, salt, pepper
23:00
[Pupil]
Going into Concept Cartoons In the second worksheet, pupils are to complete the speech balloons for Master and Missy Bob to complete the concept cartoons
23:44
All pupils
Pupils are evidently on-task and are busy thinking. One group sought teacher’s explanation & clarification. Pupil Presentation: Pupils shared their speeches with the class. [To refer to hardcopy of pupils’ work as recording was muffled]
26:00
31:01
2 pupils
Next… Solids or Liquids? Teacher demonstrates by picking up a handful of cornstarch mixture. Varied responses from pupils were obtained. For example… it’s a solid, it rolls around Can something exist in two states at the same time?
32:42
33:36
3:00
All pupils
Pupils stood up to look at the mixture again. They were very enthusiastic, very puzzled and were debating furiously about the state of the matter. They were also eager to hold onto the mixture.
Day 2:Pupils ask questions to seek clarification
4:03
Pupils respond by writing explanations to complete the concept cartoons
10:35
Pupils carry out investigations to confirm or reject concepts displayed on the concept cartoon activity cards. Day 3:Group Presentation
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CCAR 2009 The transcript above shows the interaction between the students and teacher when the lessons were carried out. In Day 1, the lesson began with a role play of three pupils giving their impressions of whether flour in a cup was solid or liquid. 15 minutes into the lesson, Bryan exhibited his understanding of the concept of solids as indicated by his utterance of, “The flour alone has a definite shape, that is, one grain on its own.” Stacy at this point was still unsure and Shannon clarified further by her utterance of, “One grain itself has a definite shape. Many grains take the shape of the container. The grains fill up the space in the container.” By the 21st minute of the lesson, pupils were able to list a variety of solids that take the space of its container, i.e milk power, salt, pepper. The concept cartoons were introduced at the 23rd minute to reinforce learning and understanding and to “complete” the role play as the “fourth actor” in the skit presented at the beginning of the lesson. In Day 2 of the lesson, pupils carried out various hands-on activities to agree or disagree with statements made in the concept cartoons presented. Individual utterances could not be captured as the recording was muffled due to the high noise level in the Science Room. In the video recording taken of the lessons, the team of teachers involved in the action research assessed the pupils’ involvement during the lessons. The assessment was based on a five-point Likert scale and the pupils were rated in terms of the level of enthusiasm, responsiveness, participation, enjoyment, engagement, accuracy of answers and ability to reason. A score of 1 indicated least favourable while a score of 5 indicated most favourable. Generally, the scores on both days of lesson and activities were high. Pupils scored an average of 4 out of 5 for most components. They were also actively involved in negotiating meaning during the discussions as evident in the transcript above.
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CCAR 2009 Pupils’ Written responses First lesson In the first lesson, groups were required to complete a speech bubble as a response to a skit made by three pupils at the beginning of the lesson. The following are some of the responses written by the groups: “They are both wrong because if I take a grain of salt, sugar or sand and put it on a flat surface, it will not change its shape. Therefore sand, salt, sugar and rice grains are not liquids!” “No! The sand is not a liquid because there are air spaces between them unlike water to cover everything.” “Although salt, sugar and rice grains take up the space of the container, they are not liquid but solid. When they are individual, they have their own shape. But when they are together they take the shape of the container. That’s why many people think they are liquids.” The responses not only indicated that the pupils understood the difference between solids and liquids but that they were able to present their argument coherently and logically. This is in contrast to their responses during the Engagement stage in which most could only give generalized statements such as “Flour looks like liquid, but it is not” and “Water takes the shape of the container”. Second Lesson In the second lesson, pupils were required to carry out a variety of tasks at different stations to uncover the truths or myths expressed in the concept cartoon given to them.
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CCAR 2009 The following are some of the written responses the pupils included in the concept cartoons that they drew. These were later presented to the class on the third day: “Yes, I agree because there are air spaces between the marbles. Therefore, the water can fill the air spaces in the bottle.” “I disagree with Missy Bob because a solid has a definite volume and can’t be compressed. If the plank is broken into two parts, the volume still does not change. So, solids can’t be compressed after all.” “No, I don’t agree because all matter has mass. In outer space, there is less gravity. Therefore, there is more gravity on earth than in outer space.” “They are wrong. Although the cotton takes up more space, it still has lesser mass than the chocolate bar which is smaller. So, the biggest thing does not always have more mass than the smallest thing.” As reflected in the pupils’ involvement rating, the written responses showed that the pupils were able to respond to the misconceptions presented to them in the cartoons and offered sufficient justification for their responses. Pupils’ reflections At the end of the three-day lesson, the pupils were asked to complete a 3-2-1 reflection. They were asked to list three things they have learnt, two things they have enjoyed and one thing they have learnt that they can apply to their daily life. The following are some of the responses given: Three things I have learnt A burning candle requires oxygen to continue burning. Page 1654
CCAR 2009 I learnt that mass and weight are both different. Cornstarch and water mixture is a solid and liquid. Air occupies space. The gravity on Earth is stronger than gravity in outer space. Between the marbles there are spaces for air/water to fill up the space. Weight can change but mass cannot. Two things I have enjoyed Doing the experiments. We used cartoon characters in our work. I enjoyed doing the speech bubble and doing the experiments. I have enjoyed the drawing and the experiments. I enjoyed presenting. I enjoyed drawing the cartoon characters. One thing I have learnt that I can apply to my life Comparing other materials. I have learnt how to make cornstarch mixture. I learnt more about how to talk in front of the class. Water is precious and we should not waste water. I have learnt to act responsibly. When asked to list the things they have learnt, most of the pupils were able to recall the concepts that they have learnt during the lessons. However what was more interesting was that many mentioned the concept cartoons and activities as aspects of the lessons which they enjoyed. This further supports concept cartoons as a useful strategy to capture pupils’ attention, thereby engage and facilitate their learning along with other activities structured within the framework of the 5E-inquiry model.
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CCAR 2009 PUPILS’ FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION Six questions were asked and pupils gave their final reflection at the end of the session. In question 4, pupils were asked if the concept cartoons helped them in their learning of science concepts. Some of the responses were: Navein:
Learnt about concept cartoons. Creating our own concept cartoons is fun. We can also use this for other topics / lessons / subjects. It can benefit us. Can also interest us.
Shanon:
Motivates us to think hard. I enjoyed it.
Rehhann:
It enhances the lesson. We can express what we think in the speech bubble.
In question 5, pupils were asked what they liked about the concept cartoons. Some of the responses were: Syahir:
Concept cartoons make lessons more interesting. They are like cartoons and kids love cartoons. We can relate to the cartoons and motivates us to learn better and faster.
Navein:
It’s like the school mascots teaching us and talking to us.
Brandon:
It seems like the mascots are encouraging us to learn.
In question 6 they were asked how they would improve on the concept cartoons if they could. Some of the responses were: Shannon:
Continue using school mascots, but may want to include more cartoon characters. Children like cartoons so can learn better, especially if it’s their favourite character. Page 1656
CCAR 2009 Stacy:
Yes, include more cartoon characters and make them more attractive.
Fadhlin & Leena:
Include more colours, make them more colourful.
4B:
Animate them and publish them so that others can use them.
Generally it was observed that the pupils enjoyed their learning experience when the concept cartoons were introduced as a tool for teaching. Most of them agreed that they could relate to the characters especially well because they were familiar icons in the pupils’ school life. They also indicated wanting to see more variety of cartoons, in vibrant colours and even extending them into animation to share them with others. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS A number of interesting insights were noted in the course of this research namely in the roles of pupils and teacher as well as cartoon concepts as an instructional tool in teaching Science topics. It was observed that the pupils were actively involved in their own learning. They eventually became more aware of their own misconceptions and those of their peers. In grappling with their own understanding, they learnt to take a stand and present an argument for or against the statements given during the class discussions and group work. The pupils were able to communicate their reasoning in a detailed, logical and coherent manner. “… learning [thus became an] active process occurring within and influenced by the learner.” (Bybee, Taylor, Gardner et al, 2006, p.15)
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CCAR 2009 The teacher’s role also evolved to include the role of facilitator. Although there were stages within the lesson in which direct teaching was still necessary, for the most part, the pupils were given the freedom to construct their own understanding during the group activities. The teacher provided scaffolding through posing of probing questions and inviting a variety of responses during the discussions. During the group activities, she was also able to give feedback directly to affected pupils while the others carried on with their tasks. The concept cartoons proved to be a versatile instructional tool that fitted well in the 5Einquiry model for Science teaching. It can be implemented at any of the phases of the teaching process, as a trigger artifact at the Engagement phase or as a creative assessment tool at the Evaluation phase. However, it is most effective when employed with other strategies such as role-playing, discussions and demonstrations. PERSONAL REFLECTION BY FARAH AIDA It has been an eye-opening and inspiring journey for me as a teacher whose class was observed throughout the action-research process. It has made me think critically about how my pupils make connections between what they know and what is being taught to them. From the preparation of lessons, the carrying out of activities and the final feedback that I have received from my pupils, I have come to the conclusion that their engagement from start to finish is essential to the success of their own learning. As a teacher it is thus crucial for me to facilitate their engagement through varied experiences within each lesson. These include but are not limited to class discussions, hands-on activities and even role play. The concept cartoons are remarkably versatile in the way they could be incorporated into these learning experiences thus further enhancing the learning process. In the lesson Page 1658
CCAR 2009 planning, I could determine the best stage at which to have my pupils work with the concept cartoons. Therefore, depending on the lesson objectives, concept cartoons could be introduced as a trigger, a main development activity or even a closure to the lesson. In this respect, these cartoons do not lose their interest value with the pupils. If anything, the pupils look forward to how the concept cartoons will be used during the lesson. Observing my pupils working with the concept cartoons have also made me pay closer attention to their appeal. The cartoons are illustrative and visually attractive thus capturing pupils’ attention almost immediately. They inject a “fun” element to learning and invite active participation in lessons. When my pupils enjoy themselves while learning, they seem to learn more. I now make a conscious effort to ensure that visual appeal in the forms of concrete materials, pictures, video clips and so on is present during the course of lessons. Another aspect of the visual appeal that I have also observed is that my pupils relate better to familiar icons when the cartoons were introduced. They simply loved the fact that the cartoons presented during the lessons were recognizable icons which had their own names. I therefore feel that resources may be more useful when “localized” to fit the pupils’ sphere of familiarity. In this way, pupils connect quickly with the messages that are being delivered to them through these cartoon characters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This AR study would not have been possible without the invaluable guidance and support from our AR Consultant, Dr Tan Aik Ling (NSSE, NIE). Ms Agnes Lim (Science HOD, Pasir Ris Primary School) and Mr Eddie Foo (EL HOD, Pasir Ris Primary School)
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CCAR 2009 REFERENCES Bybee, R. W. et al (2006). The BSCS 5E Instructional Model: Origins and Effectiveness. A Report Prepared for the Office of Science Education National Institutes of Health. Colorado Springs: Office of Science Education National Institutes of Health Keogh, B (1999). Concept cartoons, teaching and learning in science: an evaluation: International Journal of Science Education, 21:4. 431 – 446 Keogh, B. et al (2003). Children’s Interactions In The Classroom: Argumentation in Primary Science, European Science Education Research Association Conference: Noorwijkerhout, the Netherlands, 2003. Keogh, B and Naylor, S (1996). Teaching and learning in science: a new perspective, BERA Conference: Lancaster, 1996
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CCAR 2009
Appendix 1 SCIENCE – PRIMARY 4 TOPIC : MATTER PRE‐TEST
20
Name : _______________________
Score :
Class : Primary 4_______
Date : ________________
__________________________________________________________________________ Read each question carefully. Then answer the question in the space provided. 1. salt sunlight air water
Classify the above under the correct headings in the classification table given below.
[2m]
Matter
Non-matter
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CCAR 2009 2.
Packet of soil
Packet of cotton wool
1kg of soil
1kg of cotton wool
Farah said, “The packet of soil is heavier than the packet of cotton wool.”
Do you agree with what Farah said? Support your answer with a suitable reason. [2m]
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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CCAR 2009 3.
Two inflated balloons, A and B, were hung on a lever balance as shown below.
Lever balance
X
Balloon B
Balloon A
(a)
If balloon B was pierced with a pin at point X, which one of the diagrams below correctly shows how the arm of the lever balance would tilt? Put a tick in the correct box. [1m]
Balloon B
Balloon A
Balloon A
Balloon B
(b)
What does the above activity tell you about air as a form of matter? [1m]
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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CCAR 2009 4.
An empty glass jar with a piece of tissue attached to its base is pushed into a basin of water as shown in the diagram below. Describe what would happen.
a piece of tissue
glass jar
basin of water (a)
Predict what will happen to the piece of tissue. Fill in each bracket with a “Yes’ or a ‘No’. [1m]
(i)The piece of tissue became wet. ( )
(ii)The piece of tissue remains dry. ( )
(b)
What property of air does the above activity demonstrate? [1m]
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
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CCAR 2009 5.
plasticine
40cm³ of water
Figure A Figure B Figure C
40cm³ of water was poured into the glass jar shown in Figure A. A ball of plasticine was then put into the glass jar. The water level rose. See Figure B. The plasticine was carefully taken out and reshaped. It was then put back into the glass jar again. Draw in the water level in Figure C above. [2m] 6.
A piece of rock with a volume of 50 cm³ was crushed into powder using a hammer. (a)
What state of matter is the powdered stone now in? [1m]
____________________________________________________________________
(b)
What is the volume of the powdered rock? [1m]
__________________ cm³.
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CCAR 2009 7.
Mother bought 4 different bottles of a similar brand of perfume. They all have a net volume of 50ml.
Complete the sentences with suitable words. [2m]
Perfume is an example of a liquid. It has a definite ____________________ but no definite _____________________________.
8. A beaker of ice, just taken out from the freezer, was tilted as shown in the diagram above. (a)
What state of matter was the ice in the beaker? [1m] _________________________
(b)
What property of ice did the above activity demonstrate? [1m]
____________________________________________________________________
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CCAR 2009 9.
The diagram below shows a cylinder of capacity 200cm3. Sarah filled the cylinder with 230cm3 of gas.
(a)
What is the final volume of gas in the cylinder? [1m] ____________________________________________ Capacity of cylinder is
(b)
Explain your answer for part (a). [1m]
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
10.
Look at the flowchart below.
Start
Yes
Does it have mass?
Yes
Can it be compressed?
B
No
No
A
Does it have a fixed shape?
No
Yes
D
C
Match the given examples to the correct letters, A, B, C or D. [2m]
Æ
A
Æ
B
Æ
C
Æ
D
carbon dioxide
Æ
orange juice
Æ
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CCAR 2009 Appendix 2 Class : 4Brilliance Subject / Topic: Science / Matter Duration: 2 periods (First Day) 1. Key Inquiry Question: What are the cycles in our everyday lives? How are cycles important to life? 2. Scientific Concept To Be Constructed Solids collectively such as sand may take on the shape of its container however, individual grains do not change shape. 3. Learning Outcome
Pupils should be able to:a) show an understanding that solids have fixed shapes b) differentiate between a solid and a liquid 4.
5.
Materials Needed Water, sand, different containers, activity sheet, pebbles, containers, concept cartoon sheet Lesson Outline STAGE # Stage 1: ENGAGE (5 MINS)
ACTIVITY / TASK (i) Stating the purpose of the lesson To state that some solids collectively may take on the shape of their container but individual grains do not change shape. (ii) Trigger – Use of attention‐grabbing demonstrations & Discrepant events (Liem, 1987) to hook the students into learning by creating cognitive dissonance or disequilibrium: (a) Pupil participation in a skit: Pupil A pours water into 2 different containers and says: “Water takes the shape of its container.” Pupil B pours sand into 2 different containers and says: “Sand takes on the shape of its container.” Pupil C: “Both water and sand are not solids because their shapes are not definite.”
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CCAR 2009 Stage 2 EXPLORE (25 MINS)
Stage 3 EXPLAIN (10 MINS) Stage 4 EXTEND (5 MINS)
Stage 5 EVALUATE (15 MINS)
Teacher asks the class: Is Boy C correct? Teacher lists pupils’ responses on the board. Teacher gets pupils to discuss their reasoning. i) Teacher explains that pupils will investigate the truth of this statement: “If sand takes the shape of its container, is sand a liquid?” “Sand is a liquid because it takes the shape of its container.” ii) Student‐centred activity to observe, infer and deduce. (a) In small groups of 4‐5, have pupils observe a pebble. (b) They will draw the shape of the pebble. (b) They will then place all the pebbles on the table into a container. (c) They will make sure that every pebble sits inside the container. (d) They will then draw the pebbles in the container. (e) Ask the pupils if the pebbles fit into the container and if this means that they have taken the shape of the container. (f) Again direct pupils’ attention to the individual pebbles and ask if the shape of each pebble has changed at all. (g) Get pupils to make a deduction. Get pupils to relate the pebbles to the sand introduced earlier. Teacher explains that although collectively, solids such as sand may take on the shape of its container, individual grains of sand does not change shape. They have definite shapes. 1. Get pupils to list as many examples of solids that have tiny grains such as sand. (e.g. powder, salt, sugar, crushed chalk, rice grains, red beans… etc) 2. Get pupils to find out about cornstarch mixed with water – is the mixture a solid or a liquid. 3. Teacher demonstrates what happens when the mixture is squeezed with hand and when it is released. 4. Pupils will research on the activity. 5. Pupils will share their findings at later date. Refer to the same concept cartoon used in the trigger activity earlier, this time include a blank speech bubble with Pupil D. Pupils will complete this speech bubble with the explanation of what they have learnt.
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CCAR 2009 Class: P4 Brilliance Subject / Topic: Science / Matter 1. Key Inquiry Questions:
Duration: 4 periods (Second & Third Days )
What are the cycles in our everyday lives?
How are cycles important to life?
1(a)
Inquiry Questions: Questions vary according to the concepts that pupils will investigate such as: • •
2.
How is air a form of matter? Does the size of an object determine its mass?
Learning Outcomes
Pupils should be able to:
a) show an understanding that matter occupies space and has mass b) demonstrate that matter exists in 3 different states c) differentiate between the three states of matter in terms of volume and shape
3.
Materials Needed Weighing scale, torch light, activity sheet, various apparatus for different groups, various concept cartoons for groups. 4. Lesson Outline STAGE # ACTIVITY / TASK Stage 1: ENGAGE (i) Stating the purpose of the lesson (Day 1: state that matter occupies space and has mass 10 MINS) state that matter exists in 3 different states differentiate between the three states of matter in terms of volume and shape (ii) Trigger – Use of attention‐grabbing demonstrations & Discrepant events (Liem, 1987) to hook the students into learning by creating cognitive dissonance or disequilibrium: (a) Pupil participation in a skit: 2 ‐ 4 (A, B, C, D) pupils. Script 1 A: My shadow occupies space on the floor. It is a form of matter. B: I can stand on your shadow and take up the same space on the floor. It is not a form of matter. Script 2 C (shines light on weighing scale): I am testing if light has mass. D: It is still 0 kg. Light has no mass. C: Light cannot be a form of matter. Page 1670
CCAR 2009 STAGE # Stage 2: EXPLORE (Day 1: 50 MINS)
Stage 3: EXPLAIN (Day 2: 40 MINS) Stage 4: EXTEND (Day 2: 10 MINS)
Stage 5: EVALUATE (Day 2: 10 MINS)
ACTIVITY / TASK (a) Teacher poses this question: What have you learnt from the skits you have just watched? (b) Teacher lists pupils’ responses on the board. (these responses will be used as cross‐reference with what the pupils’ will investigate later in the lesson) i) To investigate the truths of statements made in the various concept cartoons given to groups. The statements are: (a) Air has mass and takes up space. (b) The size of an object does not determine its mass – that is, a bigger object need not have a greater mass. (c) A solid cannot be compressed, it does not get smaller and occupy less space when pressed. (d) A liquid does not have a fixed shape, it takes the shape of the container it is in. (e) A gas has no fixed shape. It takes the shape of the it is stored. (f) A gas has no fixed volume. It can be compressed when squeezed. It can fill a container in which it is in. ii) Student‐centred activity to observe, infer and deduce. (a) In small groups of 4‐5, have pupils look at a concept cartoon placed on the table. (b) Using the apparatus placed on the table, groups will conduct an activity to demonstrate the validity of the concept. (c) Pupils will record their observations and deductions on an activity sheet (d) Pupils will draw their own concept cartoons to explain their deductions. (a) Teacher re‐caps what has been done in the previous lesson. (b) Teacher gets groups to present their concept cartoons and explain their understanding of the concept. (c) Teacher invites other groups to respond to each presentation. Teacher gets pupils to write a science reflection on 3 things they have learnt during the lesson, 2 things that they have enjoyed and 1 thing they learnt that they can apply to their daily life. E.g. An object that is big need not have a bigger mass than an object that is smaller. (a) Teacher summarises pupils’ presentation findings. She highlights salient points on matter. (b) Teacher gets pupils to use the points highlighted and draw mind maps on Matter as closure to the lesson.
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CCAR 2009 Appendix 3 Sample of Concept Cartoons
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Deepening Pupils’ Understanding of Wheel and Axle through Station-based Learning
Tayeb, Rajib Head of Department (Science) St Stephen’s School, Singapore
Wu Puwen St Stephen’s School, Singapore
Foo Chao Hen St Stephen’s School, Singapore
Siti Nor Rafidah St Stephen’s School, Singapore
Tan Lay Koon, Christine St Stephen’s School, Singapore
Safarina Satar St Stephen’s School, Singapore
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Abstract This study examines the impact of applying lesson study to our teaching of science concepts and how it has affected pupils’ learning. The topic “Wheel and Axle” found in the chapter of Simple Machines (Singapore Primary School Science Syllabus 2001) was chosen because we discovered many of our pupils had misconceptions after the chapter was taught. Four mixed-abilities Primary 5 classes with a total strength of 152 pupils were involved in this study. Through our exam results analysis and feedback from our Primary 5 science teachers, we concluded that many of our pupils faced difficulties in trying to grasp the concepts on Wheel and Axle. Some of our pupils came up with their own alternative framework on how the system works. Our Science department decided to form a lesson study team to identify misconceptions developed by pupils and came up with strategies to help pupils deepen their understanding on the topic of wheel and axle. We first carried out the activity in our science workbook to identify possible misconceptions among our pupils. During this lesson, team members recorded their observations on pupils’ thinking. Discussions were conducted to improve the lesson. Customized worksheets for pupils were developed and learning stations were introduced. Next, we implemented the new lesson plan on the second class. Based on the observations of team members, we continued to review and refine the lesson. Through this study, we observed that the constant improvements made to the lesson plans had helped to minimize pupils’ misconception on the topic. The discussions after each lesson engaged us in a constant reflective process. Lessons also became more pupil-centered. We therefore affirmed that lesson study is very useful in enabling us to develop effective lessons, minimize misconceptions and deepen our understanding of pupils’ thinking processes.
Keywords: wheel and axle, misconception, station-based learning, pupil-centered
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1. Background of study The Singapore Primary Science curriculum places emphasis on the inculcation of the spirit of scientific inquiry. It is designed to enable pupils to view the pursuit of science as meaningful and useful. They are also able to relate to the roles played by science in daily life, society and the environment. The constructivist inquiry approach is founded on three integral domains namely Knowledge, Understanding and Application, Skills and Processes, and Ethics and Attitudes. Pupils are nurtured to become inquirers while teachers facilitate their learning process as leaders of inquiry. Thus, teachers hold the responsibility of eventually moulding pupils to become independent learners and creative thinkers.
This goal is
envisioned in the “Thinking School, Learning Nation” initiative in which schools are encouraged to “Teach Less Learn More” (TLLM) – a term coined by our Prime Minister in his maiden National Day Rally speech three years ago.
In TLLM, the focus is on improving the quality of interaction between teachers and pupils with the aim of getting our pupils to be more engaged in their learning processes. The importance of interaction in teaching and learning was clearly defined by Vygotsky (1978) in his Cultural Theory of Development in which he discovers that any aspect of a child’s cognitive development occurs twice: First on the social plane in interaction with others and then on the psychological or internal plane. He affirms that whatever language and logical structures children use in their thinking processes are first learned through social interactions. Teachers need to know about their pupils’ progress and difficulties in learning so that they can adapt their work to meet the pupils’ needs which are often unpredictable and vary from one pupil to another.
In view of the expectations of the science curriculum and riding on the waves of TLLM,
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the challenge for us now is to improve the quality of our science lessons so that they become more engaging and impactful for pupils and at the same time to level up our science teachers in their pedagogical content knowledge.
In this research study, we examine the impact of applying lesson study to our teaching of science concepts on “Wheel and Axle”. Through results analysis and feedback from teachers, we discovered that many pupils had misconceptions on the topic. This goes against the grains of the science curriculum where the learning of science is meant to be meaningful and useful. As science educators, we are very aware of the dangers posed by misconceptions. In equipping our pupils with the correct knowledge, understanding and application, we must ensure that the level of misconceptions be brought down to the barest minimum. McClelland (1985) states that students tend to view phenomena from their own point of view due to their experience with the physical environment. Furthermore, children come to classes with prior conceptions about the natural world and phenomena before any formal science teaching. Thus, it will be a challenge for the science teachers to correct and re-write those concepts that are already imprinted in their minds. Assuming that pupils began like blank slates or the tabula rasa state is also detrimental. It is not that they don’t know about science but whether what they know is scientifically sound and correct as opposed to their intuitive thinking. This study, we hope, would help pupils to reduce their misconceptions in the topic of Wheel and Axle.
Our team explored the numerous pedagogical development models for teaching science to our team members. Eventually, we zeroed in on lesson study. We found the impact created by Lesson Study is very pervasive. Through Lesson Study, we will be able to bring our science teachers together in professional learning communities to improve instruction based
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on careful observations of pupils, their learning and work.
As the science teachers
collaborate with one another in lesson planning, research lessons, discussions, lesson critiquing and reflections, they level themselves up professionally. According to Iverson P.W (2005), through lesson study, the collaborations amongst teachers help to reduce isolation amongst themselves and will help to develop a common understanding of how to systematically and consistently improve instruction and learning in school as a whole.
In conclusion, through this research, our team hopes to inspire others to carry out similar research work to bring about a change in their outlook about being professionals. Teachers will become reflective practitioners, independent problem solvers and lifelong learners – the same skills and attitudes that teachers expect from their students (Takahashi & Yoshida, 2004). 2. Our Lesson Study Cycle
2.1 Form lesson study team
2.2 Develop lesson study goals
Prepare lesson study report
Figure 1: Lesson Study Cycle at St Stephen’s School
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2.1. Form lesson study team Under the leadership of the Science Head of Department (HOD), our school science department formed a Lesson Study team in 2007. The team comprising of six science teachers embarked on Lesson Study using the lesson study cycle as shown in Figure 1. The HOD acted as a resource person to provide feedback and suggestion for the research lesson. At the beginning of the project, a sharing session was conducted by the HOD on how to conduct a Lesson Study. Team members were then given related reading materials on Lesson Study.
2.2. Develop lesson study goals Our main overarching goal for this project is “to develop pupils as a scientific inquirer”. Teachers discussed the possible topics of study and finally narrowed it down to “wheel and axle”. The specific goal is “to investigate how a wheel and axle works”.
2.3. Plan the research lesson After developing the goals, the Lesson Study team jointly wrote a detailed lesson plan for the research lesson. The Lesson Study team focused on the following for the study:
Identifying pupils' misconceptions on the topic.
Exploring how our pupils discover and develop their understanding of concepts through group activities.
Promoting inquiry learning through hands-on activities.
Observing pupils' responses to teacher's teaching approaches.
2.4. Teach the research lesson All the research lessons were conducted by Mr. Wu, a Primary Five science teacher. The
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rest of the Lesson Study team members observed different groups of pupils learning in his lessons and focused on the areas identified during the lesson planning stages. The Lesson Study team members recorded their observations of the lesson.
2.5. Collect observation data and interpret the collected data At the end of the lesson, the Lesson Study team collated their observations and collected pupils’ work. A post conference was held at the science room and the Lesson Study team members discussed what they had observed during the research lesson and critique on the pupils’ work. The initial guiding question was “Why did the pupils develop misconception?”
From the team discussions and pupils' work, the following changes were made to improve the lesson:
Moving from the approach of “Teacher talk, Pupils do” to the approach of “Station-based Learning”.
Constructing pupils' knowledge progressively by having different stations.
A second round of post conferencing was conducted followed by further modification made to the lesson plans and subsequently another research lesson was conducted. The Lesson Study team felt that after the two cycles, the pupils’ understanding level had improved and misconceptions had fallen significantly.
3. Lesson Study @ St Stephen’s School The lesson study cycle in St Stephen’s School revolved around three main activities, namely, Pre-Lesson Study Activity, Research Lesson 1 and Research Lesson 2.
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3.1. Pre-Lesson Study Activity In this activity, our main aim was to use the prescribed workbook activity (Appendix 1) to identify the kinds of misconceptions that pupils may develop in the course of their study. We used a teacher-directed approach in conducting the experimental lesson to allow pupils to determine the characteristics of a wheel and axle. In the science room, pupils were organized into groups of four or five. Given the materials, they conducted the experiment as prescribed in the workbook. At the end of the lesson, a representative from each group would then explain to the class how a wheel and axle works.
Throughout the lesson, the Lesson Study team members, acting as observers, moved around and recorded their observations on the misconceptions the pupils had during the whole lesson. Upon conclusion of the lesson, the team members met up after school in the science room, where the lesson was held, for a post-lesson conference to discuss the data collected during the lesson. The discussion revolved around the misconceptions developed by the pupils and the causes for these misconceptions.
Main misconceptions
Pupils identified the wheel as the axle and the axle as the wheel.
Pupils misunderstood the concept of “trade-off” in wheel and axle. They were not able to visualize the effort having to move a longer distance than the load.
3.2. Research Lesson 1 In planning for Research Lesson 1 (RL1), feedback from Lesson Study team members after the pre-lesson study activity was carefully studied. During the review session, the Lesson Study team members agreed on the following:
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The pre-lesson study activity was too teacher-centered and pupils were heavily guided based on teachers’ instruction.
Too many concepts had been covered in a single experiment. As a result, pupils were not given the opportunity to explore deeper into each of the concepts.
The questions found in the prescribed workbook needed further improvement.
In view of the points mentioned during the review, our Lesson Study team came up with a lesson which included the following features.
Less reliance on the teacher.
Customized worksheets.
More opportunities for pupils to explore a particular concept when conducting the experiment.
Questions which provide scaffolding and lead pupils to a conclusion on a particular concept.
The research lesson was station-based. It included four main learning activities. Pupils were given customized worksheets (Appendix 2), divided into groups of four or five and asked to move around the learning stations. Each station included an activity which was based on a wheel and axle concept.
In Learning Station 1, pupils were given three objects (water faucet, screw driver, door knob). They were required to observe the objects and sketch them on the activity sheet. They then identified and labelled the wheel and axle on the objects.
In Learning Station 2, pupils were tasked to lift different loads (200g, 300g, 400g and
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500g) using a wheel and axle. They then recorded the efforts required to lift the load on the activity sheet.
In Learning Station 3, pupils were given two wheels. They were tasked to compare the size of the two wheels and the effort required to raise the same load using the two different wheels. They recorded their findings on the activity sheet.
In Learning Station 4, pupils compared the distance moved by the load and that by the effort. They repeated the comparison using different loads (300g, 400g and 500g). They then formed conclusion about the distance travelled by the effort and the distance travelled by the load.
3.2.1. Post conference on RL1 With the conclusion of RL1, the Lesson Study team held a post conference to share the observations made during the lesson. In the discussion, we focused on the progress of the lesson as well as pupils’ learning during the activities at the respective learning stations.
Some observations made by the Lesson Study team include: Strengths
Clear instructions were given to pupils on how to carry out the activities at the various learning stations.
Learning outcomes of the learning stations were clearly stated in the pupils’ worksheet. This enabled pupils to understand the experiment better.
Pupils were able to identify the wheel and the axle in Learning Station 1. Some groups were able to apply the concepts they acquired to other common objects.
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Pupils were given sufficient time to carry out their investigations and deduced the concepts through answering the guiding questions.
Pupils reflected on the extent of their learning by writing their own comments and opinions of the lesson on the “Pupil’s Reflection Page”.
Areas for improvement
Pupils encountered difficulties in carrying out the activities in Learning Station 4.
Some questions in the Lesson Study worksheet do not provide sufficient scaffolding to lead pupils to grasp the concept for that particular learning station.
3.3. Research Lesson 2 With the feedback and critiques that our Lesson Study team gathered from our postconference, we revised our lesson, focusing on how to improve the questions in the Lesson Study worksheet (Appendix 3) for better scaffolding and to provide more learning opportunities for pupils to deduce that the effort needed would always be less than the load in the wheel and axle.
Our Lesson Study team improved on the scaffolding to help pupils relate and state correctly the concepts related to the wheel and axle. The following revisions were made to each activity in Research Lesson 2 (RL2).
Learning outcome of Learning Station 1: To identify and label the wheel and the axle of objects.
Revision(s) made to lesson:
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No changes were made to the activity.
Reason(s): Pupils were able to identify the wheel and the axle in Learning Station 1. Some groups were able to apply that knowledge to other common objects.
Learning outcome of Learning Station 2: To state that the wheel and axle allows us to use less effort to lift the load.
In RL 1, pupils were instructed to lift three different loads using a wheel and axle. They then recorded the effort required to lift the load on the activity sheet.
Revision(s) made to lesson: Prior to lifting the three different loads using the wheel and axle, a new task had been assigned to the pupils.
Task 1: Pupils were instructed to lift the three different loads vertically using a spring balance. They then recorded the effort required to lift the load on the activity sheet.
Task 2: Pupils repeated the experiment using a wheel and axle. This task is similar to the task in RL1. Reason(s): This revision allowed pupils to compare the efforts needed when using the wheel and axle and without using it (lifting the load vertically). With the modification made to the activity worksheet, the pupils were able to deduce that the wheel and axle helped to make work easier
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by reducing the effort needed to lift a load.
Learning outcome of Learning Station 3: To state how the size of the wheel affects the effort needed to lift the load.
Revision(s) made to lesson: In RL2, we modified the second question found in the activity worksheet.
Qn2: What can you conclude about the effort needed to raise the same load using Wheel A and Wheel B? Original question from RL1:
Qn2: Compare the effort needed to raise the same load using Wheel A and Wheel B. What can you say about the effort needed? New question for RL2:
Reason(s): The team agreed that it was better to ask pupils to compare the efforts when using the two wheels (A- smaller, B-bigger) rather than ask them to conclude immediately on how the size of the wheel affects the effort needed to lift the load. By comparing the set of data that they had recorded, the pupils were able to state in their answer that “the bigger wheel (Wheel B) uses less effort”. Hence the pupils were then able to state the relationship correctly in question 3, and that was, “the bigger the size of the wheel, the less effort is needed to lift the load’. Learning outcome of Learning Station 4: To compare the distance moved by the load and the distance moved by the effort. Page 1685
Revision(s) made to worksheet: In RL2, we modified the first question found in the activity worksheet.
Qn1: From your investigation, what can you conclude about the distance travelled by the effort and the distance travelled by the load? Original question from RL1:
Qn1a: From the 1st set of reading, did the load or the effort move a greater distance? Qn1b: From your answer in (a), what can you conclude about the distance travelled by the effort and the distance travelled by the load? New question for RL2
Reason(s): We divided the question into two parts. The first part of the question required pupils to use the data they recorded from their investigation to compare the distance moved by the effort and the load for each set of readings.
This part of the question guided pupils to answer the second part of the question. Pupils were subsequently guided to deduce the concept of the “trade-off”: that was the effort had to move a longer distance than the load.
As Learning Station 4 posed to be the most challenging activity, our learning outcome
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were met if pupils could understand the abstract concept of “trade-off” by completing this task successfully.
3.3.1. Post conference on RL2 With the conclusion of Research Lesson 2, our Lesson Study team held a post conference to share the observations made during the lesson. In the discussion, our team agreed that the lesson was a success as the Lesson Study team was able to address most, if not all, of the misconceptions that pupils had.
As the activities were pupil-centered, pupils were actively engaged at all times. The nonthreatening learning environment allowed pupils to discover the concept of wheel and axle. Pupils were able to state the learning outcomes correctly in their “Pupil’s Reflection Page”. Their comments and opinions of the lesson reflect clearer understanding of the concepts.
4. Impact of our study In this section, we will discuss the impact of Lesson Study on teachers’ professional development and pupils’ learning.
4.1. Impact on teacher professional development As educators, teachers need to deepen their knowledge and improve their teaching skills. One way of achieving this is through professional development for teachers. In our research, lesson study is a form of teacher professional development. With lesson study, our team members are able to develop themselves in the following areas:
Increasing teachers’ knowledge on the subject matter
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In our lesson study, the research lesson plans were carefully crafted with inputs from various team members. As we developed the research lesson plans, we delved deeply into the topic of wheel and axle. This helped to increase our content knowledge as well as identify gaps in our understanding of the topic. Some teachers also reflected that through conducting research on the topic, they were able to identify some of their own misconceptions on the topic and identify better ways to communicate with their pupils on certain main concepts.
Improving instructional knowledge Lesson study provided our team members with a method to acquire instructional knowledge. Through careful planning of our research lessons and observations made by different team members, we were able to evaluate the effectiveness of our teaching strategies. For example, through the research lessons, our team was able to identify specific areas of instruction that needed improvement i.e. more effective questioning strategies and a more effective approach to engage pupils in their learning.
Teacher as a research practitioner A teacher uses several methods of teaching in his/her classroom. However, whether a particular method is effective remains unknown. As such, classroom-based research is essential for teachers to test their teaching methods in a real classroom context with real pupils. Also, with the professionalizing of the teaching profession, it is more important than ever for a teacher to take on the stance of a researcher.
Using lesson study, our team members created research questions, developed research lesson plans, conducted literature review on educational issues, collected evidence related to the study and analyzed the collected data prior to making improvements to the research
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lessons. As our team members adopted an inquiry stance, we investigated and tried out various teaching strategies in a bid to improve pupils’ learning.
4.2. Impact on pupils’ learning Improving pupil learning is at the heart of our lesson study. It provided an opportunity for teachers in our team to carefully examine our pupils’ learning and understanding on the subject matter prior to lesson planning. Through making detailed observations and discussions during post-lesson conferences, our research lessons were re-designed. Our focus had shifted from a lesson which was teacher-directed to one which was pupil-centered. In a pupil-centered learning environment, our teaching created a greater impact on our pupils’ learning.
Firstly, our research lessons were designed using the station-based approach. With learning stations, pupils were actively involved in carrying out the experiments at the respective stations. As a result, pupils were kept engaged and able to construct their own meaning to the topic with the help of guiding questions found in the teacher-developed worksheets.
Also, when carrying out the activities, pupils worked in groups of four or five. Our team members noticed that pupils enjoyed the support and cooperation from their peers. When working in their own groups, pupils were able to ask their fellow members for assistance in a safe environment. Pupils shared their knowledge and collaborated with one another while carrying out the experiments. This greatly improved pupils’ self-confidence in handling science apparatus used in the different experiments.
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5. Conclusion The above study showed that a constant improvement in lesson plans would help pupils to minimize their misconceptions on the topic. Through changing the pedagogical approach, restructuring worksheets and modifying main learning activities in the lesson, pupils were able to understand the topic well and make fewer mistakes in answering questions related to the topic.
Our findings suggested that station-based learning activities help pupils to construct their knowledge in a progressive manner and allow them to understand the topic better and deeper. Pupils' knowledge on the concept was built up gradually through manipulative and practical activities. In addition, it is essential for pupils to work collaboratively throughout the activities to encourage active discussions, interactions, clarifications and constant exchange of ideas.
We gathered from our study that teachers should take on a supporting role as a facilitator in pupils’ inquiry learning process. Unlike in a traditional classroom where pupils played a passive and receptive role, we found out that in order to promote pupils’ independent learning through inquiry approach, teachers need to play the facilitators role and provide as little assistance as possible to their pupils. Pupils are able to construct meaning and find regularity and order through analyzing patterns and discovery learning. Eventually, they would be able to make evaluations and deductions in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information. Pupils became more effective thinker when they were allowed to arrive at their own conclusion with teachers as facilitators. Coupled with clear instructions on the worksheets which are carefully crafted, the inquiry learning process is facilitated.
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References
1. 2001 Syllabus Science Primary Standard/Foundation. Curriculum Planning & Development Division, Ministry of Education, Singapore. 2. 2008 Syllabus Science Primary Standard/Foundation. Curriculum Planning & Development Division, Ministry of Education, Singapore. 3. Fernandez, C., Yoshida, M. (2004). Lesson Study: A Japanese Approach to Improving Mathematics Teaching and Learning. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. 4. Ho, P.L. (2004). Primary 5 i-Science Textbook and Workbook. Singapore: SNP Panpac Pte Ltd. 5. Iverson, P.W., Yoshida, M. (2005). Building Our Understanding Of Lesson Study. Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools. 6. Stepanak, J., Appel, G., Leong, M., Mangan, M.T., Mitchell, M. (2007). Leading Lesson Study: A Practical Guide for Teachers and Facilitators. California: Corwin Press. 7. Takahashi, Y., & Yoshida, M. (2004). Ideas for establishing lesson-study communities. Teaching Children Mathematics 10(9). 8. Vygotsky,L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. (Edited by M. Cole, J. Scribner, V. John-Steiner, & E. Souberman). Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press. 9. Wiburg, K., Brown, S. (2007). Lesson Study Communities: Increasing Achievement with Diverse Students. California: Corwin Press.
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Appendix 1 (from Primary 5B i-Science Workbook p23-24)
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Appendix 2 (Worksheet for RL1)
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Appendix 2 (Worksheet for RL2)
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ICT in Primary Science
Engaging Mauritian primary school pupils to develop core construct in science using PDA with a learner centered pedagogy.
Dr Yashwantrao Ramma1 Dr Kah Chye Tan2 Dr Hyleen Mariaye3 1,3
Mauritius Institute of Education
[email protected]; [email protected]
2
Addest Technovation, Singapore [email protected]
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Abstract The availability of ICT resources in Mauritian primary schools is a reality. All primary schools are now equipped with a computer room with at least 20 PC. However, the problem in using ICT is multifold. In the beginning, ICT was introduced as a subject, which soon became a monotonous subject as pupils were required to memorise procedures without actually being involved in hands in ICT related tasks. With the introduction of the Primary National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2006), ICT is intended to become an integral component of all the subjects taught at the primary level of education. Unfortunately, teachers were not prepared on how to develop ICT based lessons and also how to use these lessons to enable pupils to learn better. However, despite the provision of resources, the extent to which teachers make effective use of these resources to enable pupils to learn better is yet to be established. In order to remedy the situation, a two-year project known as „Engaging in Thinking‟ was initiated. The project introduces the use of laptops and PDA and sensors (purchased from Addest Technovation, Singapore) in enabling pupils to develop core constructs (Parmessur et al, 2004), a pre-requirement for conceptual understanding of science concepts. In addition to the use of latest technology, the project aims at developing an appropriate pedagogy which departs from the traditional teacher-centered to a learner-centered approach in learning science. Such pedagogy which contextualizes every science concept constitutes a paradigm shift in teaching and learning as it allows pupils, while using ICT, to grow conceptually by building links among concepts. The paper introduces the use of the PDA and laptops together with an innovative interactive pedagogy that enable pupils to develop core constructs to better understand science. Keywords: embedding ICT, PDA, appropriate pedagogy, core constructs
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Engaging Mauritian primary school pupils to develop core construct in science using PDA with a learner centered pedagogy. Introduction The Government of Mauritius initiated wide ranging educational reform in 2006. This decision aimed at positioning the education and knowledge sector as a key driver of the Mauritian economy. Chief among the concerns that also drove the reform was the need to address, in a cohesive manner, the multiple challenges the Mauritian society faces in the wake of globalization (MOECHR, 2006). The present reform wave is multi-pronged, aiming at consolidating equity, access and quality. The promotion of science and technology at all levels of the education system also figures prominently among the priorities. Indeed, the government has equipped all primary and secondary schools with a computer laboratory and left no stone unturned to inject the required investment in both infrastructure and human resource development (MOF, 2007). More importantly, renewed and marked emphasis is placed on changing the nature of teaching and learning in classrooms. The drive for quality education required a radically fresh outlook which necessitates a shift from a teacher driven classroom to a learner centered one with the concomitant re-orientation from content to process (Edelson, 2001). In this context, ICT can be construed not only, as a subject on its own, but also, embedded in an interactive pedagogy which offers diverse opportunities for vicarious learning experiences. In this line, a number of ICT Projects have been launched and completed in the secondary school sector. Such endeavors have been however, quasi inexistent in the primary sector. The results of these projects were, albeit, not very encouraging in triggering the expected transformation (Ramma et al, 2008) despite the well acknowledged contributions of ICT to the teaching and learning process. Notwithstanding policy commitment to ICT, the National Curriculum Framework which was elaborated in 2006 places clear emphasis on the science as an area which needs reinforcement at all levels. Studies (Parmessur et al, 2004) have revealed serious concerns in the way Mauritian learners develop understanding of science concepts and use their prior knowledge to deal with misconceptions. The genesis of these concerns can often be traced back to the initiation of learners to science concepts as early as in primary schools (Sturman, 2003).
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In the light of the above, the project “Engaging in Thinking” aimed at addressing a number of issues related to the teaching and learning of science by pulling together learner‟s prior, contextual and procedural knowledge in a bid to develop higher order thinking skills and better conceptual understanding. ICT is used to mediate learning.
The Literature Review
It is believed that the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) in the teaching and learning of science will bring about conceptual change in pupils. Conceptual change is an effortful process which demands rigorous mental activity to enable knowledge to materialize. Keiny (2008) points out that conceptual change goes beyond the cognitive domain as it entails an „experiential change, a change of identity‟ (pg. 71). However, there is a tendency to believe that solving a vast number of problems whether numerical or structured will enable pupils to develop problem solving skills and bring about conceptual change. Taconis (1995) argues that such is not the case in schools and less emphasis is laid on cognitive strategies rather than on the development of metacognitive skills (Ridgway & McCusker, 2003). The authors highlight that the development of these skills might take, not years, but decades when incorporating ICT in the process of knowledge construction unless „it is taken seriously as an educational goal‟ (p. 313). Parmessur et al. (2004) proposes a mental model of thinking that students would use in order to develop critical thinking and eventually core constructs. In this multi-dimensional model, physics is taught in conjunction with mathematics and language in a coherent way (Norman, 1998). This model places significant emphasis on the acquisition of prior knowledge and tacit knowledge (Gibson, 2008) from various areas of the curriculum in order to develop conceptual understanding and knowledge in science. In most of the cases, teachers tend to assume that students do possess the required prior knowledge and therefore proceed with the development of new knowledge without ensuring that prior knowledge is mixed with misconceptions. This is in line with Vygotsky‟s zone of proximal development (Daniels, 2001) which lays much emphasis on the type of scaffolding that the teachers should use. The introduction of technology in teaching and learning of science is deemed to bring conceptual change in pupils provided the lessons are structured so as to engage pupils (Yoon,
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Ho & Hedberg, 2005) in argumentation and classroom discussion (Evagorou & Avraamidou, 2008). Argumentation and classroom discussion containing elements of authentic and real life contexts (Atkin et al, 1996) demand that teachers invest their spare time to prepare such interactive lessons (Ramma, 2006). Atkin et al (1996) highlight a number of projects in various countries which show the benefits of ICT in science, mathematics and technology subjects where pupils are engaged in „design-make-appraise‟ (p. 65) learning cycle. It is evident that learner centered strategies should be tied with ICT and the role of the teachers will have to change, „not only the structures of their material and their classroom techniques, but even their fundamental beliefs and attitudes concerning learning‟ (Atkin et al, 1996, p. 63).
The Theoretical Premise of the Project
The „Engaging in Thinking‟ project was initiated with the assumption that knowledge is gained and constructed following pupils‟ engagement in a social environment that will bring about meaningful learning (Roth & Roychoudhury, 2003; Southerland, Gess-Newsome & Johnston, 2003; Moen, 2005). In this process of interaction, pupils will use knowledge from different subject areas, namely, science, mathematics, English and social science to make meaning as a whole rather than making sense of bits and pieces of knowledge. Stillings et al. (1995) proposed a model for cognitive processes, working memory and attention. In this Model, schema forms the basis of any thinking process. A schema is “any cognitive structure that specifies the general properties of a type of object or event” (p. 33). Schemata form prepositional networks where organised structures are processed. For knowledge to be purposefully constructed, teachers need to identify students‟ reasoning patterns and to help them formulate more advanced reasoning pattern (Karplus, 2003). With this notion in mind, a framework which includes three dimensions was worked out: 1. Contextual Knowledge. Prior knowledge is at the heart of new science knowledge development and construction. The new knowledge to be constructed by pupils has to be linked with conceptual knowledge acquired in different areas such as Mathematics, English and Social Science. Misconceptions develop when learners integrate the newly acquired abstract knowledge with previous knowledge and there is a reinterpretation of the new knowledge (Chinn & Malhotra, 2002). The introduction of
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any science concept at primary level, how abstract the concept may be, begin in a context where learners are led to locate their prior knowledge and through comparison they make adjustment in order to comply with the proposed context. It is important that all pupils have similar prior knowledge in order to be able to construct new knowledge for conceptual understanding. 2. Learner Centered Pedagogies. There are a variety of learner centered methods and strategies which Wang (2006) coins as „student empowerment pedagogy‟ (p.316) that were incorporated in the lessons so as to continuously challenge pre-existing knowledge of pupils and to cater for mixed ability. Assessment (assessment for learning) will form an integral part of the classroom transaction. Elements of values are infused in the science lessons so as to make learning meaningful and part of the social milieu. Gibson (2008) emphasizes that „education, whether it is concerned with language, mathematics, science or technology, is involved with the transmission of values, practices and customs‟ (p. 5). 3. Technology. The use of technology, namely Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) and data logging sensors and laptop is meant to help pupils to internalize the science concepts in an integrated manner. Keiny (2008) clarifies that conceptual change is an experiential change leading to a change in identity. The use of technology provides pupils with the opportunity to interact with abstract and complex situations in different contexts and through negotiation and compromise with peers and teachers (Karagiorgi, 2005). Task-centered (Keiny, 2008) science activities, developed by the research team incorporates knowledge, skills, problem-solving and values elements (Kimbell, 2001) to enhance capability of the pupils. The curriculum materials designed will help pupils to be engaged in authentic activities (Yelland, 2006; Atkin et al, 1996) as well as in multi-dimensional tasks that consider learning experiences of the pupils in a variety of perspectives.
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Harmonizing Contextual knowledge, Pedagogy and Technology Figure 1 depicts the interrelationship among the three elements in knowledge integration and construction. It is only when they are tuned with each other that pupils are able to develop core constructs and eventually develop conceptual understanding and reach a higher level of cognitive skill. The learner centered pedagogy includes in addition to a thinking paradigm (Parmessur et al., 2004), hands-on and minds-on activities with graded challenging open questions, necessary for pupils to recall and review their pre-existing (either correct conception or misconceptions) knowledge. Such an approach will help pupils to assume a level of autonomy (Wang, 2006) and responsibility (Atkin et al., 1996).
Figure 1: purposeful knowledge construction The Engaging in Thinking Project is a three year project started in 2007 funded by the Mauritius Institute of Education and UNESCO. Equipment consisting of sensors interfaced with PDA and laptops were purchased for the project.
The Pilot Project
Eight primary schools were selected from the four zones (two schools per zone) across Mauritius. Two low achieving primary schools (Zone Education Prioritaire) were included on purpose in the project. The project targets standard IV (age 9 years) and standard V (age 10). Teachers involved in the pilot project were trained in two workshops which aimed at developing skills in the use of PDA and data logging sensors and also in the development of pedagogical skills to support a new approach to teaching and learning. Teachers were briefed
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on the aims of the project and during the two workshops they made valuable suggestions for the design of science lessons at primary level. They also provided insight as to the implementation of lessons by highlighting practical difficulties in relation to pupils‟ engagement and follow up.
The thinking model developed
The model used for designing lesson is the one based on the model developed by Parmessur et al (2004). The concept taught was “The importance and functions of the ear” to pupils of standard IV (age 9 years). As discussed earlier, we proceeded by identifying the prior knowledge which the pupils would use in order to reach the concepts targeted. Five levels of understanding were identified starting from the simplest to incrementally higher order thinking as given below.
Sound- sensation (Stage 1): from the prior knowledge developed at lower levels, pupils associate the ear as a sense organ to the concrete notion of sound. They also differentiate the ear from other sense organs.
Identification- perception (Stage 2): still based on prior knowledge, the sensory date produced by the ear is interpreted in the context of the subject‟s perception of any particular sound as an element encountered in the environment. In the context of the lesson proposed, pupils listen to a variety of sounds in specific context and identify their source.
Discrimination- perception (Stage 3): The next stage is to encourage pupils not only to identify the sound but to make an individual response by categorizing the sounds. While the first two stages are sensory-perceptual, the third one requires pupils to use a schema to categorise and classify sounds. In the lesson, pupils had to use the categories of loud and soft sounds.
Interpretation- meaning making (Stage 4): as we move to higher levels of thinking, pupils then engaged in an activity which implied a certain degree of interpretation when the sounds were classified as pleasant and unpleasant. Further, through the use of situational analysis, pupils had to explain the association of sound and meaning.
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Decision- taking- action (Stage 5): the last activity represents the highest level of thinking in the model use in so far as it relates to the use of the information provided by the sensory organs and its interpretation in view of taking a decision. This would require students to pull together the understanding of sound as carrying meaning and interpret the meaning to ultimately take a decision.
As with any learning cycle, we started with prior knowledge and scaffold students‟ understanding progressively from lower order thinking skills involving recognition, identification, analysis, evaluation and ultimately action. The schema used
These stages can be further interpreted using specific schemas related to the overlapping concepts of sound and ear. From a model of generic thinking skills, a conceptual structure was elaborated building on core constructs. The model (Parmessur et al., 2004) is represented below:
Figure 2: thinking levels [TS – Transition State (a state where thinking is happening and the learner is expected to make a decision)]
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Possible options to explain the levels across the schemas In line with the model developed by Parmessur et al. ( 2004), in the context of the lesson on the functions and importance of the ear, we are proposing 3 alternative but related pathways for pupils to develop conceptual understanding. Each pathway makes use of similar prior, contextual and procedural knowledge and builds incrementally from simple to more complex levels of thinking. They are referred to as levels A, B and C. These levels are not watertight compartments and it is possible for a pupil to move from one pathway to another. The transition states offer the possibility for pupils to cross over different levels. Further, these conceptual levels of thinking are supported by the development of knowledge and thinking in supporting domains such as Mathematics, Health, Values and Languages denoted by i.
Option A Level A1: Student existing knowledge (pre conception) of the ear as the organ for hearing(human body having senses- sensation) Level A2: the ear functions in line with our prior experience (identification/ perception) Level A3: the ear has limits we do not detect all types of sounds
Or alternately Level B1: concept of sound as a noise apprehended by the ear Level B2: the understanding that sound is produced by different actions/ objects/ phenomena and thus have an existence which is independent of whether the ear perceives it or not. Level B3: as any human organ, the ear is limited because there are sounds which are so soft that it cannot be heard.
Or even Level C1: types of sound (pleasant and unpleasant) Level C2: loudness of sound (loud and soft) Level C3: measurement of sound- comparison and thinking
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Option C includes elements of integration with English and Mathematics whereby pupils are led to use already acquired knowledge in Mathematics and English to consolidate conceptual understanding in science (changes in loudness of sound and distance).
The pedagogical approach
The approach was based on Vygotsky constructivist approach which used ICT as a means of scaffolding pupils learning as they move from an understanding of ear as a sensory organ to the ear as a source of data to be interpreted and used to guide decision making. The lesson development followed the sequence given below:
Task 1: Situating prior knowledge through questioning together with the use interactive flash file through group work with teacher as facilitator (identify the data and the sense organs (stage 2; A1, B1). Rigorous testing of prior knowledge through open type questions in addition to the development of interactive flash files to confirm acquisition of prior knowledge is undertaken
Task 2: Distinguishing among different types of sound using the flash files which recreated common sounds in the environment to allow pupils to refer to already encountered sounds/ data to discriminate among types – concept of sound- the building of the schema (Stage 3; A2, B2). Pupils had to identify sounds produced in different contexts. It was important to locate the concept to be developed in a context which is familiar to the pupils
Task 3: At this stage pupils were required to categorise sounds according to two sets of criteria: loud and soft and pleasant and unpleasant (stage 3; C1, C2). At this point, values education was introduced when reference was made to noise pollution when very loud music is played and disturbs a neighbourhood.
Task 4: Two situations were then described in a worksheet illustrating the importance of paying attention to sounds in the environment and pupils were asked to propose outcomes. These were used as triggers to generate reflection as to the importance of
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the ear (stage 4; B2). Pupils were encouraged to think how they can take better care of such an important sense organ.
Task 5: Pupils were asked to discuss in groups the importance of the ear. The core constructs targeted were in terms of functions of the ear and its relationship to interpretation of sounds. Task 5 was demarcated from the three preceding tasks in terms of level of difficulty because it required pupils to use language as a mediator to propose a range of contexts where the importance of the ear is illustrated. (Stage 5; B 2).
Task 6: This phase of the lesson related to the limits of the ear as a sensory organ and the independent existence of sound even if they are not apprehended by the ear. Also, sound is then interpreted as measurable concept which can be captured by the use of appropriate technology. This activity involved the use of a sensor to monitor heartbeat on a PDA. (Stage 5; A3, B3, C3). Pupils make use of the data logging sensors connected to the PDA to „listen‟ to soft sound using the stethoscope and the signal can be viewed on the screen. A comparison is drawn with the type of signal that some pupils have observed on the display screen in a hospital when the heart beat is monitored.
Figure 3 summarizes the various pedagogical dimensions of the science lesson when infused with technology. Emphasis is placed on learning rather than on teaching and the learner is situated at the center of the classroom transactions. The learner is led to construct purposeful knowledge structures when being engaged in thinking rather than being involved in memorizing facts. The lesson is structured in such a way that pre existing knowledge (prior knowledge) is continuously being challenged, through scaffolding (Flick, 2000), even during the engagement of the pupils in the hands on and minds on activities. Assessment for learning and diagnostic assessment are fully embedded in the learning process.
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Figure 3: the knowledge cycle
Pupils‟ participation Classroom observation and responses from questionnaire reveal the full extent of participation of the pupils. Though it is still early to evaluate the benefits of group work in the primary schools the preliminary results are encouraging. Since there are, on average, about 35 pupils in the classrooms, it was difficult for the teachers alone to lead the discussion and pupils, at times, will go out of focus. Pupils were very keen to perform the activities on the laptop and PDA and sensors, especially when it came to monitoring the heart beat. In this technology-based classroom, pupils were interacting and „talking‟ to others to carry out the hand on activities. Using the worksheets which contain graded questions, pupils could express themselves freely, something that they have never done on their own. Even the low ability pupils could answer the question to some degree of correctness. We were interested in pupils‟ participation and engagement in science activities, in sharing knowledge using latest technology and the response was beyond our expectation. One of the tasks in the worksheet included a contextual picture of pupils playing loud music in their immediate neighborhood. After discussion, pupils concluded that loud sound is bad for the ears and they were asked to brief their parents, a task that was acknowledged by the parents on the worksheets.
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Conclusion This paper lays the foundation of a series of research activities pertaining to the project „Engaging in Thinking‟ where pupils at the primary level of education are encouraged to construct of knowledge while interacting with ICT and PDA as well as data logging sensors. Multi-dimensional tasks which include tasks related to testing of prior knowledge of pupils throughout the whole lesson, hand on and mind on activities as well as formative and diagnostic assessment were infused in the lesson. The preliminary finding reveals positive participation and engagement in technology especially in a low achieving school. The lessons created situations for pupils to integrate knowledge in science within a context. There is also emerging evidence that technology mediated learning in the context of primary science.
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References Atkin, J. M., Black, P., Duval, R., James, E., Olson, J., Pevsner, d., Raizen, S., Saez, M. J., Simons, H. (1996). Innovations in science, mathematics and technology education. Ed. Black, P & Atkin, J. M., London and New York, Routledge. Chinn, C., Malhotra, B. (2002). Children‟s responses to anomalous scientific data: How is conceptual change impeded? Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 94, p. 327-243. Cho, K. & Jonassen, D. (2002). The effects of argumentation scaffolds on argumentation and problem solving, Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol. 50(3), p. 1042-1629. Daniels, H.(2001). Vygotsky and Pedagogy. London and New York. Routledge Falmer. Edelson, D. C. (2001). Learning-for-use: A framework for the design of technologysupported inquiry activities, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 38(3), p. 355-385. Evagorou, M., Avraamidou, L. (2008). Technology in support of argument construction in school science, Educational Media International, Vol. 45(1), p. 33-45. Flick, L. B. (2000). Cognitive scaffolding that fosters scientific inquiry in middle level science, Journal of Science Teacher Education, Vol. 11(20), 109-129. Gibson, K. (2008). Technology and technological knowledge: a challenge for school curricula, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol. 14(1), p. 3-15. Karagiorgi, Y. (2005). Throwing light into the black box of implementation: ICT in Cyprus elementary schools, Educational Media International, Vol. 42(1), p. 19-32. Karplus, R. (2003). Science teaching and the development of reasoning, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 40, supplement, p. S51-S57. Keiny, S. (2008). Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol 14(1), p. 61-72.
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Kimbell, R. (2001). Design and technology and the knowledge economy. Journal of Design and Technology Education, Vol. 6(1), p. 3-5. Moen, T. (2005). Activity genre: a new approach to successful inclusive teaching, Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol. 11(3), p. 257-272. Norman, E. (1998). The nature of technology for design. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 8, p. 67-87. Parmessur P, Ramma Y, Beesoondyal H, Ramdinny A (2004). Investigating the common core constructs in student’s acquisition of logico-mathematical concept in physics at HSC level. [Research Project, 2001-2004, funded by the Mauritius Research Council]. Ramma, Y., Dindyal, J., Tan, K. C., Cyparsade, M. (2006). Engaging students to develop conceptual understanding in physics using ICT, International Science Education Conference, 2006, NIE, Singapore. Paper published in the proceedings of the Conference. Ramma, Y., Mariaye, H., Brown, C. (2008). Some lessons from the physics data logging and NEPAD e-schools demonstration projects, Paper presented at the International Conference „Education and Knowledge-based economies‟, Mauritius Institute of Education. Paper published in the proceedings of the conference. Ridgway, J., McCusker, S. (2003). Using computers to assess new educational goals, Assessment in Education, Vol. 10(3), p. 309-345. Roth, W-M., Roychoudhury, A. (2003). Physics students‟ epistemologies and views about knowing and learning,
Journal
of
Research in
Science Teaching, Vol.
40(supplement), p. S114-S139. Southerland, S. A., Gess-Newsome, J., Johnston, A. (2003). Portraying science in the classroom: The manifestation of scientists‟ beliefs in classroom practice, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Vol. 40(7), p. 669-691. Page 1718
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Sturman, L. (2003). Preparing for the tests, Primary Science Review, Vol. 79,The Association of Science Education. Taconis, R. (1995). Understanding based problem solving. Doctoral dissertation, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven/Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Wang, Y-M. (2006). Technology projects as a vehicle to empower students, Educational Media International, Vol.43(4), p. 315-330. Yelland, N. (2006). Changing worlds and new curricula in the knowledge era. Educational Media International, Vol. 43(2), p. 121-131. Yoon, F. S., Ho, J & Hedberg, J. G. (2005). Teacher understandings of technology affordances and their impact on the design of engaging learning experiences, Educational Media International, Vol. 42(2), p. 297-316.
Report Ministry of Education and Human Resources (2006) Strategy for Reforms, Mauritius Ministry of Finance and Economic empowerment, (2007) National Budget 2007, Mauritius Accessed http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/MOFSite/menuitem.5b1d751c6156d7f4e0aad110a7b521ca/?c ontent_id=23e05c7483033110VgnVCM1000000a04a8c0RCRD [Retrieved, 19 Oct 2009]
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Using simulations in science: An exploration of pupil behaviour Susan Rodrigues Professor in Science Education
ESWCE, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN Scotland
Email: [email protected]
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Using simulations in science: An exploration of pupil behaviour Abstract This paper provides an insight into pupil behaviour patterns when pupils use readily available science (chemistry) simulations. In this paper we describe the methodology used to track the pupils' behaviour, the methodological approach we used to analyse the data sets collected, the findings obtained from this pilot study, and how the findings have informed further research involving the use of formal and informal ICT in science. Introduction In science education we often use situations where learning is advocated through the use of a model. In recent times these models have grown to include computer-based simulations. Many researchers are exploring the benefits of using interactive computer-based simulations. These computer-based simulations have been defined as a representation or model of an event, object or phenomenon (Thompson, Simonson and Hargrave, 1996). Alessi and Trollip (1991) suggest that students learn by interacting with the simulation in a similar vein to the way they would react if faced with a real situation. Researchers are seeking an understanding of the relationship between the model and the real situation and in other cases they are investigating how, if at all, the model is helping students to make better sense of the science they encounter (see for example, Stieff & Wilensky 2003; Thompson, Simonson & Hargrave, 1996). There is a significant body of research that suggests that simulations motivate students in chemistry (Tsui, & Treagust, 2004: Rodrigues, Smith & Ainley, 2001) and it has long been argued that computer simulations for science education address issues of expense, impracticality (danger or impossible) and access (Strauss & Kinzie, 1994; Rodrigues, 2004).
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It has also been argued that the use of computer simulations in science lessons provides an opportunity for more problem solving exercises and the incorporation of tools for scientific inquiry (House, 1998). They may even reduce misconception development (Yang, Greenbowe & Andre, 2004) for as Williamson and Abraham (1995) suggest simulations may help students to better understand three-dimensional structures and as Barnea and Dori (1999) suggest they may encourage spatial ability. Not surprisingly many researchers document the usefulness of simulated environments to facilitate learning (see for example Zacharia, 2007; Zumbach, Schmitt, Reimann & Starkloff, 2006; Rodrigues, Pearce and Livett, 2001). However, there are challenges to face when advocating simulation use in chemistry. These include: the issue of attention span (Ploetzner, Bodemer & Neudert, 2008), meta-cognitive competencies when working in non-linear learning environments (Schwartz, Andersen, Hong, Howard, and McGee, 2004; Rodrigues, 2007), influence of design in terms of vividness (Rodrigues, 2007) and influence of prior knowledge (Shapiro, 1999; Rodrigues, 2007; Rodrigues, Pearce and Livett, 2001) and challenges with spatial relations (Lee, 2007;Huk, 2007). The concerns regarding the potential for misconception development (see Rodrigues, 2007) is probably highlighted by the research on misleading illustrations in textbooks (e.g. Hill, 1988; Eilks, Witteck & Pietzner, in press). To a certain extent it could be argued that computer simulations reflect constructive or instructive influenced pedagogies. Thomas and Hooper (1991) suggest that simulations can be classified into four categories:
Experiencing simulations; model particular scenarios - students can manipulate factors to see the impact or influence.
Informing simulations: transmit or present factual information
Integrating simulations: students use previously acquired understanding of skills and principles and relate or apply the knowledge to a new simulation. Page 1722
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Reinforcing simulations: drill and practice- where a student completes a sequence of generated exercises.
While De Jong and Van Joolingen (1998) classify computer simulations as either containing a conceptual model or an operational model. A conceptual model simulation includes principles and facts and concepts related to the simulated system while an operational model simulation has sequences of operations (cognitive or other) that are applied to the simulation. Not surprisingly the use of simulations in science appears to have wide appeal. Over twenty years ago Choi and Gennaro (1987) investigating gender related issues with regard to simulation use, found that males post tests after hands on laboratory exercises were better than the post test results for female students. Notably, Choi and Gennaro (1987) also found that there was no gender difference in post test results when computer simulations were used. We, like Choi and Gennaro are interested in the differences (though not solely gender differences), if any in terms of behaviour when using simulations. Given concerns, regarding the use of multimedia simulations in science classes and the suggestion that it appears to be easier in rhetoric than in reality (see Eilks, Witteck & Pietzner, in press) and given an increasing drive toward online assessment in science education, we thought to investigate pupils use of readily available online simulations. The simulations used in the project probably best fit into the Thomas and Hooper category of ‘Experiencing simulations’. They were high quality simulations aimed at introducing college chemistry (general chemistry) that could be downloaded for no cost from the website: http://www.chem.iastate.edu/group/Greenbowe/sections/projectfolder/animationsindex.htm providing the source was acknowledged. The simulations from this website were representative of many commonly found types of simulations used in science lessons in schools in Scotland. The simulations were typical of many commercial products and they reflected realistic experiments, they provided opportunities to conduct experiments without Page 1723
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incurring costs for equipment or resources, and they allowed for multiple repeat experiments. On the website, some of the simulations also have tutorial worksheets. However, for the purpose of our project, the simulations were used without accompanying worksheets. It was felt, that using the simulation with the accompanying tutorial would be akin to using the simulation with teacher input. In both cases, neither would provide an insight into the design factors that influence pupil engagement. It would not provide a view of what pupils attend to, focus on, or continue to pursue and these aspects are important for two key reasons. First, the call for autonomous learning, suggests pupils take ownership for their learning. It is therefore important that we explore what it is that will engage pupils and encourage them to take ownership. Second, in Scotland the assessment portfolio is moving toward the inclusion of electronic forms of assessment. It is quite possible that simulations may be included in formal assessment practices for science education, and it is therefore important to design simulations that are effective in assessing pupils understanding of science appropriately.
In phase 1 we used simulations that depicted the microscopic level and some simulations that were models of experiments. The simulations that depicted the microscopic level usually involved coloured spheres to represent the various ions, atoms, molecules or particles moving around. For example, one simulation was an illustration of a neutralisation reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, another an illustration of sodium chloride dissolving. The neutralisation simulation contained text on screen prior to and during the simulation. The dissolving sodium chloride simulation provided text at the end of action sequences and allowed the pupil to replay, zoom in, or select a viewing angle. The models of experiment simulations included required the pupil to complete text boxes, change quantities or move dials or scales. For example there was a titration experiment where pupils selected acids and alkalis by choosing from a menu and then filled a burette or conical Page 1724
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flask, and metal reactivity experiment, where metals were chosen and they were then the simulation immersed the metal in either acid or metal ion solutions. The pupils had to follow a particular sequence to make the simulation operational. Error messages appeared if the pupil was incorrect. Some simulations had tabs (with menus) to pullout, or button type selection options, or text boxes for pupils to key in information, or sliders to change quantities and there were submit buttons. Method There were two phases to the project. The first phase project adopted a methodology reported by Rodrigues (2007) in which retrospective accounts were used to access pupils’ thinking. This semi-structured retrospective interview technique included presenting pupils with a video digital record of their pathway data documenting behaviour and actions and asking pupils for retrospective comment. Phase 1 involved data collected either when pairs of students or individual students worked with chemistry simulations. There were two reasons for the pair or individual option, one was convenience ( in terms of access to hardware) and the second was methodological (in terms of seeing whether talk aloud was more likely if working in pairs and hence of more use in terms of accessing pupil thinking at the time). They were videotaped and the tape played back to the pupils a few minutes later, and they were asked to explain what drove their actions. To maintain anonymity, in the transcripts found in this paper all names are either initials or pseudonyms and the characters in the parentheses allow the researchers to identify the source of the transcript. In phase 2 project we worked with a colleague at Melbourne University, E. Gvozdenko who helped to develop an online tracking system that enabled us to log pupils activity as they used the simulations. This is in its pilot stage. We have collected data from four convenience schools and one tertiary institution first year cohort. Those involved were volunteers, and
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though we present some of the data collected in this paper, the main purpose of this phase was to evaluate the tracking system for use with a larger sample. No identifying data at the individual level was collected, but school/higher education institutions were recognised by the logging system. In phase 2 we used two simulations, both modelling experiments– metal reactivity (metals in metal compound solutions and metals in acid) and an acid-base titration. We have created three versions of each of the two simulations. Each version has a different level of instruction/text/ guidance. Each student was randomly assigned a simulation. Before they start the simulation they have to provide information about age, gender, science subject, (science, chemistry, physics, biology,) class level ( s1/2 (first two years secondary school), s3/4 (second two years in secondary school) s5/6 (penultimate years in secondary school), higher education) and previous ICT experience. They also had 5 multiple choice chemistry questions. The post questionnaire has five similar chemistry questions. In our pilot we have collected data from pupils aged from 13 years (second year of secondary school) to over 18 years (First year university students). In essence as a student uses the randomly allocated simulation their activity is monitored and logged. Findings In both phases of this project we were interested in exploring how pupils use chemistry simulations. We were particularly interested in the influence of science understanding, technology competence and information processing competence on student progress when using simulations: what constitutes digital literacy when using science simulations. The video stimulated recall phase identified several influencing factors that swayed the process of engagement. These were:
distraction (redundant segments) and vividness (items that stand out),
logic and instructions
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prior knowledge
The findings from the online tracking project identified a further set of issues to consider. The titration simulation involved more problem type interaction (where they selected solutions and calculated molarity) and was found to be as interesting as computer games by nearly two thirds of the sample. In contrast the metal titration, which was more of a delivery information simulation, that involved students selecting metals to insert into solutions and then observing the screen was found to be as interesting as a computer game by only 42% of the sample. Our preliminary data also suggests that the time spent on responding to questions and pupils’ stated confidence in their answers highlighted gender and prior experience related issues, but we intend to discuss this in another paper, once all the data has been thoroughly reviewed. Interestingly, for us, our preliminary findings suggest that pupils/students perceptions of ease and interest are not reflected in their actions when using the simulations. Findings: Phase 1 Analysis of the digital recordings of the phase 1 pupils using the titration simulation showed that all the pupils in our sample had problems with the titration simulation. In addition, unless the pupils followed the sequence of instructions the simulation would not work. As we will read from transcript a and b, advice provided by pupils included changing the situation of the instructions. Transcript a Pupil M- To make the instructions more clear. Researcher- And how could they do that? Because the instructions are all numbered. Pupil M
Aye, but you put the instructions on the side no one reads
Pupil1 S
See if you had them all in like in a row, because you have number five over here, and on the other side of some test tubes, so you might not even think about
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looking at the numbers and that, and your eyes are drawn to something. But if you have them all in like order going down or something. (SMA MS)
Transcript b Researcher- …And see that? It has got a sequence of numbers there, one, two Pupil J-
Yeah, I think the sequence could have been in order.
Researcher- What do you mean by that? Pupil Lu
Well see its got like one, two (points to screen) and three is down there (points), it is like at the side, which is a bit.. Then there is four (points to lower screen) and there’s five (points to upper
Pupil J-
screen) Pupil Lu-
And five is at the top and six is right in the middle which is a bit..
Researcher- So the positions aren’t in sequence? ) Pupil J-
Yes.
(SMA LuJ)
All pupils in phase 1 explained how they made progress by referring to their prior knowledge. As we shall see from transcripts c- e, this prior knowledge referred to their science prior knowledge, or their use of similar software, or their familiarity with similar simulations. Transcript c Researcher- So you went for weak acid and strong base. Pupil 3
Yeah. And I think I went for base or was it acid to..
Researcher- Stick it in the burette? Any reason for that? Pupil 3
In chemistry in class we always put the acid in the burette (DHS3)
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Some of the phase 1 pupils explained their ability to engage with the simulations by referring to using similar computer-based activity, for example in the transcript below, Bitesize revision refers to a BBC online site. Transcript d Pupil Ca
We knew instinctively that the button would change.
ResearcherPupil T-
Did you, how did you know that?
Because I use the ‘Bitesize revision’ So it is quite handy and they have got a lot of diagrams like this. (SMA CaT)
Other pupils in phase 1 also signaled prior history in terms of recognizing and associating particular icons or buttons with particular actions. Transcript e Researcher-
Ok. You went to acid. So what was your thinking when you were doing that?
Pupil 2
I wasn’t very sure what I was meant to be doing. And at first I didn’t actually know that there were tabs on the side. I usually associate those radio buttons with just selecting options. (DHS 2)
In addition, phase 1 pupils also signaled that their behaviour was dictated by the vividness of particular icons or buttons within the simulation. For example, as pupil transcript f and g show, some items distracted some pupils whilst other pupils were swayed by the size or location of icons that appeared on screen. Transcript f Researcher And then you were clicking away at something. Pupil M
Yeah, the drop wise.
Researcher Oh the dropper. So why were you clicking on the dropper?
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Pupil M
It was the biggest thing that you can see. (SMA MS)
Transcript g Researcher-
Oh, ok. So what made you think you had to move that slider up?
Pupil C
Because it was like, red and
Pupil L
Like, it just looked like you are supposed to do it. (SMA CL)
Our findings from phase 1 suggested that pupil engagement and progress was dictated by three key elements: prior knowledge, distracting elements and sequence logic. Findings: Phase 2 The findings from phase 2 that we present in this paper are preliminary findings based on a pilot study intending to evaluate a pilot methodology. Our pilot study suggests that our sample of pupils and university students were motivated with regard to pursuing education. In the table below, the question pertaining to school was phrased in terms of school when directed at the school students, while the question the higher education students faced replaced the term school with university. From the table below, over three quarters of the pupils who responded to the online simulation would opt to go to school even if it was not compulsory. We would expect to see a high response rate for those attending University, though it was interesting to note that some would opt not to attend!
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Table 1 Pupil/Student interest in school/University Groups
Would you choose to come to Would you choose to go to school?
Uni?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Titration
79%
21%
88%
9%
Metal
77%
23%
84%
16%
Table 2 shows the nature of previous experience with regard to using similar software, either information games based, or school based. From the data over two thirds of our sample have prior experience in playing with computers, while between half and two thirds have experienced simulation use in their science lessons. Table 2 Pupil/Student prior experience with simulations and computer games Groups
Do
you
play
computer Used simulation in science
games?
lesson before?
Yes
No
Yes
No
Titration
67%
33%
64%
36%
Metal
70%
30%
56%
44%
Total
68.5%
31.5%
60%
40%
Our sample suggests that on the whole the titration simulation was seen to be as interesting (64%) as a computer game, while the metals simulation was not (42%) perceived to be as interesting as a computer game. Of the thirteen 18 year olds (university students) in the sample only three (23%) thought the metal simulation was not as interesting as a computer game. In contrast, 40% of the 12-13 year olds, (6 of the sample of 15), 60% of the 14-15 year
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olds (9 of the sample of 15) and 46% of the 16-17 year olds (5 of the sample of 11) thought the simulation was not as interesting as the computer game. So, given that the University students were all studying chemistry through choice, perhaps it was the subject matter rather than the simulation that rendered it interesting. However, this is purely conjecture as we did not ask for their reasons for interest. It is worth noting that 25% (6 of the sample of 24) cross age female pupils/students, thought the metal simulation was not as interesting as a computer game, while 60% (16 of the 27) male pupils/students, thought the simulation was not as interesting as a computer game. Groups
Were the simulations (titration or metals) as interesting as computer games? Very
Equally
Not
No answer
interesting.
interesting
interesting
Titration
9%
56%
24%
12%
Metal
2%
30%
42%
26%
Total
5.5%
43%
33%
19%
The data from our phase 2 sample also suggests that the titration simulation was perceived to be easy (82%) while a smaller percentage believed the metals simulation to be easy (58%). While one of the eighteen year olds and none of the 12 –13 year olds thought the simulation was not easy. However, while this may appear to contrast with the phase 1 findings where student were distracted by the large red button, and missed instruction 3 without which they could not complete the titration, and our preliminary results also show no apparent influence of age or gender, our preliminary analysis of pupil perception and their actual ability to use the simulation are at odds. However this stage of analysis is still in its infancy.
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Four of our male students/pupils thought the metals simulation was not easy, two of these were 12-13 year olds, while the other two were between 14-17. Two of our female pupils, both aged between 14-17 thought the metal simulation was not easy. Groups
Are science simulation easy? Very easy
Easy
Not easy
No answer
Titration
18%
64%
3%
15%
Metal
21%
37%
14%
28%
Total
19.5%
50.5%
8.5%
21.5%
Overall a high percentage of students found the simulation easy and only 3% did not think the titration simulation was easy. However, our preliminary analysis suggests that student perception of ease and interest was not necessarily found in their performance as they used the simulation and in their responses to questions based on their understanding of the concepts they encountered. Discussion Analysis of the digital records for the pupils in phase 1 suggests that three key aspects influenced their ability to engage fruitfully with the simulations. These three aspects were: Distraction and vividness Logic and Information Prior Knowledge Analysis of the digital records for the pupils in phase 2 suggests that pupil perception of ease and interest does not necessarily match with their actual performance when using the simulations.
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In phase 1 all the pupils commented on logical placement of instructions and this was seen to be instrumental in guiding progress. So, though the instructions in the titration simulation were assigned numbers to help identify the sequence for engagement, their location on the screen was not in a sequence identified by the pupils as logical. All the pupils referred, at some point, to their prior knowledge, which they used to determine the course of action. In some cases this was problematic because pupils concentrated on particular science aspects of symbolic representations and mistakenly construed explanations based on these assumptions. When the symbols found in these symbolic representations were clarified, the majority of pupils were able to explain the simulation designer intended science. Therefore their retrospective narrative in which they identified particular microscopic particles erroneously, does not reflect their understanding of the science, but it does reflect their information processing capacity. In addition, while much has been made of the pupils as digital ‘natives’ in reality, as our phase 2 pilot preliminary findings are starting to suggest, this may well have resulted in pupils perceiving ease and interest based on their technology competence, but in reality experiencing difficulty when they actually use the science simulation. In light of the fact that recent developments in assessment practices in education in Scotland have come to include the use of electronic formats, it is quite possible that e-assessment protocols will also be used in science education in the near future. The findings from this project suggest that eassessment involving the use of multimedia or symbolic representation in science education will have to take great care if it is to ensure that what it is assessing is the pupil’s science capability and not information processing skills, that rely on shared symbol identification or on the ability to follow the designers’ logic of instructions.
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References
Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S.R (1991). Computer based instruction: Methods and Development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Barnea, N., & Dori, Y. (1999). High-school chemistry students’ performance and gender differences in a computerised molecular modelling learning environment. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8 (4), 257-271. Choi, B. S., & Gennaro, E (1987). The effectiveness of using computer simulated experiments on junior high students understanding of the volume displacement concept. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, De Jong, T., & Van Joolingen, W.R (1998). Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains. Review of Educational Research, 68, 179-201 Eilks, I., Witteck, T., & Pietzner, V. (in press). Using multimedia learning aids from the Internet for teaching chemistry – Not as easy as it seems. In S Rodrigues, (Ed) Multiple Literacy and Science Education: ICTs in Formal and Informal Learning Environments. Hershey, Pennsylvania: IGI Global Publishing Howse, M A. (1998). Student Ecosystems problem solving using computer simulation. Washington DC:Office of Educational Research and Improvement. ERIC document reproduction service no, ED419679. Huk, T. (2007). Who benefits from learning with 3D models? The case of spatial ability. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 22 (6), 392-404. Lee, H. (2007). Instructional design of web-based simulations for learners with different levels of spatial ability. Instructional Science, 35, 467-479.
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Ploetzner, R., Bodemer, D., & Neudert, S. (2008). Successful and less successful use of dynamic visualizations. In R. Lowe & W. Schnotz (Eds.), Learning with Animation – Research Implications for Design (pp. 71-91). New York: Cambridge University Press. Rodrigues, S. (2007). Factors that influence pupil engagement with science simulations: The role of distraction, vividness, logic, instruction and prior knowledge Chemical Education Research and Practice, 8,1,1-12. Rodrigues, S. (2004). A review of research on the use of ICT in school science education. International Organisation of Science and Technology Education, (IOSTE) Conference, Lublin, Poland, July 2004. Rodrigues, S., Pearce, J., & Livett, M. (2001). Using Video-Analysis or Data loggers During Practical work in first year physics, Educational Studies, 27,1,31-44. Rodrigues, S., Smith, A., & Ainley, M. (2001). Video Clips and Animation in Chemistry CDROMS: Student Interest and Preference. Australian Science Teachers Journal,47,2,9-16. Shapiro, A. (1999). The relationship between prior knowledge and interactive overviews during hypermedia-aided learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 20 (2), 143–167. Schwartz, N., Andersen, C., Hong, N., Howard, B., & McGee, S. (2004). The influence of metacognitive skills on learners’ memory of information in a hypermedia environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 31 (1), 77–93. Stieff, J. & Wilensky, U (2003). Connected Chemistry incorporating interactive simulations into the Chemistry Classroom 2003. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 12, 208-302
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Strauss, R. & Kinzie M.B. (1994). Student achievement and attitudes in a pilot study comparing an interactive videodisc simulation to conventional dissection. American Biology Teacher, 56, 398-402 Thomas, R . & Hooper, E (1991). Simulations: An opportunity we are missing. Journal of Research on computing in Education, 23, 497-513 Thompson, A., Simonson, M., & Hargrave, C. (1996). Educational Technology: A review of research, 2nd Edition, Washington DC: Association for Educational Communications and technology. Tsui, C.-Y., & Treagust, D. (2004). Motivational aspects of learning genetics with interactive multimedia. The American Biology Teacher, 66 (4), 277-285. Williamson, V. M., & Abraham, M. R. (1995). The effects of computer animation on the particulate mental models of college chemistry students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32 (5), 521-534. Yang, E.-M., Greenbowe, T. J., & Andre, T. (2004). The effective use of an interactive software programmes to reduce students’ misconceptions about batteries. Journal of Chemical Education, 81 (4), 587-595. Zumbach, J., Schmitt, S., Reimann, P., & Starkloff, P. (2006). Learning Life Sciences: Design and Development of a Virtual Molecular Biology Learning Lab. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 25(3), 281-300. Zacharia, Z. C. (2007). Comparing and combining real and virtual experimentation: an effort to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of electric circuits. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23, 120–132.
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Physics at the Theme Park
PHYSICS AT THE THEME PARK: Providing the authentic real-life experiential learning tool in enhancing students’ understanding of conceptual and contextual applications of the laws of Physics.
Surianah Rosli
Department of Mathematics & Sciences Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islámiah, Singapore 579711 [email protected]
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Physics at the Theme Park ABSTRACT The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of a theme park setting that will provide a unique opportunity to facilitate a student‟s understanding of Physics. The study also aims to validate and accredit the theme park as the authentic real-life experiential learning tool in enhancing students‟ understanding of conceptual and contextual applications of the laws of Physics. In the study, students are engaged in activities whereby they can verify the validity of many physics formulas, experience effects that are essentially counter-intuitive and develop a new experimental basis for determining whether an answer calculated in a classroom makes sense.
The sample consisted of two groups of students: One group of fifty 17 year olds of mixed ability (MXA17), all of whom possesses prior knowledge of basic laws of physics, while another group of twenty-five 15 year olds of high abilities (HA15), all of whom possesses minimal prior knowledge of basic laws of physics. The findings of this study suggest that a theme park offers real world experiences that can permanently alter the way in which a student perceives the laws of physics.
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Physics at the Theme Park INTRODUCTION
Secondary physics teaching globally and locally has been undergoing radical changes over the past decade. As more educators move towards fulfilling a context-based secondary syllabus, there are still drawbacks to contextual teaching such as lack of preparation time, the breadth of physics concepts covered, and stretching the boundaries of one‟s own understanding as a teacher. Regardless, undoubtedly the benefits for students‟ interest and motivation, as well as their learning outcomes are significant.
In addition to that, the physics syllabus has been evolving from an approach based around set conceptual content to one in which the concepts are taught using a contextual approach. The advantages of contextual teaching are that students can link physics to their lives in the „real world‟, and are usually more motivated. Whitelegg and Parry (1999) discuss the advantages of teaching physics in context, both by applying previous knowledge to real life situations, and by initially learning physics through analysing these situations.
Given that contextual teaching of physics is seen as advantageous at the secondary level, especially for capturing student interest and, potentially, increasing enrolment (Binnie 2004), it seems reasonable to consider an initiative that fully contextualises the assessment regime, other than just moving towards contextualised lessons. The rationale for choosing assessment as the initial focus is that, if students find the work they are required to do links into their field of interest, they will engage with the material at a deeper level, instead of merely memorising what is required. This process of deeper conceptual learning must be re-enforced by appropriate forms of assessment so that „constructive alignment‟ (Biggs 1999) is achieved within the subject.
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Physics at the Theme Park The essence of this literature centralises around various educational theories, which proved to be of pivotal significance when planning such a physics learning journey. Constructivist learning, experiential learning, conceptual and contextual learning and teaching, Vygotsky‟s notion of scaffolding, will be briefly highlighted and referenced to allow readers understand and appreciate the nature and rationale of the project in question.
CONSTRUCTIVISM The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves - each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning - as he or she learns. Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind (Hein, 1991). The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold;
1) We have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught): 2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.
Constructivism shifts the focus of learning from rote memorization to learning by building conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction in order to apply knowledge across domains. Hensen (2001) reiterates that building conceptual structures requires the learner to see connectedness by using structures of knowledge that are generalizable and transferable. This transferability is desired so that the learner can use processes in one domain to solve problems or devise new ideas in another domain. In other words, the transfer of knowledge helps the learner to be more productive.
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Physics at the Theme Park In Hensen (2001), it was also mentioned that John Dewey, a founding constructivist, stressed that continuous, “intrinsic connection of organism and world on the level of action, thus introducing the notions of action and experience.” (Vanderstraeten & Biesta, 2005, p. 1).
Constructivists see learning as an active process where the learner constructs new ideas based on past/present experiences. The learner creates mental models to manipulate, propose hypotheses, discover new principals or explain new concepts. This definition simply describes knowledge as something that must be built by the learner through linkages to prior knowledge and not received through some passive environment i.e. a lecturing teacher.
One of the first things a teacher must do when considering how to teach students is to acknowledge that each student does not learn in the same way. This means that if the teacher chooses just one style of teaching (direct instruction, collaborative learning, inquiry learning, etc.), the students will not be maximizing their learning potential. Obviously, a teacher can not reach every student on the same level during one lesson, but implementing a variety of learning styles throughout the course allows all the students will have the chance to learn in at least one way that matches their learning style.
So how can we learn best? For example, do we learn better when someone tells us exactly how to do something, or do we learn better by doing it ourselves? Many people are right in the middle of those two scenarios. This has led many educators to believe that the best way to learn is by having students construct their own knowledge instead of having someone construct it for them. This belief is explained by the Constructivist Learning Theory. This theory states that learning is an active process of creating meaning from different experiences. In other words, students will learn best by trying to make sense of something on their own with the teacher as a guide to help them along the way. Page 1742
Physics at the Theme Park In other words, learning is work, not of the teacher, but of the student. Learning requires concentration, reflection, action, and mental modelling. The mind is NOT lazy! It actually likes to solve problems, especially mathematical and scientific problems.
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING Experiential learning, also known as hands-on or inquiry-based learning, has long been a staple of science education. Long a staple of laboratory teaching settings, experiential learning is now taking centre stage in even broader programs designed to equip students with important, real-world skills. It's an approach that goes beyond traditional book-learning and memorization, instead acknowledging the social as well as the strictly academic aspects of learning.
Experiential Learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience. Aristotle once said, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them.”
From Wikipedia (2009), “experiential learning is learning through reflection on doing, which is often contrasted with rote or didactic learning. Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. An example of experiential learning is going to the zoo and learning through observation and interaction with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences.”
In addition to the above, according to David Kolb, an American educational theorist, knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. He states that in
order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, certain abilities are required: 1. the learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience; 2. the learner must be able to reflect on the experience; 3. the learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and
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Physics at the Theme Park 4. the learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.
(Wikipedia 2009)
An effective experiential facilitator (educator / teacher) is one who is passionate about his or her work and is able to immerse his or her students totally in the learning situation, allowing them to gain new knowledge from their peers and the environment created. These facilitators stimulate the imagination, keeping participants hooked on the experience.
CONCEPTUAL LEARNING & CONTEXTUAL TEACHING It is the conceptual mind that makes sense out of the world. If the conceptual mind is not engaged, then there is no real thinking going on. A concept is defined as “a general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences” or “something formed in the mind; a thought or notion”. A focus on concepts in itself does not guarantee conceptual learning. We must adopt active learning strategies to enhance conceptual learning.
How effective can we teach the essential knowledge and skills in our respective content area? We cannot use the student objectives as check lists to check off Topic by Topic, or Fact by Fact. Topic-based curriculum is boring and referred to as the "coverage level" or "Cover-to-cover" (book) curriculum. This low-level teaching method does not engage the student at the conceptual cognitive level.
Traditionally, teachers believe that factual teaching is the only way to get curriculum across. It is well known that human beings are thinking beings. A thinking being does not put "heart" into a flatline topic-based curriculum. A thinking being is curious about how patterns fit and how puzzles work. The growing criticism of public schools is based on several major issues, but none more so than the dissatisfaction with children who cannot think. Page 1744
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"In a thinking classroom, facts become tools to develop concepts and generalizations and become building blocks to support Conceptual Learning. Motivation is intrinsically generated by the conceptual mind. As factual coverage increases, conceptual engagement decreases--along with motivation for learning." (Dr. Lynn Erickson)
Conceptual learning is a process by which students learn how to organize information in logical mental structures.
Conceptual learning focuses on learning organizing principles – the cubby holes in which the mind organizes facts into ideas.
Conceptual learning is a catalyst for challenging students to think at more advanced levels.
In Smith, Cusworth and Dobbins (2000), studies by Brown (1994) and Palinscar and Brown (1984) suggested that when teaching a group of students experiencing literacy difficulties, by using metacognitive strategies such as summarising, questioning, predicting and clarifying skills did improve their comprehension abilities, on average over fifteen months. Indeed, learning will not take happen unless the whole person is engaged in making meaning.
OBJECTIVES
In an attempt to assimilate all of these educational theories into my teaching pedagogy, I coordinated a learning journey to the theme park whereby students are required to answer questions that will enable them to demonstrate their understanding of physics concepts (Kinematics & Energy), and how these can be used to explain the working principles of the Page 1745
Physics at the Theme Park theme park rides. Based on data from informal student feedback, assessment performance, and standard closed question program surveys, I will show that a theme park setting can provide a unique opportunity to facilitate a student‟s understanding of Physics. The data also aims to validate and accredit the theme park as the authentic real-life experiential learning tool in enhancing students‟ understanding of conceptual and contextual applications of the laws of Physics. In short, the objectives of the physics‟ learning journey at the theme park can be outlined as follows:
SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this activity, students will be able to:
Have a better understanding of how to apply physics principles to new situations and how physics affects their everyday life.
Verify the validity of many physics formulas, experience effects that are essentially counter-intuitive and develop a new experimental basis for determining whether an answer calculated in a classroom makes sense.
As a result of sharing of information, have lessened the gap between the students who fully understand mechanical physics and those that have weaknesses in their knowledge.
Have developed meaningful cooperative group interactions. INSTRUMENTATION
As mentioned in the previous section, the majority of curricula being used in primary schools are subject-based. A teacher will need to recognise, therefore, which aspects of the specific subject matter are amenable to contextualisation, by identifying elements which provide a direct link to the experience of most or all of the learners. As Riedmiller and Mades (1991) state:
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"The handling of regular school subjects is localised, by relating the topics of the separate subject syllabi to the local environment; in this way, the subject is the point of origin; the environment then functions as a teaching aid to illustrate academic themes and to serve as a practical ground for applying the acquired knowledge and skills". A theme park provides just that.
A total of 75 students from Secondary 3 and 5 took part in this study. The sample consisted of two groups of students: One group of fifty 17 year olds of mixed ability (MXA17), all of whom possesses prior knowledge of basic laws of physics, while another group of twentyfive 15 year olds of high abilities (HA15), all of whom possesses minimal prior knowledge of basic laws of physics.
Group MXA17 do possess basic understanding of Kinematics and Energy. Related concepts were taught when they were in Secondary 3, i.e. about two years ago. Back then, most of the teaching was done with minimum adoption of the experiential teaching and learning strategies. Time constraints within the school curriculum (three periods of 30 minutes per week) did not leave much room for exploration of ideas and extension of lessons beyond the classroom walls.
Group HA15 were taught the relevant topics about 3 weeks prior to the learning journey. This simply would imply that the notions of Kinematics and Energy concepts would still be fresh in the minds of these fifteen year olds. Yet, similar time constraints within the school curriculum (three periods of 30 minutes per week) also did not leave much room for discovering knowledge constructively, much less venturing out into the open vastness of nature to enjoy experiential learning beyond the classroom walls. Page 1747
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Hence, learning journeys for the students are deemed priceless and very much in demand, especially for the sciences.
Three days prior to the learning journey, all students had to sit for a short written test (K&ET: Kinematics & Energy Test) in the classroom. Test items included 10 structured shortresponse questions as well as open-ended questions that centralises around concepts involving the Kinematics and Energy topics. Students were expected to draw upon knowledge acquired during the classroom teaching and answer the questions within an hour.
Planning For the Learning Journey: Authentic Learning Authentic learning aligns well with the needs of today‟s participatory learners. The challenge is to channel their online and collaborative abilities and interests into academic pursuits, helping them develop the higher-order thinking skills they may not acquire on their own. In planning for my physics learning journey, the following guiding principles of constructivist thinking, outlined by Hein (1991) influenced my thinking processes.
1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active learner (Dewey's term) stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner s engaging with the world. 7 2. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. 3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, Page 1748
Physics at the Theme Park but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands (Dewey called this reflective activity.) 4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical level. Researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. 5. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to educate if we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it. 6. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears. 7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge. 8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. 9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning.
With the above points in mind, I adopted David Kolb's learning styles model: Act, Reflect, Conceptualize, Apply. According to Roger Greenaway (http://reviewing.co.uk/research/learning.cycles.htm, 2009), an experiential learning cycle is "a structured learning sequence which is guided by a cyclical model." Hence, much of the Page 1749
Physics at the Theme Park instrumentation processes mentioned above fits in nicely into the 4-stage cycle derived from one of Kolb‟s (1984) most useful descriptive models available of the learning process, inspired by the work of Kurt Lewin. ACT Concrete Experience
APPLY
Abstract Conceptualisation
Active Experimentation
REFLECT
Reflective Observation
CONCEPTUALISE
The model above highlights four stages in learning which follow from each other: Concrete Experience is followed by Reflection on that experience on a personal basis. This may then be followed by the derivation of general rules describing the experience, or the application of known theories to it (Abstract Conceptualisation), and hence to the construction of ways of modifying the next occurrence of the experience (Active Experimentation), leading in turn to the next Concrete Experience.
All this may happen in a flash, or over days, weeks or months, depending on the topic, and there may be a "wheels within wheels" process at the same time.
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LEARNING STAGE
ACTION PLAN
DURATION
ACT: Do something, or anything in fact.
Conduct a physics learning journey, relevant to topic of study. In this case, the theme park was chosen as the LJ destination.
Dependent on the duration of the program structure. May take place within the hour, a day, a few days, a week, etc.
REFLECT: Look back on your experience and assess the results. Determine what happened, what went well and what didn't.
Use assessment items such as activity sheets, survey forms and informal interviews and questionnaires to reflect. Get students to respond to assessment items.
1 day to 1 week
CONCEPTUALIZE: Make sense of your experience. Seek to understand why things turned out as they did. Draw some conclusions and make some hypotheses.
Assess students‟ responses to assessment items. Discuss responses in class. Highlight problems and other concerning issues that may arise from completing the tasks prescribed.
1 day to 1 week
APPLY: Put those hypotheses to the test. Don't simply re-act. Instead, have a conscious plan to do things differently to be more effective. And begin the cycle again.
Make amendments to the objectives, program structure and prescribed tasks if any.
Within 1 year
One of the most valuable aspects of this model is the way in which it allows us to turn every experience into a learning opportunity. The challenge, of course, is that we rarely complete the cycle and leave most potential learning untapped.
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A much simpler model below may help us to understand things from a clearer perspective: Plan and conduct the learning journey at the theme park.
Use the assessment items to reflect. Examples include prelearning journey test, informal interviews, activity sheets, and survey forms.
Make amendments to the objectives, program structure and prescribed tasks if any.
Assess students’ responses, evaluate their understanding, identify problems and weaknesses, draw conclusions, and make hypotheses.
The Activity Sheet Designing the questions for the activity sheet has to be the most tedious and laborious process of all. Questions from the previous written test (K&ET) were also incorporated into the activity sheet. This allows students another opportunity to respond to the questions while undertaking the tasks prescribed in the activity sheet.
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Some suggestions for designing questions for the activity sheet with the Constructivist Learning Theory include:
Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.
Try to use raw data and primary sources, in addition to manipulative, interactive, and physical materials.
When assigning tasks to the students, use cognitive terminology such as "classify," "analyze," "predict," and "create."
Search out students' understanding and prior experiences about a concept before teaching it to them.
Encourage communication between the teacher and the students and also between the students.
Encourage student critical thinking and inquiry by asking them thoughtful, openended questions, and encourage them to ask questions to each other.
Ask follow up questions and seek elaboration after a student's initial response.
Put students in situations that might challenge their previous conceptions and that will create contradictions that will encourage discussion.
Make sure to wait long enough after posing a question so that the students have time to think about their answers and be able to respond thoughtfully.
Provide enough time for students to construct their own meaning when learning something new.
(Brooks & Brooks, 1993)
Students develop new cognitive abilities when a teacher leads them through task-oriented interactions. Depending on various factors, a teacher will lend various levels of assistance over various iterations of task completion. Page 1753
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Hence, for the tasks prescribed in this learning journey, the goal is to allow the students to do as much as they can on their own, and then to intervene and provide assistance when it is needed so that the task can be successfully completed. Vygotsky stressed that students need to engage in challenging tasks that they can successfully complete with appropriate help (Wilhelm, Baker, & Dube, 2001). Vygotsky also happily pointed out that teaching in such a way develops the teacher just as attentive parenting matures the parent.
A metaphor that has been used to describe this kind of teaching is „scaffolding‟. The student is seen as constructing an edifice that represents her cognitive abilities. The construction starts from the ground up, on the foundation of what is already known and can be done. The new is built on top of the known.
We as teachers need to provide this scaffold to support the construction, which is proceeding from the ground into the atmosphere of the previously unknown. The scaffold is the environment that we create, the instructional support, and the processes and language that are lent to the student in the context of approaching a task and developing the abilities to meet it.
When you assign a task and the students successfully complete it without help, they could already do it. They have been taught nothing.
Students have a need to develop and exhibit competence. Teachers must assist them to develop competence as they engage in challenging tasks in which they can be successful.
Please see Annex B for an excerpt of the activity sheet.
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Physics at the Theme Park At The Theme Park Students were divided into groups of three to four. Each group were expected to work together to analyze each major principle of physics for four rides. Within each groups, members complete the prescribed tasks in their own pace, in any order they deem wish. The students may also approach their supervising teacher or any ground staff at the theme park for assistance. OUTCOMES & OBSERVATIONS
It is worthwhile and interesting to compare students‟ responses to assessment items before the learning journey and after the learning journey. The table below summarises the results from the written test (K&ET: Kinematics & Energy Test), which was carried out 3 days prior to the visit to the theme park. Table 1 - Sample Test Questions from K&ET & Student Responses
No.
Sample Test Question
1
At what point in the pirate ship ride would a person feel weightless? Why?
2
Discuss the relationship between the period and length of a simple pendulum.
3
If all the GPE is converted into kinetic energy, determine the speed of the carriage when it reached the ground.
4
Explain why along the tracks of a roller coaster, each hill is lower then the one before it.
% Correct Responses (MXA17, n=50)
% Correct Responses (HA15, n=25)
Sample Student Reponses
32.1
29.4
“At the ends … “(no explanation given)
83.2
“the longer the string, the longer the period of oscillation …“
46.2
* Many students fail to relate to the notion of “conservation of energy”.
34.9
“… because the roller coaster loses energy by the time it reaches the next hill …"
67.1
33.8
39.4
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5
Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience MORE than your normal weight.
6
Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience LESS than your normal weight.
38.6
24.6
39.5
Many students assume it‟s the highest point above the ground …
21.0
Many students assume it‟s the lowest point from the ground …
Table 2 - Sample Questions from Activity Sheet & Student Responses
No. Sample Test Question
% % Correct Correct Responses Responses (MXA17, (HA15, n=50) n=25)
Sample Student Reponses
1
At what point in the pirate ship ride would a person feel weightless? Why?
56.2
60.1
“ … at the highest point from the ground … “, “WEIGHTLESSNESS” “When at the top of the loop, a rider will feel partially weightless if the normal forces become less than the person's weight…”
2
Discuss the relationship between the period and length of a simple pendulum.
83.4
91.6
“ … relationship between T and L is linear ... “
3
If all the GPE is converted into kinetic energy, determine the speed of the carriage when it reached the ground.
64.5
75.4
More students were able to answer this question correctly.
65.8
“… Inertia tends to keep the roller coaster moving forward along the track at a ... That's why each successive hill must be lower than the previous hill ... “, “some mechanical energy is lost to friction”
4
Explain why along the tracks of a roller coaster, each hill is lower then the one before it.
61.7
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5
Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience MORE than your normal weight.
77.3
89.4
“ … at the lowest point from the ground … “ , “WEIGHTINESS”
6
Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience LESS than your normal weight.
75.5
91.2
“ … at the highest point from the ground … “, “WEIGHTLESSNESS”
Table 1 and 2 clearly shows the disparity in students‟ responses to the test questions, before and after the learning journey. After the visit to the theme park, it seems the students were able to perform the prescribed tasks effectively, hence providing more depth and quality in their answers. Their responses illustrated higher levels of understanding of the concept in question, and further enhancement of their ability to appreciate the application nature of such physical concepts. The table below provides a figurative comparison to the percentage increase in correct responses of similar test questions given before and after the learning journey. Table 3 Comparing Student Responses from K&Et1 (Pre-visit) and Activity Sheet (Post-visit)
No. Sample Test Question
% increase in correct responses (MXA17, n = 50)
% increase in correct responses (HA15, n = 25)
1
At what point in the pirate ship ride would a person feel weightless? Why?
24.1
30.7
2
Discuss the relationship between the period and length of a simple pendulum.
16.0
8.4
3
If all the GPE is converted into kinetic energy, determine the speed of the carriage when it reached the ground.
30.7
29.2
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4
Explain why along the tracks of a roller coaster, each hill is lower then the one before it.
22.3
30.9
5
Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience MORE than your normal weight.
38.7
39.9
6
Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience LESS than your normal weight.
50.9
50.2
Generally, the results seemed very much consistent and quite encouraging as more students were able to respond correctly to the test questions after the learning journey was conducted. Through the prescribed tasks, there were many opportunities for the students to verify the validity of many physics formulas, experience effects that are essentially counter-intuitive and develop a new experimental basis for determining whether an answer calculated in a classroom makes sense. Indeed, physics has certainly made more sense to them now. The following five point Likert Scale was then used as a benchmark to assess students‟ overall perceptions and understanding of the physics learning journey. Table 4 - LIKERT SCALE 5
4
3
2
1
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Table 5 - Students’ Responses to Statement Items in Survey
No. Statement Item
MXA17 ( n=50 )
HA15 ( n=25 )
1
I was able to work well with my group members throughout the whole journey.
4.7
4.3
2
I was very clear about the learning objectives of the learning journey.
4.4
4.2
3
This trip helped me to understand the concept of motion (eg. Velocity, acceleration) better.
3.8
4.1
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4
This trip helped me to understand the concept of energy (eg. GPE, KE) better.
4.2
4.6
5
This trip generally helped me to enhance my perception of physics.
3.9
3.8
6
This trip generally provided me with an authentic real-life experience of the physics laws beyond the classroom settings.
4.6
4.1
Table 6 - Effects of Contextualised Teaching in Physics (Kinematics & Energy Studies)
No. Assessment Items
Before Trip
After Trip
1
Emphasised thinking over memorizing
2.8
3.6
2
Interest and commitment to physics improved
3.4
4.1
3
Learning skills improved
3.2
3.5
4
Able to make connections between concepts learnt and applications in real world
2.9
4.6
5
Overall rating of teaching
3.7
4.4
The figures in Table 6 have provided an encapsulated overview of students‟ perceptions towards the learning of physics, facilitated within a contextual and authentic learning environment. There is an obvious higher rating of approval across many areas that suggests the physics learning journey at the theme park has in many ways, altered the perceptions of students towards the laws of Physics and their applications in the real world.
There is a 28.6 % increase in approval rating which indicates the tasks in the activity sheet allowed the students to enhance their thinking skills, rather than memorisation of concepts and formulae. Students also find the trip more meaningful and interesting as compared to the usual classroom lessons.
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But most importantly, most students gave their thumbs up for the opportunity that allowed them to make connections between physics concepts learnt and applications in real world. The approval rating increased by 44.8 %. Almost all of them strongly agree that whatever that they have learnt in the classroom thus far, do certainly makes sense afterall.
CONCLUSION
Adults understand that the phrase "what goes up, must come down" refers to gravity. A child experiences the action of gravity, but gives it little thought. Tossing a ball into the air, learning to walk or ride a bicycle, or using the slides and swings at the neighbourhood playground are simply childhood memories. Gravity and fun go hand in hand for children and for adults in their recreational and sporting pursuits.
As physics teachers, we should exploit the rich resources of the larger community and involve parents and other concerned adults in useful ways. It is also important for teachers to recognize that some of what their students learn informally is wrong, incomplete, poorly understood, or misunderstood, but that formal education can help students to restructure that knowledge and acquire new knowledge. Experiential learning can be a highly effective educational method. It engages the learner at a more personal level by addressing the needs and wants of the individual. Experiential learning requires qualities such as self-initiative and self-evaluation. For experiential learning to be truly effective, it should employ the whole learning wheel, from goal setting, to experimenting and observing, to reviewing, and finally action planning. This complete process allows one to learn new skills, new attitudes or even entirely new ways of thinking.
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Physics at the Theme Park Remember the games we use to play when we were kids? Simple games, such as hopscotch, can teach many valuable academic and social skills, like team management, communication, and leadership. The reason why games are popular as experiential learning techniques is because of the "fun factor" - learning through fun helps the learner to retain the lessons for a longer period.
Most educators understand the important role experience plays in the learning process. A fun learning environment, with plenty of laughter and respect for the learner's abilities, also fosters an effective experiential learning environment. It is vital that the individual is encouraged to directly involve themselves in the experience, in order that they gain a better understanding of the new knowledge and retain the information for a longer time.
As stated by the ancient Chinese philosopher, Confucius, "Tell me and I will forget, show me and I may remember, involve me and I will understand."
Scientific concepts are easier to understand when a connection to everyday life is established. Physics at the theme park provides students with the opportunity to experience or act out scientific theories while having fun. Whirling about on a merry-go-round, riding a go-kart, swinging up and down a pirate ship, plunging down a slide or roller coaster hill, or flipping upside-down can introduce the concepts of acceleration, speed, force, velocity, gravity, inertia and conservation of energy. Many of these phenomena can be understood, measured or calculated while having fun.
Meaningful activities will help students understand how things work and how the underlying physical principles are manifested in their environment. From students‟ responses outlined Page 1761
Physics at the Theme Park above, obviously the focus on thinking and critical analysis means a reduced emphasis on definitional and mathematical rigour, but allows students with and even without concrete background in physics to be challenged to learn at a deeper level, and inculcate higher levels of enthusiasm and commitment.
Although this contextual approach has been very successful in enhancing students‟ understanding and mastery in the topics of Kinematics and Energy, broadening its application to other topics could be more complex. Contexts would need to be carefully chosen to interest students, and concepts covered in multiple contexts to encourage students to generalise.
Undoubtedly, implementing contextual physics has been a challenge, and is quite timeconsuming. However, it is a thought provoking process, involving continuing learning on the part of the teacher, and hence can lead to greater motivation for staff with an intrinsic interest in teaching. Authentic contextualisation was also very difficult, and required that I visit the theme park to learn about the ride specifications in greater detail.
Advocates of such an approach will contend that it produces graduates who can respond to the demands of a fast-moving society, where textbooks quickly become outdated and information-gathering, flexibility and critical thinking skills are increasingly important to a students' post-graduate success.
Students learn best when we teach them to think, to problem solve, and to ask the right questions. Students learn best when we help them to discover things for themselves. That spirit of inquiry will serve them well whether they become biologists, psychologists, or government and community leaders.
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Physics at the Theme Park For every activity undertaken during the physics learning journey that intentionally attempts to project authentic learning, hundreds more exist. Technologies of the future promise to expand the range of authentic learning experiences exponentially. Participatory and activelearning exercises will always incorporate an important element of projection as students emulate professional models and consider what it means to be an engineer, biologist, or historian.
REFERENCES
Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University, SRHE and Open University Press, Buckingham.
Brooks, J.G. & Brooks, M.G. (1993). In Search of Understanding: the Case for Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Curriculum Development.
Hein, G. E. (1991). The Museum and the Needs of People. Paper presented at International Committee of Museum Educators Conference, Jerusalem, Israel.
Hensen, K. T. (2001). Curriculum planning: Integrating multiculturalism, constructivism, and educational reform. Second edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Page 93.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
The Active Reviewing Guide (2009). Experiential Learning Cycles. Retrieved September 14, 2009, From http://Reviewing.Co.Uk/Research/Learning.Cycles.Htm.
Whitelegg, E. and Parry, M. (1999). Real-life contexts for learning physics: meanings, issues and practice, Phys. Educ., Vol 34 (2), 68-72, March 1999.
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Physics at the Theme Park Wikipedia (2009). Experiential Learning. Retrieved September 23, 2009, From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_learning
Wilhelm, J., Baker, T. & Dube, J. (2001). Strategic Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
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Physics at the Theme Park ANNEX A SECONDARY PHYSICS POST LEARNING JOURNEY SURVEY Name of Activity
: PHYSICS @ Theme Park
Date
Venue
: Escape Theme Park (Pasir Ris)
Student’s Name
: ________________________
: ______________
Class : ______________
Please circle your responses. Response Item
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
1.
I enjoyed my trip very much as it was interesting and meaningful.
1
2
3
4
5
2.
The timing of the trip, i.e. day, date, time, and duration was appropriate.
1
2
3
4
5
3.
The payment for the trip was reasonable (i.e. $13)
1
2
3
4
5
4.
I was given sufficient directions and information prior to the trip.
1
2
3
4
5
5.
I was able to work well with my group members throughout the whole journey.
1
2
3
4
5
6.
I was very clear about the learning objectives of the learning journey.
1
2
3
4
5
7.
The tasks given in the worksheet given during this trip was appropriate.
1
2
3
4
5
8.
This trip helped me to understand the concept of motion (eg. Velocity, acceleration) better.
1
2
3
4
5
9.
This trip helped me to understand the concept of energy (eg. GPE, KE) better.
1
2
3
4
5
10.
This trip generally helped me to enhance my perception of physics.
1
2
3
4
5
11.
This trip generally provided me with an authentic real-life experience of the physics laws beyond the classroom settings.
1
2
3
4
5
12.
I would recommend others to go for this trip in future.
1
2
3
4
5
13. What improvements can be done? 14. What is the most important and memorable part of the trip for you? 15. Other comments Page 1765
Physics at the Theme Park ANNEX B ACTIVITY 4: FAMILY COASTER Background Knowledge: One of the most popular rides in a theme park is the roller coaster. The purpose of the Roller Coaster rise is to build up potential (stored) energy. As the roller coaster gets higher, there is a greater distance that gravity can pull it down. The potential energy that is built going up the track can be released as kinetic energy, as soon as the roller coaster starts drifting down the track. The faster the roller coaster goes, the more kinetic energy it has. Kinetic Energy is the energy which the roller coaster possesses as a result of being in motion. KEY IDEAS
Kinetic Energy, Gravitational Potential Energy, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration, Work Done, Force
EQUIPMENT
Calculator, stopwatch or wristwatch with stopwatch feature, pencils and clipboard
MEASUREMENTS 1. Estimate the height of the first hill, i.e. the highest point of the roller coaster from the ground. Height of highest point from ground, h1 = ______________ m 2. Estimate the height of the lowest point of the roller coaster from the ground. Height of lowest point from ground, h2 = ______________ m CALCULATIONS 1. Calculate the gravitational potential energy at the highest point, with respect to the lowest point, in terms of the mass, m, of the roller coaster.
GPE = __________ J
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Physics at the Theme Park 2. Use the initial potential energy that you just calculated and the principle of conservation of energy to determine the kinetic energy at the lowest point in terms of mass, m. (Assume that the initial velocity of the roller coaster is zero, and ignore friction.)
KE = __________ J
3. From the kinetic energy, calculate the velocity at the lowest point.
v = __________ ms
-1 -1
= __________ kmh
DISCUSSION 1. Explain why along the tracks of a roller coaster, each hill is lower then the one before it. 2. Explain how energy is conserved on the ride. Identify the sources of energy and state any forms of energy conversion that may have taken place during the ride. 3. Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience MORE than your normal weight. 4. Draw the shape of each section of the track where you experience LESS than your normal weight.
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Running head: ASSESSMENT TASKS
Full Title: DEVELOPING AND VALIDATING PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT TASKS IN SCIENCE: A HOW-TO GUIDE Authors GOURANGA SAHA, Ph.D. Associate Professor in Science Education, Lincoln University, MLK 404, 820 Chestnut Street, Jefferson City, Missouri 65102-0029, USA & RODNEY L. DORAN, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus in Science Education, State University of New York at Buffalo, 505 Baldy Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260-1000, USA
Abstract Gaps in teachers‟ knowledge in measurement and assessment affect their ability to develop useful assessment tasks (tests) yielding unreliable and invalid test scores making them vulnerable for misuse an abuse. The purpose of this research was to design a how-to-guide for developing and validating a set of three performance-based assessment tasks in science. This guide involves an iterative process of trial testing that calls for frequent reviews, revisions, modifications and changes from feedback at several stages. The authors used a variety of statistical techniques to determine the extent to which these assessment tasks yield reliable and valid scores for meaningful decision making process. Inter-rater reliability of these tasks ranged from r=0.91 to 0.96, Spearman-Brown r formula (internal consistency) was 0.70 across all the tasks and process skill categories, Correlation coefficient across all the tasks and process skill categories showed a significant positive relationship, items of each task were highly positively correlated with the task itself – all demonstrate that these tasks are highly reliable to use in making valid decisions. There was high agreement of polls among the science educators establishing the content/process validity of these tasks, descriptive
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statistics validly represented three categories of process skills, item-wise data on three process skill categories indicate that students demonstrated proficiency in all the sub-skills, non-significant F = .05 (223, 1), p=0.82 from ANOVA showed no gender difference among all skill categories, Factor analysis (PCA) was conducted to garner additional support for the validity that demonstrated that the items in these three tasks in fact are grouped into three components: Planning skills, Performance skills and the Content itself – supporting that items are consistent in explaining the relationship among them. Implications and limitations discussed and further research identified. INTRODUCTION Although testing is a ubiquitous practice in classrooms consuming at least one third of a teacher‟s time and energy (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992) and each year 550 million tests are generated by K-12 teachers in USA classrooms (Christmann & Badgett, 2009), most of them are not psychometrically sound. These are often local, teacher-generated tests that fail to yield reliable and valid (psychometrically sound) scores on which to make accurate inferences irrespective of and for learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Black, Harrison, Lee, Marshall & Wiliam, 2004). Such limitations of teacher-generated tests are not surprising since teachers are not formally trained to design tests (Christmann & Badgett, 2009; Osterlind, 2006; Kubiszyn and Borich, 2003; NRC, 2003), and may lack the time needed to develop meaningful assessment strategies (Nieswandt & Bellomo, 2009). Popham (2008) argues that knowledge of educational assessment is crucial to evaluating student learning outcomes. This need is more pertinent to assessing inquiry science learning. Use of inquiry in classroom teaching is the most focal element of National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) to promote students‟ meaningful understanding and proficiency in science (NRC, 2007). Meaningful understanding and proficiency in science require students‟ sophisticated reasoning skills for making valid scientific claims and Page 1769
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explanations from inquiry (NRC, 2007). To conduct inquiry/ „doing science‟, students are required to possess well defined „doing science‟ (science process) skills. Assessing the goals of the current national focus on inquiry science skills or “doing science” (NRC, 1996, 2000; 2007; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999) validly calls for performance-based assessment (PA) techniques. Usually PAs are time consuming, expensive to develop, and of questionable utility if these tasks/tests are not carefully developed and scored according to solid measurement methods to attain a satisfactory degree of technical quality (Quellmalz & Schank, 1998). Assessment of activity-driven inquiry-oriented curriculum requires students to perform as an evidence of their proficiency in science. Current national focus on inquiry science skills (NRC, 1996, 2000; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999) is compatible with performance-based assessment tasks/ tests (Shavelson, Ruiz-Primo & Wiley, 2005). According to Meng and Doran (1990), hands-on practical tasks are the most appropriate ways to measure how well a student understands scientific concepts and carries out scientific processes. McTighe and O‟Connor (2005) assert that performance tasks not only yield several pieces of evidence of student understanding but also provide information „on how well they mastered the desired knowledge and skills‟ (p. 17). Psychometric soundness of all assessments has to be addressed before they can play a central role in learning. Psychometric soundness such as reliability and validity estimates of performancebased assessment tasks are ultimately designed to make appropriate interpretations of test scores more likely (Osterland, 2006). In this era of high-stake accountability, governing bodies are frequently calling for teachers to garner reliable evidence of educationally relevant variables that measure student learning outcomes. The validity and reliability (technical adequacy) of a test determine the usefulness of test scores (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2003). Reliability of assessment refers to consistency or stability of results or scores. It represents the extent to which students‟ observed scores are close to their true scores. Anticipating Page 1770
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potential problems and eliminating them help attain acceptable reliability of test scores. Validity is focused on the accuracy of an assessment-based inference (Popham, 2008, p. 52). Evidence from multiple sources is required to support the validity of test scores. Latest edition of the Standards (AERA, 1999), defines validity as “the degree to which all the accumulated evidence supports the intended interpretation of test scores for the propose purpose” (p. 11). To examine its validity, users should carefully judge every aspect of a performance assessment task design, development, and use (Stiggins, 2008). Educational researchers should support science classroom teachers with a systematic procedure on how to design and develop performance tasks to help implement an inquiry-based science education program.
Extending Doran and Hejaily‟s (1992) work, the purpose of this study is to
describe a user-friendly how-to-guide model for developing performance-based assessment tasks in biology to address the issue of their technical adequacy (validity and reliability). Bringing this research into practice can provide learning opportunities for K-12 science teachers to become competent in designing and generating performance-based assessment tasks that would yield reliable and valid appraisals (test scores) of student performances in science. Purpose of the Study With the recent explosion particularly of on-line resources, teachers have an array of performance-based tasks/test available at their disposal but there may be no data to support their technical adequacy. Herman and Baker (2005) argue that „despite the glitz and geewhiz appeal of such products, information about their effectiveness in improving student learning is generally hard to come by” (p. 49). In addition to teachers‟ limited knowledge of measurement and assessment, and a dearth of psychometrically sound performance-based assessment tasks in high school biology, there is a very little literature that describes the steps and procedures for developing these tasks that yield valid and reliable scores. Page 1771
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The purpose of this paper is to seek answers to the following two questions: 1. How can performance-based assessment tasks be designed and developed to validly represent at least some of the intended inquiry-based science learning goals? 2. Are the performance-based tasks psychometrically consistent as individual tasks and as a set? PROCEDURE We selected three biology core concepts –catalysis, natural selection and diffusion from Living Environment N.Y. Standard 4 for our research. The performance-based assessment task development technique we followed involves an iterative process of trial testing that calls for frequent reviews, revisions, modifications and changes from feedback at several stages. The process of task development and trial testing can best be viewed within several stages. It is a bottom-up process (Figure 1). A number of concerns that ultimately take care of the psychometrical soundness of these tasks are addressed in each step of the trial testing stage. These concerns are listed below. Stage I: •Do the tasks match instructional program? • Do the tasks involve some science skill/concept? •Are materials and equipment easily available for the schools? •Are the materials and equipment safe? •Are the tasks doable? Stage II: Stage II. Micro-testing: •Is language/vocabulary appropriate? •Are test items meaningful? •Do these tasks match with current science learning standards? •Are the tasks within students‟ cognitive ability? Stage III. Mini-testing: •Is the “Mess Quotient” acceptable? •Can a reliable scoring procedure be developed? •Do the items “work” with a range of school facilities? Stage IV. Pilot testing: •Is there a range of performance on each item? •Can the tasks be administered in a range of school facilities with many teachers? • Do these items complement items in other parts of the written assessment? Page 1772
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Stage V. Field testing: •Is there a consistency in test scores? Are scores valid for appropriate use? The final tasks: All three tasks – catalysis (B1), natural selection (B2) and diffusion (B3) (Saha & Doran, under review) were designed so they could be administered within one class period of 45 minutes (in a block schedule these tasks could be administered as laboratory examination/assessment task/test to assess corresponding three units of biology topics). While commonly available inexpensive materials were used in all the three tasks, each task was of short (15 minutes) duration (2 minutes to read the whole task and 13 minutes to perform). In general, each task required students to conduct a full investigation of a problem related to a big picture of B1 task, B2 and B3 task concept respectively. Each of these tasks was composed of several items (questions) (Table 2) for students to answer from the observational data gathered from their investigations. To conduct the investigation of the problem for each of the target big idea, students were asked to plan and manipulate equipment and materials provided, observe, reason, record data and interpret data to process information to answer items that were meant to assess their „doing-science‟ skills. These science skills have been broadly categorized into planning, performing and reasoning after Doran, Fraser, & Giddings (1995). In this study the three tasks in combination assessed the skills of planning, performing and reasoning. The assessment was administered in a station format so that adjacent students were doing different tasks (experiments) to avoid viewing
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Figure 1: Trial Testing Model Stage V. Field Testing
As they move to the last stage, tasks become more refined and translate into
cognitively appropriate and thus fit more to the target program.
Tasks that are to be used with a large number of students (like district, state, etc.) need to be field tested among representative samples of target grade/course.
Stage IV. Pilot testing Tasks those survived micro and mini testing are given to several classroom teachers. These teachers set up testing for an entire (intact) classroom. Administration should preferably be scheduled ahead so that teacher developers can observe. This stage begins to approximate the real testing situations.
Stage III. Mini-testing The tasks successfully micro-tested are then ready to be shared with a few other classroom teachers for set up and administration to their students to a group of 8-10.
(d) School-based micro-testing These reviewed and revised tasks are then sent to classroom teachers of 2-3 schools for further tuning. At this stage each classroom teacher micro-tests each of these activities at his/her own, examining their usability from his/her perspective.
(c) In-house micro-testing with a group of school students At this stage of the micro-testing a few school students of the same grade level/course for whom these tasks are meant are invited in the researcher‟s/developer‟s classroom.
(b) In-house micro-testing with colleagues Because the developing assessment tasks at this stage are prone to malfunctions, odd results, confusion, and other mishaps, „friendly‟ colleagues with a keen interest in science assessment should be invited to trial test the tasks. Based on their input, each task is reviewed and revised accordingly.
(a) In-house pre-micro testing or nano-testing Researcher tests, reviews and revises the tasks to see that the tasks work as expected and fine tune them to a point where he/she feels that other colleagues can try them.
Stage II. Micro-testing At this stage the most promising tasks are selected from the task idea pool, the necessary materials are gathered and then tested to see whether materials and equipment work the way they are supposed to work.
Stage I. Pooling Tasks Once the desired program/curriculum level is selected, a pool of tasks is gathered that may be appropriate for a district or state curriculum. Inquiry skills and program/curriculum content areas, behavioral objectives, required materials, all safety precautions, questions, and directions are identified, developed and written.
Analysis and Findings
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his/her peer‟s exercises. To avoid biases, the test was administered using a standardized procedure and confidentiality was maintained about who the other participating schools were from each other. Sample All the biology students in the volunteer teachers‟ classes in the six schools from Western New York that agreed to help with this research were included as sample in this study. This convenience sample completed the school curriculum units on catalysis, natural selection and diffusion (target) biology concepts. A total of 224 high school students (78 boys & 146 girls) participated in the field testing. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Research Question #1 is related to validity of this study. Validity is the gathering of evidences from various empirical sources to support the adequacy and appropriateness of inferences and uses based on test scores (Messick, 1989). Accordingly we collected the following evidence in this study. Content Validity: After we selected the assessment tasks/tests for this study, the first author and two biology teachers from two different Western N.Y. high schools established the satisfactory content representation of the key Living Environment N.Y. Standards 4. Construct Validity: Researchers polled the opinions of a group of science education experts to ascertain the validity of researcher‟s grouping of 17 items of three selected tasks into broader skill category of planning, performing and reasoning, (construct representation of process skills). With a few exceptions there was an overall agreement between the opinions of the experts and those of the researchers on the categorization of the items.
Table 1: Validity of „doing-science‟ skills Performances: Means, Standard Deviation and Reliability Estimates (Chronbach Alpha) of the Total Task, 3 Sub-tasks, and 3 Skill Categories. Page 1775
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N=224 Total task B1+B2+B3 Sub-task B1 Sub-task B2 Sub-task B3 Planning Performing Reasoning
Possible Points 40 14 13 13 11 9 20
M
SD
Reliability Reliabilityb
26
Mean Percentage 65
5.6
0.68
0.68
7.4 9.5 9.0 5.7 7.9 12.3
53 73 69 52 88 62
2.0 2.4 3.1 2.53 1.16 3.51
0.39 0.49 0.52 0.38 0.40 0.55
0.64 0.79 0.77 0.68 0.74 0.72
b
Increased following Spearman-Brown formula to equivalent size of 17 items as total test.
Descriptive statistics (Table 1) of the total performance on each skill category demonstrated that student responses validly represented three categories of „doing-science‟ skills. However out of the three skill categories, only planning (M=5.7, SD=2.53) process skill reflected more proficiently in their total performance than performing (M=7.9, SD=1.16) and reasoning (M=12.3, SD=3.51) skills. Results of student performances tapped by each item of each task have been presented in table 2. Table 2. Student Mean and Mean Percentage Scores for the Items task-wise & their total. Item
Possible Point
Description
Type of skill
Mean & Mean %
SD
Item 1a
2
Planning
2
Performing
Item 2
2
Item 3
3
Hypothesizing
Reasoning
Item 4
1
Planning
Item 5
4
Identifying control variable Formulating hypothesis
Total for Sub-task B1
14
1.05 53% 1.99 99.9% 1.92 96% 0.29 10% 0.77 77% 1.42 36% 7.44 53%
.77
Item 1b
Giving Title to the table Completion of data table Rank ordering data
Task B1 - Catalysis
Reasoning
Planning
.13 .37 .71 .39 1.12 .58
. Sub-task B2 – Natural Selection Item 1 3 Item 2
2
Item 3
2
Item 4
3
Completion of data table Listing Characteristics
Performing
Determining predator & prey Interpreting possible effect of continuous
Reasoning
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Performing
Reasoning
2.66 89% 1.62 81% 1.63 82% 1.73 58%
.52 1.62
.74 1.15
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Item 5
3
Subtotal for Sub-task B2
13
Sub-task B3 – Diffusion Item 1
2
preying on the environment Stating the effect of preying
Reasoning
Item 2a
1
Item 2b
4
Completion of data table Giving title to the graph Graphing data
Item 3
2
Prediction
Reasoning
Item 4
1
Reasoning
Item 5
3
Identifying limitation of experiment Formulating post hypothesis
Subtotal for sub-task B3
13
Performing Planning Reasoning
Planning
1.91 64% 9.55 73% 1.72 83% .81 81% 2.75 69% 1.53 77% .58 58% 1.64 55% 9.03 69%
.87 .98
.59 .39 1.84 .68 .24
2.17 .99
ANOVA and Differential item analyses: ANOVA showed that there was no gender effect (F=0.99 (223, 1), non-significant at p=0.82) on student ability to use the „doing science‟ skills. Differential item analyses also displayed no gender effect with F =2.24 (223, 1) nonsignificant at 0.14 for B1; F = 0.35 (223, 1) at 0.55 for B2 and F = .05 (223, 1) at 0.82 for B3. Principal Component Analysis (PCA): PCA performed on the „doing science‟ skills assessment items showed that, these items loaded separately into 3 components -- reasoning activities, sub-task B3, and performance skills. Based on the above analyses and findings, it can be concluded that student responses to the performance-based tasks validly represented at least some of the intended „doing science‟ (process) skills that biology learning goals want students to achieve. Research Question #2 is related to reliability issue of the developed performance-based assessment tasks. Reliability refers to the accuracy or consistency of educational assessment tasks/ tests. In this study consistency has been examined from the inter-rater reliability and the internal consistency in order to estimate the degree to which data obtained for this study are reliable.
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Inter-rater Reliability: Student responses to all the 17 items of the three developed performance-based tasks were scored by the first author, and two other raters using a validated scoring guide A team composed of one university faculty and two high school biology teachers, validated the final scoring guide. Reliability among these raters calculated using Person r showed that the range of correlation coefficient was 0.91-0.96 displaying a high degree of inter-rater reliability. Chronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficients (Table 1) Chronbach Alpha estimates after correction following Spearman-Brown r formula were greater than .70 across most of the tasks (B2 and B3) and skill (Performing and Reasoning) categories Correlation coefficient analyses using the Pearson r across the total task B1 total, B2 total, B3 total, planning, performing, and reasoning skill categories were calculated to examine the relationship across them. Correlation coefficients from this table indicate a significant and a moderately high r with almost all the members of the matrix demonstrating a strong internal consistency of these performance assessment tasks/tests. Correlation across items calculated for every item found to have the level of correlation greater and significant for „doing science‟ (planning, performing and reasoning) categories. Based on the results presented above for research question #3, it can be concluded that the performance-based assessment tasks designed and developed for this study were psychometrically consistent. CONCLUSION Assessment is a tool designed and developed to yield scores that can be used to make valuable inferences about what students know and can do. Infallibility of these inferences depends on the solid psychometrical properties of such assessment tools. The results presented here indicate that the development and validation of a performance-based assessment instrument to measure the „doing science‟ skills of students in selected high Page 1778
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school biology topics in catalysis, diffusion and natural selection was successful. Similar results were also reported by Doran, et al., (1995, 1993); Kanis (1990); and Osei-Anto & Doran (1998). The inter-rater reliability and correlation coefficients among the items of same skills category were very high and significant. These high correlations are the indices of dependability of this assessment tasks/tests. This study also demonstrated that a performance-based assessment task can be designed to be used with minimal expense, time and teachers‟ effort and with little or no disruption to school curriculum, program and normal scheduling. These biology practical tasks provided an approach to assess students‟ „doing science‟ (performing) skills. It is also expected that teachers and researchers use and modify these assessment tasks fitting one‟s need in different settings. In fact, these tasks are exemplars for other science teachers and researchers to add to the existing items used in designing performance-based assessment tasks/tests that will measure students‟ „doing science‟ or science process skills. When the goals of science education are to boost students‟ inquiry abilities, performance-based assessment tasks can effectively be used to tap these skills from their performances provided these tasks are valid and reliable. Limitations of the Study: Since there was greater number of girls in the total sample than boys, the findings can‟t be generalized beyond the sample. Another important limitation was that there were an unequal number of items in each process skill category that has limited implications of the study. Suggestions for further Research: Performance with more students and tasks should be assessed to garner further support for the validity of this study. Further investigations appear to be proper to examine students‟ performances on semi-structured and open-ended tasks.
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References AERA (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association . Black, P, Harrison, C., Lee, C. Marshall, B., & Wiliam D. (2004). Working insdie the box: Assessment for learning in the classroom. Phi Delta Kappan 86(1), 8-2. Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessments. Phi Delta Kappan 80(2), 139-147. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A.L. & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Research Council. Christmas, E. P. & Badgett, J. L. (2009). Interpreting assessment data. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Christmann, E. P. & Badgett, J. L. (2009). Interpreting assessment data: Statistical techniques you can use. Arlington, Virginia: NSTA Press. Doran, R. L., Fraser, B. J. & Giddings, J. (1995). Science laboratory skills among grade 9 students in Western Australia. International Journal of Science Education, 17(1), 2744. Doran, R. L., Boorman, J., Chan, A. & Hejaily, N. (1993). Scientific laboratory assessment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30 (9), 1121-1131. Doran, R. L. & Hejaily, N. (1992). Hands-on evaluation: A how to guide. Science Scope, 9-10. Herman, J. L. & Baker, E. L. (2005). Making benchmark testing work. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 48-54. Kanis, I. (1990). What is the current status of laboratory skills of our grade five students? The Page 1780
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Science Teachers Bulletin, 54(1), 20-29. Kubistan, T. & Borich, G. (2003). Educational testing and measurement (7th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. McTighe, J. & O`Connor, K. (2005). Seven practices for effective learning. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 10-17. Meng, E. & Doran, R. L. (1990). What research says about appropriate methods of assessment. Science and Children, 28(1), 42-45. Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp. 13-105). New York: American Council on Education/ Macmillan. NRC (National Research Council) (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grade K-8. In R.A. Duschl, H.A. Schweingruber, & A.W. Shouse (Eds.), Committee on science learning, kindergarten through eighth grade. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press. NRC (National Research Council) (2003). Assessment in support of learning: Bridging the gap between large-scale and classroom assessment. Workshop report. Committee on Assessment in Support of Instruction and Learning. Board of Testing and Assessment, Committee on Science Education K-12, Mathematical Sciences Education Board. Center for Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. NRC (National Research Council) (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press. National Research Council (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press. Nieswandt M. & Bellomo, K. (2009). Written extended-response questions as classroom Page 1781
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assessment tools for meaningful understanding of evolutionary theory. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(3), 333-356 Ossei-Anto, T. A. & Doran, L. R. (1998). Assessing laboratory skills in refraction with high school students. The Science Teachers Bulletin, NY. Osterland, S.J. (2006). Modern measurement: Theory, principles, and applications of mental appraisal. Upper Saddle River, NJ; Columbus, Ohio: Pearson Merrill - Prentice Hall. Popham, W. J. (2008). Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know. Boston – New York– San Francisco: Pearson. Quellmalz, E. & Schank, P. (1998). Performance assessment links (PALS): O-line interactive resources. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association (AERA). San Diego, CA. Rezba, R.J, Sprague, C. R., McDonnough, J.T. & Matkins, J.J. (2006). Learning & Assessing Science Process skills (5th ed). Dubuque, IW: Kendal/Hunt Publishing Company. Shavelson, R. J., Ruiz-Primo, M. A. & Wiley, E. D. (2005). Windows into the mind. Higher Education, 49, 413-430. Stiggins, R. (2008). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ; Columbus, Ohio: Pearson Merrill - Prentice Hall. Stiggins, R. J. & Conklin, N. F. (1992). In teachers’ hand: Investigating the practice of classroom assessment. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
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Grade-7 student’s Views
Grade-7 Students’ Views on Science-Technology-Society Wiangchai Sangthong1, Chatree Faikhamta2 and Naruemon Yutakom3 1 M.Ed. (Science Education), Graduate Student, E-mail: [email protected] 2 Ph.D.(Science Education), Lecturer, 3 Ph.D.(Science Education), Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, Kasetsart University.
Abstract This study aimed to explore students‟ views on Science Technology and Society (STS). The subjects were 102 grade-7 students, selected by purposive sampling, from three middle high schools in Ubonratchathani, Thailand. Data were gathered by using a Views on Science Technology and Society (VOSTS) questionnaire which consisted of 12 items, covering 4 aspects; meanings and the relation of science and technology, the influence of society on science and technology, the influence of science and technology on society, and the influence of scientific knowledge and technology on decisionmaking. Data were analyzed by frequency and percentage. The research findings indicated that the majority of students held realistic views related to definition of science and technology, while their views on science and technology interdependence were differed, some viewed technology advance does not necessarily need scientific knowledge. The present study findings display that there was no consensus on the relation between science, technology and society. For example, students regarded technology as a cause for problems rather then a solution and scientific knowledge does not any application in decision-making. Based on the research findings, the teaching and learning of science should focus on the relation of science, technology and societal issues. Key words: VOSTS, Science Technology and Society
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Grade-7 student’s Views Introduction In the world of the 21st century, science and technology will play an increasingly important role in all aspects of our society. Almost all countries have the goal to increase literacy in science and technology. Science education should also help students to develop their concepts of science and of technology as well as allow them to reflect on ethical values in the solution of everyday problems and make responsible decisions in their daily live, including, including work are leisure (American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 1989; National Research Council, 1996; National Science Teacher Association, 1990; The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology, 2003). People literate in science and technology can understand the nature of science and technology; hence they are capable to analyze interactions of science, technology and society (AAAS., 1989; Solomon and Aikenhead, 1994). A thorough understanding of the STS interdependence would help citizens critically evaluate and independently analyze the decisions made in regards to science and technology. The view on science, technology and society (VOSTS) instrument was used to explore students‟ views on STS interdependence. Instrument was chosen because the researcher able measures to student responses. The VOSTS developed by Aikenhead, et al. (1987). The instruments allow respondents to express their own points of view on a wide range of topics in science. Each VOSTS item consists of a statement followed by several student positions and the scale of each item helped to explore the students‟ views on the STS interdependence in a more convenient fashion (Aikenhead, et al., 1987; Yalvac et al., 2007). Previous research studies views about STS interdependence address large numbers of teachers and students displayed mixed views in regard to science as process oriented or content oriented. Most agreed
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Grade-7 student’s Views scientific knowledge is tentative but does not present a thorough understanding of the differences of hypothesis, laws, and theories (Celik and Bayrakceken, 2006; Michelle and Hansen, 2008; Yalvac et al., 2007). In other studies, participants defined technology as an applied science (Botton and Brown, 1998). Many participants hold realistic views on STS interdependence, and feel that citizens should play a role in the decision making regarding the use of new technology (Schallies et al., 2002). In Contrast, participants claimed the science and technology do not solve the environmental problems, they believed that science and technology bring more pollution, and more jobs will be probably lost because of mechanical or computerized (Bakar et al., 2006). There have been few similar studies in Thailand. For exemple: Portjanatanti et al. (2006) investigated the pre-service science teachers‟ views on the STS interdependence about teaching of biology course and Yuenyong (2006) explored those grade 9 students‟ ideas about energy issues relate to society and technology. This study aimed to explore students‟ views on science, technology and societal issues. The information generated though this study would help to create curricula to improve students‟ views on STS. For this reason; research question were what grade-7 student views on science technology and society issues.
Study Methods Participants For this study, we collected data from 102 grade-7 students, 42 male and 60 female, selected by purposive sampling from three middle high schools in Ubonratchani, Thailand. All of them were enrolled in academic year 2008.
Instrument In this study, an adapted from of the “Views on Science-Technology-Society” (VOSTS) questionnaire was used (Aikenhead et al., 1989). VOSTS is a pool of 114
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Grade-7 student’s Views multiple-choice items that addresses a broad range of STS topics. With the help of the professor, we identified four sections consisting of 12 items. These four aspects are: (a) science and technology, (b) influence of society on science and technology, (c) influence of science and technology on society, and (d) influence of scientific knowledge and technology on decision making. These four subscales were related curricula taught during the first semester. The items used in this study were translated into Thai with the contribution of experts in Thai and English languages. In these items, any reference to Canada was replaced by version into Thai, as the questionnaire was originally developed in the Canadian context. The modified version of the VOSTS was piloted with a group of grade-7 students (n=15). The item validity and the comprehensiveness of the statements were evaluated and all necessary changes were made. The VOSTS instrument could provide more valid data than a simple multiple-choice questionnaire because the original VOSTS items were developed from student interviews and students‟ written response to some open-ended questions (Aikenhead et al., 1989; Yalvac et al., 2007). A sample of VOSTS items is presented in Table 1 Data analysis The adapted VOSTS questionnaire was administered to the participant in their classrooms with the guidance of the researchers. The collected data was organized and stored in electronic format. We investigated students‟ response patterns in order to identify the common themes across the sample.
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Grade-7 student’s Views Table1. A sample VOSTS item (Aikenhead et al., 1989) Instruction: Please read the opinions listed below, and then choose one. If you do not agree with any of them write your opinion in the space provided. Similarly, from statements that follow each opinion choose the reason that support your opinion, or write your own opinion in the provide space. (3) Technologists have their own body of knowledge to build on. Few developments in technology have come directly from discoveries made in science. (a) Technology advances mainly on its own. It doesn‟t necessarily need scientific discoveries. (b) Technology advances by relying equally on both scientific discoveries and technology‟s own body of knowledge. (c) Both scientists and technologists depend on the same body of knowledge, because science and technology are so similar. EVERY technological development builds on a scientific discovery. (d) Because scientific discoveries always find a use, whether for technological development or for other scientific uses. (e) Because science provides the background information and the new ideas for technology. (f) I don‟t understand. (g) I don‟t know enough about this subject to make a choice. (h) None of these choices fits my basic viewpoint. My view is ________
Results We analyzed the frequency distribution for each item to characterize the trends in participants‟ perceptions of the science, technology, and society issue. Results are organized under the titles of subscales and selected results are discussed in detail.
Science and Technology The adopted VOSTS survey included three items for the science and technology subscale. The results presented in Table 2. The first item asked respondents to select one of the several views related to the definition of science. The majority of the respondents (88.83%) views regarded science as content oriented. Participants defined science as a body of knowledge that explains the world (45.10%) and 13.73% defined science as a study of biology, physics and chemistry. Many students (14.70%) defined science as exploration of the unknown and the discovery of new knowledge about our world and the universe. About 12.75% of them viewed science as the exploration and application of
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Grade-7 student’s Views knowledge to make this world a better place to live in (for example, curing diseases, solving pollution and improving agriculture). And 8.82% of the respondents viewed science makes this world a better place to live in. A small percentage of respondents (3.92%) defined science as invention or design of objects such as artificial hearts, and computers. Only the (0.98%) of the participants viewed science as an organization of people (referred to as scientist). The second item asked students‟ positions with reference to the definition of technology. Participants displayed mixed views pertaining to technology as techniques or instruments. About 29.41% of the participants defined technology as ideas and techniques that help progress society. A few (3.92%) of them viewed technology as a technique for the accomplishment of objectives, or a way to solve practical problems. 22.55% of the participants defined technology as new processes, instruments, tools, machinery or practical devices for everyday use. And 15.69% of the
respondents
viewed
technology
as
robotics,
electronics,
computers,
communication systems, automation, etc... A minority (9.80%) thought that technology is about inventing, designing and testing things (for example, artificial hearts, computers, space vehicles). About one-tenth (11.86%) of the respondents viewed technology as an application of science and 6.68% viewed it as very similar to science. The third item assessed participants‟ views on issues concerning the interdependence of science and technology. Many students (41.18%) viewed technology advances mainly on its own. It doesn‟t necessarily need scientific discoveries. And 22.55% elected that technology advances based equally on scientific discoveries and the knowledge of technology. About 17.65% viewed both scientists and technologists depend on the same body of knowledge, because science and
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Grade-7 student’s Views technology are so similar. One-tenth of participants (10.78%) viewed science provides background information and inspiration for technology. Only the 5.88% of the participants viewed scientific discoveries always find applicability, whether for technological development or for other scientific functions.
Influence of society on science and technology There were three items in this subscale. The results presented in Table 3. The first item explored participants‟ views on the following statements: “Politics in Thailand affects Thai scientists, because scientists are very much a part of Thailand society”. The results showed that the majority of respondents (73.53%) agreed with the opinion that policies in Thailand influence science and technology. The first reason, which 28.43% of the respondents selected to support, is that, scientists try to help society and thus they are closely tied to society. Table 2. Percentages of students‟ views in questionnaire Science Technology and Society issues Students’ Views Percentages Definition of science - Science as a body of knowledge that explains the world. 45.10 13.73 - Science as a study of biology, physics and chemistry. 12.75 - Science as exploration of the unknown and the discovery of new knowledge about our world and the universe. - Science as the exploration and application of knowledge 14.70 to make this world a better place to live in (for example, curing diseases, solving pollution and improving agriculture). - Science makes this world a better place to live in. 8.82 3.92 - Science as invention or design of objects such as artificial hearts, and computers. 0.98 - Science as an organization of people (referred to as scientist). Definition of technology 29.41 - Technology as ideas and techniques that help progress society. - Technology as a technique for the accomplishment of 3.92 objectives, or a way to solve practical problems. - Technology as new processes, instruments, tools, 22.55 machinery or practical devices for everyday use. Page 1789
Grade-7 student’s Views -
Technology as robotics, electronics, computers, communication systems, automation, etc… - Technology is about inventing, designing and testing things (for example, artificial hearts, computers, space vehicles). - Technology as an application of science. - Technology as very similar to science. Science and Technology Interdependence - Technology advances mainly on its own. It doesn‟t necessarily need scientific discoveries. - Technology advances based equally on scientific discoveries and the knowledge of technology. - Both scientists and technologists depend on the same body of knowledge, because science and technology are so similar. - Science provides background information and inspiration for technology. - Scientific discoveries always find applicability, whether for technological development or for other scientific functions. The second reason, supported by 18.82% of the participants of
15.69 9.80
6.68 11.86 41.18 22.55 13.73 10.78 5.58 this study, is
that scientists are a part of society and are affected like everyone else. The third reason, supported by 16.48% of the respondents, is that funding for science comes mainly from governments which control the way the money is spent. Scientists some times have to lobby for funds. The last reason, supported by 9.80% of the respondents, is that governments not only give money for research, they set policies regarding new developments. These policies directly affect the type of projects scientists will work on. In contrast, 17.65% selected the reason that scientists are isolated from society; their work receives no public media attention unless they make a spectacular discovery. Just 8.82% of the respondents selected that the nature of a scientist‟s wok prevents the scientist from becoming involved politically. The next item examined students‟ views on the extent to which scientists‟ research is influenced by governments research funding. Participants were asked to express their positions for the following statements: “The Thai government should provide scientists with funds for research to explore are the scientist curious about the
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Grade-7 student’s Views unknowns of nature and universe.” Results revealed that 82.35% of the participants agreed that the government should provide scientist with funds for research. They supported their argument by using three reasons. First, Thailand is not to fall behind in research and to depend upon other countries (34.31%). Second, although it is often impossible to predict whether research will yield any beneficial results, it is an investment for the future (30.39%). Third, in the order to satisfy the general urge for discovery: that is to satisfy scientific curiosity (17.65%). In contrast, 16.66% of the respondents thought that little or no money should be spent on scientific research because the money could be spent on other thing, such as helping Thailand‟s unemployed and needy or foreign aid. And 0.98% of them selected that we could still apply imported technology. The last item of the study addressed the debate on the question “In Thailand, we do not need the general urge for discovery related to the production of insecticides. We adopt knowledge and technologies from other countries such as Japan, U.S.A. or Europe. This would be the best approach for our country”. The group who agreed with this item listed three reasons. First, greater amounts of money should be spent on foundation education, industrial research and community industrial research (25.49%). Second 13.73% of the participants expressed that Thailand should refrain form spending large amounts of money which is not beneficial to the society. One-tenth (10.78%) expressed that Thailand does not need a budget for research but that Thailand ought to use imported technology. On the other hand, 18.64% of the respondent viewed that Thailand should develop technology stemming from its own requirements and to solve its local problems. 15.69% of the participants mentioned that investment for the general urge for discovery will develop Thai scientists‟
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Grade-7 student’s Views proficiency even tough research projects sometimes fail. Lastly, the high cost of imported technology upsets the country‟s trade balance (15.69%).
Influence of Science and Technology on Society There were three items in this subscale. The results presented in Table 3. The first item asked participants to provide their views on the statement: “We have a large number of herb plants in Thailand. Should we develop our knowledge of herbs extraction technology which could be used to build herb insecticide plants?” Results indicate that 94.97% of the participants agreed that Thai scientists should produce the insecticides should be produced in herb plants to replace synthetic chemicals. They supported their position with two reasons. The first reason, selected by the 73.53% to participants is that insecticides from herbs plant provide a higher level of safety than synthetic chemicals, and 11.76% stated that the insecticides from herbs plants are the best choice of farmer. 7.84% of the respondents agreed that agriculturists want to increasingly use insecticides derived from herb plants, but the amount of domestic production is not sufficient. In contrast, 2.94% of the respondents agreed that the insecticides from herbs plant are yielding high revenue, thus worthwhile the production. A few of the respondents (3.92%) elected that agriculturists prefer synthetic insecticides to herbal insecticides.
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Grade-7 student’s Views Table3. Percentages of students‟ views in questionnaire Students’ Views Science Technology and Society issues Percentages agreed disagreed Influence of society on science and technology 73.53 26.47 - Politics in Thailand affects Thai scientists, because scientists are very much a part of Thailand society. - The Thai government should provide scientists with 82.35 17.68 funds for research to explore are the scientist curious about the unknowns of nature and universe. - In Thailand, we do not need the general urge for 50.00 50.00 discovery related to the production of insecticides. We adopt knowledge and technologies from other countries. Influence of Science and Technology on Society 94.97 5.03 - We have a large number of herb plants in Thailand. Should we develop our knowledge of herbs extraction technology which could be used to build herb insecticide plants? - Science and technology can provide solutions to 84.29 15.71 address the issues of harmful residues from (synthetic) insecticides. - Scientists and technologists‟ best suited to decide on 21.47 78.53 the type of insecticides (synthetic or herbal) applied in Thailand. Influence of Scientific knowledge and Technology on Decision making 25.60 74.40 - Knowledge and understanding of the science and technology can help people make some moral decision about using insecticide. 16.67 83.33 - Insecticide has greatly residue in the environment; therefore it is responsible to abolish the production of synthetics insecticides. 24.50 75.50 - In every day life, knowledge of insecticides science and technology can help to reduce the usage of insecticide. The next items probed the participants‟ views on following statements “Science and technology can provide solutions to address the issues of harmful residues from (synthetic) insecticides”. Results reveal that 84.29% of the participants agreed with this statement. They supported their argument with two reasons: 42.16% of the participants‟ stated that science and the technology can certainly help to resolve these problems. One-third of them (31.37%) stated that science and the technology
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Grade-7 student’s Views can help to resolve some problems but cannot address all issues. In contrast, one-tenth (11.76%) of the participants‟ stated that it is not an issue of science and technology itself, but rather a question of the astute application of science and technology. Onetenth of them (9.8%) thought that it is very difficult to see how science and technology could provide much help in resolving these problems social problems are cause by people, hence science and technology can do little to address problems in society. 4.9% of the students stated that science and technology only aggravate social problems; moreover, those problems are the price for the advances in science and technology. The next item prompted participants to express their positions on the following statements: “Scientists and technologists‟ best suited to decide on the type of insecticides (synthetic or herbal) applied in Thailand”. The majority of participants (78.53%) agreed with the opinion that science and technology influence society. They supported their position with two reasons. About 34.41% of the participants expressed that scientists and technologist have the training and know the facts which provides them with a sufficient level of understanding to address the issue. One-forth of the respondents (24.51%) indicated that scientists and technologists have the training and facts which give them a better understanding; but the public should be involved either informed or consulted. And 19.61% of the participants thought that scientists and technologists have the knowledge and can make better decisions than government bureaucrats or private companies, both of whom have vested interests. In contrast, 11.76% of the respondents argued that the decision should be made equally; viewpoints of scientists and technologists, other specialists and the informed public should all be considered in decisions which affect out society. Among them, 6.86% indicated that the government should decide because the issue is basically a political
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Grade-7 student’s Views one; but scientists and technologist should give advice. A few, 2.94% of the participants expressed that the public should decide because the public serves as a check on scientists and technologists. Scientists and technologists have idealistic and narrow views on the issue and thus pay little attention to consequences.
Influence of Scientific knowledge and Technology on Decision making There were three items under the influence of scientific knowledge and technology on decision making subscale. The results presented in Table 3. The first item addressed the participants‟ views on the following statement: “Knowledge and understanding of the science and technology can help people make some moral decision about using insecticide”. About 74.40% of the participants agreed that cognition of science and technology can help to arrive at moral decisions. The first reason, which 48.96% of the respondents selected to support, is that knowledge of science and technology enables the public to be better informed about technology and its possible effects in the environment. Such a comprehension can help the public to cope with the moral implications of application of technology in the environment. The second reason, supported by 29.45% believed that scientific information is significant, but moral issues must by considered by individuals. On the other hand, 13.78% of the respondents claimed an absence of correlation of the knowledge of science and technology with moral decision making, e.g. the way people employ the science and technology is not the scientist‟s concern. And 7.84% of the participants emphasized that moral decisions are made solely on the basis of individual‟s values and beliefs. The second item in regard to “insecticide has greatly residue in the environment, therefore it is responsible to abolish the production of synthetics insecticides”, to which most of the participant (83.33%) agreed. Among them, 43.14% thought that chemical residues (e.g. toxins) present in the environment must be
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Grade-7 student’s Views located. While 30.37% expressed that we should save the country for future generations. Suggestion: 8.82% of the participants felt that the government has more pressing issues to attend than to address the toxic residues in the environment. Conversely, 8.82% of the participants argued that a national reduction of the residue is irrelevant if other countries continue to pollute the environment. The effects of pollution are global. And 8.82% claimed that chemical insecticides can be applied if science is able to create substances of lesser toxic properties. The last item examined participants‟ views on the influences of scientific knowledge on management. Participants were asked to express their positions for the following statements: “In every day life, knowledge of insecticides science and technology can help to reduce the usage of insecticide”. Results revealed that 75.50% of the participants agreed that the science and technology can help manage the use of insecticides. They supported their argument with three arguments. The first reason selected by 44.12% of the participants was that I like to usage of insecticides ought to be reduced as there are substances of lesser toxicity, Second reason 25.50% of the participants claimed that insecticides affect health adversely. Third, 5.88% of the participants Stated insecticides need to be imported from abroad. In contrast, 12.75% of the participants hoped that science would create synthetic insecticides of a lesser toxicity. And 9.80% of the participants claimed that although they understand the implication of synthetic insecticides, they cannot force others from the application of synthetic insecticides. A small amount of the participants (1.96%) claimed that they did not have sufficient knowledge to properly handle toxic insecticides.
Discussion The results of this study give an indication of the students‟ views perceptions on the definition of science. The majority of participants viewed science as body of
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Grade-7 student’s Views knowledge that explains the world, which is consistent with previous studies (Bradford et al., 1995; Celik and Bayrakceken, 2006). However, the results yielded form this study revealed inconsistencies in the perception of science as a process of the exploration of the unknown, as classified by Yalvac et al. (2007). The present study suggests that traditional science teaching strategies emphasis science content rather than educate on the scientific process. Many participants of the present study apparently confuse science with technology. Science was defined as a process of invention or design and technology was regarded as the application of science. This is consistent with preceding studies (Haidar, 2002; Larochelle and Desautels, 1998). Educational systems in many countries emphasize on science as a core subject rather then on technology (Gardner, 1999). Other studies have suggested science teachers to be instrumental in the development of a sound comprehension of the varied natures and distinctions of science and technology (Gardner, 1999; Yalvac et al., 2007). The participants generally agreed on the interdependence of STS. Most thought that Thai government should provide scientist with research funds and that a government‟s policy affects the research work of the scientific community. In addition, the participants thought that scientists and technologists should decide on social problems because their knowledge enables them to arrive at the best conclusions. This concept appears to be culturally motivated, as the youth is generally groomed for obedience to individuals of authority in Thai society. Children are usually taught that good children must obey parents, teachers and adults who have better understanding (Yeunyong, 2006). In regard to the influence on the decision making process exerted by science and technology, all the participants view that two disciplines provide the necessary background information to arrive at morally sound decisions. These findings are in
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Grade-7 student’s Views line with analogous with the results reported by Bakar et al. (2006) and Portjanatanti et al. (2006). Additionally, not all students have a thorough understanding of STS interdependence. For example, students thought that technology does not solve problems but rather is a cause for predicaments, and scientific knowledge has no positive affect on the decision making process. One for the absence of the students‟ comprehension of the interdependence is the traditional teaching practices with a distinct focus on scientific content knowledge. This poses as an impediment to the attainment of a contextual discussion of STS interdependence. (Yalvac et al., 2007). Science educators should focus on authentic instruction which provides students with ample opportunities to use their knowledge in real life situations instead of teaching content based knowledge in a traditional classroom setting. Even though there is a common agreement that STS teaching is important because the STS approach will allow students to use more specific information in daily students‟ experiences (Yager, 1996). Such a practice would be the foundation for the education population which is science and technology literate. Such a practice would allow for more meaningful and effective scientific and technological education and thus prepare the students for their role as responsible citizens.
References Aikenhead, G. S., Ryan, A. G. & Fleming, R. W. (1989). Views on Science Technology Society. Department of Curriculum Studies College of Education. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1989). Science for all Americans (P. 4). Washington DC: AAAS Publications. Bakar, E., Bal, S. & Akcay, H. (2006). “Preservice Science Teachers Beliefs about Science-Technology and Their Implication in Society”. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2(3), 18-31.
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Grade-7 student’s Views Bradford, C. S., Rubba, P. A. & Harkness, W. L. (1995). “View about ScienceTechnology-Society Interactions Held by College Students in General Education Physics and STS Courses”. Science Education, 79, 355-375. Botton, C. & Brown, C. (1998). “The Reliability of some VOSTS item when used with Preservice Secondary Science Teacher in England”. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35, 57-71. Celik, S. & Bayrakceken, S. (2006). “The Effect of a „Science, Technology and Society‟ course on prospectivr teachers‟ conceptions of the nature of science”. Research in science and Technological Education, 24, (2), 255-273. Gardner, P, L. (1999). “The Presentation of Science-Technology Relationships in Canadian Physics Textbooks”. International Journal of Science Education. 21, 329-347. Haidar, A. H. (2002). “Professors‟ Views on the Influence of Arab Society on Science and Technology”. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 9 (3): 257-273. Larochelle, M. & Desautels, J. (1998). “On the Sovereignty of School Rhetoric: Representation of Science among Scientists and Guidance Counselors”. Research in Science Education. Michelle, L. & Hansen, M. (2008). “First-Year College Students‟ Conflict with Religion and Science”. Journal Science and Education, 17 : 317-357. National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards (P. 22). Washington, DC: Academy Press. Portjanatanti, N., Yutakom, N., Viravaidhaya, Y, Potisook, P. & Phanvichien, K. (2006). “The Instruction of Teaching of Biology Course Using Science, Technology and Society”. Songklanakarin Journal of Social science and Humanities, 12(2): 161-175. Schallies, M., Wellensiek, A. & Lembens, A. (2002). “The Development of Mature Capabilities for Understanding and Valuing in Technology though School Project Work: Individual and Structural Preconditions”. International Journal of Technology and design Education, 12, 41-58. Solomon, J. & Aikenhead, G. S. (1994). STS Education: international perspective on reform. New York: Teacher College Press. Tairab, H. H. (2001). “How do Pre-service and In-service Science Teachers‟ View the Nature of Science and Technology?” Research in Science and Technological Education, 19, 235-250. The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology. (2003). National Science Curriculum Standards the Basic Education Curriculum B.E.2544. Bangkok: The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology.
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Grade-7 student’s Views Yager, R. E. (1996). “Science Teacher Preparation as a Part of Systemic Reform in the United Stated”. pp. 24-33. in J. Rhothon and P. Bowers (eds.) Issue in Science Education. Arlington: Bladen Lithographics. Yalvac, B., Tekkaya, C., Cakiroglu, J. & Kahyaoglu, E. (2007). “Turkish Pre-Service Science Teachers‟ Views on Science-Technology-Society Issues”. International Journal of Science Education, 29(3), 331-348. Yuenyong, C. (2006). Teaching and Learning about Energy: Using Science Technology and Society (STS) Approach. Doctor of Philosophy Kasatsart University. Bangkok. Thailand.
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In the name of God
Evaluation and Content Analysis of Physics Textbook (1) by the Merrill model N.Sarikhani,1 F.Ahmadi and 2M.R.Emamjomeh 1
Assistant Professor of Physics Department. Shahid Rajaee University.
2
Assistant Professor of Education Department. Shahid Rajaee University Tehran. Iran
Abstract: In this paper we study the manner of presentation the content of physics textbook (1) by the Merrill model instructional design and opinion poll of physics teachers about the manner of presentation this book in the base of Merrill model. We measured this book by five degrees scales. The results have shown that the average of primary presentation forms is 2.73, which means that is less than average extent and the average of secondary presentation forms is 2.46, which means that is a little more than little extent. And the average of inter display relationships or (four offering principles) is 2.50.Which means, that is between the less extent and average extent. So the average of presentation for whole of Merrill model instruction design for this book is 2.62, which means it is less than the average extent. Also, in this paper we study the presentation of this book by the opinion poll of physics teachers of girl high schools Tehran city in the 2008-9 scholastic by the questionnaire on the base of Merrill model with five degrees scales. The results have shown that the average of opinion is 2.95, which means the presentation of this book is near to average extent. Therefore, this result is in agreement with before results.
Introduction: Instructional Design (ID) is a general term for a family of systematic methods for planning, developing, evaluating and managing the instructional process effectively in order to promote
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successful learning by students (Kemp, Morrison, & Ross, 1998).There are many models for example Component Display Theory (CDT) is one of them, see (Merrill, 1983) and (Merrill, Kowallis & Wilson 1981).CDT is an attempt to identify the components from which instructional strategies could be constructed. This theory identifies strategy prescriptions for different kinds of learning outcomes. Also CDT is on the base of The Gagné assumptions. Gagné (1965, 1985) stated as a primary assumption of instructional theory that there are different kinds of learning outcomes (learning goals) that each of these different goals requires to unique learning conditions. Information that does not include presentation, practice, and learner guidance is information but not instruction. Different instructional outcomes (objectives) require different types of presentation, different types of practice, and different kinds of learner guidance. In this paper we study the presentation of physics textbook1 in Iran by the Merrill instructional model (CDT). Summary of CDT (Component Display Theory (M.D. Merrill)): Merrill like Gagne believes the objects of instruction determine the processes of instruction. He believes the manner of instruction relates to type of content and level of performance that expected. Component Display Theory (CDT) classifies learning along two dimensions: content (facts, concepts, procedures, and principles) and performance (remembering, using, find). Remembering has four parts: meaning remembering instance, meaning remembering generality, literally remembering instance, literally remembering generality.
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The above picture shows that the only level of performance that we expect for Fact is remember; And We can expect each level for other content. In CDT all subjects have two parts: generality (description, definition), instances (examples). And they are present two forms: expository or inquisitor. CDT applies three terms: primary presentation forms (PPFs), secondary presentation forms (SPFs), and inter display relationships (IDRs) or (four offering principles). Primary Presentation Forms (PPFs) is containing three stages: presentation, practice and assessment. That, CDT describes the manner, order and arrangement of their stages with regard to type of content and expecting performance (appropriate to the subject matter and learning task). Secondary Presentation Forms (SPFs) is containing elaborations that coming behind primary presentation forms with due regard to type of content and expecting performance to facilitating learning. Example: background elaboration, prerequisite elaboration, various model of present elaboration, helps elaboration, mnemonics elaboration, and feedback elaboration, … . CDT describes when they come appropriate to the subject matter and learning task).[help elaboration is ways to draw attention for consideration important items in lesson. For example: color, line, font, …]
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Inter Display Relationships (IDRs) or (the other name: four offering principles) is containing four principles: Isolation, Divergence, Matching and Difficulty. Isolation is to separate the stages of PPFs and SFPs from each others. Divergence is to introduce a sample of all instances [expository or inquisitor].Matching is to present instances (examples) with un instances (non examples), [only expository].Difficulty is to present instances in range of easy to hard, [expository or inquisitor]. The following table shows PPFs with due regard to type of expecting performance: Presenting Practicing Assessment ----------------Questioning from new Questioning from new Finding examples(instances),Questioning examples(instances),Questioning from new generality from new generality Questioning from Questioning from new Questioning from new Using examples examples (instances) examples(instances) (instances), Exposing the instances. Exposing the Questioning from examples Questioning from Meaning instance. (instances) examples(instances) remembering instance meaning remembering generality literally remembering instance literal remembering generality
Exposing the generality. Exposing the instance. Exposing the instance
Questioning from generality
Questioning from generality
Questioning from example (instance)
Questioning from example (instance)
Exposing the generality
Questioning from generality
Questioning from generality
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Next table shows PPFs with due regard to type of content: Exposing the Exposing the Questioning from generality instance example (instance) Fact ------------------Item-item Item-? concept Define: Instance.(containi Classify: Name, ng): Name , the new case, classification, sample, particulars, Particulars, particulars, represent the Communications. showing it questions (?) , … procedure Process: Show: Play request: purpose, name, purpose, name, purpose, new stages, materials, arrange materials, manner how or arrange the stages, show of play (?). the stages, take the stages. decision the branches. principle Define: Explain: Explain: Name, Name, Event, name, new Component of Shown. problems, manner causal Relation. the replying (Solution, forecast)?
Questioning from generality Expose the generality: name, define (?) (meaning or literal) Expose the stages: purpose (meaning or literal), manner of play (?). (Meaning or literal). Expose the relation: name, define? (meaning or literal
The inferior table shows SFPs (elaborations) taking consideration to level of expecting performance: Exposing the generality
Exposing the instance
Finding
--------------
-------------------
Using
Prerequisite, help, various model of present elaboration. ---------------
Help, various model of present elaboration.
Meaning remembering instance meaning remembering generality literally remembering
Mnemonics Elaboration. --------------------
Questioning from example (instance) -------------------Various model of present , Feedback elaboration.
Various model of Feedback various presenting model of present elaboration. elaboration. Help elaboration. -------------
----------------
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Feedback elaboration.
Questioning from generality Feedback elaboration. --------------
-------------
Feedback elaboration. --------------
instance Mnemonics ------------------------------Feedback literal Elaboration. elaboration remembering generality For obtaining complete information about this Model, see (CDT, Merrill, 1983),(Merrill, Kowallis & Wilson .1981). It seems the important matter in this model is when the student finished the instruction he/she during instruction must have been faced with all the subject and all the sample of instances and un instances (within presenting or practice or assessment).it means the instruction must be complete (perfect); and we must avoid the imperfect instruction. Another important thing in this model is the instruction must to have three stages: Presenting, practice and assessment. [even for finding performance, presenting for finding performance is to make conditions to set students] a. Analyze the physics textbook 1 by the Merrill model This book contained of 5chapters: energy, heat, static electric, geometry optics (2 chapters). We assigned type the content of lessons and their performance levels on the base of model. Then, we measured and scaled (PPFs), (SPFs), (IDRs) for all lessons of this book by the five degrees scale according to the model. [5 number for complete (very much) extent. 4 for much extent, 3 for average extent, 2 for little extent and 1 for no extent].After collecting data, they were statistic studied. Results are as follows:
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I.
Present of Primary Presentation Forms (PPFs):
The above table shows that the average of primary presentation forms is 2.73, which means it is less than average extent. II.
Present of Secondary Presentation Forms (SPFs)
The above table shows the average of secondary presentation forms is 2.46, which means it is a little more than little extent.
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III.
Present of Inter Display Relationships (IDRs) or (four offering principles)
The above table shows the average of inter display relationships is 2.50.which means it is between the less extent and average extent.
IV.
End result for whole of the model
We studied all of (PPFs), (PSFs) and (IDRs) with each other for whole of the book to get the average of presentation of the book according to the model.
Scale
The above table shows the average of presentation the whole of Merrill model for this book is 2.62, which means it is less than the average extent.
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b. Results of the opinion poll of physics teachers We got view’s physics teachers of girl high schools in 8 district Tehran city in the 2008-9 scholastic about the presentation this book according to correspond to the model by the questionnaire that provided for. Statistics society was 53 teachers, that 43 teachers replied it .The validity confirmed by numbers of professors. Reliability Statistics (Cronbach's Alpha) was 0.756.the questionnaire was made on the base of the Merril model by five degrees Likert scales. [5 for very much, … , 1 for very little.].After collecting data, they were statistic studied. Results are as follows:
The above table shows that the average of opinion is 2.95, which means the presentation of this book is nearly average extent, in accord to Merrill model from physics teachers ’ s views. Conclusion: In this paper, we analyzed our Physics textbook 1 on the base of the Merrill model in 2 ways. One, we scaled all lessons with five degrees according to the model and then got the average results. Another, we got views of physics teachers by questionnaire with 5 Likert scales and then obtain the average results. The average of presentation for whole of the Merrill model for this book is 2.62 [with the std. error of mean 0.048], and The Average of the opinion is 2.95 [with the
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std. error of mean 0.047]. Both results are near and in agree to each other, and show the presentation of this book according to Merrill model is average and a little less than it. Reference: [1].Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., and Ross, S. M. (1998). Designing effective instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. [2].Merrill.M.D,T.Kowallis & B.G.Wilson .(1981).instructional Design in Transition. In Farley,F.H.& N.J.Gordon (EDS). Psycology and Education: the state of the unin, Barkeley : McCutcham. [3].Merrill, M. David (1983).Component Display Theory .Chapter no 9.In Charles M. Reigeluth (Ed). Instructional-Design Theories and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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SCIENTIFIC LITERACY IN INTENDED CURRICULUM
An analytical frame to explore scientific literacy in intended curriculum: Bangladesh perspective
Md. Mahbub Alam Sarkar
PhD Researcher Faculty of Education, Monash University Building 6, Clayton campus Wellington Road, Clayton VIC-3800, Australia E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract
Like many other countries, junior secondary science education in Bangladesh aims to provide a good foundation in science for all students to make them able to use their science learning in real life contexts, i.e. to make them scientifically literate. However, as a school student, as an intern school science teacher and a science teacher educator, I have experienced that in many cases, school students do not find many school science topics relevant and important in real life. As well, science teaching often emphasises just memorising the abstract science content instead of enabling students to apply their science learning in everyday life. Therefore there might be a mismatch among intended, implemented and experienced curriculum regarding scientific literacy in Bangladesh school education. This paper deals with exploring the representation of scientific literacy in an intended junior secondary General Science curriculum in Bangladesh. Exploring this representation is important because how scientific literacy is represented in the curriculum may implicate how teachers teach to promote scientific literacy in science classes and how students perceive what is taught to them. To examine the representation of scientific literacy in the curriculum documents, an analytical frame has been built as consistent with the conceptual frame of scientific literacy in my PhD research consisting of science concepts, science processes, nature of science (NOS), and science values and attitudes. How an emphasis on each of these aspects can be determined in the curriculum documents is exemplified in this paper as well.
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An analytical frame to explore scientific literacy in intended curriculum: Bangladesh perspective
Introduction During the 1980s, Fensham‟s (1985) call for a “Science for All” was recognised worldwide as a commitment to provide science to all students, not just to the elite. Subsequently, this slogan has now been modified to one of “Scientific literacy” (Law, Fensham, Li, & Wei, 2000; Wilke & Straits, 2005), which is advocated worldwide as a goal of school science education for example in the USA (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1989, 1993; National Research Council [NRC], 1996), in the UK (Millar & Osborne, 1998), in the Netherlands (De Vos & Reiding, 1999), or in Australia (Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001). Like these countries, junior secondary science education in Bangladesh aims to provide a good foundation in science for all students to make them able to use their science learning in real life (National Curriculum and Textbook Board [NCTB], 1996). This aim can be perceived as consistent with the aim of a preparation of scientifically literate citizenry because scientific literacy argues for engaging students with science in everyday lives (Tytler, Osborne, Williams, Tytler, & Clark, 2008). However, my experiences as a school student, as an intern school science teacher, and a science teacher educator are somewhat contrary to this curricular aim. When I was a school student I experienced science just as a large body of information. I used to memorise this information as the teachers only emphasised memorising the science content in the class. I can still remember that I memorised the definition of „friction‟ even though I did not know at that time that we encounter the effect of friction each and every day.
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Applications of science in our life were hardly explained in the class. Also, scientists were presented in ways that promoted a sense of a revered person with some authority, almost hero-like. As a result, I thought of science as a matter for some special people (scientists) rather than something that linked with my life. Later, as an intern school science teacher, I experienced that many of my students could not find many topics in science as important in their lives; they studied science just for examination purpose. I talked about the students‟ views with the regular science teacher in that class. He responded that because of the lack of scope in the curriculum, it was very difficult to make many of the science lessons relevant to students so that they could apply these in real life contexts. As a science teacher educator, I experienced that some of my student-teachers had a view that science is abstract in nature, and thus the students might not see the application of much of their science learning in real life. This view is not consistent with the aim of promoting scientific literacy. My experiences presented above indicate that there might be a mismatch among intended, implemented and experienced curriculum regarding scientific literacy in Bangladesh school education. In my PhD study, I am working with exploring scientific literacy in these three levels of curriculum in junior secondary science education in Bangladesh. This paper deals with exploring the representation of scientific literacy in the intended level of curriculum. Exploring this representation is important because how scientific literacy is represented in the curriculum may influence how teachers teach to promote scientific literacy in science classes and how students perceive what is taught to them. More specifically, this paper presents an analytical frame to examine the representation of scientific literacy in the curriculum documents of junior secondary level.
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Context of the junior secondary science curriculum In Bangladesh, the school education system consists of two major levels: primary (ages 6-10) and secondary which has three sub-stages: junior secondary (grade VI-VIII), secondary (grade IX and X), and higher secondary (grade XI and XII). It is at the junior secondary level where a single curriculum caters for all students. The National Curriculum and Textbook Board [NCTB] prepares the curriculum for the junior secondary level (Ministry of Education, 2000) and provides textbooks for each grade, selecting content according to the prescribed learning objectives . „General Science‟ is a compulsory unit for all at this level, which forms 10% of the total curriculum (NCTB, 1996). This General Science subject is integrated in nature, and consists of Physical Science, Life Science, Earth and Space Science and Technology. Science at this level is for everyone, even though almost 75% students will choose the non-science group at the secondary level (Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics [BANBEIS], 2006). So the junior secondary curriculum should provide a good foundation in science for all students including those who will take further studies in science. The emphasis in the curriculum needs to cater for both of these groups as the former group will need a solid foundation in science in preparation for being effective citizens, while the later group will additionally need a good foundation to prepare them for further study in science as well. This emphasis, however, does not always remain in balance in the curriculum, with teachers often emphasising the good foundation for the future science career group more than the first. Moreover, in Bangladesh, science teaching is single textbook oriented (Asian Development Bank [ADB], 2006). Students are assessed by the items taken from the textbook (Holbrook, 2005), and tests often demand answers to be copied from the textbook
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(Holbrook & Khatun, 2004, cited in Siddique, 2007). Such an approach reinforces the need for students and teachers to rely heavily on this recommended textbook. Therefore, textbooks are often considered as “de-facto curriculum” in Bangladesh (Siddique, 2007, 2008). Consequently, promoting scientific literacy in Bangladesh may also be related to the curriculum documents, especially the textbook. Therefore it is important to look at whether the curriculum documents including the textbooks have potential to promote scientific literacy.
Conceptions of scientific literacy No consensus exists for universal acceptance regarding the conceptions of scientific literacy (DeBoer, 2000; Jenkins, 1990; Osborne, 2007; Roberts, 2007), and this may be due to the dependence of scientific literacy on context. However, it can be revealed from the literature that scientific literacy focuses primarily on: (i) science concepts, (ii) nature of science (NOS), (iii) science processes, and (iv) attitudes and values. There is a consensus among the science education expert community about the inclusion of the first three aspects (e.g., AAAS, 1989, 1993; Bybee, 1995, 1997; Chiappetta, Fillman, & Sethna, 1991; Millar, 1996; Miller, 1983; NRC, 1996; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2006; Osborne, 2007; Pella, O‟Hearn, & Gale, 1966; Shamos, 1995). While values are also suggested as a component of scientific literacy (Graber, et al., 2001; Koballa, Kemp, & Evans, 1997; OECD, 2006; Pella, et al., 1966), because they are values which guide people to make decisions in a situation (Rennie, 2005, 2007). These four components of scientific literacy are also common in the framework of a “Science for All” curriculum (Fensham, 1985). Thus it can be argued that a curriculum designed to give all students access to scientific literacy needs to include the abovementioned
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four aspects. The shared elements among the conceptions of scientific literacy as presented above are synthesised to building a conceptual frame of scientific literacy as discussed below.
Scientific literacy – a conceptual frame Science concepts Science concepts can include knowledge of the fundamental scientific vocabularies, theories, laws etc. Scientific knowledge is important for both intrinsic and instrumental justifications as suggested by Millar (1996). Intrinsic justification refers to cultural aspects, i.e., scientific knowledge can help people to satisfy their curiosity about the natural world, which is also very important in learning (Howes, 2001). On the other hand, the instrumental justification refers to the utilitarian aspects, i.e., scientific knowledge is necessary as a foundation for making informed practical decisions about everyday matters, participating in decision-making to science-related issues; and working in science and technology related jobs (Millar, 1996, p. 9). Both of these justifications are consistent with science concepts applied in context, because these concepts may provide learners with the knowledge required in socio-scientific decision making and may satisfy their curiosity about the natural world around them. However, there is still some case to be made for the pure science concepts because there are many science concepts that are difficult to be presented as contextualised in students‟ lives, for example the structure of an atom, even though such a concept like this may have importance to understand many other related concepts. Therefore pure science concepts have been considered in conjunction with concepts applied in context within this conceptual framework.
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Science processes Science processes are the things that scientists do when they study and investigate (Rezba, et al., 1995). When science processes are blended with science concepts in a sciencerelated context, students might develop scientific competencies for decision making in various socio-scientific issues. Thus science processes have been considered as important for scientific literacy and have been included in this conceptual frame. Acquiring process skills has been given importance in one of the general objectives of the junior secondary General Science curriculum in Bangladesh (NCTB, 1996) too. Both practical and intellectual process skills have been advocated there, which can be seen as consistent with other research (Padilla, Okey, & Dillashaw, 1983; Rezba, et al., 1995). The instruction for science processes can include both paper-pencil and hands-on activities and the scope for developing those processes can be found if the intent of the text is to stimulate thinking and doing by asking the student to “find out” something (Chiappetta, et al., 1991). Nature of science (NOS) There is little consensus among the science education academics about the conception of NOS (Lederman, 2004; Osborne, Collins, Ratcliffe, Millar, & Duschl, 2003). However, widely accepted view of NOS refers to “the characteristics of scientific knowledge that necessarily result from the conventional approaches (i.e. scientific inquiry) scientists use to develop knowledge” (Lederman & Lederman, 2004). This definition reflects that scientific inquiry is the process for developing scientific knowledge, and the knowledge possesses some characteristics, which are referred to as NOS. In essence, the principles and beliefs inherent in the scientific knowledge development processes are known as NOS (Lederman, 1992, 2004, 2007).
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Lederman (2004) identifies seven aspects of NOS as represented in Figure 1. He argues that these seven aspects are consistent with that of the American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS] and the National Science Education Standards [NSES] recommended in the USA. As well, some of these aspects are found in the „ideas-aboutscience‟ recommended by Osborne et al. (2003) in the UK. On the other hand, it can be seen in Lederman‟s views of NOS that it includes epistemological (e.g., tentativeness, empiricallybased etc.) and sociological (e.g., socially and culturally embedded) perspectives. The inclusion of these two perspectives is regarded as the “contemporary views” of NOS (Corrigan & Gunstone, 2007, p. 139). Thus, Lederman‟s views of NOS might be regarded as the contemporary views, and hence have been included in this framework. Attitudes and values Values have received attention in school science curriculum in many of the western countries, such as in the USA, UK and Australia (Gunstone, Corrigan, & Dillon, 2007). As previously discussed, values guide people to make decisions and making decision is crucial for scientific literacy. Values have therefore been considered as an aspect of scientific literacy in this framework. The junior secondary General Science curriculum in Bangladesh aims to foster four attitudes and values: logical thinking, open-mindedness, respect for other‟s opinion, and intellectual honesty (NCTB, 1996, p. 354). These values are considered as important for scientific literacy, and have been included in the conceptual frame. It may be noteworthy that these constructs are used interchangeably as values and attitudes by many science educators; while some differentiate values from attitudes, for example “values are more complex and broader than attitudes and are more enduring” (Trenholm, 1989, cited in Koballa & Glynn, 2007, p. 78). However since the focus of this research is not discussing these differentiations intensively, I will call these constructs as “attitudes and values”.
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A summary of the ideas presented above are represented below in Figure 1 and represents a conceptual frame to be used for developing an analytical frame to explore scientific literacy in the curriculum documents.
Figure 1. Scientific literacy – a summary of the conceptual frame
Analytical frame to explore scientific literacy in curriculum documents Using the conceptual frame presented above, the representation of scientific literacy in the intended curriculum will be explored through four questions: To what extent are science concepts presented in the curriculum in ways that can be applied to students‟ life contexts? What is the scope for exercising/ developing science processes in the curriculum? How is nature of science (NOS) portrayed in the curriculum? Page 1820
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How are attitudes and values of science represented in the curriculum? The analytical frame is designed to getting answers to these questions. Because of the multi-faceted nature of scientific literacy, only one analytical frame is not appropriate to explore all these aspects. I have thus considered two different analytical frames that could be used to explore different facets of scientific literacy in the curriculum. One such frame is Bailey‟s (1978) product-process framework and the other is developed by Abd-El-Khalick, Waters and Le (2008).
Bailey’s original product-process framework Bailey (1978) developed and used a framework to explore the shift in emphasis of chemistry curricula in Victoria, Australia for the period of 1932-1972. Later Corrigan (1999) adapted it to examine the shift in emphasis of chemistry curricula in the same region for the period of 1932-1998 in her doctoral thesis. More recently Siddique (2007) modified this framework and applied it to identify the changes in priorities given in the proposed secondary science curriculum as compared to the existing curriculum in Bangladesh. Fundamental distinctions were made between product and process in Bailey‟s (1978) original framework as illustrated in Figure 2, where product referred to “the set of assertions or knowledge statements (laws, theories, hypotheses, definitions, facts, etc.) generated by the scientific process” (p. 12). Process in the framework, on the other hand, referred to attempts to help students to understand how knowledge is generated. The notion of product was analysed in two dimensions: broad conceptual content versus descriptive factual content, and pure content versus socially applied content. Again there were two sub-dimensions of socially applied content – industrial versus domestic application in one dimension, and social ideology in the other. Domestic and industrial application of science referred to how science
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is linked with learner‟s own life and how science is linked with the learner as s/he is a member of the broader community respectively, while the dimension social ideology shows how science is portrayed as interacting with society. In the process dimension in Bailey‟s framework, science processes were classified into two components: practical process skills and intellectual process skills, which together form opposite ends of a continuum as represented in Figure 2. At one end of the continuum, practical process skills are associated with doing operations in science, while at the other end, intellectual process skills are associated with processing data or information to reach a conclusion. Both Bailey (1978) and Corrigan (1999) used the abovementioned framework to demonstrate how Chemistry curriculum can change over time, while Siddique (2007) used this framework to find out how “knowledge of worth” has been treated in existing and proposed secondary science curricula in Bangladesh. The focus of the present research, while sharing many of the same purposes as these studies, differs significantly in consideration of how scientific literacy is portrayed in the intended curriculum in Bangladesh. Scientific literacy has many facets, and the consideration of just “product” and “process” as in Bailey‟s (1978) framework does not adequately take account of the multi-faceted nature of scientific literacy. For example, nature of science (NOS) is not considered in Bailey‟s framework but is considered in the conceptual framework of this research. I therefore consider it not worthwhile to adopt Bailey‟s frame to explore all aspects of scientific literacy. Rather, it can be useful to modify Bailey‟s frame and use it to explore two aspects, namely science concepts and science processes that are related to Bailey‟s “product” and “process” dimension respectively. The next sections deal with this.
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Figure 2. Bailey‟s (1978, p. 12) original Product – Process framework
Bailey’s modified frame In order to explore how science concepts and science processes are presented in the curriculum, Bailey‟s frame is modified (see Figure 3) and explained below. Exploring science concepts The second product dimension of the Bailey‟s (1978) framework is adapted to explore how science concepts are presented in the curriculum. As discussed previously, in this dimension, science content is classified into two components: pure content and socially applied content, which together form opposite ends of a continuum. Although science concepts applied in context have been argued as important for scientific literacy in this
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research, there is still some case to be made for the pure concepts. Thus it is not intended that the pure concepts disappear, but is argued that in a curriculum for scientific literacy, more emphases should be given on science concepts applied in context that has relevance to students‟ life (Aikenhead, 2008). In contrast, more emphasis on theoretical, abstract concepts often characterises a traditional representation of science curriculum (Fensham, 1985). Therefore pure science concepts will remain in conjunction with science concepts applied in context in the present analytical frame. However, my intention is to explore whether science concepts applied in context are given emphasis and how they are emphasised in the curriculum.
Figure 3. Modified Bailey‟s frame (from Bailey, 1978, p. 12) Again, in Bailey‟s original framework, concepts of industrial application (e.g., production of steel) referred to concepts relating to industrial production and are related to the “wider community of the learners” (Bailey, 1978, p. 13), whereas “wider community” may
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refer to people beyond learners‟ family and peer groups. On the other hand, concepts of domestic applications are more directly related to the life of the learners, for example, hardness of water. In the analytical frame for this research, the Program for International Student Assessment [PISA] framework for context (OECD, 2006) has been adopted and included, replacing both industrial and domestic application of science concepts due to the following reasons. In the PISA study, context is characterised by two aspects: life situations and areas of application of science. Three life situations of learners have been considered: personal life, social life, and global life, which can represent life situations of the learners as self and as a member of the “wider community”. Also the PISA framework for context covers a wide range of possible areas of application that learners might encounter, such as health, natural resources, environment, hazard, and frontiers of science and technology. These areas of application of science have particular importance to individuals and communities in promoting and sustaining quality of life (OECD, 2006). So the PISA framework for context is broader than just industrial and domestic application of science and also encompasses better representation of the communities within which science operates. I have, therefore adopted PISA framework for context in the present analytical framework as in Figure 3 replacing Bailey‟s (1978) industrial and domestic application of science content.
Figure 4. Application of science in context (Adopted from OECD, 2006, p. 27) Another sub-dimension of socially applied science content in Bailey‟s (1978) framework, “social ideology”, is characterised by the effects of science and technology in the
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society. These effects can be either to improve the quality of human life by solving problems, or to decrease the quality by leading to problems. For example, science saved many lives by inventing effective medicines and treatments against various diseases. It may indicate the positive social ideology of science. On the other hand, CFC is one of the responsible agents for ozone layer depletion, which may cause various health hazards, such as, skin cancer, cataracts, eye problems (World Health Organization [WHO], 2008) etc. This type of aspect can be regarded as negative social ideology of science. Since science is highly related with society, the sub-dimension social ideology is very much significant in this framework and will remain as in Figure 3. Exploring science processes In order to decide whether science processes have been reflected in the curriculum materials within this research, I have considered if curriculum materials engage/ suggest engaging students in activities that require practical process skills, such as observing and measuring recognising a problem collecting data predicting changes if any intervention is made discussing ways in which data can be analysed and interpreted making mathematical calculation using and interpreting charts, tables, graphs etc. using evidence to develop an explanation communicating the explanation discussing the reason of procedures they took to seek the answers
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Science processes as outlined in the bullets presented above are related to both the practical and the intellectual process skills. For example, the skills of observing and measuring are related to practical process skills, while recognising problems, data interpretation, mathematical calculations etc. are related to intellectual process skills. Previous studies (Bailey, 1978; Corrigan, 1999; Siddique, 2007) successfully explored the representation of both of these skills using Bailey‟s frame. Therefore, the process dimension of Bailey‟s frame has been adopted to explore the representation of science processes in this research. Determining emphases using Bailey’s modified frame In this research, dimensions of Bailey‟s (1978) modified frame (Figure 3) are rated following the same scheme what Bailey used in his research. Bailey rated each of the dimensions except “social ideology” in his framework on a Likert-type five-point scale: very weak, weak, moderate, strong, very strong. Social ideology was rated on a three point scale: positive, neutral, and negative. Almost in a similar way as Bailey, emphases in each of the aspects and their associated components are determined through rough estimations made by counting the number of times aspects are apparent in the curriculum documents, and
determining the time allocation on a particular aspect It is noteworthy that the position of a curriculum on a scale can only be determined with moderate accuracy due to the heterogeneity present in the curriculum documents used to provide the estimation (Corrigan, 1999). However, in judging position to the dimensions of the framework, comparisons can be made among different dimensions. As well, decisions can be made about how each of the dimensions is treated in the intended curriculum of different grades.
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An example of making judgment about science concept A chapter in the grade VIII textbook is entitled “Some common diseases” (chapter 23). This chapter discusses causes, symptoms, protection and cure of some very common diseases in Bangladesh, such as blindness, conjunctivitis, cancer, diabetes, jaundice and hypertension. For example, how hepatitis can be prevented is given in the textbook as follows: “Hepatitis A virus spreads through food and faeces. So, sanitary disposal of faeces, together with frequent hand washing with soap may prevent hepatitis A virus infection. Hepatitis B virus spreads through sexual contact with infected person, sharing of needles with infected person, and transfusion of infected blood. For protection from hepatitis B virus, a full course of hepatitis B virus vaccine should be taken, and avoid contact with the possible source of transmission.” (Shamsudduha, Miah, Wahab, Khan, & Morshed, 2007, p. 274)
Such health related knowledge can be considered as knowledge applied to students‟ life instead of pure science knowledge. Specifically, this knowledge can be considered as applied to students‟ personal life, because students can use such knowledge in maintaining their health by preventing possible personal hepatitis infection. Moreover, by using such hepatitis related knowledge in their personal life students also can prevent social transmission of hepatitis within their community. Furthermore, as about two billion people worldwide have been infected with the hepatitis B virus and about 0.6 million people die each year due to its chronic or acute consequences (WHO, 2009), Hepatitis B can be regarded as a global disease. Thus the knowledge of how Hepatitis B can be prevented presented in the quotation above, can be applied to prevent the global transmission of Hepatitis too. Therefore, the knowledge presented in the example can be regarded as knowledge with its personal, social, and global dimension.
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A scoring rubric developed by Abd-El-Khalick and his colleagues Abd-El-Khalick and his colleagues (Abd-El-Khalick, et al., 2008) assessed the representations of nature of science (NOS) in high school chemistry textbooks and the extent to which the representations have changed over a certain period of time. Their analyses focused on the aspects of NOS as consistent with that of Lederman‟s (2004, 2007) set of NOS. In order for the purpose of analyses, they developed and used a scoring rubric where each of the NOS aspects is scored on a scale ranging from -3 to +3. In the analytical frame, three criteria are considered in scoring a NOS aspect: accuracy, completeness, and manner. “Accuracy” refers to informed representation of a NOS aspect; “completeness” refers to consistency in presentation; and “manner” refers to how (explicitly versus implicitly) an NOS aspect is represented. The scoring rubric is outlined in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Scoring rubric (Adapted from Abd-El-Khalick, et al., 2008, pp. 841-842) Exploring NOS In this research, this scoring rubric (Figure 5) is adopted to explore the portrayal of NOS in the curriculum documents. Here is an example of how an emphasis on an NOS aspect can be judged and scored with this scoring rubric.
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A paragraph is presented in grade VIII textbook as follows. “The ancient Greek and Indian scientists thought that all matters in this world are made of three main substances such as water, air and soil. The Indian philosophers also considered fire and sky as the fundamental substances. However, modern science has proved that fire or sky are not matter at all, and water, air and soil are not any fundamental substances. The British scientist Cavendish proved that water is not an elementary substances; it is composed of two gaseous elements- oxygen and hydrogen” (Shamsudduha, et al., 2007, p. 1).
In this paragraph, how the concept of matter has been changed over time has been discussed. What implicit message can be conveyed to the students through this section is: “scientific knowledge is not certain, rather it is tentative”. According to the scoring rubric adapted in this research, the score for this NOS aspect (tentativeness of scientific knowledge) will be “1”, if there is no other implicit or explicit message relating to the certainty of scientific knowledge presented in other parts of the textbook. Exploring values and attitudes There should be a relation between the attitudinal aspects and NOS, because NOS is the characteristics of scientific knowledge as result of scientific inquiry – a human endeavour, undertaken by scientists. Therefore, the values scientists possess in the development of scientific knowledge (i.e., scientific inquiry) should reflect upon the NOS. Table 1 represents a relationship between attitudinal aspects and respected NOS aspects due to the following reasons. Table 1: Attitudinal aspects and related NOS aspects Attitudinal aspect
Related NOS aspect(s)
Logical thinking
Observation and inference Scientific laws and theories
Open-mindedness
Tentativeness of scientific knowledge
Respect for other‟s opinion
Subjectivity of scientific knowledge
Intellectual honesty
Empirical basis of scientific knowledge
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Logical thinking can refer to people‟s willingness to use logic in thinking and in taking action. This notion of logical thinking is perceived to be linked with two of the NOS aspects, “observation and inference” and “scientific laws and theories”. As previously discussed, observations are the descriptive statement of a natural phenomena, whereas inferences are logical conclusions based on the observable data. When we infer, we usually look for a pattern in the observations. Using logic is important in such a pattern seeking. Therefore, it is reasonable to consider logical thinking as linked with NOS aspect “observation and inference”. Again, closely related to observation, scientific laws are the description of relationships between observable phenomena, while scientific theories are the explanations for such a relationship. These explanations are based on the inferences, which definitely incorporate logic. Thus I have considered the attitudinal aspect “logical thinking” as linked with the NOS aspect “scientific laws and theories” as well. “Open-mindedness” may refer to people‟s willingness to accept if any new/ different idea evolves. This notion of open-mindedness could be linked with the revisionary nature of scientific knowledge, which indicates that scientific knowledge is never absolute or certain; rather it is always open for revision. Thus if science content is presented as tentative in the curriculum documents, students may also appreciate the message that they need to keep their mind open to accept new/ different ideas. The attitudinal aspect “respect for other‟s opinion” is perceived to be linked with the NOS aspect, “subjectivity” of scientific knowledge, referring to the notion that different scientists can have different conclusions after interpreting the same data because of their different commitments, training, knowledge and experience. This notion of “subjectivity”, as portrayed in the curriculum documents, may inform students that they need to respect other‟s opinion whether or not it is different/ similar to their own.
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Intellectual honesty may refer to one‟s honesty in performing intellectual activities, such as thought and communication. Intellectual honesty often relates to use of evidence. A person may be called as “intellectually honest” if he is aware of the evidence and agrees with the conclusion it indicates, and advocates a view consistent to that of the conclusion. Similarly, this person may be regarded as “intellectually dishonest” if he advocates a contradictory view in the same situation. In essence, intellectual honesty can be defined as people‟s willingness to respond to as consistent with what evidence indicates to conclude. This notion of intellectual honesty could be perceived to be linked with the NOS aspect, “empirical basis” of scientific knowledge, referring to the perspective that scientists take their decisions (accepting, rejecting or modifying their hypothesis) on the basis of empirical evidence. Therefore, if students are suggested to take decision about a natural phenomenon on the basis of empirical evidence, and communicate this decision consistently, students may have the opportunity to exercise the value of intellectual honesty. From the above discussion it can be concluded that certain attitudinal aspects may be related with certain NOS aspect(s). So, in exploring attitudinal aspects in the curriculum documents, it is reasonable to apply the scoring rubric used to examine NOS aspects as in Figure 5. In particular, the same score can be applied to a particular attitudinal aspect as applied to the relevant NOS aspect(s). As for example, the scoring of the representation of the NOS aspect “tentativeness” may also be applicable for the attitudinal aspect “openmindedness”, because these two can be perceived to be linked with each other.
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Implications In Bangladesh, values set in school level Science curriculum are not always consistent with the value set in the general aims of education as illustrated in the following example. The first two general aims of education are: to build a firm faith and belief in the Almighty Allah (God) in students‟ mind so that this belief plays as an inspirational source for their every thought and work to raise spiritual, social and moral values in students‟ mind on the basis of faith and belief in the Almighty Allah (NCTB, 1996, p. 11, my translation, emphases added) However these two aims are somewhat contradictory with some of the objectives of Science education stating, [to help students] acquire scientific attitudes and values, such as logical thinking, open mindedness, respect for other‟s opinions, intellectual honesty [to help students] become curious and inquisitive about the environment and natural phenomena (NCTB, 1996, p. 354, my translation) If learners‟ values are developed on the basis of beliefs in the Almighty God, it is reasonable to ask “how will the learners acquire science values and attitudes, such as openmindedness or inquisitiveness?” If the learners are guided by the science value of “inquisitiveness”, they may ask about the existence of God, which is inconsistent with that of the religious values. This has happened because the science curriculum is more or less Western in nature, while the Bangladeshi society has an Islamic tradition resulting in a conflict of embedded values. Consequently, students‟ scientific literacy may be affected by
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placing emphases on values, because people‟s decision making is always influenced by the values they espouse. Here is a true story from a science class in Bangladesh. The topic of the lesson is the consequences of over-population and its controlling measures. The teacher discusses the issue very diligently with plenty of real life examples. Students also seem to be very enthusiastic in participating with the teacher in the discussion. At the end of the lesson, the teacher asked the students, “what I have discussed today is for the sake of science; the fact that you have to rely on God; if He gives birth, He will supply the basic livelihood. Nothing to be worried”!
The story presented above may exemplify the challenge of teaching for promoting scientific literacy in a country like Bangladesh. The root of the challenge is latent in the socio-cultural context that is also reflected in the school science curriculum in setting aims of science education as discussed previously. Therefore, it is reasonable to examine the curriculum documents to see whether it has potential to promote scientific literacy. As there is no such a research in Bangladesh, no analytical frame for examining scientific literacy is available. Thus the analytical frame presented in this paper is useful in analysing the intended science curriculum at junior secondary level. As well, this frame may also be applicable in analysing other levels of school science curriculum in Bangladesh. However, the analytical frame presented in this paper has some challenges. This frame has been developed after synthesising the conceptions of scientific literacy mostly from the existing Western literature as there is currently no literature regarding this in Bangladesh. As scientific literacy is often dependent on context and I am attempting to fit my Western understanding of scientific literacy in a non-Western Bangladesh context, this poses a big challenge for me. However, I have always been aware of this challenge and hence what is represented in the conceptual or analytical frame within this research may possibly not contradict Bangladesh context. Another challenge of analysing the curriculum documents in
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this research is language. In Bangladesh, most of the curriculum documents are in Bangla; I will have to construct understanding from these documents in Bangla and translate that understanding into English. So, a probability of error in translation, hence a misinterpretation of an idea is possible. Nonetheless, if any translation issue arises I will discuss it with my Bangladeshi colleagues who are doing PhD in Education Faculty of Monash University. Any confusion regarding a translation may be resolved through such kind of discussion. The analytical frame presented in this paper will be used in analysing scientific literacy in the intended General Science curriculum documents for junior secondary education in Bangladesh. Such an analysis will examine the potential of these documents in promoting scientific literacy. I am intending to present those findings in one of my next papers.
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References
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Holbrook, J. (2005, 14 November, 2008). Report on organizing the ROSE survey in Bangladesh, from http://www.ils.uio.no/english/rose/network/countries/bangladesh/report-bgd.pdf Howes, E. (2001). Visions for "Science for All" in the elementary classroom. In A. C. Barton & M. D. Osborne (Eds.), Teaching science in diverse settings: Marginalized discourses and classroom practice (pp. 129-158). New York: Peter Lang. Jenkins, E. W. (1990). Scientific literacy and school science education. School Science Review, 71(256), 43-51. Koballa, T. R. J., & Glynn, S. M. (2007). Attitudinal and motivational constructs in science learning. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp. 75-102). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlabaum Associates, Publishers. Koballa, T. R. J., Kemp, A., & Evans, R. (1997). The spectrum of scientific literacy. The Science Teacher, 64(7), 27-31. Law, N., Fensham, P. J., Li, S., & Wei, B. (2000). Public understanding of science as basic literacy. In R. T. Cross & P. J. Fensham (Eds.), Science and the citizen: For educators and the public (pp. 145-155). Fitzroy, Victoria: Arena Publications. Lederman, N. G. (1992). Students' and teachers' conceptions of the nature of science: A review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 331-359. Lederman, N. G. (2004). Syntax of nature of science within inquiry and science instruction. In L. B. Flick & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and nature of science (pp. 301-317). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Lederman, N. G. (2007). Nature of science: Past, present, and future. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp. 831-879). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Page 1838
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Lederman, N. G., & Lederman, J. S. (2004). The nature of science and scientific inquiry In G. Venville & V. Dawson (Eds.), The art of teaching science. NSW: Allen & Unwin. Millar, R. (1996). Towards a science curriculum for public understanding. School Science Review, 77(280), 7-18. Millar, R., & Osborne, J. (1998). Beyond 2000: Science education for the future. London: King‟s College London Miller, J. D. (1983). Scientific literacy: A conceptual and empirical review. Daedalus, 112(2), 29-48. Ministry of Education (2000). National education policy. Dhaka: Bangladesh Government Press. National Curriculum and Textbook Board [NCTB] (1996). Curriculum and syllabus: Junior secondary level (grades VI-VIII) [in Bengali]. Dhaka: Ministry of Education, Government of Bangldesh. National Research Council [NRC] (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington DC: National Research Council. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD] (2006). Assessing scientific, reading and mathematical literacy: A framework for PISA. Paris: OECD Publishing. Osborne, J. (2007). Science education for the twenty first century. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 3(3), 173-184. Osborne, J., Collins, S., Ratcliffe, S., Millar, R., & Duschl, R. (2003). What "Ideas-aboutScience" should be taught in school science? A Delphi study of the expert community. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(7), 692-720.
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Padilla, M. J., Okey, J. R., & Dillashaw, F. G. (1983). The relationship between science process skill and formal thinking abilities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(3), 239-246. Pella, M. O., O‟Hearn, G. T., & Gale, C. W. (1966). Referents to scientific literacy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 4, 199-208. Rennie, L. J. (2005). Science awareness and scientific literacy. Teaching Science, 51(1), 1014. Rennie, L. J. (2007). Values in science in out-of-school contexts. In D. Corrigan, J. Dillon & R. Gunstone (Eds.), The re-emergence of values in science education (pp. 197-212). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Rezba, R. J., Sprague, C. S., Fiel, R. L., Funk, H. J., Okey, J. R., & Jaus, H. H. (1995). Learning and assessing science process skills (3rd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall / Hunt Publishing Company. Roberts, D. A. (2007). Scientific literacy / science literacy. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Science Education (pp. 729-780). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Shamos, M. H. (1995). The myth of scientific literacy. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. Shamsudduha, A. K. M., Miah, M. G. R., Wahab, M. A., Khan, J. I., & Morshed, A. K. M. (2007). General Science: For class VIII (S. K. Bhadra, M. R. Islam, M. T. H. Sarkar, M. S. Rahman & M. Z. Haider, Trans.). Dhaka: National Curriculum and Textbook Board. Siddique, M. N. A. (2007). Existing and proposed science curricula of grades IX-X in Bangladesh: A comparative study. Unpublished masters thesis, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. Page 1840
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Siddique, M. N. A. (2008). Ideas about science portrayed in the existing and proposed science curricula of grades IX-X in Bangladesh [Electronic Version]. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 9(2). Retrieved from http://www.ied.edu.hk/apfslt/ Tytler, R., Osborne, J., Williams, G., Tytler, K., & Clark, J. C. (2008). Opening up pathways: Engagement in STEM across the primary-secondary school transition. Canberra: Australian Department of Edication, Employment and Workplace Relations. Wilke, R. R., & Straits, W. J. (2005). Practical advice for teaching inquiry-based science process skills in the biological sciences. American Biology Teacher, 67(9), 534-540. World Health Organization [WHO] (2008). Global environmental change: Stratospheric ozone depletion, UV radiation and health. Retrieved 7 August 2008, from http://www.who.int/globalchange/ozone_uv/en/ World Health Organization [WHO] (2009). Hepatitis B. Retrieved 17 July, 2009, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs204/en/index.html
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IWB: Teachers‟ Beliefs and Concerns
Interactive Whiteboard Technology in Primary Science: What are teachers‟ beliefs and concerns about the ICT in their classrooms?
Dr Rachel Sheffield Dr Karen Murcia
Dr. Rachel Sheffield Edith Cowan University, Western Australia [email protected]
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Abstract
This project explored teachers beliefs and concerns about integrating interactive whiteboard (IWB) technology in the learning and teaching of primary science. Project structures and research development meetings supported participating teachers in using the IWB as a convergence tool for a range of multi-media and internet technologies. The aim was to use the technology for scaffolding active science learning connected to social contexts, which promoted exploratory discourse, questioning and evidenced based claims. Throughout the project the teachers‟ learning journeys were documented and used to identify teachers‟ beliefs, concerns and practices relating to the technology around the IWB and the classroom discourse promoted by the IWB. Data was collected using qualitative methods including teacher surveys, interviews and lesson observations. Teachers became reflective learning partners in the project; using IWB notepads and filmed lessons uploaded to an interactive learning community site to encourage collaborative discussion and journaling to document their journey. The data were analyzed using the adopted discourse model and teachers concerns were examined through a concerns-based framework. The emerging issues and themes from the data suggest that teachers need time and collegial interaction to develop both technical competencies with the technology and effective interactive pedagogies. Teachers play a pivotal role in the introduction and implementation of new strategies into the classroom, consequentially it is vital that they understand and endorse any proposed innovation.
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Interactive Whiteboard Technology in Primary Science: What are teachers‟ beliefs and concerns about the ICT in their classrooms? Introduction This paper explores the emerging issues of a research and development project based on action research principals and its impact on the practice of a small group of primary teachers. It considers the relationship between teachers‟ concerns about the strategies incorporated in the Interactive Whiteboard Discourse Project. It also examines the teachers‟ ability to utilise the technology to focus on the discourse strategies embedded in the Primary Connections resources, and on their use of those strategies in the classroom. It also seeks to determine teachers‟ beliefs about their current science teaching practice and the role of the interactive whiteboard and discourse and considers how these beliefs direct teachers‟ classroom practice. The Action Research model encapsulates the curriculum exemplars (curriculum resources in the form of Primary Connections), explanation and modelling (professional development attached to the IWB project through the Hub days), and self reflection (action research).
We determined that teachers‟ professional learning is a complex process that is strongly influenced by teachers‟ beliefs, concerns and understandings. Teachers must be able to envision the advantages of incorporating new strategies into their existing practice, and consequently seek to make these changes to their teaching. The study sought to help teachers to identify the types of talk and questions that sit around the stages of the constructivist 5E model. The action research model has sought to promote shifts in the discourse patterns to those that have been identified to encourage productive classroom talk (R W Bybee, 1997; Hackling, Murcia, Morris, & Smith, 2008; Mortimer & Scott, 2003).
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We identified an emerging primary and secondary focus for the teachers with two sets of beliefs being explored. The primary focus being teachers‟ expressed beliefs and developing understanding of the pedagogy surrounding the IWB and the concerns related to the IWB, the secondary underpinning focus related to teachers‟ beliefs, concerns and use of classroom discourse. We found that the varying levels of IWB knowledge that the projects teachers‟ possessed were pivotal to the outcomes. Some of the teachers‟ lacked the necessary skills associated with the whiteboard technology and their focus throughout the project remained focused on the technology and not on the underpinning discourse framework.
Our aim is to follow a small number of teachers as they experienced the innovation, to identify their beliefs and to recognize and map their concerns against an identified change hierarchy (Dlamini, Rollnick, & Bradley, 2001; Hall & Hord, 1987b). In this conference paper we seek to develop a conceptual framework for the paper and explore the issues that start to emerge from our research. We outline the literature that pertains to the technology that surrounds the IWB and consider the changing nature of our „digital native‟ students. We seek to blend these ideas with the extensive literature that surrounds teacher beliefs and change theory and apply identified change frameworks to our case study data.
Literature Framing the Research The following areas of research have been determined to help frame our study and develop our conceptual framework. These include the importance of the discourse patterns in a sociocultural framework, the technology that underpins the interactive white board (IWB) and enables it to be used as a convergence tool in this study. Our study also examines the
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literature that pertains to teachers‟ beliefs and how these beliefs and how teachers concerns can be identified and mapped. Discourse and Communication in Science Education The importance of communication and in particular the value of discourse is not disputed; it forms the premise of socio-cultural framework. This framework considers science teaching and learning as creating a shared cultural knowing that uses talk and discussion to forge student understanding about science ideas. It is presumed that it is through shared discussion and questioning that students can engage in rich-talk and substantive conversations that leads to improved scientific literacy and a better way of understanding their world (Mortimer & Scott, 2003; Murcia, Sheffield, & Hackling, 2009). If talk is pivotal to students learning and understanding of science ideas; how then can we get teachers to improve the depth of talk and encourage the involvement of more students? A framework informed by Mortimer and Scott (2003) and developed by Hackling and colleagues (Hackling et al., 2008) was used to track the changing nature of questioning through constructivist 5 E framework that underpins the Primary Connection material (R.W Bybee, 1997). The discourse pattern in the table below shows how the dialogue approach changes in the different phases of the 5E model as there is a different focus to the purpose of the lesson. For example in Engage and Explore it is a chance for the teacher to consider students‟ ideas and prior knowledge hence the communicative approach and within that the questioning focus is on ideas from many different students (dialogic – interactive), and in the Explain stage the talk moved from dialogic interactive to a more single teachers voice (authoritative -non interactive) as the concept is discussed.
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Phase of inquiry Engage
Instructional purpose
Explore
Exploring the scientific phenomenon and exploring and working on students‟ views
Explain
Introducing and developing the scientific story
Dialogic-interactive Authoritative – noninteractive
Elaborate
Guiding students to work with scientific views and handing over responsibility to students to apply and use them in a student planned investigation Maintaining the development of the scientific story, reflecting on learning and evaluating learning outcomes
Dialogic-interactive Authoritative – interactive
Evaluate
Engaging students, eliciting prior knowledge and opening-up the scientific problem
Communicative approach Dialogic-interactive
(Hackling et al., 2008) The Primary Connection materials were designed to support a socio-constructivist approach to inquiry based learning in primary school science and were found to have a significant impact on teachers‟ practice (Hackling, Peers & Prain, 2007) and on students‟ learning (Hackling & Prain, 2005). Science Education and Technology The Australian Government‟s Digital Education Revolution recognizes the changing needs and motivation of contemporary students and aims to contribute sustainable and meaningful change to teaching and learning. Current primary and secondary students are significant consumers of all the emerging digital technology and are considered to be „digital natives‟ (Murcia, 2008). A key premises identified by Hackling and Prain (2005) on the use of information technologies and the value of discourse and one of their six key understandings determined,
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Information and communication technologies are exploited to enhance learning of science with opportunities to interpret and construct multimodal representations (p. 19)
One way to engage these students and meet their expectations of the use of seamless technology in the class is the implementation of the interactive whiteboards (IWB) into classrooms (Betcher & Lee, 2009; Murcia, 2008). The teachers use of the boards provide an effective way to converge and interact with digital content and multimedia learning resources, through the boards large touch sensitive surface similar in appearance to an ordinary white board. Materials including video, websites and word documents can be integrated fluidly through the touch capacity on the board rather than based at the computer interface. The user, teacher or student can use the pens to write or highlight any item show (included paused videos), move items, open hidden tabs. As Murcia (2008) reports “the IWB becomes the facilitator of an ICT rich learning environment. It can be used to generate a social learning space that brings the whole class together” (p.4) Research conducted by Hennessy, Deaney, Ruthven and Winterbottom (2007) determined that teachers were able to improve the cohesion of the classroom learning as they were able to negotiate shared understandings For example Murcia (2008) also determined that “the IWB created a fluid space where interactive communication allowed the teacher and students to explore science ideas together, pose questions and reconcile scientific and informal ideas” (p.20). The technology, however, is only as good as its user and this specifically applies to the teachers‟ use of the IWB technology, it is important to note that good teachers are good teachers with or without the use of technology and the technology in this case the IWB only becomes beneficial when implemented as part of good practice. As Warwick and Kershner (2008) point out there needs to be careful consideration of how the technology can impact on
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the underpinning pedagogy, and where the uptake is accompanied by carefully orchestrated changes to pedagogy the teachers become “critical agents in mediating the technology to provide a more dynamic, interactive and appropriate learning experience” (Rudd, 2007, p. 6). As with any innovation it is always the teachers‟ that determine the success of implementing new technological advances (Sheffield, 2004). The teachers‟ beliefs and understanding of role that the new technological brings to the classroom are pivotal to the success of failure of the innovation, this project then must consider teachers‟ beliefs and concerns of the proposed innovation Teachers Beliefs Cumulative evidence of many years has highlighted that primary teachers are often reluctant to teacher science. Research determined that primary teachers often lacked the skills, knowledge and consequently confidence to teacher science content and also found the equipment and supplies needed as bewildering and time consuming (Appleton, 2003; Fitzgerald, Dawson, & Hackling, 2009; Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001; Tytler, 2007). Research, however, goes on to determine that throughout the world, teachers are pivotal in any change that is brought into schools and into classrooms and are constantly seeking to improve the quality of their teaching (Association for Science Education, 2007; Tytler, 2007). Hattie (2003a, 2003b) reviewed the research about factors that influence students‟ achievement, the second largest source of variance is what teachers know and do. Improving teachers practice, therefore, has the potential to make a significant difference to students‟ learning (Hattie, 2003b). Teachers will introduce innovative materials designed by outside consultants especially if they see the value of their use in class. They can alter the content they teach, even if it is mandated by the state department of education, if they believe that the topic and content will
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be in the students‟ best interest (Cuban, 1990). Consequently the role of the teacher is exceptionally important in the implementation of strategies designed to promote an improvement in the teaching and learning of science. Without teachers‟ support, the implementation of any innovation will experience little or no success (Barnett & Hodson, 2001; Hall & Hord, 1987a). Consequently teachers must draw on all their skills, beliefs and knowledge, to facilitate the necessary change, which will lead to an improvement of the quality of teaching and learning of science. It can be clearly seen that the Innovator must consider very carefully the beliefs and attitudes of teachers to the innovation and their more general attitudes and beliefs to teaching and learning (Cronin-Jones, 1991).
It has readily been acknowledged that schools are places for students‟ to learn, however there is now a view that schools should also be places for teachers to learn (Guskey & Huberman, 1995). It has been determined that if instructional opportunities for students are to improve then teachers must teach differently. Then, in order for these changes to be significant and worthwhile, “teachers must not only learn new subject matter and new instructional techniques; they must alter their beliefs and conceptions of practice, their „theories of action‟. In order to be successful, therefore, workplace reform should also proceed from our understanding of how teachers learn and change” (Smylie, 1995, p. 13). Measuring Teachers’ Beliefs and Concerns In education, innovations are frequently introduced to promote changes to the curriculum, teachers‟ practice, and the classroom environment, however, these changes are often implemented without sufficient evaluation to monitor their impact and effectiveness in bringing about the desired change. Understanding the change process and the concerns of the teachers exposed to change, can allow the change facilitator to instigate interventions to increase the success of the innovation being adopted (Hall & Hord, 1987a). Hall and Hord
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(1987a) highlight the stages of teacher change in their Concerns Based Model (CBAM), which can be used to map an individual teacher‟s journey through the change process, from non-user to a competent user. The stages of concerns which Hall and Hord (1987) developed can be used to analyze the teachers‟ understanding of the innovation and also their levels of use. More recently this has been modified (Dlamini et al., 2001) to produce typologies of teacher change that can be used to map the teachers levels of understanding and their levels of use of the innovation (Appendix 1). These stages of change models (Dlamini et al., 2001; Hall & Hord, 1987a) provided a framework for evaluating the progress of the IWB project. A specific framework related to the use of the IWB has been identified and documented by Murcia and McKenzie (2008) and this has also been used to map the teachers use of the IWB during the course of the project. The models allowed us to analyze the process of change in terms of IWB teachers‟ level of beliefs, concerns, understanding and their use of both the IWB and also the discourse promoted by the resources. Action Research Model The Interactive Whiteboard Discourse Project (IWB) has been designed to promote and support teacher change by developing a professional learning model that integrated key components of professional development, curriculum resources and reflection (Goodrum, Hackling, & Deshon, 2000).
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IWB Skills and Discourse Training Teacher Change
Reflection
Curriculum Resources
Curriculum Resources. Primary Connections integrates science and literacy to enable science embedded in a constructivist framework to create a series of primary units that address all areas of the curriculum framework from Early Childhood throughout Primary Schooling (Hackling, Peers, & Prain, 2007; Hackling & Prain, 2005). Teachers in the program choose the Primary Connection unit that reflected the age of their class and the area of science studied. The teachers from the study were chosen as they were familiar with Primary Connection and whose pedagogy was thought to be consistent with the constructivist handson inquiry based approach. Action research. Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles (1998) recognised that the process of change is not a single event or a single unsupported strategy, but rather an on-going process, which occurs over weeks, months and even years. To this end the action research professional development was implemented over eight months with a series of five Hub sessions, some sessions were three days in duration and others were only afterschool for two or three hours . Teachers were provided with paid relief to attend the sessions and during Page 1852
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these days were provided with skills and pedagogy relating to the Interactive Whiteboard and also on the stages of discourse and the promotion of different focus questions in different stages of the 5 E model (Hackling et al., 2008; Murcia et al., 2009). At the closing Hub days teachers were asked to create a standard framework for interactive notebooks and showcase the notebooks they had created. Reflection. The final aspect to the professional learning model is self reflection; teachers were required to reflect on their learning and make notes on their experiences and their thoughts and concerns during the course of the project (Reason & Bradbury, 1994). Our Study Our research and development project investigates the question What impact does the IWB program have on teachers‟ beliefs and practices, and what factors influence these changes?
In particular we focused on the these subsidiary research questions 1. What beliefs about teaching, questioning and the interactive whiteboard do teachers bring to this study? 2. What concerns about teaching, questioning and the interactive whiteboard did teachers have at the beginning of the innovation? How did the innovation specific concerns change during the implementation of the IWB Discourse model? Methodology Using a case study approach (Merriam, 1998; Yin, 1998) the teachers experiences were collected and examined over the period of the study. The study has not yet been completed so this preliminary conference paper focuses on teachers‟ written pre-innovation surveys, recorded pre-innovation interviews, pre-innovation video of a science class, a group
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interview and several unscheduled conversations and a number of lessons we observed over the course the project to gauge the teachers‟ concerns and articulated beliefs. Participating Teachers There were eight teachers who were participating in the study, six were from local primary schools and taught classes from grade 1 (aged 6) to grade 6 (aged 11) and there were two early secondary teachers who were teaching grade 8 (aged 13). There were two teachers from each school and the researchers acted as critical friends to provide collegial support. The teachers were familiar with the primary connections material and underpinning theory and had a range of experience with the IWB. The spread of experience and background knowledge provided a depth and breadth of knowledge for the Researchers to consider. For this paper four primary teachers from two primary schools were chosen to be the focus the paper, their background and experience are documented in Appendix 2. Data Collection Data was collected in a variety of forms these included pre and post teacher surveys, pre and post structured teacher interviews, pre and post video recording of one lesson, lesson observations during the project using a framework, post lesson surveys, written questions completed at Hub days and group discussions also at Hub day sessions. Teachers were also required to keep a reflected journal, participate in the online interactive learning community site and upload copies their IWB notebooks onto the interactive learning community site. All the data was collated and stored in NVivo 8 software and a developing coding manual is currently being created. Results The case studies below outline firstly the teachers‟ beliefs and concerns about the IWB and discourse in the classroom at the start of the topic and their initial utilization of the IWB and Page 1854
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questioning in classroom. Then the case study considers how the beliefs change when the teachers discuss their experiences in the middle of the innovation and there is further reflection on their concerns and the utilization of the IWB and incorporation of the questioning into their classroom teaching. It should be noted that pseudonyms are used throughout the paper. Case Study 1 Curtin Primary School Terry and Emma are both a Curtin Primary School. Curtin Primary School is an average size primary school in a developing outer northern suburb of Perth. The students present from a low to middle socio-economic background with both Terry and Emma having several students with attention difficulties. The discussion and surveys that the Emma and Terry completed initially show that they had very different levels of skills and different beliefs about the value of IWB in their classrooms.
Emma Emma followed the Primary Connections unit very carefully and her topic for semester 2 was “Package it Better” with her Year 6 students (Lesson Observation 2/6/09). After the initial lesson which was filmed and did not use the IWB, Emma used the IWB every lesson initially creating a new notebook for every lesson, however, at the start of the second unit from Primary Connections “Its Electrifying” she used one notebook that she added pages to for each lesson. Throughout the notebooks Emma created special focus questions that she had considered before the class and that she felt were important for the focus of the learning for the students.
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Emma had had a number of IWB installed in her classrooms over the years and there was a new system that has been installed in her demountable classroom, she was comfortable discussing the relative merit of the different types of IWB systems and the accompanying software. She said she liked the „infer red keyboard that you can pass around to the kids, so they don‟t have to get up and go to the computer so they can just garb the keyboard and they can just type things in‟ (Interview 11/5/09). In fact her use of the IWB was so much part of her lessons even her first filmed lesson that was expected to be without the IWB incorporated a single slide that contained a Venn diagram that was interactive and she invited the students up to move the pictures around (Video 23/5/09). Emma had considered not only how she could use the IWB but was starting to articulate how the IWB could be related to promoting discourse and she could visualize the IWB as a tool to facilitate questions. I think having the visual representations on the whiteboard will really promote discussion and watching things like films and things unfold and classifying things as well that really will promote and the ability to be able to classify things and move them around on the board and really discuss why you are doing will really promote the discussion as you can‟t really do that unless you have an Interactive Whiteboard. (Interview 11/5/09) Emma was able to articulate that “I want to improve my ability to question more effectively, evaluative more effectively, teach more effectively, develop more interactive notebook pages and ideas on how to make them bigger and better” (Interview 11/5/09) Emma went on the describe that „during the engage phase questioning is very open-ended‟ (Initial teacher questionnaire 12/5/09 p. 4) Emma did not have any expressed concerns she felt that the project would be an ideal opportunity to focus on her teaching and to get feedback about her practice and its impact on her class.
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When both teachers were re-interviewed in a group discussion during the second set of Hub days, Emma‟s focus was still on the way she integrated the questions into her practice and how she found that writing her key questions into her IWB notebook helped to prompt and focus her during her lessons (23/07/09). Terry Terry was following the “Its Electrifying” unit from Primary Connections with her Year 5 students but as an experienced science teacher who was the school‟s science coordinator she was using sections of the curriculum materials and incorporating them into her lessons, there were some aspects from Primary Connections that she did not implement but she was keen to ensure all students proceeded with inquiry based learning as she felt that was pivotal to the students‟ science. She did not use the IWB very often and it wasn‟t until her second unit was “Smooth Moves” that she created her first four page notebook. Terry was not experienced with the IWB and she was keen to get an IWB installed in her classroom and this happened a few weeks after the first Hub day. She had only used the IWB on two occasions „one for maths fractions and one for NAPLAN maths problems (practice)‟ (Initial teacher questionnaire13/5/09 p. 4). When asked about their beliefs about the IWB, Terry was not sure that the IWB would be useful in all her science lessons, and at the time of the interview she had not had a chance to consider how it could be incorporated into her practice (Interview 13/5/09). Terry felt that she probably used a hands-on constructivist approach in her classroom but she did not put a formal term to her classroom teaching saying “I probably do but I don‟t do it like that. I mean I probably end up doing it like that but don’t actually formally do it like that (Interview 13/5/09). She described a good discussion as one where “the students discuss in
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their groups with all students being able to contribute. They share their group findings with another group or the class” (Initial teacher questionnaire13/5/09 p. 4) Throughout the interview Terry‟s focus and concerns related to managing her busy day to day classroom activities as her class was participating in the NAPLAN (National testing) and she was organizing the testing and the electives into the students‟ timetable. Terry‟s concerns relating to the IWB were focused on getting help to attach the IWB to the computer and sorting out the IWB teething problems to get it up and running in her classroom (Interview 13/ 5/09). During the project Terry‟s concerns were focused on the position of her IWB in her classroom and how it was difficult to move students to sit around it when it was used. She noticed that if the student bumped the trolley the projector was placed on the board went dark or the picture moved off the screen that made orienting the board difficult. She explained that the term was busy with sports carnival and choir practice as she ran the school choir and she seemed to lack the time and practice to use the board. When asked if her classroom looked any different as the project progressed she explained that she had turned all the students‟ tables and chairs to face the IWB. She also commented on how she had found it a little challenging to create an IWB which she was reluctant to show the teachers in the Hub group (23/07/09) Case Study 2 Deckham Primary School #Cate and Penny are both teaching at Beckham Primary School, which is a new school in a new suburb in the upper northern corridor of Perth. The school is still small but growing as the housing developments around it settles more families. The students also present from a low to middle socio-economic background with Penny having several students with behavioral problems in her class.
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Penny Penny was a relatively inexperienced teacher and was teaching a year one and two class at Deckham Primary School. She was using “Spot the Difference” Primary Connection unit at stage 1 and was familiar with the Primary Connections materials. Penny considered that the questions that the students ask help guide the discussion and that it was motivating when the students were investigating what they wanted to know. She said that the IWB was useful in all subject areas as it could help with the use of the TKWL charts and also with the use of video clips with science activities that were not feasible to run in the classroom which she had used in previous years. She was extremely familiar with using the IWB and for the initial part her concerns related to her classroom management and ensuring the student stay on task and focused. When asked about the classroom discussion she responded Particularly with the young kids I do steer it to keep in the bounds of the topic otherwise we will go off at a complete tangent. With the year ½‟s they tend to want to go off into Aliens, mermaids and who know what else when you are talking about water (Interview 15/5/09)
When we went to watch she chatted with us and told us that her class had an unusual dynamic and she was unsure that the students would warm to the IWB activities and she may have to go back to using the puppets (Penny was also part of the Puppets Discourse Project). On this day, however, Penny had downloaded a sorting game that enabled the students to choose what materials to test the strength of using an animation. The students really enjoyed the activity and sat closer and closer to the board in anticipation there was also a lot of enthusiasm to determine who was going to be the next person to use the smart board (23/07/09). Penny‟s concerns up to this point have been very much related to the classroom dynamics and management. At the Hub day Penny still professed to have no concerns or
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related issues but then told the other teachers and university colleagues that she had not used the IWB very frequently for her science lessons and had not created a detailed notebook. Cate Cate was an extremely experienced teacher with over 30 years experience teaching primary education, she was teaching the Primary Connections unit “Weather in my World” early stage one to her year one class. She taught all the lessons in order and due to a few disruptions and another science project the students worked on the weather unit for two terms. In her interview Cate described her science class as one that was fun and enjoyable for the students and where the learning was based around the children‟s questions and that she and the children worked together to solve interesting problems (Survey 17/5/09). Cate‟s IWB was new to her and the class but she is very positive that she will be able to use it to engage the students she enthused the children love to come up and put answers on the board. They love to draw pictures. For example today I asked, what would you wear if the weather was wet and they would come up and draw their raincoat and umbrella, they love to interact, moving things across the board (Interview 17/5/09)
She used her IWB every lesson that we saw and tried to incorporate new strategies and animations that she had learnt from the Hub days. Sometimes she would express some frustration that the construction of the notebooks was very time consuming and that downloading material from the internet could be challenging due to her limited access. The students, however, loved her efforts and were keen to use the time bomb (a bomb picture that counts down from 10 to 0 and the explodes) that is used to increase the wait time around questioning and also the sorter that once you put in all the names, chose a child to answer the question in a random sort (Lesson Observation 10/09/09)
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Cate was very focused getting all the IWB tools and animations imbedded into her notebooks and when there was a group discussion and the Hub day that was her focus. She created very detailed and extended notebooks and used the pictures to engage the students and also poems and songs that she imbedded into the notebooks to engage the student. Later in the project Cate started to include the questions that she wanted to ask students and embed them into the IWB pages and also used the cues and tabs that she had been given during the Hub days to help students to seek out answers on the IWB. Discussion In this paper it can be seen that the case study teachers started the IWB project with a number of very different beliefs about the use of the IWB in the science classroom and the role of discourse and questioning within the 5 E‟s model. In the same way that students enter class with widely different prior knowledge and experiences so to the teachers brought very different beliefs about the nature of discourse and the IWB. It can be seen from the table (Appendix 3) that the teachers have had changing concerns throughout the start and during the innovation (Hall & Hord, 1987b) and we have tentatively proposed their position on the typology of utilization (Dlamini et al., 2001). Emma Emma has a strong understanding on the underpinning pedagogy in the project and she had already incorporated the IWB skills into her own practice before the project began. It was also clear from the initial interviews and surveys that Emma had a very clear idea of what the questioning looked like throughout different phases of the constructivist 5E model that was adopted (R W Bybee, 1997). As a result it was felt that she had consequence concerns that focus her attention on how the project impacts on her students and later during the course of the project her concerns relate to how she can collaborate with her colleagues to help focus
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them not on the IWB skills and technology but on the underpinning nature of discourse and role of questioning. Of all the case study teachers she has the clearest focus of what she hopes to achieve from the IWB project and how the IWB is a facilitator of the discourse. Tentatively it was felt that she was an Innovator level a teacher that has a very good understanding of the approach and able to generalize it to other areas of her teaching Terry Initially it was thought that Terry‟s focus was not on the approaches in the innovation and her concerns related to all the other aspects of her school life, her commitments to the choir and her efforts to find a space for electives in the NAPLAN testing week, hence her initial concerns were at the awareness level (Hall & Hord, 1987a). Once Terry started thinking about the approach she was solely focused on her use of the IWB and the technical and special issues of trying to implement the IWB into the classroom. At the Hub day the major change she observed was the movement of the students‟ desks in her class. Unfortunately Terry‟s lack of experience with the IWB hampered her ability to look beyond it to the underpinning strategies, she was also unfamiliar with the detailed structure of the Primary Connections materials and although she practiced an inquiry based hands on approach she was not familiar with the 5E model and therefore was unfamiliar with the different nature and purpose of the stages. It was decided that her concerns moved to an informational and personal level as she started to consider how the innovation will impact on them and whether her use of the IWB was impacting on her classroom management. It is tentatively proposed that she is at Domesticator level as she started to create three or four notebook pages and considering the questions that she should ask the students.
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Penny Penny‟s concerns were focused on managing the unusual dynamics of her class and she had no concerns that related to the project so she was classified as at the awareness level of the concerns based model. When interviewed later in the project she had no concerns that related to the implementation of the project or the underpinning discourse. She felt she was an experienced IWB user and at the Hub day still professed to have no concerns relating to the project. It was considered that there was little evidence to show Penny‟s proficiency with the project and awareness of the underpinning discourse framework so it is very tentatively speculated that she was at a Struggler stage on the Utilisation typology (Dlamini et al., 2001) and used the innovation without being fully appreciative of all the underpinning strategies. Cate Cate focus was really on the materials that were embedded in the IWB was that was her focus for the session; she was an experienced teacher who was already carefully crafting the questions for her young students to answer. She was particularly careful about creating questions as she explained she had not taught in an early childhood classroom for many years and consequently considered her type and style of question carefully. Her concerns were related to the time and other constraints that prevented her from accessing the notebook software and creating notebooks so her initial concerns were personal on Dlamini and colleagues hierarchy (2001) and these proceeded to management level focused on the IWB technology and its use in her classroom. From observations, video and discussions she was at a Succeeder as she was successfully able to use the materials to focus on the questions and discourse that underpinned the practice.
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Conclusion This paper examines the relationship between teachers‟ concerns about the strategies incorporated in the Interactive Whiteboard Discourse Project and teachers‟ ability to move beyond the technology to the discourse strategies embedded in the Primary Connections resources. It also seeks to determine teachers‟ beliefs about their current science teaching practice and how these beliefs direct teachers‟ classroom practice. The action research model encapsulates the primary factors of curriculum exemplars (curriculum resources in the form of Primary Connections), explanation and modeling (professional development attached to the IWB project in the Hub days), and self reflection (action research). Teachers are not passive observers of change. Without teachers‟ enthusiasm and interest in pursuing new teaching practices and embracing a new framework for education, there will be only trappings of a new system with teachers‟ core beliefs and practices remaining untouched (Sheffield, 2004). This study has helped demonstrate that teachers‟ professional learning is a complex process that is strongly influenced by teachers‟ beliefs, and concerns. Teachers must be able to envision the advantages of incorporating new strategies into their existing practice, and consequently seek to make these changes to their teaching. This study was also impacted by the varying levels of IWB knowledge that the projects teachers‟ possessed. Some of the teachers‟ lacked the necessary skills associated with the interactive whiteboard technology and their focus throughout the project remained focused on the technology and not on the underpinning discourse framework. We will continue to explore the role of discourse in the primary science classroom and focus on expanding the conceptual framework being developed and look to a future that integrates technology with fluidity into the classroom.
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References Appleton, K. (2003). How do beginning primary school teachers cope with science? Toward an understanding of science teaching practice. Research in Science Education, 33, 125. Association for Science Education. (2007). The Primary Review. The condition and future of primary education in England. Barnett, J., & Hodson, D. (2001). Pedagogical context knowledge: Towards a fuller understanding of what good science teachers know. Science Education, 85(4), 426453. Betcher, C., & Lee, M. (2009). The Interactive Whiteboard Revolution: Teaching with IWBs. Camberwell: ACER Press. Bybee, R. W. (1997). Achieving scientific literacy. From purposes to practices. Portsmouth: Heinemann. Cronin-Jones, L. (1991). Science teacher beliefs and their influence on curriculum implementation: Two case studies. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28(3), 235-250. Cuban, L. (1990). Reforming again, again and again. Educational Researcher, 19(1), 3-13. Dlamini, B., Rollnick, M., & Bradley, J. (2001). Typologies of teacher change: A model based on a case study of eight primary school teachers who used an STS approach to teaching science. Paper presented at the Conference of National Australian Teaching Association. Fitzgerald, A., Dawson, V., & Hackling, M. (2009). Perceptions and pedagogy: Exploring the beliefs and practices of an effective primary science teacher. Teaching Science, 55(3), 19-22. Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Deshon, F. (2000). Collaborative Australian secondary science program (CASSP). Proposal for funding. Perth: Curtin University Edith Cowan University. Goodrum, D., Hackling, M., & Rennie, L. (2001). The status and quality of teaching and learning of science in Australian schools (Research Report): Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Guskey, T., & Huberman, M. (Eds.). (1995). Professional development in education. New paradigms and practices. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Hackling, M., Murcia, K., Morris, M., & Smith, P. (2008). Enhancing classroom discourse in primary science education. ECU-Industry collaboration scheme grant application. Unpublished. Hackling, M., Peers, S., & Prain, V. (2007). Primary Connections: Reforming science teaching in Australian primary schools. Teaching Science, 53(2), 12-16. Hackling, M., & Prain, V. (2005). Primary Connections: Stage 2 trial - Research report. from http://www.science.org.au/primaryconnections/pcreport1.htm Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (1987a). Change in Schools Facilitating the Process. New York: State of New York Press. Hattie, J. (2003a). Teachers Make a Difference: What is the Research Evidence. Paper presented at the Australian Council of Educational Research Annual Conference. Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P. W., Love, N., & Stiles, K. E. (1998). Designing Professional Development for Teachers of Science and Mathematics: Corwin Press Inc.
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Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (Vol. 2nd ed). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mortimer, E. F., & Scott, P. H. (2003). Meaning making in secondary science classrooms. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Murcia, K. (2008). Teaching for scientific literacy with an interactive whiteboard. Teaching Science, 54(4). Murcia, K., & McKenzie, S. (2008). Finding the Way: Signposts in teachers’ development of effective interactive whiteboard pedagogies. Paper presented at the Australian Council for Computers in Education. Murcia, K., Sheffield, R., & Hackling, M. (2009). A framework for interrogating the impact of interactive whiteboard technology on classroom discourse. Paper presented at the 18th Annual Teaching and Learning Forum, Curtin University. Perth, Western Australia. Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (1994). Introduction: Inquiry and participation in search of a world worthy of human aspirations. In N. Denzin (Ed.), Handbook of Action Research. London: Sage Publications Inc. Sheffield, R. (2004). Facilitating Teacher Professional Learning: Analysing the impact of an Australian Professional Learning Model. Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia. Smylie, M. (1995). Teachers learning in the workplace. In T. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional Development in Education. New Paradigms and Practices. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Tytler, R. (2007). Re-Imaging of Science Education: Engaging Students in Science for Australia's Future. Camberwell: ACER. Warwick, P., & Kershner, R. (2008). Primary teachers‟ understanding of the interactive whiteboard as a tool for children‟s collaborative learning and knowledge building. Learning, Media and Technology, 33(4), 269-287. Yin, R. K. (1998). Case study research: Design and Methods (Vol. Revised Ed). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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Appendix 1Sign Posts for Teacher Development in IWB and Levels of Innovation Use Stages of Concerns (Hall & Hord, 1987)
Hierarchy of Understanding (Dlamini et al., 2001)
Typology of Utilization (Dlamini et al., 2001)
Awareness – teacher has no concerns about the innovation
Unawareness – teacher unable to perceive differences in approach between ideal and current practice Perception – teacher is able to recognize the differences in approach, between ideal and current practice
Drop-out – teacher who does not continue to use the strategies after the first attempt
Informational – teacher seeks information about the innovation but is unconcerned about how it impacts on them Personal – teacher has concerns about how the innovation will impact on them, and whether they will be able to meet the necessary criteria Management – teacher focuses on the processes and tasks associated with running the innovation
Utilisation – teacher is able to appropriately describe the use of the strategies in the trial.
Consequence – attention of the teacher is focused on impact of the innovation on students.
Personalisation – teacher is able to apply the new strategies to their personal teaching style. Production – teacher is able to synthesize and develop contextualized lessons incorporating the new strategies
Collaboration – teacher focuses on coordinating with other teachers to help them implement the innovation Refocusing – teacher extends the boundaries of the innovation and adapts it
Struggler – teacher continues to use the innovation but at a very mechanical level, making few changes and with a low level of understanding Domesticator – teacher who has taught successful lessons using the materials but adapted the strategies to their normal approach to teaching Succeeder – teacher has successfully used the approach with understanding but not enough to be independent of the curriculum materials
Innovator – teacher who understands the approach and are able to vary and generalize it to their other teaching.
Note Teachers can have concerns in a number of stages at any point
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Appendix 2 Teachers Experience in IWB and also with Pedagogy Embedded in Primary Connections Project Teachers Terry * 25 years of primary teaching experience
Cate 30 years of primary teaching experience in Australia and UK, mainly working in upper primary Emma * 10 years of classroom experience
Penny Newly qualified teacher with only 4 years classroom experience
Teacher Experience with IWB No experience with IWB and had the board fitted in to her room about 6 weeks after the project started Used her IWB in her classroom in a number of learning areas creating large detailed notebooks in science she said her experience of IWB was limited. Was an experienced IWB user but had a new board with teething problems fitted at the very start of the project. She was running staff PD and helping Terry with her IWB Was experienced with the IWB and used it all aspects of her teaching in a previous school
Teacher Experience with Science and PC Extensive experience with science and was the science expert in her school but had more limited experience with PC materials Stated that had limited science experience but was happy to teach science and willing to engage. She had previously picked interesting activities in PC, however, for this unit was using the materials exactly as prescribed in the PC materials lesson by lesson She said she had limited science experience but was happy to teach science and willing to engage she had previously picked interesting activities in PC, however, for this unit was using the materials exactly as prescribed lesson by lesson
Was not a very experienced teacher of science and although was familiar with PC was a novice user of the materials
*Terry and Emma are both a Curtin Primary School Cate and Penny are both teaching at Deckham Primary School
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Appendix 3 Teacher
Case study teachers’ levels of concerns Concerns (Hall & Hord, 1987) Pre Innovation
Penny
Utilisation During Innovation
Awareness Awareness
Emma
Struggler/Domesticator
Consequence Consequence/Collaboration
Cate
(Dlamini et al., 2001)
Innovator
Personal Management
Succeeder
Terry Awareness
Domesticator Informational / Personal
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TWO-TIER MULTIPLE-CHOICE ELECTROLYSIS DIAGNOSTIC INSTRUMENT
Development and Validation of a Two-tier Multiple-Choice Diagnostic Instrument to Evaluate Secondary School Students‟ Understanding of Electrolysis Concepts
Ding Teng Sia David F. Treagust A.L. Chandrasegaran
Science and Mathematics Centre Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia
Email: [email protected]
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Abstract A two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument consisting of 17 items was developed to evaluate students‟ understanding of basic electrolysis concepts. The instrument was administered to 16 year-old secondary school students (N = 330) who had completed the first year of a two year chemistry course. The instrument was found to have a high Cronbach‟s alpha reliability coefficient of 0.85. Analysis of students‟ responses identified 30 alternative conceptions that involved a variety of electrolysis concepts relating to the nature and reaction of the electrodes, the migration of ions, the preferential discharge of ions, the products of electrolysis, and changes in the concentration and colour of the electrolyte. In addition, there was a mismatch between students‟ confidence in answering the items and their correct responses. Students‟ level of confidence in providing correct responses to these items ranged from 44% to 72%, but the actual correct responses ranged from 19% to 53%. As no other similar instrument has been reported in the research literature, this instrument is a convenient diagnostic tool that teachers could use to identify students‟ preconceptions prior to introducing the topic. In addition, using the instrument in formative assessment during classroom instruction will enable teachers to identify students‟ alternative conceptions and institute appropriate remediation measures with the students concerned.
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Development and Validation of a Two-tier Multiple-choice Diagnostic Instrument to Evaluate Secondary School Students‟ Understanding of Electrolysis Concepts
Introduction Secondary students in Malaysia study a two-year chemistry course to prepare for the Malaysian Certificate Chemistry Examination. The topic on Electrolysis is taught in Form Four and students sit for their chemistry examination at the end of the second year in Form Five. This study was conducted in 2007 and involved Form Four students who commenced learning chemistry, one of three science subjects that were taught in English, following a change in the curriculum in Form Four with effect from 2006.
Although research continues to investigate students‟ conceptions of electrochemistry concepts (Schmidt, Marohn & Harrison, 2007) and reviews of past work have been documented (De Jong & Treagust, 2002), there is no instrument on electrolysis that is available for use by teachers. Hence, the main purpose of this study was to develop a convenient-to-administer diagnostic instrument that could be used to determine secondary students‟ understandings as well as identify alternative conceptions in electrolysis following instruction on the topic. This is to enable teachers and curriculum writers to be aware of students‟ alternative conceptions so that they will be able to develop appropriate teaching strategies and materials to help students better understand electrolysis concepts.
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Theoretical background Students bring with them to their science classes, pre-instructional conceptions that could interfere with their understanding of new concepts that are taught (Duit, 2009). Often these conceptions are deeply ingrained in students‟ cognitive structures and are difficult to change (Duit & Treagust, 1998; Tytler, 2002). The alternative frameworks relating to a particular concept that students construct are effective in helping students understand experiences in their daily lives and hence are valuable to them (Duit & Treagust, 1995). Students‟ inappropriate understandings of electrolysis concepts have been reported in several studies in the research literature (De Jong & Treagust, 2002; Schmidt, et al., 2007). Students find electrochemistry difficult to master because „they cannot observe or imagine what happens in the microscopic level in an electrochemical reaction‟ (Yochum & Luoma, 1995, p. 55). At the same time, studies of student science self-efficacy involving students‟ perceptions of their ability to undertake science tasks, are relatively few (Dalgety & Coll, 2006; Pearson, 2008). Self-efficacy has been found to be an accurate predictor of performance. People with low self-efficacy about an activity will tend to avoid that activity, whereas people with high self-efficacy will make vigorous and persistent efforts and be more likely to complete the task successfully (Palmer, 2001).
Despite the difficulties that students experience, there is no convenient to administer instrument that is available to assess students‟ understanding of electrolysis concepts. Twotier multiple-choice diagnostic tests are convenient to administer and easy to mark, and hence serves as useful diagnostic and formative assessment tools in classroom instruction (Treagust, 1995). Although several instruments consisting of two-tier items have been developed in several science domains over the past two decades or so (Treagust & Chandrasegaran, 2007), no similar assessment instrument has been documented in the science education research Page 1873
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literature. In order to meet this need, a 17-item instrument was developed based on electrolysis concepts that are covered in the Malaysian secondary school chemistry curriculum.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to develop a two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument pertaining to electrolysis and to use the instrument to identify secondary chemistry students‟ (15 to 16 years old) alternative conceptions in electrolysis. In addition, students‟ levels of self-efficacy in displaying their knowledge and understanding of electrolysis concepts were assessed in the study.
Research Methodology In this study, four procedures were used to delineate and specify the subject content related to electrolysis. This task involved (1) extraction of sections of the Malaysian School Certificate chemistry syllabus (Ministry of Education, Malaysia, 2006) relevant to electrolysis, (2) development of a concept map, (3) identification of propositional knowledge statements, and (4) relating of the propositional knowledge statements to the concept map. The syllabus content on electrolysis, concept map and list of propositional statements were reviewed by two tertiary chemistry lecturers and three experienced secondary school chemistry teachers for accuracy and relevance.
The literature was reviewed to determine students‟ knowledge and alternative conceptions in electrolysis. In 2006, semi-structured interviews were conducted with Form 4 students (15 to 16 years old) to explore their understanding of electrolysis. The students were Page 1874
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selected on the basis of their previous chemistry achievement in Semester 1, with one highachieving student from the top third of the class, one moderate-achieving student from the middle third, and one low-achieving student from the bottom third of the class. This follows a similar selection in a study by Garnett and Treagust (1992a). To get a fairer representation of data, the sample was selected from five different classes rather than from one particular class. A sample of 15 students was considered reasonable for obtaining a range of student responses and would also be a manageable number for conducting interviews and analysisng the transcripts.
A free response test consisting of 21 items on electrolysis, designed using the data collated from the interviews and past years examination questions, was administered to one class of Form Five students in April 2007. The data collected was used to develop the first version of the two-tier multiple-choice diagnostic instrument. Further trials resulted in the production of the second and final versions of the diagnostic instrument, the „Electrolysis Diagnostic Instrument‟ (EDI). The EDI was administered to 330 Form Four students from three secondary schools in Kuching, Malaysia. The results obtained were analysed and the alternative conceptions on electrolysis that were held by the students were identified.
Research questions The study aimed to provide answers to three research questions, namely: (1) What do secondary chemistry students understand about the concepts and propositional knowledge related to electrolysis? (2) What is the extent of secondary chemistry students‟ alternative conceptions about the concepts and propositional knowledge in electrolysis? (3) What is the relationship between the students‟ choice of correct responses to the items in the EDI and their level of confidence? Page 1875
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Construction of two-tier multiple-choice instrument The content relating to the study of electrolysis was delineated by 41 propositional content knowledge (PCK) statements and construction of a concept map (refer to Figure 1) based on a study of the Malaysian School Certificate chemistry syllabus. The syllabus content on electrolysis, the PCK statements and the concept map were reviewed by two tertiary chemistry lecturers and three experienced secondary school chemistry teachers for accuracy and relevance. Three chemistry textbooks (Eng, Lim & Lim, 2007; Loh & Tan, 2006; and Low, Lim, Eng, Lim & Ahmad, 2005) that students used in schools were analysed following the method adopted by Orgill and Bodner (2006). Each textbook was studied in detail to look for information the authors used to communicate the electrolysis concepts.
Two-tier multiple-choice items were developed by studying alternative conceptions on electrolysis that were identified in the extant research literature and the three chemistry textbooks, students‟ responses to multiple-choice items and their free response explanations for their response choices, as well as through semi-structured interviews with students. Studies 1 and 2 involved the development of the multiple-choice free response instrument. Studies 3 and 4 involved the development of the two-tier multiple-choice instrument.
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Electrolysis Diagnostic Instrument Electrolysis has its is a process that takes place in electrolytic cell applications in industry
consists of
which
examples active
copper, silver
are positions of ions in elctrochemical series
electrolyte discharge at electrodes depends on
concentration of ions
cell/ battery
electrodes
examples inert
in the form of
aqueous compounds
which has
molten compounds
connected to
+ve terminal (+)
-ve terminal (-)
in a solution is called nature of electrodes
examples
is called
examples anode
cathode
consist of dilute sulfuric acid and copper(II) sulfate solution
molten lead(II) bromide and molten sodium chloride cations
anions migrate to
gives rise to such as
such as
such as
cathode
anode
(-ve terminal) pollution problems
extraction of metals
electroplating of metals
purification of metals reduction
example
example
example
production of aluminium from bauxite
electroplating of cutlery and jewellery
oxidation
example example
release of waste products into the environment
(+ve terminal) undergo
example
production of copper Cu 2+ + 2e → Cu
2Cl - → Cl2 + 2e
Figure 1 Concept map of electrolysis
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The flow diagram in Figure 2 gives a summary of the different stages undertaken in Studies 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the development of the EDI. The EDI consisted of 17 two-tier multiple-choice items and a copy of the diagnostic instrument is found in Appendix A.
STUDY 1 * Interview One - 15 students from 5 classes in School Y * Free response questions - Solicited free response answers to 21 items from the 15 students in School Y * Developed first version of instrument consisting of 21 multiple-choice items with free response justifications
STUDY 2 * Refined first version of free response instrument to produce the second version * Administered to 116 students from School X
STUDY 3 *Interview Two - 15 students from School X *Developed first version of two-tier multiple-choice instrument with 21 items *Refinement of instrument
STUDY 4 *Development of second version of two-tier multiplechoice instrument with 18 items *Further refinement of instrument to produce the final instrument (EDI with 17 items *Administered to 330 Form Four students from 3 schools: School X, Y and Z
Figure 2 Flow diagram summarizing Studies 1, 2, 3, and 4.
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Data collection The EDI was administered to 330 Form Four students from 11 classes in three secondary schools. The chemistry classes were taught by chemistry teachers who had at least three years experience teaching the subject. The results obtained were analyzed and the alternative conceptions on electrolysis that were held by more than 10% of the students were identified.
Results and Discussion Statistical analysis of students’ responses to the EDI The students‟ responses were analysed using the SPSS (Version 16) statistics software. For all 17 items the percentage of students who correctly answered the first part was higher than the percentage who correctly answered both parts of the two-tier multiplechoice items (see Table 1). This difference in the two scores is an indication of the tendency for students to generally learn facts without achieving sufficient meaningful learning.
Table 1 The percentage of students who correctly answered the first part and both parts of the items in the EDI (N = 330)
Item number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Percentage of students who correctly answered First part Both parts 91 79 86 53 71 41 70 44 58 19 61 34 49 33 62 38 73 32
Item number 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Percentage of students who correctly answered First part Both parts 53 25 61 44 64 35 62 38 66 31 68 41 73 45 76 50
The data indicate that the percentage of students who correctly answered the first-tier of the multiple-choice items ranged from 49% to 91%. The percentage of students who
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correctly answered both parts of the two-tier items ranged from 19% to 79%. For all items, the percentage of students who correctly answered both parts of the items was less than the percentage who correctly answered the first part. This trend is an indication that students may have memorised certain facts relating to electrolysis without sufficient understanding of the concepts involved.
Only four students provided correct responses to both tiers in all 17 items in the diagnostic instrument, while one student was unable to answer any of the items correctly. Additional statistical data obtained by the SPSS analysis are summarised in Table 2.
Table 2 Statistical data for the diagnostic instrument Number of cases Mean Median Standard deviation Variance Minimum Maximum
330 6.82 5.50 4.37 19.1 0 17
A Cronbach‟s alpha reliability analysis performed using the SPSS software programme for the 330 cases and 17 items gave a coefficient of 0.85 which is greater than the threshold value of 0.5 quoted by Nunally and Bernstein (1994). The Cronbach‟s alpha coefficient, a measure of the internal consistency of the means of a set of items, is used to estimate the proportion of variance that is systematic or consistent in a set of test scores.
Item Analysis of Students’ Responses to the Diagnostic Instrument Electrolytes and non-electrolytes (Item 1).
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Item 1 refers to the understanding of free moving ions in electrolytes. The distribution of students‟ responses is shown in Table 1. The percentage of students making each choice combination is indicated in parenthesis. The most appropriate combination of content and reason choices is denoted with an asterisk (*). The total percentages have been rounded to the nearest whole number. Table 3 Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 1 in the EDI (N = 330) Item number
Content choice
1
A B
Reason choice 1
2
3
4
10 (3.0)
20 (6.1)
*260 (78.8)
8 (2.4)
22 (6.7)
9 (2.7)
No reason
Total (%)
1 (0.3)
91 9
A high proportion of the students (91%) made the correct content choice (response A) that the bulb that is connected to the electrolytic cell lights up due to the presence of ions. At the same time, 79% of the students in making the choice A3 correctly suggested that the bulb lights up due to the presence of free moving ions in hydrochloric acid which is an electrolyte. No alternative conception was evident among the students.
Electrodes: Anode and cathode (Item 2) This item involves understanding of the electrode that functions as the anode. The distribution of students‟ responses is summarized in Table 4.
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Table 4. Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 2 in the EDI (N = 330) Item number
Content choice
Reason choice
Total (%)
1
2
3
4
2
A
36 (10.9)
*175 (53.0)
46 (13.9)
25 (7.6)
86
B
16 (4.8)
18 (5.5)
7 (2.1)
7 (2.1)
14
A large proportion of the students (86%) made the correct content choice (response A), displaying understanding that during electrolysis the anode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. Yet, only 53% of the students in selecting A2, displayed understanding that during electrolysis negative ions migrate to the anode and donate electrons. Fourteen percent of the students who made content choice B held the alternative conception that during electrolysis the cathode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. In a similar finding by Garnett and Treagust (1992b), students suggested that “in an electrolytic cell the polarity of the applied voltage has no effect on the site of the anode and cathode” (p. 1092). An alternative conception was held by 11% of the students who in making the selection A1 suggested that during electrolysis the cations migrate to the anode, thus considering the anode as a source of electrons for the cations. In selecting A3, 14% of the students displayed the alternative conception that cations (positive ions) possess an excess of electrons.
Electrolysis of molten compounds (Items 3 and 4). Item 3 involves the electrolysis of molten magnesium oxide while item 4 involves the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide. The distribution of students‟ responses is summarized in Table 5.
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Table 5 Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 4 in the EDI (n = 330) Item number
Content choice
Reason choice
Total (%)
1
2
3
4
4
A
49 (14.8)
*146 (44.2)
20 (6.1)
15 (4.5)
70
B
20 (6.1)
32 (9.7)
23 (7.0)
25 (7.6)
30
Seventy percent of the students in making the correct content choice (response A) agreed that bromine gas and lead are produced during the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide. By making the selection A2, 44% of the students suggested that bromide ions donate electrons at the anode to form bromine molecules. This view is in agreement with the definition proposed by Schmidt et al. (2007) that “The electrode at which oxidation occurs is called the anode: Particles (could be atoms or ions) lose electrons to the electrode” (p. 260). Fifteen percent of the students who selected A1 held the alternative conception that bromide ions migrate to the cathode and are oxidised, similar to a finding by Garnett and Treagust (1992b) that oxidation occurs at the cathode in electrolytic cells.
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions (Items 5 to 10). Item 5 involves the electrolysis of aqueous iron(II) sulfate using platinum electrodes. Students had to decide which ions will be preferentially discharged. The distribution of students‟ responses is summarized in Table 6. Table 6 Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 5 in the EDI (N = 330) Item number
Content choice
Reason choice 1
2
3
4
5
A
15 (4.5)
19 (5.8)
27 (8.2)
77 (23.3)
42
B
68 (20.6)
44 (13.3)
*64 (19.4)
16 (4.8)
58
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Electrolysis Diagnostic Instrument
Fifty-eight percent of the students made the correct content choice (response B) that the light green colour of aqueous iron(II) sulfate does not become fainter. However, only a small proportion of the students (19%) who made the correct selection B3 reasoned that hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are discharged.
Several alternative conceptions were evident from students‟ responses to this item. By selecting A4, 23% of the students attributed the decrease in the intensity of the colour of the solution to a decrease in the concentration of iron(II) ions as iron is deposited at the cathode. These students displayed the alternative conception that during electrolysis of aqueous iron (II) sulfate using inert electrodes, iron(II) ions are selectively discharged over hydrogen ions. Probably due to lack of understanding of the electrochemical series, they were not able to decide that hydrogen ions should be preferentially discharged over iron(II) ions.
This
alternative conception may also be attributed to students learning by rote about the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate as explained in their textbook (Loh & Tan, 2006, p. 169) and incorrectly transferring their knowledge to the electrolysis of aqueous iron(II) sulfate. Thirteen percent of the students in choosing B2 suggested that the colour of the solution remained unchanged due to hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions being discharged. This group of students in displaying the correct application of the electrochemical series failed to predict the consequence of the discharge of hydrogen and hydroxide ions on the concentration of the electrolyte. By selecting B1, 21% of the students suggested that neither iron(II) ions nor sulfate ions are discharged, so the concentration of the solution remains unchanged. The option B1 is not considered as an alternative conception as this group of students showed understanding of the application of the electrochemical series to decide which ion will be preferentially discharged.
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Students‟ responses to items 6-8 also showed some alternative conceptions. For example, in item 6, 10% of the students in choosing B4 held the alternative conception that hydrogen is produced at the anode and oxygen at the cathode. This implied that the students could have made the assumption that the cations (positively-charged ions) migrated to the anode which is negatively charged as in a galvanic cell (Garnett & Treagust, 1992b). For item 7, 23% of the students who selected B4 suggested that hydrogen and hydroxide ions are selectively discharged, so the concentration of the acid remains the same. This group of students showed the correct application of the electrochemical series; however they could not further explain that the decrease of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in the solution resulted in an increase in the concentration of the electrolyte (Loh & Tan, 2006). For item 8, another alternative conception held by 13% of the students (in selecting A4) suggested that the colour of the electrolyte remains unchanged due to the inert platinum electrodes similar to the alternative conception that no reaction occurs at the surfaces of inert electrodes identified in a previous study (Garnett & Treagust, 1992b). This was also reported in Sanger and Greenbowe (1997a) that “no reaction will occur if inert electrodes are used” (p.390) while Schmidt et al. (2007) also reported that “students did not consider the transfer of electrons at the electrode” (p. 265).
Item 9 involves the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous solution of copper(II) chloride using inert graphite electrodes. Students had to decide which ions are preferably discharged, and also required the understanding of oxidation in terms of electron transfer. The distribution of students‟ responses is summarized in Table 7.
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Table 7 Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 9 in the EDI (N = 330) Item number
Content choice
Reason choice
Total (%)
1
2
3
4
9
A
36 (10.9)
36 (10.9)
63 (19.1)
*106 (32.1)
73
B
19 (5.8)
26 (7.9)
21 (6.4)
23 (7.0)
27
A high proportion of the students (73%) made the correct content choice (response A) that chloride ions are oxidised at the anode. Only 32% of the students in making the choice A4 were correct in explaining that chloride ions migrate to the anode and donate electrons. Twenty-two percent of the students (in selecting A1 and A2) held the alternative conception that copper(II) ions migrate to the anode. These students could have made the assumption that the cations (positively-charged ions) migrate to the anode which is negatively charged as in a galvanic cell (Garnett & Treagust, 1992b). Another 19% of the students in making the choice A3 displayed the alternative conception that anions migrate to the anode and accept electrons, implying that reduction has occurred at the anode as in an electrolytic cell (Garnett & Treagust, 1992b). Students could have assumed that “anodes, like anions, are always negatively charged” (Sanger & Greenbowe, 1997, p. 384).
For item 10, 11% of the students (in selecting B4) held the alternative conception that zinc is deposited at the cathode, confusing this process with electroplating.
Applications of electrolysis in industry (Items 11 to 17). Item 12 involves the purification of an impure copper plate using aqueous copper(II) sulfate. Students had to possess understanding of the different types of ions present and the migration of the ions to the respective electrodes. The distribution of students‟ responses is summarized in Table 8.
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Table 8 Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 12 in the EDI (N = 330) Item number
Content choice
Reason choice
Total (%)
1
2
3
4
12
A
24 (7.3)
28 (8.5)
43 (13.0)
*116 (35.2)
64
B
11 (3.3)
21 (6.4)
37 (11.2)
50 (15.2)
36
A relatively high proportion of the students (64%) made the correct content choice (response A) that a pure copper plate must be used as the cathode. By making the selection A4, only 35% of the students provided the correct explanation that copper(II) ions are attracted to the cathode and selectively discharged. The main alternative conception from this item was held by 11% of the students, who in selecting B3, implied that copper(II) ions are attracted to the anode and are selectively discharged. These students could have made the assumption that the cations (positively-charged ions) move to the anode which is negatively charged as in a galvanic cell (Garnett & Treagust, 1992b). Options A3, B4 chosen by 13%, 15% of the students, respectively, are not considered as alternative conceptions as the reason made no sense in explaining the option.
Item 16 is an example in which electrolysis is used in industry for electroplating. Students need to understand the purpose of electroplating in the motor industry. The distribution of students‟ responses is summarized in Table 9.
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Table 9 Analysis of students‟ responses to Item 16 in the EDI (N = 330) Item number
Content choice
Reason choice
Total (%)
1
2
3
4
16
A
51 (15.5)
19 (5.8)
*147 (44.5)
24 (7.3)
73
B
18 (5.5)
39 (11.8)
13 (3.9)
19 (5.8)
27
Seventy-three percent of the students in making the correct content choice (response A) agreed that the metals nickel and chromium are used for electroplating in the motor industry. By making the selection A3, 45% of the students agreed with the explanation that the use of nickel and chromium prevents corrosion of the electroplated material. In selecting B2, 12% of the students held the alternative conception that the metals nickel and chromium do not form a strongly adhering coating. Sixteen percent of the students who selected A1 held the alternative conception that the metals nickel and chromium were used in electroplating because these metals have high melting points.
Students’ alternative conceptions in electrolysis concepts Thirty alternative conceptions relating to several electrolysis concepts that were held by 10 – 39% of the students were identified by administering the EDI. The alternative conceptions involved a variety of electrolysis concepts relating to the nature and reaction of the electrodes, the migration of ions, the preferential discharge of ions, the products of electrolysis, and changes in the concentration and colour of electrolytes. Several examples of these alternative conceptions are summarised in Table 10.
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Table 10 Examples of alternative conceptions on electrolysis held by students (N = 330) Electrolysis examples Electrolysis of molten magnesium oxide using carbon electrodes
Alternative conceptions During electrolysis of molten magnesium oxide, magnesium ions are attracted to the cathode where excess electrons on the cations are given up. Electrolysis of molten Bromide ions are oxidised at the cathode lead(II) bromide using when molten lead(II) bromide is electrolysed graphite electrodes using inert electrodes. Electrolysis of aqueous Iron(II) ions are selectively discharged over iron(II) sulfate using hydrogen ions when aqueous iron(II) sulfate platinum electrodes is electrolysed using inert electrodes. Neither iron(II) ions nor sulphate ions are discharged when aqueous iron(II) sulfate is electrolysed using inert electrodes. Electrolysis of dilute The concentration of the solution decreases sulfuric acid using inert because hydrogen and sulfate ions are electrodes selectively discharged when dilute sulfuric acid is electrolysed using inert electrodes. The concentration of the solution remains unchanged when dilute sulfuric acid is electrolysed using inert electrodes. Electrolysis of concentrated Anions migrate to the anode and accept aqueous solution of electrons when a concentrated aqueous copper(II) chloride using solution of copper(II) chloride is electrolysed graphite electrodes using graphite electrodes. Electroplating an iron spoon In electroplating an iron spoon with silver the spoon should be used as the anode. Extraction of aluminium The graphite anode does not have to be metal from aluminium oxide periodically replaced in the electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide. The graphite anode dissolves when molten aluminium oxide is electrolysed. Manufacture of chlorine Hydrogen gas is not produced when using concentrated aqueous concentrated aqueous sodium chloride is sodium chloride electrolysed because no hydrogen ions are present. Electroplating in the motor The metals nickel and chromium are not used industry for electroplating because the metals do not form a strongly adhering coating. The metals nickel and chromium are used for electroplating because the metals have high melting points. Effect on the environment The use of electrolysis in industry does not of using electrolysis in cause pollution of the environment. industry
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% of students 18
15
23 21
14
20
19
39 21
16 14
12
16
32
Electrolysis Diagnostic Instrument
Students’ confidence levels Despite 44% - 72% of students indicating a high level of confidence in answering 16 of the items (Items 2 - 17), only 19% – 53% of students were able to provide the correct responses to these items (see Table 11). In general, except for Items 1 and 2, students displayed relatively low levels of confidence when responding the items. This trend may in part be attributed to students‟ general unfamiliarity with being asked to justify their choice of responses to multiple-choice items. Furthermore, except for Item 1, students‟ confidence in answering the items was higher than their actual performance in the diagnostic test. These data are represented graphically in Figure 3.
Table 11 The confidence level of students who correctly answered both parts of each item (N = 330)
Item No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Number Who Answered Both Parts Correctly 260 175 136 146 64 113 110 125 106 82 145 116 126 102 135 147 164 330
Both Parts of Items Answered Correctly, y1 (%) 79 53 41 44 19 34 33 38 32 25 44 35 38 31 41 45 50
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Confidence Level in Answering Items, y2 (%) 70 72 61 47 51 54 53 51 59 51 59 55 48 44 61 51 54
Electrolysis Diagnostic Instrument
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Item 9 Item 10Item 11Item 12Item 13Item 14Item 15Item 16Item 17
Figure 3
Graphs comparing students‟ confidence in answering the items in the EDI with
their actual performance in the diagnostic test. Students‟ confidence in arriving at the answers for items 4, 13 and 14 regarding the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide, manufacture of chlorine in industry and extraction of aluminium from molten aluminium oxide respectively, is lower than for the rest of the items. This trend may be attributed to their anxiety and fear of not being able to provide the correct responses for these three items (Palmer, 2006).
Students were more confident in arriving at the answers for the rest of the items probably as a result of several factors, like keeping up-to-date with their work and persistently trying out similar problems to achieve success. Bandura (1997) considered this practice as enactive mastery experiences, one of the four main sources of efficacy information, and is the most influential source of self-efficacy. Similarly Chan and Mousley
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(2005) agreed that most of the students in their study felt “a need to practice sufficient examples before they developed adequate confidence and curiosity for more independent and diverse ways of solving problems” (p. 223). Another possible factor could be the encouraging and patient teachers who had always been generous with positive evaluative feedback that is essential for students to achieve better results. This type of positive evaluative feedback involving verbal persuasion is another source of efficacy information (Bandura, 1997) and is supported by Dalgety, Coll and Jones (2003) who found that during high school, students develop attitudes and efficacy beliefs toward chemistry that they bring to their tertiary-level studies. Howitt (2007) has found that learning experiences situated with meaningful and authentic contexts have contributed to increased confidence of preservice teachers. In the classroom, the students could have modeled the teachers‟ methods of arriving at the correct answers besides getting help from their friends; this type of self-efficacy perceived by the students as being capable of performing favourably in comparison to others is referred to as vicarious experiences type of efficacy information (Bandura, 1997).
Instructional Implications As the EDI is a recently-developed diagnostic instrument that can be used to assess students‟ understanding of electrolysis concepts, the findings of this study will be of benefit to classroom teachers of chemistry, curriculum writers and researchers in science education. For teachers in particular, knowledge of students‟ conceptions can not only reveal important insights into students‟ ways of thinking and understanding, but also enables them to incorporate alternative instructional strategies that will help in the reconstruction of their students‟ knowledge and understanding of relevant concepts (Duit, Treagust, & Mansfield, 1996).
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Studies have found that students might find the reactions in electrolysis difficult to understand as they involve “abstract and formal explanations of invisible interactions between particles at a molecular level” (Carr, 1984, p. 97). Nakhleh and Krajcik (1994) explained that in order for a student to engage in chemical reasoning, the student may need to constantly shift between four representational systems, the macroscopic, submicroscopic, symbolic and algebraic, and this causes further difficulties. So, in planning their instructional strategies teachers could consider the incorporation of multi-media animations that have been found to be effective in facilitating the understanding of reactions at the submicroscopic level (Chandrasegaran, Treagust & Mocerino, 2005; Harrison & Treagust, 1998; Lee, 2007; Sanger & Greenbowe, 1997; Yochum & Luoma, 1995).
Curriculum writers could also gain insight from the findings of this study. When developing or revising the contents of the topic emphasis could be placed on the selection of relevant electrolysis examples and instructional strategies that would most effectively assist in addressing students‟ known alternative conceptions about electrolysis concepts. The findings of this study also lend support to further research in evaluating, for example, the efficacy of an intervention program designed to enhance students‟ understanding of electrolysis concepts. Administration of the instrument on completion of instruction will provide a convenient means of evaluating the efficacy of the intervention program.
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References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. NY: W.H.Freeman and Company. Carr, M. (1984). Model confusion in chemistry. Research in Science Education, 14, 97-103. Chan, K. H., & Mousley, J. (2005). Using word problems in Malaysian mathematics education: Looking beneath the surface. In H. L. Chick & J. L. Vincent (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. (Vol. 2, pp. 217-224). Melbourne: PME. Chandrasegaran, A. L., Treagust, D. F., & Mocerino, M. (2005, July). Diagnostic assessment of secondary students’ use of three levels of representation to explain simple chemical reactions. Paper presented at the 36th Annual ASERA Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand. Dalgety, J., & Coll, R. K. (2006). Exploring first-year science students' chemistry selfefficacy. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 4, 97-116. Dalgety, J., Coll, R. K., & Jones, A. (2003). Development of chemistry attitudes and experiences questionnaire (CAEQ). Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(7), 649-668. De Jong, O., & Treagust, D. F. (2002). The teaching ad learning of electrochemistry. . In Gilbert, J. G., De Jong, O., Justi, R. Treagust, D. F. & van Driel, J. H. (Eds.). Chemical education: Towards research based practice (pp. 317-338). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Duit, R. (2009). Students‟ and teachers‟ conceptions and science education. Retrieved August 13, 2009 from http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/aktuell/stcse/stcse.html.
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Duit, R., & Treagust, D.F. (1995). Students conceptions‟ and constructivist teaching approaches. In B.J. Fraser & H.J. Walberg (Eds.), Improving science education (pp. 46-69). Chicago, Illinois: The National Society for the Study of Education. Duit, R., & Treagust, D. F. (1998). Learning in science - from behaviourism towards social constructivism and beyond. In B. J. Fraser & K. G. Tobin (Eds.), International handbook of science education (Vol. 1, pp. 3-25). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Duit, R., Treagust, D. F., & Mansfield, H. (1996). Investigating student understanding as a prerequisite to improving teaching and learning in science and mathematics. In D. F. Treagust, R. Duit & B. J. Fraser (Eds.), Improving teaching and learning in science and mathematics (pp. 17-31). New York: Teachers College Press. Eng, N. H., Lim, E. W., & Lim, Y. C. (2007). Focus super chemistry. Bangi, Malaysia: Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. Garnett, P. J., & Treagust, D. F. (1992a). Difficulties experienced by senior high school students of electrochemistry: Electric circuits and oxidation-reduction equations. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 121-142. Garnett, P. J., & Treagust, D. F. (1992b). Conceptual difficulties experienced by senior high school students of electrochemistry: Electrochemical (galvanic) and electrostatic cells. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(10), 1079-1099. Harrison, A. G., & Treagust, D. F. (1998). Modelling in science lessons: Are there better ways to learn with models? School Science and Mathematics, 98(8), 420-429. Howitt, C. J. (2007). Confidence and attitudes towards science teaching: Preservice, primary teachers' perceptions of an holistic science methods course. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Curtin University of Technology, Perth.
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Lee, S.-J. (2007). Exploring students' understanding concerning batteries-Theories and practices. International Journal of Science Education, 29(4), 497-516. Loh, W. L., & Tan, O. T. (2006). Exploring chemistry. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd. Low, S. N., Lim, Y. C., Eng, N. H., Lim, E. W., & Ahmad, U. K. (2005). Integrated curriculum for secondary schools: Chemistry Form 4. Kuala Lumpur: Abadi Ilmu Sdn. Bhd. Ministry of Education, Malaysia. (2006). Integrated curriculum for secondary schools: Chemistry syllabus. Kuala Lumpur: Curriculum Development Centre. Nakhleh, M. B., & Krajcik, J. S. (1994). Influence of levels of information as presented by different technologies on students' understanding of acid, base and pH concepts. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(10), 1077-1096. Nunally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Orgill, M. K., & Bodner, G. M. (2006). An analysis of the effectiveness of analogy use in college-level biochemistry textbooks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(10), 1040-1060. Palmer, D. H. (2001). Factors contributing to attitude exchange amongst preservice elementary teachers. Science Education, 86(2), 122-138. Palmer, D. H. (2006). Sources of self-efficacy in a science methods course for primary teacher education students. Research in Science Education, 36(4), 337-353. Pearson, P. N. (2008). The effectiveness of a school-based science facilitator in terms of classroom environment, attitudes to science and self-efficacy. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, Curtin University of Technology, Perth.
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Sanger, M. J., & Greenbowe, T. J. (1997). Common student misconceptions in electrochemistry: galvanic, electrolytic, and concentration cells. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34(4), 377-398. Schmidt, H.-J., Marohn, A., & Harrison, A. G. (2007). Factors that prevent learning in electrochemistry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(2), 258-283. Treagust, D. F. (1995). Diagnostic assessment of students' science knowledge. In S. M. Glynn & R. Duit (Eds.), Learning science in the schools: Research reforming practice (pp. 327-346). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Treagust, D. F., & Chandrasegaran, A. L. (2007). The Taiwan national science concept learning study in an international perspective. International Journal of Science Education, 29(4), 391-403. Duit, R. & Treagust, D. F. (1995). Students‟ conceptions and constructivist teaching approaches. In B. J. Fraser & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Improving science education (pp. 46-49). Chicago, IL: The National Society for the Study of Education. Tytler, R. (2002). Teaching for understanding in science: Student conceptions research, and changing views of learning. Australian Science Teachers' Journal, 48(3), 14-21. Yochum, S. M., & Luoma, J. R. (1995). Augmenting a classical electrochemical demonstration. Journal of Chemical Education, 72(1), 55-56.
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model
An Inquiry Approach In Learning Science With Engaging Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources
Khang-Miant Sing National Institute of Education Singapore [email protected] Charles Chew National Institute of Education Singapore [email protected]
Abstract: Recently, there are some science educators (who are more comfortable with the new media and the internet) starting to employ many of the freely available Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources to help students learn science. Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources (WMIRs) like interactive learning objects (LOs), videos and animations have taken the internet world by storm and have become more pervasive in recent years. But it is still not a popular means of learning science in many countries due to various reasons like accessibility and low comfort level of teachers. The youths are particularly enamored with these Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources because they are engaging. The easy access to these Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources has attracted educators to examine its affordances for learning science with an inquiry approach. Some learner-centered and engaging Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources like Interactive Resources (IRs) and Digital Resources (DRs) which are designed and developed by Ministry of
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Education of Singapore (MOE) are being used by many schools in Singapore for educational purposes. Also there are plenty of videos (from web portals like YouTube) which can be used for learning science. This presentation describes an inquiry-based approach in the teaching-learning of science with engaging Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources. The five essential features of science inquiry (question, evidence, explanation, connections and communication) based on the new 2008 MOE primary science syllabus will be highlighted in this web-based multimedia inquiry approach. This paper also discusses some learning outcomes, and gives suggestions for future implementations.
Introduction: Web-based multimedia learning objects (LOs) or resources for teaching and learning purposes are here to stay whether educators like it or not. For those who do not already know, a learning object is usually a digital, self-contained and re-usable unit of multimedia for learning (consisting usually of elements like simulation, animation, graphics, video, sound or text) for the user/learner to listen, view, interact or receive feedback. When a few learning objects are used (in combination underpinned by pedagogically sound instructional design) to form learning activities or tutorials; they offer a potentially powerful learning opportunity and enhance the learning process. In order to facilitate learners of the current digital Net Generation (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2006) with a suitable learning environment that promotes self-study and improves learning outcomes, it is essential that a learning environment not only has sound pedagogical basis but also incorporates appropriate technology affordances that facilitate learning. In other
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model words, learning objects must participate in a principled partnership with instructional design theory if they are to succeed in facilitating learning (Wiley, 2000). What would be an appropriate underpinning instructional design theory or learning approach that is in tandem with these WebBased Multimedia Interactive Resources (WMIRs) to facilitate learning? The authors are positing adopting an inquiry approach as the pedagogical framework to anchor learning with Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources as supporting LOs. In essence, this use of LOs could potentially promote and support inquiry-based learning (Orrill, 2000). Hence, it will be natural for science educators to leverage on the great learning potential of such web-based multimedia learning objects. However, the challenge faced by many science teachers is either lack of awareness of the existence of such LOs or not knowing how to go about using these webbased LOs (many are free for use in the internet) or the low comfort level in using these WMIRs even if they (the teachers) knew where to access them. This paper adds to the wealth of knowledge by giving an account on a proposed implementation of how this innovative use of Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources can support inquiry-based learning. This paper will also strive to discuss some learning possibilities or suggestions for others who are considering exploiting this technology. Pedagogical Framework: One of the most effective and exciting models of science instruction for teaching-learning and assessment purposes is the BSCS 5E Learning Cycle (Bybee, 2002). Widely acclaimed as one of the most powerful inquiry-based instructional strategies underpinned by the theory of constructivism, the 5E Learning Cycle (Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration or Extension, and Evaluation) has all the 5 essential features of science inquiry (Question, Evidence, Explanation, Connection and Communication) embedded in it. It can also be used
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model flexibly as a lesson planner containing an excellent mix of both teacher-centered instruction and student-centered instruction. This framework is used as the pedagogical underpinning for this proposed implementation. Figure 1: 5E Learning Cycle Engage
Evaluate
Explore
5E Learning Cycle
Explain
Elaborate or Extend
In the Engagement (1st E) phase, traditionally the teacher sets the stage for learning by introducing the topic of the lesson and fires the students’ innate sense of curiosity and imagination by means of attention-grabbing demonstrations, discrepant events, scientificallyoriented questions, ideas or natural phenomena, interesting problems to solve, relevant current events or local issues to discuss etc. Based on the students’ responses to these triggers, the teacher (in the original 5-E learning cycle) is able to assess the students’ incoming prior knowledge and note their naïve conceptions or misconceptions of science. But for this inquirybased learning approach supported by Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resources which is coined as WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model, the learner engages with the Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource. Under the Exploration (2nd E) phase, engaged learning through hands-on activities (or similar activities) occurs with the students’ use of the inquiry cycle of generating question(s),
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model formulating hypothesis, designing and carrying out a plan, collecting evidence/data to draw conclusions and communicating their results. In this stage, the teacher (in the original 5-E learning cycle) serves as a leader and facilitator of the inquiry process and as an assessor to determine how the students are progressing in their knowledge construction or concept development. However, in this WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model, the learner explores and learns the concepts through interacting with the Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource. In the teacher-facilitated Explanation (3rd E) phase of the original 5-E learning cycle, the students will be guided to check their explanations against the scientific explanations offered by the teacher or reliable sources of knowledge. Besides promoting a common language for the whole class to articulate their thinking and describing their results in scientific terms, the use of scientific explanations seek to address the naïve conceptions and remediate the misconceptions detected in the engagement and exploration phases. On the other hand, the WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model, the student receives explanations from the Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource as he/she interacts with the Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource and then check his or her understanding against that offered by the Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource. At the Elaboration/Extension (4th E) phase, the teacher (in the original 5-E learning cycle) helps the students to reinforce their scientific concepts either by providing opportunities for students to apply and transfer their understanding to new contexts or showing them how these concepts are applied in real-world situations. In this way, besides mastering science content and process skills, students’ appreciation of science as relevant to their lives will help them grow towards greater scientific literacy to become scientifically literate citizens in the world and for the world. Using the WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model, the student is helped by the Web-
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Based Multimedia Interactive Resource to apply his knowledge through a process of testing his/her concepts through different simulated scenarios. Finally, in the Evaluation (5th E) phase, the teacher (in the original 5-E learning cycle) brings the lesson to a meaningful closure by summarizing the big ideas in point form/concept map, administering a formal assessment (e.g. test or presentation) or an informal assessment (e.g. journal or portfolio) to ascertain the level of achievement of the learning outcomes. Having said this, for effective teaching and meaningful learning to take place, continuous evaluation in the form of observation and participation in class (other modes of informal assessment) are strongly advocated and encouraged even in the first four stages of engagement, exploration, explanation & elaboration/extension. In the WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model, the Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource provides embedded interactive exercise/testing with feedback acting as evaluation/assessment to enhance learning. The in-built feature that allows for non-linear quick jump to any part of the WMIR anytime when the learner (becoming a ―veteran‖) chooses to deviate from the usual prescribed sequencing of stages of learning (of the 5E learning cycle) also facilitates iterative or repeated (revisiting) learning. This affordance of iterations for learning is key in enhancing the 5E learning cycle into an adapted 5-E learning cycle with supporting Web-Based Multimedia Interactive Resource known as WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model shown in Figure 2 (with the double arrow lines to indicate the iterative learning affordance of the WMIR).
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Figure 2: WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Engage (with WMIR)
Evaluate (with WMIR)
The WMIRInquiry-Based Learning Model
Elaborate or Extend (with WMIR)
Explore (with WMIR)
Explain (with WMIR)
This adapted learning model is also capitalizing on the ―scaffolding‖ potential that was indirectly proposed by Vygotsky (1978)—the zone of proximal development (ZPD) of a learner can be extended to achieve new learning or task, not possible in the past, unless guided by someone (or something) more knowledgeable or more capable than the learner. The underpinning learning approach of the WMIR is that it should provide learners with the opportunities to receive and process information (in small chunks); to be guided (through just-intime scaffolding); to practise (in solving problems) and to be assessed (through questions with appropriate and helpful feedback). This learning model is adopted from the phases of instruction mentioned by Alessi & Trollip (2001) in the hope of that the learner is able to select and transform information, construct hypotheses, and make decisions (Bruner, 1973) in order for the learner to go beyond just information-reception to knowledge building and possibly learning through inquiry-based approach. Another major strength of the WMIR is the embedded interactivity with appropriate feedback which affords scaffolding (to guide the learner to facilitate his/her process of learning). Page 1904
WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Essentially, the interactivity allows the learner to explore, manipulate, postulate, test out ideas, construct his/her own mental models and reflect in a safe but viable visually rich learning environment. Also, interactivity embedded in the multimedia environment, is able to potentially engage learners in meaningful activities (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). The other major strength of the WMIR is the affordances of multiple representations through visualization (such as models, graphs, equations, diagrams, pictures, animations and simulations exhibited in verbal, mathematical, visual and actional-operational modes) to make difficult scientific concepts more intelligible to students by increasing the likelihood of progressing towards more sophisticated conceptual learning (Treagust, 2008). Ainsworth (1999) reinforced this further by positing that ―a common justification for using more than one representation is that it is more likely to capture a learner’s interest and, in so doing, play an important role in promoting conditions for effective learning.‖ Treagust (2008) put forward the evidences to support the suggestion that ―different representations have shown to help learners understand the target concept in terms of the underlying features of the concept at a deeper level and help make connections between concepts that were otherwise not easily comprehended.‖ Hence, multiple representations, visualization and embedded interactivity serve to provide learners with the learning opportunities to extrapolate and construct knowledge to achieve positive learning outcomes.
Description and Features of Web-based Interactive Resources (WMIRs): According to the underpinning learning approach of the WMIR mentioned earlier, the resulting design of the features of the WMIR coincidentally have similar elements to the interactive mathematics learning environment according to Holm (2007) who pointed out the following key features that are desirable in a learning environment that promote self-study through providing enriching learning experience coupled with improved learning outcomes: Page 1905
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It must have a clear pedagogical concept as its backbone
It must recommend a learning sequence that guides the learner through the content
It must provide a variety of learning objects suitable to various learning styles
It must provide a rich palette of interactive features in order to actively engage the learner
It must have built-in mechanisms that provide instant and valuable feedback
It must provide ample opportunities to the learners to learn, to explore, to practice, to reflect, and to self-check
An overview of a WMIR (based on an example downloaded from MOE eduMall website which can only be accessed by MOE teachers with login passwords through this website: http://www.edumall.sg) is shown:
Table 1: Recommended Sequences for Web-based Interactive Resource Learning Environment Stages of Learning Engage Explore
Explain (with scaffolding) Extend Evaluate
Enhance (iterative or repeated reinforced learning)
WMIR Learning Activities (e.g. WMIR on Levers) Show an interactive animation of applying effort to the lever to lift a load Explore the balancing of the lever through investigative simulation and providing immediate feedback to ―scaffold‖ learning Ask learners to try an activity that tests their hypothesis Linking learned knowledge to real-life examples of levers (simple machines) Provide interactive exercise/testing with just-in-time immediate feedback on learner’s response Provide opportunities for repeating the learning, closing the learning gap (as a form of reinforcement of learning) and for generalizing learning.
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Screen Dumps (Figures) Figure 3 Figure 4 and 5
Figure 6 and Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 and 10
Any figure
WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Figure 3: Introduction Page
Figure 5: Feedback to help to scaffold (simulated scenario)
Figure 4: Investigation Page
Figure 6: Exercise page to test hypothesis
Figure 7: Feedback on exercise
Figure 9: Evaluation (Feedback to correct)
Figure 8: Real-life examples (application)
Figure 10: Evaluation (Feedback to affirm)
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Learning Outcomes: A survey was conducted after the implementation of this WMIR (Levers) in 1 class of mostly 11 year-olds (35 students) within the context of an hour Science lesson in a computer lab. The data gathered suggested that the WMIR was engaging or fun to learn with. In fact, most of the students (about 90%) wanted to learn Science with this WMIR in the near future. Also about 83% of the students were happy with what they have learnt from the WMIR. Interestingly, 89% of the students commented that the WMIR aided them in learning the particular Science topic. This could be the result of the combination of good instructional design coupled (aligned with the 5E learning cycle) with good interactivity (with appropriate immediate feedback) embedded within the WMIR. In terms of ease of learning with this WMIR, 71 % of the students affirmatively agree. Figure 11 shows a screen dump of the results of the survey. Figure 11: Survey Results
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WMIR-Inquiry-based learning model Conclusions: One sticking learning issue that stood out which suggests that learning science concepts was still not easy was shown by the survey. This was evidenced by the fact that only 71% agreed that learning process was made easy with WMIR even though 89% of the respondents agreed that the WMIR has helped them in learning outcome. The survey seems to suggest there are some limitations of the learning potential of WMIR (used in an inquiry approach) even though WMIR had aided learning outcome. It could also mean that the process of learning Science entails some form of difficulty—there is no easy short cut even though the WMIR has enhanced the learning outcome. Because of these nagging unanswered questions of a possible learning gap (however small) due to learning science (in an inquiry approach) with WMIR, this prompted the authors to want to further uncover more insights. Perhaps, a more effective way of learning science can come from a form that combines interacting with WMIR coupled with the teacher consolidating learning at an appropriate end (as a form of clarification and summary) or the students (while interacting with the WMIR) could be engaging in peer collaborative learning (knowledge building). Hence these questions could spin off potential future research projects.
Suggestions for Future Implementations: With the successful implementations, there could be possibly be future projects which can exploit the affordances of web-based multimedia interactive resources for learning by investigating whether (and evaluate how) WMIRs that have been designed for self-study may be integrated into learning environments that are more supportive of social interactions (teacherstudents or peer-to-peer) and dialogic teaching (e.g. Mercer et al., 2009) and thereby possibly further enhancing or improving the learning of science concepts.
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References: Alessi, S.M.,Trollip, S.R. (2001). Multimedia for Learning: Methods and Development (3rd Ed). Nedham Heights, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Ainsworth, S. E. (1999). The functions of multiple representations. Computers& Education, 33, 131-152. Bybee, R.W. et al. (1989). Science and technology education for the elementary years: Frameworks for curriculum and instruction. Washington, D.C.: The National Center for Improving Instruction. Bybee, R. W. (2002). Scientific inquiry, student learning, and the science curriculum. In R. W. Bybee (Ed.). Learning Science and the Science of Learning (pp. 25-36). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given. New York: Norton. Holm, C. (2007). Enriching learning experience through interactivity – a practitioner’s view based on eMathematics. What do we know about using new technologies for learning and teaching? A ten year perspective, 2007, The 12th Cambridge International Conference on Open and Distance Learning, Cambridge. Retrieved Dec 11, 2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www2.open.ac.uk/r06/conference/CambridgeConferencePapers2.pdf Mercer, N., Dawes, L. & Staarman, J. (2009). Dialogic teaching in the primary science classroom. Language and Education, 23(4), 1-17. Oblinger, D. G., & Oblinger, J.L. (2005). Educating the Net Generation. Retrieved Dec 11, 2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www.educause.edu/educatingthenetgen Orrill, C.H. (2000). Learning objects to support inquiry-based online learning. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved Dec 10, 2008, from the World Wide Web: http://reusability.org/read/chapters/orrill.doc. Treagust, D.F. (2008). The role of multiple representations in learning science. In Y.-J. Lee & A.-L. Tan (Eds), Science Education at the Nexus of Theory and Practice (pp. 7-23). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wiley, D. A. (2000). Connecting learning objects to instructional design theory: A definition, a metaphor, and a taxonomy. In D. A. Wiley (Ed.), The Instructional Use of Learning Objects: Online Version. Retrieved Dec 10, 2008, from the World Wide Web: http://reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.doc.
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Nose Simulator
Running head: AUTHENTIC INQUIRY WITH ARTIFICIAL OLFACTORY SYSTEM
Introducing Students to Authentic Inquiry Investigation through Odor Classification Experiment with an Artificial Olfactory System, Nose Simulator
Niwat Srisawasdi*1, Bhinyo Panijpan1, Pintip Ruenwongsa1, Teerakiat Kerdcharoen2
1
2
Institute for Innovative Learning, Mahidol University, Thailand
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Thailand *
e-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract Engaging students into authentic scientific inquiry through conducting experiment is more emphasizing in recent science education and computer-based experiment is determined to deal with the complexity of authentic experimentation for students. Nowadays, computeraided instructional materials are becoming increasing popular in development of interactive learning environments to support scientific inquiry learning. Correspondingly, an artificial olfactory system called Nose Simulator, simulating dynamical mechanism of human olfaction, was developed being an interactive computer-based laboratory tool to engage and support authentic inquiry activity in odor classification experiment. Pedagogy of selfregulation in open inquiry environment was incorporated into the experimental work to mirror the authenticity. To evaluate the simulator potential in supporting the learning of scientific inquiry, sixteen grade 12 Thai secondary school students were participated having an inquiry experience with the simulator. Empirical evidence based on observations realized that the students can perform comprehensive inquiry work of their own designed experiment. Results on quantitative and qualitative data analysis obtained from questionnaire surveys and individual interviews were discovered to be consistent Quantification of the students‟ self evaluation showed strong positives that working with the simulator experiment afforded acquisition of scientific inquiry ability in a high level, over 80% of the complete score for cognitive performance, inquiry skills, emotional practice, and social inquiry process each, and qualification of the students‟ responses also pointed out many of their positive views to the experimental work. The findings suggested that working with the simulator experiment has positively impacted on students‟ scientific inquiry ability.
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Introducing Students to Authentic Inquiry Investigation through Odor Classification Experiment with an Artificial Olfactory System, Nose Simulator
Introduction Improving students‟ understanding of the nature and process of scientific inquiry has become one of the most important goals in science education (National Research Council, 1996). Contemporary reforms in science education recommended scientific inquiry experiences as a context for science learning to develop students‟ scientific literacy and thinking skills (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; National Research Council, 2000), and advocated to develop instructional environments and methodologies that involved students into authentic practice of scientific inquiry. In recent years, more and more evidence indicates that structured inquiry, systematically guiding the student to solve one predetermined question, is not sufficient in developing scientific thinking (Zion & Sadeh, 2007). Nowadays, a way of providing more flexible inquiry, in which students must actively demonstrate self-direction of personal initiative and teamwork, or open-ended situation, such as inquiry laboratory activities, has become in attention and there is considered an important challenge. Recent science standards have emphasized the importance of helping students learn to engage in authentic scientific inquiry (Chinn & Hmelo-Silver, 2002; Gengarelly & Abrams, 2009), in which teachers must provide more innovative inquiry activities as scientists used in the community of science and students also must have the opportunity in the activities more openly and authentically as scientists employed when they were engaged in scientific research practices. By the way, teaching and learning science emphasizes have shifted from presenting science as a final body of
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knowledge, where science principles, laws, and theories as outcomes of inquiry were emphasized and taught, to presenting science as a human endeavor of conducting authentic scientific inquiry, where the processes of discovering, producing, and evaluating scientific knowledge are taught (Duschl, 1990; Hodson, 1988; Schwartz & Crawford, 2006). Unfortunately, many researchers have reported problems that the context of inquiry-based learning in science classroom failed in replication of important characteristics of authentic scientific inquiry used by professionals in that the classroom inquiry tasks given are extremely sequenced and structured onto a standard procedure of investigation (Abd-ElKhalick, 2005; Abd-El-Khalick et al., 2004; Chinn & Hmelo-Silver, 2002; Gengarelly & Abrams, 2009; Olson & Loucks-Horsley, 2000). As a result, students may have a very unscientific view that scientific inquiry is confined to the activities of simple testing, measurement, and observation (Chinn & Malhotra, 2002). In addition, the classroom inquiry is, in fact, either only simple demonstrations and illustrations of previously presented scientific facts or simple observations and experiments which there are distant from authentic inquiry practices in the contemporary scientific research. This situation may lead students in that they may not obtain actual valuable scientific experience from inquiry processes, and in reality, may appreciate science as a foreign thing because they cannot relate to socio-cultural, economic milieu surrounding, and particular important of scientific problems. The need to develop school inquiry activities that incorporate more features of authentic inquiry is called for the reforming (Chinn & Hmelo-Silver, 2002). To close the gap, a proposed view is the experiencing students with their efforts to conduct open inquiry study that is a more challenging endeavor than guided and structured inquiry in participation. The open inquiry affords the best opportunities for cognitive development and scientific reasoning (National Research Council, 2000), and the dynamic process, which there simply is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow, that the Page 1914
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process will develop critical thinking (minds on) and not merely the practical part of learning (hands on) (Zion et. al., 2004). Their experience, therefore, in open inquiry may deepen an understanding of the essence of science (Zion, 2006). In addition, researchers reported that students who develop authentic scientific projects made gains in the quality of their investigative skills, enhance personal characteristics, and are likely to engage in these types of activities in the future (Delcourt, 2007). Another, the novelty of ongoing contemporary scientific researches was proposed to promote scientific inquiry learning and there reported its effect on better understanding and skills of students in authentic inquiry processes (Wong, Hodson, Kwan, & Yung, 2008). Respectively, a crucial idea to promote student‟s involvement in the potential of scientific inquiry is learning with technology wherein the technological tools is intended to facilitate inquiry learning and could tremendously advance the process of scientific inquiry (Waight & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007). Computer-based laboratory tool is technological method which more closely simulates the nature of actual scientific research (Thornton & Sokoloff, 1990). The tool used successfully to create an interactive learning environment (Sokoloff & Thornton, 1997) which more substantially opportunities students to construct their own understanding of physical phenomena and scientific principles (Krusberg, 2007; McRobbie & Thomas, 2000; Nakhleh & Krajcik, 1994), scientific inquiry skills (Friedler, Nachmias & Songer, 1989; Friedler, Nachmias, & Linn, 1990), and motivation and confidence (Clark & Jackson, 1998). Authentic inquiry, computerized learning environment, and self-regulation The cookbook labs found in many science classrooms and the simple forms of inquiry found in textbooks and in many science curricula are obviously inauthentic (Chinn & HmeloSilver, 2002). Authentic scientific inquiry refers to the complex activities of employing scientific and technological equipment, elaborate procedures and theories, highly specialized
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expertise, and advanced techniques for data analysis and modeling, that scientists actually carry out (Chinn & Malhotra, 2002). The authentic inquiry involves designing complex procedures, controlling for non-obvious confounds, planning multiple measures of multiple variables, using techniques to avoid perceptual and other biases, reasoning extensively about possible experimental error, and coordinating results from multiple studies that may be in conflict with each other (Chinn & Hmelo-Silver, 2002). With regardless to its responsive nature, the open mode of inquiry was better suited for learning authentic science (Roth & Bowen, 1993), and its process seem to closely correspond to the authentic inquiry practices, in which students is assigned to drive a question to investigate, considers how to investigate the question and what data to collect, and decides how to interpret that data, and, teacher plays a role to encourage students to pose scientifically questions, conduct their investigation independently, and also to provide scaffolds as they need to practice within their inquiry. This situation creates a community of inquiry between teachers and students in where participants in the community learn by collaboration and interaction with other members that is crucial to the success of the inquiry process (Lim, 2004; Zion & Slezak, 2005). During the last decade, technologies have become commonplace in being an integral part of inquiry, as an instructional approach, and inquiry researchers in science education have explored technological affordances to support inquiry practice of students. Advances in learning technologies have brought about exciting opportunities for fundamental changes in inquiry method. Computer technology has profound and lasting impacts on science teaching and learning as being a powerful cognitive tool that can transform the way science is taught by facilitating both teachers‟ foster inquiry and students‟ inquiry practices (Edelson, 2001). To date, computerized learning environment is determined in that it can afford inquiry activity in a number of ways; to model the proposed knowledge structures or learning patterns, to enhance the development of necessary scientific and strategic skills, to promote Page 1916
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collaborative network in the community of learning for the construction of knowledge and sharing of data, to challenge utilize new things become teachable, to support access a variety of information, to support collecting various types of scientific data, to test the underlying theory through diagnostic or tutorial strategies, and to enhance characteristics of inquiry as the way of scientists (Cox & Webb, 2004). In an extended open inquiry that allows students conducting the independent investigation, their learning ability of self-regulation is significant (Tytler, 1992), particularly in the context of computerized learning environment that also allow a high degree of learner control and opportunities for directing their own learning (Winters, Greene & Costich, 2008). The open inquiry environment, compared with traditional classroom laboratory settings, demands new roles and responsibilities from students and teachers alike, in which the teachers play role of guiding the students activities and facilitating the organization of their own study (van der Valk & de Jong, 2009). In this environment, the students are challenged to work independently and they must enter to develop their own control and regulatory mechanisms to achieve success (Pintrich, 2000) of their own inquiry. Considering instructional implications and applications, self-regulatory processes seem to parallel well with the context of usage computerized tool in open inquiry environment. According to a social cognitive perspective, the processes of self-regulation emerge dynamically in three cyclical phases: (1) forethought phase, including processes that precede efforts to learn but are designed to enhance that performance, and sources of self-motivation that empower this self-initiated form of learning; (2) performance phase, including self-control strategies and a forms of self-observation to enhance the quality and quantity of students‟ performance; and (3) self-reflection phase, including self-judgments and self-reactions to one‟s performance phase functioning (Zimmerman & Tsikalas, 2005).
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Whether students are afforded great freedom in regulating their own learning, as in case of truly open-ended learning environments, the need to provide instructional support is, of course, critical (Hannafin & Scott, 2001). The idea of scaffolding is now in increasing use in educational design as being the supporter that it is not only assists learners to accomplish their independent tasks but also enables them to learn from the open-ended experience (Reiser, 2004). Particularly, scaffolding students‟ self-regulation during learning with computer-based learning environments has become a critical issue that has recently received a tremendous amount attention by researchers from several communities (Azevedo & Hadwin, 2005), and also in open-inquiry environment (van der Valk & de Jong, 2009). In instructional applications, Scaffolding is often mentioned in two contexts of guidance: as performed by human such as teachers, tutors or more knowledgeable peers, and by computers such as software. In order to scaffold students‟ learning process of using computerized tool in open-ended learning environment, Hill & Hannafin (2001) have identified embedded conceptual, metacognitive, procedural, and strategic scaffolds to assist students in understanding essential ideas and theories, monitoring their learning processes and reducing cognitive overload, structuring their tasks and necessary steps, and finding alternative strategies to solve problems, respectively. Also, Quintana et al. (2004) proposed scaffolding design framework for software around three constituent processes of inquiry learning that there are sense making, which involves the basic operations of testing hypotheses and interpreting data, process management, which involves the strategic decisions involved in controlling the inquiry process, and articulation and reflection, which is the process of constructing, evaluating, and articulating what has been learned.
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Context of the study Electronic nose (E-nose) technology is known as artificial sensorial technological system mimicked human odor recognition mechanism that is designed to detect and discriminate among complex odors using sensor arrays. E-nose is in a contemporary area of research and developments in artificial intelligent systems, which has open a variety of practical applications and new possibilities in many areas including food and beverage industry, perfumery, biotechnology, medicine, chemistry, and environmental sciences. By the way, an artificial olfactory system called Nose Simulator was developed based on the E-nose technology, being an interactive computer-based laboratory tool, to experience students the technological advancement of a forefront scientific research and practices of authentic scientific inquiry. To explore its performance, the simulator was used to experiment with odor molecules of alcohol and it showed successful classification of different kinds of and concentrations of alcohol based on the principal component analysis (PCA) of the obtained experimental data. According to the study, the Nose Simulator was introduced to students in the science project course and sixteen of them participated to perform the experiment with the simulator. After completion of the experiment, the students‟ perceptions were assessed by using an open-ended questionnaire in domains of cognitive ability, inquiry skills, emotional practice, and social inquiry process. Each item was rated into 6-points Likert scale based on how much of the simulator experiment are, varying from Never (0 point) to Very much (5 points). The qualitative data was also collected by unstructured observations from students‟ work and also by individual semi-structure interviews from ten volunteered students to investigate their opinions to the simulator experiment. Descriptive statistics and the content analysis were used to process the students‟ responses from survey and interview respectively.
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Description of technological affordance of the Nose Simulator The technological affordance for working with the Nose Simulator experiment could be divided into three affordances as followings. (1) Physical affordance The physical model of the simulator was constructed to mimic human olfactory system. It is an anatomical structure of nasal cavity, oral cavity, and oro- and naso-pharynx incorporated with a sensing device of gas sensor array and a dynamic airflow system. A Universal Serial Bus data acquisition (USB-DAQ) device was directly connected between the model and a laptop to digitize experimental data for later analysis and signal operation of whole system. Ion addition, the model was also designed to be removable that could be assembled easily in a short time to perform experiments. (2) Digital affordance The acquisition of experimental data and controlling of airflow system were programmed by the Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench (LabVIEW) environment. The user interface was also created in the LabVIEW environment with an embedded integration of the Shockwave Flash Object. The interface is designed to provide simple interaction between user and software that consists of three components to facilitate authentic inquiry learning activities; (1) monitor panel provides simultaneous displayed results of the voltage changes each sensor corresponding to sample flavor tested from users; (2) control panel provides interactive experience for controlling of experimental parameters, i.e. operation times, number of iterative operation, times for air suction and blowing, and delay time between suction and blowing; and (3) learning and training panel provides instructions in the process of scientific inquiry. For the learning and training panel, this affordance aimed to enable users for making of the basic science and related technology concepts, management Page 1920
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the processes of inquiry practices with the simulator, and reflection and articulation of their experimental processes during their inquiry. (3) Pedagogical affordance A student-centered approach of open investigation with technology-supported inquiry tool was utilized to model authentic scientific inquiry for student. Student experienced open authentic inquiry processes through performing their own scientific experiments with the Nose Simulator in which the beginning and the end of the inquiry process are not predetermined. In the experiment, students become responsible for asking questions and forming hypotheses based on dependent variables determined, conducting experiments following their experimental design, then analyzing of experimental data by using statistical methods and reporting the results of their own investigations within their leaning community. All steps were designed and performed in small group works since starting to support collaborative communication and co-construction of scientific knowledge and practices. Teacher played specific role to challenge student in planning of their scientific study with the use of various factors, e.g. odor characteristics, odor concentrations, and characteristics of human olfaction, and allow student to optimize parameter manipulation, e.g. timing of air suction represented orthronasal olfaction and of air blowing represented retronasal olfaction, that it can support mindful engagement in investigation process. In addition, the teacher were responded to facilitated all inquiry learning steps as a scaffolding for coaching during their investigations when they were needed helps or instructions, and to encourage them conceptualizing and revising scientific ideas in order to higher-order thinking skills. The conceptual framework of designing the learning environment for authentic scientific inquiry with the Nose Simulator is illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the environment for authentic inquiry with the Nose Simulator Results According to students‟ experiments with the Nose Simulator for odor classification, empirical evidence obtained from the observations showed a comprehensive inquiry of the students that they can conduct experiments with the simulator to classify different types of alcohol as the way they have designed on their open investigation. In addition, they also can perform a statistical analysis based on their experimental data obtained from the simulator for making meaning of and visualizing the data, and also they can identify sources of errors Page 1922
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based on their performed investigation. An example of the students‟ experimental result is displayed in Figure 2.
Figure 2 The students‟ experimental result of odor classification obtained from working with the Nose Simulator
According to the survey, the results indicated that all students have no experience with working in computer-based laboratory tool in the past. This clarified that they had the same background for using computer technology aided scientific experiment. Based on quantitative data analysis, students‟ perception scores on the assessed domains revealed that the Nose Simulator provided strong positives for students‟ scientific inquiry activity. From the analysis, students perceived that the simulator much afforded them the acquisition of cognitive performance (84.0% of the complete score; Mean = 4.20 and S.D. = 0.19) and the social inquiry processes (86.6% of the complete score; Mean = 4.33 and S.D. = 0.42). Also, the simulator very much afforded them the opportunity for scientific investigation through inquiry skills (97.9% of the complete score; Mean = 4.89 and S.D. = 0.15) and the acquisition of emotional practice (91.8% of the complete score; Mean = 4.59 and S.D. = 0.31).
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Figure 3 Students‟ perception scores on domains of cognitive performance, emotional practice, inquiry skills, and social
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On students‟ positive perceptions of cognitive performance domain, they strongly perceived that experimenting with the Nose Simulator; (1) helped them learning to process information from scientific study for achieving their aim; (2) afforded them the control of practical works for achieving its aim; (3) provoked them into doing any related scientific study; (4) caused them sensing of causality in the nature of scientific practice; and (5) afforded them the construction of meaning from the related scientific and technological knowledge in which the scales with the highest mean scores were 4.41 (S.D. = 0.71), 4.35 (S.D. = 0.49), 4.18 (S.D. = 0.64), 4.12 (S.D. = 0.60), and 3.94 (S.D. = 0.66), respectively. In line with students‟ positive perceptions of emotional practice domain, they prevalently perceived that experiencing with the Nose Simulator; (1) interested them into scientific studies; (2) made them enjoyment the learning science; (3) made them satisfaction the learning of experimental works; (4) gave them self confidence in the performance to conduct scientific experiment; and (5) made them curious something in doing science and they would like to reach for it in which the scales with the highest mean scores were 4.94 (S.D. = 0.24), 4.82 (S.D. = 0.39), 4.59 (S.D. = 0.51), 4.41 (S.D. = 0.51), and 4.18 (S.D. = 0.73), respectively. The strongest of students positive perceptions obtained from working with the Nose Simulator experiment is in the domain of inquiry skills. The students totally perceived that working with the Nose Simulator gave opportunity; (1) to select and control experimental variables and relevant conditions for conducting a scientific investigation; and (2) to perform calculations using numbers expressed and interprets trends and patterns of data for drawing conclusion in scientific notation. Both were indicated with the complete mean scores of 5 points. In addition, their perceptions in other aspects of the domain also were positive perceptions. The students strongly perceived that working with the simulator experiment gave opportunity; (3) to develop scientific explanations or models through discussion, debate, and Page 1925
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experimental evidence in which the mean score was 4.94 (S.D. = 0.24). For the next order, they perceived that working with the simulator experiment gave opportunity; (4) to identify possible sources of error (e.g. procedural and measurement) and appropriate controls (e.g. repeated trials and systematic manipulation of variables) in an experimental design in which the mean score was 4.88 (S.D. = 0.33). The last order of the domain is the opportunity; (5) to formulate a testable hypothesis based on prior knowledge and experience in which the mean score was 4.65 (S.D. = 0.49). In students positive perceptions within social inquiry processes domain, most of all is that (1) teacher was involved in group for guiding about the experiment in which the mean was 4.76 (S.D. = 0.44). The next orders were; (2) working with the Nose Simulator afforded the opportunity to actively participate in group working during performing the experiment; (3) I was followed on all steps of experimental works with my group; (4) all steps of experimental works were appropriately assigned respecting to member ideas and agreements; and (5) working with the Nose Simulator activated members in the group to communicate and propose scientific ideas to the experiment in which the highest mean scores were 4.59 (S.D. = 0.71), 4.53 (S.D. = 0.51), 3.94 (S.D. = 0.66), and 3.82 (S.D. = 0.64), respectively. Based on qualitative data analysis from individual interviewing, each student who participated for the interview was asked to survey their backgrounds about the topic of smelling. The qualitative data were revealed that they had some formal basic knowledge about sense of smell but some of them hold alternative conceptions in some science aspects related to smelling. They also stated that they have never thought scientifically about sense of smell before even though they are experiencing with smelling everyday. They described that they have no idea of the relationship between science and technology on the topic of smell. They never heard about electronic nose before. All of them never used computer-based technology for experimenting or performing laboratory work before but some of them have Page 1926
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experienced with a few computer-simulated experiments. These empirical evidences could infer that they had the same background of prior experience for using computer-based technology in performing scientific experimental work. Therefore, an external factor of prior experience has no influence on the results of their perceptions. There were six questions in the interviews including; (1) what did you gain from working with the Nose Simulator experiment?; (2) what did you satisfy on working with the Nose Simulator experiment?; (3) what should be improved for working with the Nose Simulator experiment?; (4) What did you satisfy with the Nose Simulator device?; (5) What should be improved for the Nose Simulator device?; and (6) What do you want from working with the Nose Simulator experiment in future? From the results, responses to the 1st question, the learning gains obtained from working with the Nose Simulator experiment were listed into eight assertions. The student stated that they acquired new body of knowledge, e.g. the biological mechanism of smell and machine mechanism for electronic nose, and they have learned to practice scientifically with a cutting-age technology such as electronic nose. They pointed out that their scientific skills were increased from doing experiment through designing their own experiment and manipulating with computer for collecting and analyzing experimental data. They also have learned to use advance statistics for making scientific study. On working with the simulator experiment, they were inspired to study in science at the advance level and interested in science and technology study. There also enhanced them in deepen thinking about the topic of their science project and provoked them thinking in the construction of scientific invention to support human life such as for blind people. Working with the simulator experiment impacted to pay more attentions to everyday things around them such as smell. The students‟ satisfaction on working with the simulator experiment, responses to the 2nd question, was investigated and they recommended that they were given a chance to performing an Page 1927
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interesting scientific experiment such as the classification of different odorants, and a chance to fully share ideas during conducting of investigations and preparing experimental data for presentation. They also asserted that they satisfied with sharing the responsibility of practical works within group. They appreciatory described that they were provided opportunity to design and conduct their own experiment, and opportunity to work with contemporary scientific instrument such as electronic nose. In addition, they also realized that they are the owner of performed scientific experiment. Suggestions of the students on working with the simulator experiment, responses to the 3rd question, were need to reflect for improving. All of them pointed out that the experiment work with the Nose Simulator is suitable for their learning but some of them suggested that it should be provided more times for working and more details of related content knowledge. In addition, responses to the 4th question, they expressed that they satisfied with interesting screen interface of the simulator device. Easy diagrams of main and related concepts were presented and there are not complicated. There were also provided the guidance for practical works and the explanations of using and controlling the device that they helped them as navigator for working. They stated that the software was easy for controlling the device and interactive display with their actions. The students suggested, responses to the 5th question, to improve the device that the device used times for eliminating electrical signals from odorants binding to sensors. The device should have an operation in which it can eliminate the odorants faster. The students also pointed out, responses to the 6th question, that they wanted to study more with the simulator for conducting experiments with other smells from things, study articles of scientific research related to electronic nose, and have a formal subject for doing real science with technology, e.g. working with the simulator, in the curriculum.
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Conclusions In respect to the aim of developing an interactive computer-based laboratory tool to promote scientific inquiry ability of student by using authentic experimental work, the Nose Simulator was developed with determining of instructional design for user interface to support scientific inquiry and was used with determining of instructional approach to promote authentic scientific inquiry process. Based on conducting of the simulator into students‟ scientific inquiry practice, the students can collaboratively regulate their own experiment with the simulator and also show a comprehension of their inquiry in odor classification experiment. Also, students‟ perceptions towards working with the simulator experiment in four domains, e.g. cognitive performance, emotional practice, inquiry skills, and social inquiry process, were investigated to evaluate a potential of the simulator in context of science learning. Results from the students‟ perceptions indicated that the simulator experiment afforded acquisition of scientific inquiry ability in a high level, over 80% of the complete score for cognitive performance, inquiry skills, emotional practice, and social inquiry process each. They pointed out that the simulator affected them gaining cognitive performance about processing information in which they processed scientific information for achieving its aim, construction of scientific understanding in which they constructed the meaning from new-coming knowledge, realization of scientific causality in which they had a sense of causality in the nature of scientific practice, self regulation on doing science learning in which they regulated the controlling of their practical works for achieving its aim, and self initiative about learning science in which they were stimulated internally into doing other scientific study. The students perceived the impact of experiencing with the Nose Simulator upon their emotional practice that self confidence was occurred in which they confided in their performances of conducting scientific experiment, interest was formed by the interesting
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of scientific studies, enjoyment was occurred in which they were performing experiment for learning science, motivation was occurred in which they were curious to do science, and satisfaction was occurred by the way of learning science through their experimental work. A significant impact on students‟ inquiry skills was revealed that working with the simulator experiment devoted them skills of guiding scientific investigation in which they formulate a testable hypothesis based on existing framework, designing and conducting an investigation in which they have selected and controlled experimental variables and relevant conditions in their investigation, improving investigation in which they have performed calculations using numbers expressed, and interpreted trends and patterns of data for drawing conclusion, formulating and revising scientific explanations in which they developed scientific explanations or models through discussion and experimental evidences, and indicating uncertainty in measurement in which they identified possible sources of error and appropriate controls in their experimental design. The students also discovered the impact on social inquiry process that working with the simulator experiment afforded them values of involvement in which they were actively participated in group working during performing the experiment, multiple viewing in which they were communicating and proposing scientific ideas to the experiment, expert co-construction in which teacher was involved in their investigation for advising, cohesiveness in which each member was followed on all steps of experimental works with group, and organization in which each member was assigned experimental works appropriately for individual respected to ideas and agreements.
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Paper-Based T5 Model Running head: PAPER-BASED T5 MODEL FOR LOW-ACHIEVEMENT STUDENTS
Implementation of paper-based T5 learning model to enhance student understanding: The case for low-achievement students in organic chemistry course
Saksri Supasorn
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ubonratchathani University, Warinchamrab, Ubonratchathani University 34190 Thailand; [email protected]
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Paper-Based T5 Model Abstract Traditional pedagogies are sometimes failed to enhance students‟ understanding in organic chemistry. Indeed, more than a quarter of about 300 agriculture students from Ubonratchathani University were marked as “Failed” in the 2-2008 organic chemistry course. A new cooperative learning approach called T5: task, teamwork, topic resource, tutoring, and technology or tool, was hence introduced for 47 students reenrolled in the summer course. This task-based approach was implemented as two 5-hour learning environments: aminesamides and biomolecules. The students participated in the five-step process for each environment: 1) self-study with the provided resources and then complete an individual task prior to the class, 2) give feedback and evaluate two randomized and anonymous peer tasks, 3) evaluate peer feedback, 4) complete a team task by group of three, and 5) get feedback from instructor to fulfill understanding. The individual and group tasks were designed as higher-order cognitive skills to engage students in the corresponding concepts. As a result, students achieved high scores in both transitional (max score = 40, mean = 29.02, SD = 1.41) and terminal behavior evaluation (max score = 12, mean = 8.40, SD = 0.14). The E1/E2 effectiveness of this approach was also greatly to 72.5/70.0. In addition, the students agreed that giving and getting feedback from peers incorporated with the assistance from instructor, deeply engaged them into learning as well as promoted their conceptual understanding.
Keyword: T5 model, peer feedback instruction, cooperative learning, task-based learning, student-centered learning
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Paper-Based T5 Model Implementation of paper-based T5 learning model to enhance student understanding: The case for low-achievement students in organic chemistry course
1. Research Background A traditional teaching or teacher-centered approach is widely used in organic chemistry courses due to the well-class management, less-time consumption and effectiveness for increasing student conceptual understanding. However, this approach is perfect mostly for the high-achievement students, but may not be suitable for the lowachievement students. In the second semester of academic year 2008 at Ubonratchathani University, about 300 agricultural students enrolled on the Organic Chemistry course. This course was taught using traditional approach, lecture-based, for 45 hours. As a result, almost 100 students failed the test. Therefore, a new cooperative learning approach called T5 learning model was introduced for 47 students who reenrolled on this subject in the summer course (third semester). Unit of T5 Learning: Learning Tasks, Tutoring/Feedback Assignments Teamwork Topic Resources & Tools: - textbook - reuse/customize learning objects - lecture (narrative/illustrated)
Summative feedback
Figure 1. The unit of T5 learning model (Buzza, et. al., 2005) The T5 learning model is one of cooperative pedagogies was originally designed to support online and campus-based course at University of Waterloo. The T5 consists of Task, Tutoring, Teamwork, Topic resources, and Tools or technology. Tasks refer to activities that
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Paper-Based T5 Model lead the learning process as students interact with content. Tutoring means summative feedbacks from peer and instructor during tasks. Teamwork refers to collaboration among peers during tasks. Topic Resources refer to content resources to support tasks. The last T, Tools, refers to tools and technology support task, delivery option, and administration (Salter, Richards, & Carey, 2004). The relations among these components are illustrated in Figure 1. Salter, Richards and Carey (2004) also stated the goals for the T5 design model which include: -
assume/embed re-use of learning objects
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maintain faculty „ownership‟ of learning design
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scaffold transition from concept to design
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focus on learning activities, supported by content
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provide a model suited to on-campus (classroom based) and online courses
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encourage rethinking of learning process and roles
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increase Results Oriented Instruction through learning productivity
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emphasize performance support, not information system
The idea of this T5 model is central in guiding faculty to think about how to incorporate and design tasks and feedback to best support their courses. The T5 learning model was introduced to Ubonratchathani University in the early of 20th century. Phichit Sophakan (faculty member in computer science) and Leslie Richards (T5 specialist from University of Waterloo) have developed the course management system called Design4Learning+Portfolio or D4LP (available at d4lp.sci.ubu.ac.th) to support the function of T5 learning model. The instructors have to set and activate the learning environments (LEs) for their online courses before students access the course. When students get on the D4LP, select the course, and choose the LE, they will be engaged in the process of D4LP which consists of five steps or tasks in each LE. In Task 1, students self study on the
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Paper-Based T5 Model provided and suggested resources and then complete an individual task posted on the Task 1 of D4LP process. Please note that questions in Task 1 and task 4 have to be designed as higher-order cognitive skills, application to evaluation skills only. In Task 2, students receive three anonymous peer tasks automatically generated by the D4LP and then give constructive feedback and score the peer tasks. In Task 3, students receive feedback from peers and score the usefulness of the feedback from peers. They have to study on peer feedback and adjust their task regarding peer feedbacks to prepare themselves for the team task. Task 4 is team task in which students have to work in group of three or four to complete the task questions that corresponding to questions in Task 1. Therefore, the students have to bring their own individual tasks, share their ideas and complete the team task. Each student will have a chance to score the participation of each group member. Task 5 is the instructor time for giving comments and suggestions on the submitted team tasks to fulfill student understanding or correct their alternative conceptions about the task concepts and then score the submitted team tasks if necessary. The instructor also provides comments and suggestions on student individual tasks if time is available. The learning process on the D4LP is briefly shown in Figure 2. Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
Task 4
Task 5
Complete an
Evaluate 3 peer
Evaluate
Complete a
Instructor
individual task
tasks & give
feedback
team task
time
feedback to
from peers
(group of 3) and
peers
evaluate group members‟ effort
Figure 2. The learning process of the paper-based T5 design (Richards & Sophakan, 2006) In summary, students will obtain score or point from four sources: 1) peer evaluation of Task 1 in Task 2, 2) evaluation of peer feedback (Task 2) in Task 3, 3) evaluation of group member participation in Task 4, and 4) instructor evaluation of team task (Task 4) in Task 5. However, student scores can be adjusted by the course instructor.
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Paper-Based T5 Model Many courses at Ubonratchathani University have been taught using online T5 learning model including Biology, Organic Chemistry, General Mathematics, and General Physics. The incorporation of T5 learning model and D4LP made it possible for students to learn and submit a task on their available time, not rely on just in the class. As a result, student conceptual understanding in a course was improved. This may due to the fact that the students self studied on provided resources and completed the task, they next refocused on the task in term of giving constructive feedback to peer tasks, and then they received task feedback from peers and adjust their understanding about the task concept if it was conflicted with the peer feedbacks. Moreover, the team task also added up their understanding since it was designed corresponding to the individual task. Each group member came to the group with some ideas about the individual and team task to discuss on the team task. Student alternative conceptions may be revealed in the discussion period and the students who well understood the task concept may have corrected some alternative conceptions encountered in the group. In addition to individual and team task, the course instructor discussed about the task concepts and mentioned about the alternative conceptions encountered in the submitted individual and team tasks. The instructor finally facilitated the students to correct their misconceptions about the task concepts. It can be a great help if the instructor discuss further about how the task concepts can be extended and connected to daily life contexts. Since the students had engaged in the five-step of learning (Task 1 to Task 5), they learned and then correct the task concepts. Although they had to learn the task concepts again and again, they dig not get bored with the tasks because the tasks were designed to support the progression of student understanding (Curriculum Development Division, Ubonratchathani University, 2009). This T5 also greatly decreased time consumption for scoring and grading student assignments especially for individual tasks since students were assigned to anonymously
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Paper-Based T5 Model evaluate peer tasks so the instructor can focus more on the team task. As a result, instructors had more time to design their learning task and also improve their teaching efficiency. In addition, the D4LP is easy for managing and storing course assignments and task. It makes it easy for instructor to check on the progress of each student and for the students to check on their progression (Curriculum Development Division, Ubonratchathani University, 2009). The online T5 learning model incorporated with D4LP worked effectively in many course as many students (mostly high- and middle-achievement) voted that this task-based and cooperative learning were effective, easy to follow, and available on their convenience. However, many low-achievement students voted that this model was inconvenient and not appropriate for them. They preferred working on paper to computer because it was easy to handle and they said that they can learn more from writing than typing. For this reason, the paper-based T5 model was introduced for the low-achievement students reenrolled in the organic chemistry course of the summer semester of year 2009.
2. Procedure 2.1 Research Setting, Participants and Questions The summer course for Organic Chemistry was divided into 4 sessions as follow: 1) chemical bonds and acid-base of organic compounds (4 hours), 2) introduction to chemical reaction of organic compounds and stereochemistry (13 hours), 3) hydrocarbons, alkyl halides alcohols-phenols-ether, aldehydes-ketones, and carboxylic acids and derivatives (22 hours), and 4) amines-amides and biomolecules (10 hours). The paper-based T5 was introduced for the last session, amines-amides and biomolecules. Each session was taught by different instructors. The T5 model was implemented for 47 agriculture students reenrolled in the summer course of Organic Chemistry. These students were taught with the incorporation of T5 and D4LP in another course of the first semester of year 2009. When the paper-based
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Paper-Based T5 Model T5 learning model was implemented in the course, the following research questions were posed: - How does the paper-based T5 model affect student achievement in topics of Amines-Amides and Biomolecules? - What is the E1/E2 effectiveness of the Amines-Amides and Biomolecules when the paper-based T5 model were used? - How do students evaluate the paper-based T5 model? 2.2 Implementation of the Paper-Based T5 Model Two five-hour learning environments (LEs) were created for each topic of AminesAmides and Biomolecules. Before going to the process of paper-based T5 learning, each of the students was given secret code (just the code owner and the instructor knew the code). The instructor had to make set the rule that if some students were cheated, they will get no point or score on the cheated task and the instructor have right to adjust all of the score if there were some dishonest. The students were requested to follow the 5-step process. 1) Students studied on the provided and suggested resources and then completed the assigned individual task. They were requested to turn in two copies of the task (for two peer feedback) prior to the class so the instructor have time to manage the submitted tasks. 2) Students received two randomized and anonymous peer tasks from the instructor. They next studied on the given peer tasks and provided constructive feedback and comments to their peers. They finally scored the peer tasks in the range of 1 to 5. They needed to turn in the task within 25 minutes. 3) Students received the task with feedback from peers. They studied on peer feedback and score the usefulness of the feedback within 15 minutes. Each student kept the task with himself and prepared some idea for the team task.
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Paper-Based T5 Model 4) Students sit in group of three and discussed on the team task which is corresponding to Task 1. They finally scored group member participation (one student gave the score to the other two group members) in the evaluation form and directly turned it in to the instructor (no other students had seen the filled in evaluation form). They were required to finish and turn in the package of tasks including Task 1 (individual task), Task 2, Task 3, and Task 4 (team task) within 80 minutes. 5) The instructor studied on the submitted tasks (focused more on the team task) and gave comments and suggestions on the submitted team tasks to fulfill student understanding. The instructor then scored the submitted team tasks. The instructor also provides comments and suggestions on student individual tasks if time is available. The questions in Tasks 1 and 4 were designed as high-order cognitive skills (application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) in which students were required to integrate all information from topic resources to answer the questions (Figure 3). Student Code ………………….
LE1: Amines-Amides Task 1 (Individual Task)
Question 1: Draw a structure for each of the following compounds and then compare their properties in terms of solubility in water and boiling point. 1.1) propanoic acid,
1.2) pentane,
1.3) 1-butanol, and 1.4) 1-butanamine
Question 2: Give IUPAC name of the following structures and then compare their basicity. 2 .1 )
H 3C
N H
H 2C
CH
CH 2
H 3C
N H
HC
2
CH
3
and
3
Br 2 .2 )
NH
O CH
CH 2
3
and
H 3C
N H
C
CH
CH
3
2
Evaluator Code …………………. Task 2 (Feedback to Peer Task) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Please circle the score for Task 1: 1 2
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3
4
5
Paper-Based T5 Model Task 3 (Feedback from Peer) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Please circle the score for Task 2: 1 2
3
4
5
Figure 3. Examples of questions in Task 1 and paper template for Task 1 to Task 3 of LE1: Amines-Amides Please note that the students were given paper templates for Task 1 to Task 4 as shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. They can create two copies of the task by using carbon-paper copying or photocopying. Since both student (Task 1 owner) code and peer evaluator (feedback owner) code were assigned by the instructor, students fell free to provide feedback and evaluate peer tasks. In addition, each group member was free to evaluate group member effort in completing Task 4 since the score were given directly to the instructor and no other students knew the score. As a result, all score were fair and trustable. However, the instructor can adjust the score if there were some mistake or some bias from the students. Group Number ………
LE1: Amines-Amides Task 4 (Team Task)
Question 1: Draw a structure for each of the following compounds and then compare their properties in terms of solubility in water and boiling point. 1.1) butanoic acid, 1.2) 2-methyl-1-butanol, 1.3) 2,2-dimethylbutane, and 1.4) N-ethyl-1-propanamine
Question 2: Give IUPAC name of the following structures and then compare their basicity. O 2 .1 )
H 3C H 3C
N
H 2C
CH2
CH3
2 .2 )
H 3C
CH2 N
C
CH2
2 .3 )
CH3
H 3C
Br
Student Name …………………… Group Number …………… LE ……………….... Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Student Name …………………… Group Number …………… LE ……………….... Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
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NH2
Paper-Based T5 Model Student Name …………………… Group Number …………… LE ……………….... Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Please circle the participation score for ……………………………. : 1
2
3
4 5
Figure 4. Examples of paper template and questions in Task 1 of LE1: Amines-Amides Please note that the students were pre-tested prior and post-tested after studying each LE of amines-amides and biomolecules. They also provided student evaluation of the paperbased T5 learning model.
3. Results and Discussion The collected data in this study consisted of two categories: 1) student scores in LE tasks as well as pretest and posttest on Amines-Amines and Biomolecules and 2) student evaluation of the paper-based T5 learning model. 3.1 Student Scores in LE Tasks and Tests on Amines-Amines and Biomolecules The student scores in this study consisted of the scores in LE tasks and on pretest and posttest as shown in Table 1. The task scores were from student evaluation (Task 2-4) and from the instructor evaluation of the team task (Task 5). The total task score of LE1: AminesAmides averaged 15.53 (SD=1.12), the total task score of LE2: Biomolecules averaged 16.96 (SD=1.18), and the combined score of LE1 and LE2 averaged 32.91 (SD=1.61). Pairedsample t-test analysis indicated that the posttest score of LE1 was statistically higher that the pretest score at p<0.01 (T = 76.70), and so did LE2 at p<0.01 (T = 54.02). This indicated that the implementation of paper-based T5 learning model in the course was effectively enhanced student understanding of the topic. In addition, the E1/E2 effectiveness was 72.5/70.0, calculated from the transitional behavior evaluation (total score of Task 2-5) called E1 (max score = 40, mean = 29.02, SD = 1.41) and from the terminal behavior evaluation (posttest score) called E2 (max score = 12,
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Paper-Based T5 Model mean = 8.40, SD = 0.14). It can be implied that the T5 learning model appropriate for the low-achievement agricultural students as the E1 and E2 were closely high. This may be resulted from the fact that the T5 helped them to focus and refocus on the task topics during doing task, giving feedback to peer tasks, receiving feedback from peers, doing group task and getting feedback from an instructor (Salter, Richards, & Carey, 2004). The incorporation of paper-based T5 learning model and D4LP was effective to improve student understanding of Amines-Amides and Biomolecules. This may due to the fact that the students learned the task concept again and again by variety of ways including study on provided resources to complete an individual task, study on peer tasks to provide feedback for their friends, and then improve their understanding regarding peer feedbacks. During a team task, student alternative conceptions revealed in the discussion period may have corrected by the students who well understood the task concept. The instructor functioned as a facilitator for group task discussion and had to make sure that during a group task, no only student dominated the discussion and lead the discussion to the inappropriate direction. They finally received feedback and comment from the instructor to fulfill their understanding and/or correct alternative conceptions. It can be a great help if the instructor discuss further about how the task concepts can be extended and connected to daily life contexts. (Curriculum Development Division, Ubonratchathani University, 2009). Table 1. Student scores in LE1: Amines-Amides and LE2: Biolmolecules tasks and pretest and posttest of Amines-Amides and Biomolecules (n=47) Learning Environments
Task Score
Total Score
Pretest
Posttest
T-test
2
3
4
5
mean
SD
mean
SD
mean
SD
T
p
2.91
3.55
3.81
3.30
13.57
1.33
2.83
0.09
4.42
0.11
76.70
< 0.01
Biomolecules
3.91
3.74
4.21
3.91
15.45
1.08
2.45
0.11
3.98
0.16
54.02
< 0.01
Total Score
6.82
8.89
9.98
7.21
32.91
1.61
5.28
0.10
8.40
0.14
124.32
< 0.01
AminesAmides
The maximum score for each of Task 2 to Task 5 was 5 and for each of pretest and posttest was 6.
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Paper-Based T5 Model 3.2 Student Evaluation of the Paper-Based T5 Learning Model The questionnaire for student evaluation of the T5 model consisted of four features including the individual and team tasks, the peer feedback, the instructor time, and the overall T5 features (Table 2). The students agreed with all of the statements in the individual and team tasks features, for example, they noticed that doing both individual and team tasks were essential to learning and really engaged them in learning activities. They strongly agreed with all of the statements in the peer feedback features, for example, they realized that giving feedback and comments to peer tasks and receiving feedback from peers were relevant and motivated them to put more effort in completing such a task. For the instructor features, they agreed that the T5 can decrease the lecture time while the learning process was still effective. They also agreed that after completing an individual and team tasks, they wanted to attend the lecture to fulfill their understanding of the corresponding concepts. For the last one, the overall T5 features, they agreed that the T5 can improve their problem solving, teamwork, and creativity thinking skills. Finally, they preferred the paper-based to the online T5 model since it deeper engaged them into learning tasks. In the opened questionnaire, the students stated that they had to learn the task concepts again and again but they did not get bored because the tasks were different. They obtained better understanding when they used their understanding to provide feedback to their friend and discuss about the team task (Curriculum Development Division, Ubonratchathani University, 2009).
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Paper-Based T5 Model Table 2. Example of criteria for student evaluation of The T5 model (n=47) where 5 is strongly agree and 1 is strongly disagree Likert Scale Item
Mean
SD
- Group working is essential for student-centered learning.
3.66
0.81
- Completing a team task that similar to an individual task can help you improve your
3.89
0.63
4.00
0.75
- You like to give feedback to peer‟s tasks and receive feedback from peers.
4.81
0.74
- Giving feedback and suggestion to peer tasks deeply engage you in learning.
4.79
0.86
3.68
0.75
3.83
0.73
4.00
0.75
- The T5 learning model can effectively help you gain in content knowledge.
3.79
0.86
- The T5 learning model can effectively improve your teamwork skills.
3.74
0.74
- The T5 learning model can effectively improve your creativity.
3.77
0.67
- The T5 learning model can effectively improve your problem-solving skills.
3.70
0.66
- The paper-based T5 model deeper engages you in learning than the online T5 model.
3.72
0.83
- You prefer paper-based T5 to the online T5 model.
3.89
0.23
A. Individual and Team Tasks
understand of the task concepts. - You prefer doing learning tasks prior to the class and having the instructor to fulfill your understanding. B. Peer Feedback
C. Instructor Time - The T5 model can decrease the lecture time while the learning outcome is more effective than the traditional learning. - Feedback and comment from the instructor on an individual and team tasks reinforce you to put more effort in completing the tasks. - After completing the individual and team tasks, you want to attend the lecture by the instructor. D. Overall T5 Features
4. Conclusion and Implementations The results indicated that the paper-based T5 model effectively enhanced the conceptual understanding of the low-achievement students as the E1/E2 effectiveness was 72.5/70.0, closely high. Moreover, this approach also helped improve their teamwork and problem-solving skills. This study may have implications to some teachers to get students attention for the high-order thinking tasks and at the same time to enhance students‟ conceptual understanding effectively. In addition, time consuming for grading student tasks
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Paper-Based T5 Model also diminished since an instructor focused primarily on just the team task. This allowed the instructor to get more time on designing tasks and facilitating students during working on a team task. The online T5 model may work well for the internet generation students since it allows learning available anywhere, not just in the classroom. However, the paper-based, more concentrate approach, may be the appropriate choice for the low-achievement students. Some instructors may have difficulty in designing learning environments and tasks with highorder cognitive skills for their first T5 course but once they understand the idea of how T5 and D4LP work together, they will appreciate the function of this learning model. 5. References Buzza, D., Richards, L., Bean, D., Harrigan, K. & Carey, T. (2005). LearningMapR: A prototype pool for creating IMS-LD compliant units of learning. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 17. Salter, D., Richards, L., & Carey, T. (2004). The 'T5' design model: An instructional model and learning environment to support the integration of online and campus-based courses. Educational Media International, 41(3), 207-218. Richards, L. & Sophakan, P. (2006). DesignforLearning+Portfolio (D4LP), Faculty of Science, Ubon Ratchathani University. Online available at d4lp.sci.ubu.ac.th Richards, L. & Sophakan, P. (2006). T5 design model and D4LP, Faculty of Science, Ubon Ratchathani University. Curriculum Development Division, Ubonratchathani University. (2009). Annual seminar on Student-centered learning design to develop student thinking skills. Ubonratchathani University, Ubonratchathani, Thailand, 15 May 2009.
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Portfolio assessment
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT: ITS IMPACT ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDES OF NON – BIOLOGY MAJORS
JOY DE LA PENA – TALENS, Ph.D Sacred Heart College, Lucena City, Philippines [email protected]
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Portfolio assessment
Abstract The main objective of this paper is to determine the impact of portfolio assessment on the academic achievement and attitudes of non-Biology majors. The Pretest and Post-test Control Group Design involving one independent variable and two dependent variables were utilized.
Sixty (60) second year Bachelor of Science in Accountancy of the Higher
Education Department of Sacred Heart College, Lucena City, Philippines were purposively chosen as participants of the study but were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Portfolio assessment was utilized as assessment procedure in the experimental group. Only the topic Genetics was covered in this study. The following are the data gathering tools used in the study (1) Otis-Lennon School Ability test (OLSAT), a standardized test used to determine the school ability of the non-Biology majors; (2) Achievement Test in Genetics, a 40-item Achievement test in genetics developed and validated by the researcher which was given as pretest and post-test to both groups to determine their academic achievement; (3) Analytic Scoring Rubric developed and validated by the researcher for grading students’ portfolios; (4) Holistic scoring Rubric developed and validated by the researcher for grading the students’ answers in the three 25-points restricted essay quizzes; and (5) Open-Ended questionnaire to determine the attitudes as well as skills manifested by the members of the experimental group when they were exposed to portfolio assessment. Statistical procedures such as t-test for independent samples: Pearson product moment correlation, Spearman Brown prophecy formula, t-test for paired samples; analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), and linear regression were also utilized in the analysis and interpretation of data. Findings and discussions followed by recommendations are also presented.
Keywords: Portfolio assessment, analytic scoring rubric, academic achievement, attitudes, non – Biology majors Page 1952
Portfolio assessment
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT: ITS IMPACT ON THE CADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND ATTITUDES OF NON – BIOLOGY MAJORS Introduction Students when they first enter the classroom have varied prior knowledge, beliefs and experiences that influence in one way or another the process of learning.
They have the ability to
think, reason – out, problem solve, construct and share their ideas or opinions about a certain topic. They also have the ability to comprehend different concepts and facts discussed by the teacher. The most important thing, however, is their ability to find links between their previous understanding of a concept with the new knowledge being taught by the teacher who keeps them search for connections through giving concrete examples and situations to make the learners aware of the relevance of the lesson to one’s life and help them correct any misunderstanding about the topic. Teachers,
through
the use of different types of test which they consider effective and reliable, often measure students’ understanding of a particular lesson in various subject areas in terms of principles, laws, concepts and facts taught instead of their application to everyday living. This explains why most students equate the word assessment with memorization of terms even such terms are not relevant to their everyday living and how the lesson can help them become better persons. When students are able to memorize many terms, there is a greater chance to get a higher grade and the reverse happens if one cannot memorize as many terms as possible thereby fostering a negative experience that reduces student interest in a subject One form of assessment which gains momentum in education today is performance or authentic assessment. This shift to new form of assessment instead of any traditional forms enables student to be assessed on what they actually learned inside the classroom and how they can see the application of the topic in everyday living through collection of evidences of student’s efforts. Through portfolio assessment, student’s knowledge about a lesson can be presented in a variety of ways because portfolio can help “paint a picture” of a student as a lifelong learner. Burke, et. al (1994) explains that the portrait presented by the portfolio is a richer more vibrant representation
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Portfolio assessment
of the whole student a far cry from the picture provided by report cards and standardized tests (p. 19). With these in mind, the researcher conducted the study to find the impact of portfolio assessment as a tool for determining the academic achievement and attitudes of non – Biology majors of the Higher Education Department of Sacred Heart College, Lucena City. Statement of the problem The study aimed to determine the impact of portfolio assessment on the achievement and attitudes of non – Biology majors. More specifically, the study attempted to answer the following questions: 1.
Is there a significant difference in the pretest and post – test scores of the control group?
2. Is there a significant difference in the pretest and post – test scores of the experimental group? 3. Is portfolio assessment significantly better than traditional assessment in enhancing student’s achievement/ 4. Is the average score of the quizzes a predictor of student’s achievement? 5. Is the portfolio grade a possible predictor of students’ achievement? 6. What are the attitudes and skills manifested by the non – Biology majors when they were exposed to portfolio assessment? Methodology The Pretest and Post-test Control Group Design involving one independent variable and two dependent variables were utilized. Sixty (60) second year Bachelor of Science in Accountancy of the Higher Education Department of Sacred Heart College, Lucena City, Philippines were purposively chosen as participants of the study but were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Portfolio assessment was utilized as assessment procedure in the experimental group. Only the topic Genetics was covered in this study. The following are the data gathering tools used in the study (1) Otis-Lennon School Ability test (OLSAT), a standardized test used to determine the school ability of the non-Biology majors; (2) Achievement Test in Genetics, a 40-item Achievement test in genetics developed and validated by the researcher which was given as pretest and post-test to both groups to determine their academic achievement; (3) Analytic Scoring Rubric developed and validated by the
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Portfolio assessment
researcher for grading students’ portfolios; (4) Holistic scoring Rubric developed and validated by the researcher for grading the students’ answers in the three 25-points restricted essay quizzes; and (5) Open-Ended questionnaire to determine the attitudes as well as skills manifested by the members of the experimental group when they were exposed to portfolio assessment. Statistical procedures such as t-test for independent samples: Pearson product moment correlation, Spearman Brown prophecy formula, t-test for paired samples; analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), and linear regression were also utilized in the analysis and interpretation of data. Results and discussion Problem 1: Is there a significant difference in the pretest and post – test scores of the control group? Table 1 reveals that there is a significant difference in the academic achievement of the non – Biology majors taking Biological Science before and after exposure to traditional assessment. The computed t – value of 19.427 showed that the mean gain of 14.87 is significant at .05 level. more than the required t – ratio of 2.04.
It is
This means that the non – Biology majors who were
assessed through the traditional method showed improvement in their achievement test in Genetics. Thus, there is enough evidence to warrant the rejection of the null hypothesis. Table 1 t – test computation comparing the pretest and post test results of the two instructional groups in the Achievement Test in Genetics Instructional N
Pretest SD
Post
approaches
mean
test
SD
Mean
t
gain
value
-
mean Traditional method
30
14.03
3.32
28.90
3.97
14.87
*19.427
30
12.20
2.63
30.10
5.33
17.90
*20.148
of
assessment Portfolio assessment *Significant at .05 level of confidence
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Portfolio assessment
It is worthy to note that the standard deviation which is 3.32 of the scores during the pretest is slightly lower than the standard deviation of the post test. This means that there is not much variation in the achievement scores before and after the students have been exposed to the traditional method of assessment. This also implies that traditional method of assessment caters to different learning styles of students. It can also be said that learning took place since there was a change in the scores in the Achievement Test in Genetics. This positive change could have been brought about by the activities the subjects had in Genetics and the strategies employed by the teacher. Problem 2: Is there a significant difference in the pretest and post – test scores of the experimental group? Table 1 reveals that there is a significant difference in the results gleaned from the academic achievement of the non – Biology majors taking Biological Science before and after exposure to portfolio assessment.
The computed t – value of 20.148 showed that the mean gain of 17.90 is
significant at .05 level of confidence. This is greater that the required t – ratio of 2.04 which means that the non – Biology majors who were assessed through this method of assessment also showed improvement in their Achievement test in Genetics. The computed t- value of 20.148 also rejects the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the Achievement Test in Genetics of non – Biology majors who were assessed through portfolio. It also reveals that the standard deviation of the achievement scores before the students were exposed to portfolio assessment which is 2.63 is far lower than their standard deviation of 5.c33 after the exposure to portfolio assessment. posttest.
This means that the scores were more dispersed during the
This also implies that portfolio assessment may be effective to some and may not be
effective to others depending upon their learning styles. This means that portfolio assessment enhanced the scores in the Achievement Test in Genetics taken by the non – Biology majors. As the subjects expressed in their reflections, they liked portfolio assessment better than traditional assessment because they were not forced to do a lot of memorization. Instead of memorization, they were asked to do research on a certain topic; find its
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Portfolio assessment
application in day to day living; write things down in their portfolios; reflect on what they have written; relate it to one’s experiences and in the process, remember the lesson longer. Problem 3: Is portfolio assessment significantly better than traditional assessment in enhancing students’ achievement? Table 2 presents the data on the achievement of non – Biology majors who were assessed through traditional assessment and portfolio assessment in Biological Science.
During the pretest,
the portfolio and traditional groups differs significantly in their entry achievement with an F – value of 6.569 in favour of the traditional group at .05 level of confidence. However, during the post test the two groups assessed through portfolio and traditional methods did not differ significantly with the F – value of 3.624 at .05 level of confidence. The ANCOVA result adjusted the post test means due to the difference between the two groups before the treatment has been applied and rejects the null hypothesis that portfolio assessment is significantly better than traditional assessment in enhancing student’s achievement. Table 2 Comparison of the results of the Achievement test in Genetics of the Non – Biology majors who were assessed through traditional assessment and portfolio Source
Type/Sum
Df
Mean
of Squares
F
Sig.
Square
Pretest
127.381
1
127.381
6.569
*.013
Group
70.272
1
70.272
3.624
*.062
Error
1105.347
57
Corrected 1303.00
59
total *Significant at .05 level of confidence
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Portfolio assessment
It can, therefore, be concluded from the above findings that there is no enough evidence to say that the portfolio group performs better than the traditional group in the Achievement test in Genetics. It can, therefore, be concluded from the above findings that there is no enough evidence to say that the portfolio group performs better than the traditional group in their achievement in genetics after the treatment has been applied. This result confirms the finding of Slater, et al (1997) found that portfolio assessment is as effective as traditional assessment approaches at enhancing conceptual understanding and attitudes toward learning and assessment in the College Physics classroom. Problem 4. Is the average score in the quizzes a predictor of students’ achievement? The computed r which symbolizes the coefficient’s estimate of linear association is – 0.34 which has negative correlation. The r obtained indicates negative inverse relation between the two variables, that is, as one gets high scores in the quizzes, the student may get a low score in the Achievement Test in genetics. To further test the value of r obtained, t – test was applied. The t – value is – 1.70 at .05 level of significance. It is less than the required t- value of 2.048. This means that quizzes or traditional method of assessment is not a significant predictor of student’s achievement in the Achievement test. Therefore, it can be concluded that the average score of the quizzes is not a significant predictor of student’s achievement. Slater (1996) on portfolio assessment strategies for grading First Year University Physics in the USA proves that students’ assessed through the traditional method feel anxious about learning the lesson. Salandanan, et al (2001) said that assessment of cognitive learning is short duration, often immediately after a learning session to several days when related learning tasks were yet to be completed (p. 53). Problem 5: Is the portfolio grade a possible predictor of student’s achievement? The computed r which is the coefficient’s estimate of linear association is .54 which indicated a moderately positive correlation. This means that the two variables are related and that as one gets high score in the portfolio assessment, he or she will also get high score in the Achievement test.
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Portfolio assessment
To further test the value of r obtained, t- test was applied. The t – value was 3.39 at .05 level of confidence. Since it is greater than the required t – value of 2.048, this means that portfolio grade is a significant predictor of student’s achievement in the Achievement test in Genetics. Therefore, it can be concluded that portfolio grade is a significant predictor of student’s achievement in the Achievement Test in Genetics. Slater (1996) in his study on portfolio assessment strategies for grading first year university Physics students in the USA proves that students assessed through portfolio feel less anxious about learning the subject; devotes considerable time to reading and studying outside of class; internalize and personalize the content material and enjoy the learning experience (p.23). Problem 6; What are the attitudes and skills manifested by the non – biology majors when they were exposed to portfolio assessment? Table 3 shows that all the respondents demonstrated the following attitudes while being assessed through portfolio; creativity, participativeness, reflectiveness, resourcefulness, and responsibility. On the other hand the non – Biology majors least manifested the following attitudes: resilience (7%), appreciativeness (13%) and punctuality (17%). Table 3 Attitudes manifested by the non – Biology majors when they were exposed to portfolio assessment Attitudes
F
%
Attitude
F
%
creativity
30
100
persistence
14
47
participativeness
30
100
critical - mindedness
12
40
reflectiveness
30
100
independence
9
30
resourcefulness
30
100
confidence
7
23
responsibility
30
100
assertiveness
6
20
attentiveness
28
93
curiosity
6
20
open - mindedness
25
83
punctuality
5
17
Page 1959
Portfolio assessment
objectivity
23
77
appreciativeness
4
13
enthusiasm
18
60
resilience
2
7
initiative
16
53
Conclusions: 1.
Both portfolio and traditional assessments are effective procedures in enhancing the academic achievement of the non-Biology majors.
2.
There is no enough evidence that portfolio assessment is significantly better than traditional assessment in enhancing the academic achievement of non-Biology majors.
3.
The average score of the quizzes is not a predictor of the academic achievement of the nonBiology majors.
4.
The portfolio grade is a possible predictor of the academic achievement of non-Biology majors’ score in the achievement test.
5.
Certain attitudes and skills are manifested by non-Biology majors when they were exposed to portfolio assessment.
Recommendations: Portfolio and traditional assessments be employed by Science instructors to provide students with varied assessment procedures. 1.
Science teachers use portfolio assessment to sustain the positive attitudes of students towards science.
2.
Portfolio assessment be used by science mentors to develop various skills to make students scientifically and technologically literate individuals.
3.
Portfolio assessment be considered as an alternative to quizzes since it measures only cognitive knowledge but also attitudes and skills which are usually neglected in paper and pencil test.
4.
A study be conducted on the development and validation of Holistic Scoring Rubric to assess students in essay quizzes.
Page 1960
Portfolio assessment
5.
Seminar-workshops be conducted to orient science teachers, principals, and other administrators on the effectiveness of portfolio assessment in enhancing student achievement and performance in the subject.
6.
Educators be encouraged to use portfolio both as a tool for evaluating what the students have learned and for evaluating their very own teaching, both for the improvement of instruction.
7.
A similar study be conducted to prove the effectiveness of portfolio in the assessment of major subjects in the different courses.
8.
A similar study be conducted, likewise, to prove the effectiveness of portfolio assessment in the field of instruction by considering variables such as sex, age, interest and learning styles.
References Astin, A. (1991). Assessment for excellence: the philosophy and practice of assessment and evaluation in the higher education department. USA: Macmillan Publishing Company. Balagtas, M.
A guide in developing and using pre – service teacher’s portfolio.
(1997).
Australia; Queensland University of Technology Press. Balagtas, M.
Pre – service teacher’s knowledge and attitude toward portfolio
(1998).
assessment: a classroom – based research.
Research Series (pp. 21 – 29).
Manila: Philippine
Normal University. Boston, J. & Collins, A. (1997).
Portfolio assessment: a handbook for educators. USA:
Addison – Wesley. Burke, R. (1994).
The mindful school: the portfolio connection.
Australia: Skylight
Publishing. Glifford, B. & O’Connor, M.C. (1999). Changing assessment: alternative view of aptitude achievement and instruction. USA: Kluver Academic Publishing. Heinze – Fry, J. (1992). introductory Biology course.
Using students self – assessment of Biological concepts in an
Journal of college science teaching (pp.39 – 43).
America.
Page 1961
United States of
Portfolio assessment
Johnson, N. & Rose, L.
(1997).
Portfolios: clarifying, constructing and enhancing.
Switzerland: Technomic publishing Company, Inc. Lambdin, D. & Walker, V.
Planning for classroom portfolio assessment (pp. 21-28)..
Arithmetic teacher. United States of America. Mcmillan, J. (1997). Classroom assessment principles and practice for effective instruction. USA: Allyn and Bacon. Pophan, J. (1995). Classroom assessment: what teachers need to know. USA: Simon and Schuster Company. Salandanan, G.
(2001).
The teaching of science and health, mathematics and home
economics and practical arts, strategies III. Quezon City: Katha Publishing Company. Shapiro, J.
(1995).
Educational leadership for the 21st century, reframing diversity in
education. USA: Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. Slater, T. (1996).
Portfolio assessment strategies for grading first year university Physics
students in the USA. Physics education (pp.82-86). United states of America. Slater, T., et.al (1997).
Impact and dynamics of portfolio assessment and traditional
assessment in a college Physics course.
Journal of research in science teaching (pp. 255 – 271).
United States of America. Slavin, R. (1997). Educational psychology, theory and practice (5th ed.). Massachusetts: Viacom Company. Tamir, P. (1993). A focus on student assessment. Journal of research in science teaching (pp. 535 – 536). United States of America.
Page 1962
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Purpose of Practical work in School Science
What is the purpose of practical work in school science? What are the possible solutions?
Tan Hoe Teck
Catholic Junior College
Page 1963
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
Abstract Practical Work in School Science has undergone changes in the last ten years of Science Education reform in Singapore. The author seeks to summarise the various purposes of practical work into three main areas: Training in the Scientific Method, Training in Experimental Skills and as a support for the theory.
In order to support the various purposes of practical work, the author has implemented various programmes that supported these purposes. One of them is the Integrated Training in the Scientific Method in novel Physics experiments. The other is the Physics Demonstration Laboratory that supports the theory lessons. Snippet of these materials is provided to the audience for reflection in Practical Work in School Science using Physics as a platform.
Page 1964
Purpose of Practical work in School Science What is the purpose of practical work in school science? What are the possible solutions?
1
Introduction
The science laboratory is a common feature in the secondary school science department. Similarly, practical work is a common feature in the science curriculum. It appears that any science curriculum would not be complete without the practical component. The conduct of practical work within the science curriculum requires the additional support of manpower, resources, and equipment costs. Laboratory technologists, rooms and money are required to purchase, house and maintain the equipment. Faced with such a high investment of resources, it does not make economic sense to take practical work as just a small part of the science curriculum. Teachers are always surprised and-even shocked, when asked to consider what practical work in science education is for (Wellington, 1998)? Very little thought has been placed on the purpose of practical work in school science amongst teachers. To me, the purpose of practical training in the science curriculum cannot be understated, as it has to be seen in light of the curriculum objectives of training scientific literacy amongst the students, as well as elucidating the theory. Therefore, the fundamental questions that I would like to answer in this paper are: "What are the purposes of practical work in school science?" and "What form should practical work in school science take?"
Page 1965
Purpose of Practical work in School Science 2
What are the types of practical work?
There is a need to become clear about the range of different types of practical work and the purposes they serve. There are many types of practical work that can be done in the laboratory. Wellington (2000) gave the following list: (a)
Teacher demonstrations
(b)
Class practical
(c)
A circus of experiments
(d)
Investigations
(e)
Projects or problem solving activities
Woolnough and Allsop (1985 in Wellington, 2000) classified practical work as exercises, experiences, and investigations.
Each type of practical serves a different purpose (Wellington, 1998). This message needs to be conveyed to the students so that they know what are they are embarking on. In the discussion that follows, I am going to investigate the purposes of practical work and how the various types of practical are matched to it.
Page 1966
Purpose of Practical work in School Science 3
What are the purposes of practical work?
There are many different versions about the purposes of practical work in school science. Wellington (1998) classifies the purposes of practical work in school science into cognitive arguments, affective arguments, and skills arguments.
According to Tamir (1990), the aims and objectives for practical work can be structured under five main headings: (a) understanding concepts (declarative knowledge); (b) acquiring habits and capacities; (c) gaining skills (procedural knowledge); (d) appreciating the nature of science; (e) developing attitudes.
In a study by Woolnough and Allsop (1985 in Wellington, 2000), a group of teachers and curriculum developers identified the following as the main aims of practical work for science: (a)
to motivate and interest pupils;
(b)
to develop experimental skills and techniques;
(c)
to simulate the work of a real scientist;
(d)
to support theory.
However, Woolnough (1983) argues that practical work should be done for the following three fundamental aims instead: (a)
to develop certain specific practical skills;
(b)
to develop a scientific way of working;
(c)
to obtain a feel for various phenomena.
Page 1967
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
In a study conducted by J. K. Kerr in 1962 (in Woolnough, 1976), the following were the aims identified for practical work: (a)
to make phenomena more real through experience;
(b)
to help remember facts and principles;
(c)
to encourage accurate observation and description;
(d)
to become able to comprehend and carry out instructions;
(e)
to elucidate theoretical work as an aid to comprehension;
(f)
to develop certain disciplined attitudes;
(g)
to develop specific manipulative skills;
(h)
to verify facts and principles already taught;
(i)
to give experience in standard techniques;
(j)
to prepare the student for practical examinations;
(k)
to promote a logical, reasoning method of thought;
(l)
for finding facts and arriving at new principles;
(m)
to arouse and maintain interest;
(n)
to develop a critical attitude;
(o)
as a creative activity;
(p)
to practice seeing problems and seeking ways to solve them;
(q)
to indicate the industrial aspects of science;
(r)
to develop self reliance;
(s)
to develop an ability to communicate;
(t)
to develop an ability to cooperate.
Page 1968
Purpose of Practical work in School Science In Wellington's (2000) views, the role of practical work for school science is: (a)
to develop skills;
(b)
to illustrate an event, a phenomenon, a concept, a law, a principle, or a theory;
(c)
to motivate/stimulate;
(d)
to challenge and confront students with prediction questions.
Dynan (1977) argues that the five most important areas are: (a)
to develop the ability in manipulation;
(b)
to develop the ability in observation and measurement;
(c)
to develop the ability in interpretation of observations and data;
(d)
to develop the ability in planning of practical work;
(e)
to develop the desired attitudes of practical work.
Millar (1990) claims that the aims of practical work in school science are two-fold: (a)
in facilitating the learning and understanding of science concepts
(b)
in developing competence in the skills and procedures of scientific inquiry
This statement assumes that the two aims can be achieved simultaneously by the same type of practical work. In my experience, it is not possible. I have found that demonstrations are a better way to achieve the first aim while the standard cookbook experiments that we do in the laboratory could barely claim to develop competence in the skills and procedures of scientific inquiry.
Page 1969
Purpose of Practical work in School Science According to Gott (1990), practical work is used to: (a)
illustrate concepts;
(b)
disturb and refine preconceptions;
(c)
simulate the scientific method whereby learning of the skills of science is as important
as the scientific concepts itself; (d)
integrate with concepts to solve a task-based problem.
Although there are many interpretations about the purpose of practical work in school science, I would like to classify them into the following categories: (a)
to facilitate the learning of theory;
(b)
to motivate and interest pupils;
(c)
to develop certain specific skills or abilities; .
(d)
to simulate the work of a real scientist.
In my discussion here, I would like to pay more attention to the four purposes highlighted above.
3.1
To support the learning of theory
In Wellington's (1998) words, it is argued that practical work can improve pupils' understanding of science and promote their conceptual development by allowing them to Visualise' the laws and theories of science. It can illustrate, verify or affirm 'theory work'.
Kerr (1963) claimed that one of the aims of the practical work is to elucidate the theoretical work as to aid comprehension. He claimed that practical work could aid learning by making
Page 1970
Purpose of Practical work in School Science the theory more clear. However, a careful selection of experiments must be made to effectively and progressively promote learning. In the same research, there were suggestions that practical work can be used: (a)
as an aid to memory.
(b)
to correct any mistakes in text books.
(c)
to prevent textbook authoritarianism.
Another aim of practical work according to Kerr (1963), is to verify facts and principles already taught. Practical work can be used to establish that certain statements are correct. These experiments usually verify or measure a constant. However, care must be exercised in the experimental measurement, as conditions may not be able to be reproduced exactly to give rise to the same results.
Some teachers in Kerr's (1963) research also claims that practical work is invaluable in clarifying facts and principles for the less able students as one teacher pointed out that it is 'Very important to C-streams who cannot visualise or understand or imagine without it".
Gott (1990) noted that 'the heart of most science courses has been the acquisition of scientific concepts' and these courses 'rely on practical work as a means of enhancing conceptual learning rather than acting as a source for the learning of essential skills'.
Chia (1987) also supports the role of science practical as a platform to teach theory. His claim was that 'without engaging in hands-on activities, how can we expect the students to understand and consolidate their cognitive skills in these important concepts of physics?'
Page 1971
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
Chia cautioned that experiments, which are not carried out in line with theory, might lead to poor understanding. If the students merely follow the instructions given blindly as what to do and when to do it, they can never be expected to appreciate the physical concepts underlying these experiments.
Gunstone (1990) proposes the use of practical work as a means of restructuring personal theories (restructuring personal misconceptions). This is similar to Gott's (1990) model of practical work as 'to disturb and refine preconceptions'. Gunstone (1990) further claims that by using shorter and more conceptually focussed practical tasks, the teacher has a much greater chance of fostering student thinking about the conceptual relationship(s) of concern.
Counter-arguments against practical for theory work
There is evidence from Woolnough and Allsop (1985 in Wellington, 2000) that a tight coupling of practical and theory can have a detrimental effect on both the quality of practical work done and on the theoretical understanding gained by students'. Woolnough (1983) claimed that practical work in science should be largely 'decoupled' from theory, where it is seen primarily as a servant to theoretical understanding. He believes that practical done for theory's sake is fallacious and unhelpful, and that we should try to release practical from the tyranny of theory. He further argues that most research into the effectiveness of different types of practical in terms of cognitive outcomes and memories has been proved to be inconclusive.
Page 1972
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Another counter-argument given by Wellington (1998) is that practical work can confuse as easily as it can clarify or aid understanding. According to Theobald (1968 in Wellington, 1998), "Experience does not give concepts meaning, but rather concepts give experience meaning".
Leach and Scott (1995 in Wellington 1998) also pointed out the key difference between practical and theory - theories involve abstract ideas, which cannot be physically illustrated. They claimed that, "in the context of the school laboratory it is clear that students cannot develop an understanding through their own observations, as the theoretical entities of science are not there to be seen".
Wellington (1998) remarked that, "science teachers cannot teach theory through practical work. Pupils cannot just be exposed to phenomena or events or observations in the hope that they will somehow induce or discover the theory. Practical work can illustrate phenomena but it cannot explain why they happen. Pupils need to be taught that not everything in science can be related to lab experience and doing things".
There are some negative effects if assessments in practical work are carried out solely in support of the theory (Chia, 1987). In the weekly practical lessons, many students may resort to copying the results from classmates or ex-students, while the more adventurous students may start amending their results to achieve the expected final results, as experiments that try to support the teaching of theory will always lead to a specific answer.
Page 1973
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Implications - use of demonstrations
Despite the many counter arguments, practical work may still be used as a complement in the teaching of theory. As given in the arguments, practical work can be used to improve understanding, aid understanding, aid memory, verifying and clarifying facts and principles, enhancing conceptual learning and restructuring misconceptions. These are supplementary roles played by practical work within the bigger context of the learning environment in science. The challenge for the science teacher then, is to plan and implement effective training programs, using practical work as a supporting tool, which would achieve the same aims without causing confusion in the students.
Demonstrations are useful in playing the supporting roles highlighted. Woolnough and Allsop (1985 in Wellington, 2000) claimed that "where displaying and justifying scientific theory is the aim, teacher demonstrations may be more effective than practical activities undertaken by pupils". Demonstrations can support the theory by giving the students a hands-on experience.
According to Clifford (1996), the demonstration is one of the most powerful teaching tools that a physics teacher can call on. Besides supporting the learning of theory, there are a host of other uses, one of which is to motivate, stimulate, entertain, arouse curiosity, enhance attitudes, and develop interest in Physics.
I agree to the use of demonstrations as a means to improve understanding of theory. In my course of teaching of the A Level Physics, I have arranged demonstrations to be conducted. Theses demonstrations are done either in the lecture, tutorials, or practical lessons. Demonstrations that require larger apparatus and are dangerous to perform are usually
Page 1974
Purpose of Practical work in School Science restricted to the laboratories. As for apparatus that are not available or are too dangerous to be performed, it is usually conducted as a computer simulation or a video clip.
There are benefits in using practical demonstrations to support the learning of theory. As most of the equipment used in Physics cannot be found commonly in our daily lives, it becomes difficult for students to visualise them when we are discussing about the abstract ideas. The experience of seeing the equipment in action forms mental scaffolding, in which learning of abstract concepts takes place. These learning episodes (White, 1990) will help them form a better understanding of the concepts. White (1990) proposes that practical work can present itself in a form of learning episodes, which are powerful elements in the understanding that one has of any concept or situation.
Understanding of a concept or phenomenon is a function of the extent and mix of knowledge the person has about it. Therefore, the proportion of related episodes that the person has determines the quality of understanding.
I would like to highlight one example where the learning of the concept of electron paths in an electric field is supported by demonstrations. According to standard A Level physics textbooks, the path of a stream of electrons will be affected by an electric field placed perpendicular to its path.
This concept bears little meaning to students if they are not able to see how it is possible experimentally. In the demonstration that I have conducted using the apparatus as shown below, I was able to show them how the path of the electrons is affected by the electric fields.
Page 1975
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
High voltage applied across the plates above and below the path. Figure 1 Experiment to show how the electron path is affected by an electric field.
3.2
To generate interest in the subject
In Kerr's (1963) research, one of the aims of practical work identified by various groups of teachers was to arouse and maintain interest in the subject'. Interest is an avenue to science learning as it is a means to motivate pupils to learn. However, the emphasis on interest decreases from the early years to the later years of secondary science education. This is undesirable, as "Interest is of paramount importance throughout life -even after 35 years", remarked a science master.
In Gott's (1990) study, he commented that "the difficulty of ideas for many pupils means that their experience of secondary school science is one of repeated and demoralising lack of
Page 1976
Purpose of Practical work in School Science success resulting in a vicious circle of failure, de-motivation and more failure. Second, they are not sufficiently motivating, in that they lack perceived relevance to pupils' own lives".
Implications
There are a few types of practical work that can be used to arouse interest in the process of learning: (a)
Demonstrations
(b)
Problem solving activities
According to Millar (1990), the ability of demonstrations in arousing interest can never be ignored. From my personal experience, the benefits of a well-performed demonstration by the teacher can really make the day of the students.
Problem solving activities are useful in arousing interest because the problem that they are actively engaged in, is relevant to their daily lives. Solving the problem gives the student a sense of ownership of it.
3.3 To develop practical skills
In Kerr's (1963) report, there were claims from the teachers surveyed about the importance of skills that it is not commonly realised by those without scientific training that since man's hand, eye and brain evolved together, it is essential that they be trained together to develop his capacities to the full."
Page 1977
Purpose of Practical work in School Science According to Wellington (1998), it is argued that practical work develops not only manipulative or manual dexterity skills, but also promotes higher level, transferable skills such as observation, measurement, prediction and inference. These transferable skills are said not only to be valuable to future scientist but also to possess general utility and vocational value.
In Kerr's (1963) research into the nature and purpose of practical work in school science teaching in England and Wales, he found that the following aims point towards the development of skills: (a)
to encourage accurate observation and careful recording;
(b)
to develop manipulative skills.
Several examination boards in UK, such as Warwick Process Science, Science in Process and TAPS (Techniques for the Assessment of Practical Science) argues for a "primary or generic set of skills or qualities which will be of value when the facts are out of date or forgotten". These generic skills identified are observing, classifying, inferring, predicting, controlling variables, hypothesising and designing. In Linton's (1994) survey of the major examination boards at the A levels and the GCSE, several common skills are taught across the examination boards, as shown in table 1: Skill
AEB
Cambridge
NEAB
Oxford
O&C
Planning/Designing
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
Execution/Implementing/Measurement
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
Analysis/Interpreting/Evaluating
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
Presentation/Communication
YES
YES
YES
YES
Researching
YES
Table 1: Comparison of the objectives of various examination boards in UK.
Page 1978
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
The assumption that these courses made, is that the very general skills can be taught, which can be transferred from the context in which they are learnt to new contexts and contents encountered later. The skills and processes are not merely seen as the structuring elements in the curriculum, or as the means through which other more fundamental aims are obtained, but as themselves forming the goals of school science (Millar, 1990).
Learners need to be shown or taught how to observe things (Wellington, 1998). For example, they will not see a field around a magnet, or reflection/refraction in a ripple tank or a cell under a microscope unless they know what they are looking for. Hodson (1998) argued that children needed to learn the observational language of science.
Counter arguments against developing skills
There are some counter-arguments about the claim that the skills in science are general and transferable or that they are of vocational value. Wellington (1989) noted that "science process cannot be separated from science content; all the processes of science - inferring, classifying, predicting, hypothesising, seeing, observing, are embedded n science knowledge and theory. Science processes care situated in science; they are not context free and transferable".
Skills such as communication, interaction and co-operation are also difficult to be taught. Wellington (1998) claimed that when a group of students is carefully observed, it often reveals domination by forceful members, competition, lacking of engagement for some
Page 1979
Purpose of Practical work in School Science students, and a division of tasks. Therefore, it becomes difficult to implement the teaching of skills as they cannot be implemented ideally.
Chia (1998) highlighted a few problem areas in the skills acquisition of students. According to an examiner's report, the main areas identified with the deficiency of skills were as follows: (a)
Little or no thought appeared to be given by some candidates to what was happening
in any of the experiments (b)
There is an obsession with most candidates that all graphs are straight lines, even
when the plots lie on a reasonable, correct curve. In far too many cases it became obvious that plots had been amended to force out a straight line. (c) Candidates showed an inability to use micrometer screw gauge. Readings were not recorded to the limits of the scales. Few showed that zero errors were considered. These evidences seem to indicate that it is difficult even to teach the basic practical skills. A lot of effort is required to make sure that the basic learning can take place.
Implications
The reasons brought up in support of teaching of practical skills, in my view, far outweighs the reasons against it. The more critical issue is the over-emphasis on the skills development to the detriment of the development of the other purposes of practical work. Currently, the examinations measured limited aspects of the practical skills, and undue attention is given to training in techniques, measuring things and getting the right answer. The reason for doing so is because the .larger examination boards experienced considerable difficulties in organising practical examinations, mainly owing to the large number of candidates. To some extent the
Page 1980
Purpose of Practical work in School Science kind of practical examination set was chosen for organisational rather then educational reasons (Kerr, 1963).
Kerr (1963) further suggested that more responsibility for the assessment of practical ability should be given to the teacher by allowing the schools to set, supervise and mark their own tests. The teachers would desire some form of guidance by external moderators to establish and maintain common standards. This method of assessment would allow more skills of the practical work to be assessed. Skills such as communication and research can be assessed beyond the confines of the examination setting if the assessment is school-based.
There are a few types of practical that are currently used for skills development: (a)
Standard experiments to show the relationship between 2 variables
(b)
Standard experiments to measure a physical constant
(c)
Exercises meant to develop skills in techniques
These types of practical work are useful in developing the skills of execution and analysis. However, skills such as designing, communication, and researching cannot be assessed using the current types of practical. A wider range of practical work needs to be designed so that the entire spectrum of skills is being taught, if testing is not an issue.
3.4
To teach the Scientific Method
Osborne (1996) claimed that a better role for practical work is not as an introduction to 'what we know' (the content) but rather to ‘how we know’ (the process).
Page 1981
Purpose of Practical work in School Science The DES (Millar, 1990) asserts that "the essential characteristic of education in science is that it introduces pupils to the methods of science". Courses provided should therefore give pupils, at all stages, appropriate opportunities: (a)
to make observations;
(b)
to select observations relevant to their investigations for further study;
(c)
to seek and identify patterns and relate these to patterns perceived earlier;
(d)
to suggest and evaluate explanations of the patterns;
(e)
to design and carry out experiments, including appropriate forms of measurement, to
test suggested explanations for the pattern of observations.
Gott (1990) says that most of the traditional practical work involves around the illustration or the discovery of concepts. These practical usually comes in a form of a xcook book' whereby students are asked to follow a series of instructions to perform an experiment, fill in a table and display the data in a form of a graph. However, this does not help if we are to teach the process view of science. Students must themselves make decisions about the following procedure that make up what is science: (a)
identifying the important variables;
(b)
deciding on their status - independent, dependent or control variables;
(c)
controlling the variables;
(d)
deciding on the scale of quantities used;
(e)
choosing the range and the number of measurements;
(f)
evaluating the accuracy and reliability of data; and
(g)
selecting appropriate tabulation and display.
Page 1982
Purpose of Practical work in School Science This approach departs greatly from the cook book' style of practical work. Albert Einstein once said that "If you want to know the essence of scientific method, don't listen to what a scientist may tell you. Watch what he does".
Science, particularly physics, is a way of doing things, a way that involves imagination, creative thinking and dedicated struggles to unravel the mystery of our universe (Chia, 1998).
In Kerr's (1963) research, one of the aims of practical is to promote simple, commonsensical, and scientific methods of thought. Kerr further purported that modern educational psychology still supports the long-held view that practical experience is an effective means of learning. If the tasks are deliberately designed to embody the spirit of science, scientific thinking may result. John Dewey once claimed, "the future of our civilisation depends upon the widening spread and the deepening hold of the scientific habit of mind".
Counter-arguments against the teaching of scientific method
The scientific method mentioned that is being taught in school science is not reflective of true science. According to Karl Popper's definition of science, it is based upon the act of falsification as evidence in which the currently accepted model is refined and improved upon. In view of this, there should be a repeat of experimentation until the best model is arrived. Under the current practice of practical work in school science, it is all too time consuming. According to Nadeau and Desautels (1984 in Hodson, 1990), "The work done in the laboratory by students can be no more that a simulation of the method followed by scientists". The hypothesis is established by the teacher, while the students' task consists of manoeuvring to arrive at the predicted results. As a rule, most students are uncertain as to
Page 1983
Purpose of Practical work in School Science what is involved and they merely carry out the directions in the laboratory guide step by step, as though following a recipe. The validity of the results obtained is seldom questioned, and if by chance the experiment fails, the teacher imposes a conclusion. The students are asked to write a laboratory report, which will be corrected, but the results are seldom discussed in class".
Furthermore, there is an unrealistic portrayal of the science method. The science process is presented as a fixed, algorithmic process in which the successful outcome is virtually guaranteed if the sub-processes are carried out correctly. This means that scientists are portrayed as possessed of a superior rationality and an all-purpose method for arriving at the truth. Real science is an untidy, unpredictable activity that requires scientists to devise their own course of action. Furthermore, scientists refine their „ approach to a problem, develop greater understanding of it and devise more appropriate and productive ways of proceeding, all at the same time (Hodson, 1998).
The other counter argument against the teaching of scientific method is that, there is no single scientific method across the disciplines in science. Besides Physics, Chemistry and Biology, there are other disciplines like Biochemistry, Astrophysics, Cosmology, Biotechnology, Botany, Ecology, and Zoology. From this list, it is impossible to distil a single, defining feature of being a science or 'scientific method' (Wellington, 1998). Although there are similar features common to all the disciplines, the methods used are different due to the different cultural and historical developments. Jenkins (1998) also claimed that any attempt to impose a single format or prescription for practical work receives resentment, cynicism and scepticism from the science teaching profession.
Page 1984
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Hodson (1998) claimed that a historical study can be used to show that scientific and technological developments are both culturally dependent and culturally transforming. In other words, science is a product of its time and place, and can sometimes change quite radically the ways in which people think and act. The science of Galileo, Newton, Darwin and Einstein, for example, profoundly changed our perceptions of humanity's place in the universe and precipitated enormous changes in the way people address issues in politics, economics and history. If we are to define the scientific method as the method used by the main players of science as described above, then we are just reinforcing the scientific paradigm that we are in now. Young (1987 in Hodson 1998) claims that science andtechnology is driven by the needs, interests, values, and aspirations of the society that sustains them. If science and technology are driven by socio-cultural factors, it follows that different societies will define and organise science differently and so produce different science (Hodson, 1998). This means that the scientific method is culturally dependent and would not present the method of thought that is common to all societies of the world. The assumption being made here is that the western point of view of the scientific method is the method of science. One example of non-western science is Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture.
From the arguments made above, the assumption that the scientific method is a general and unchanging method is therefore a fallacy. It changes with each paradigm and varies culturally. The danger of teaching a scientific method may therefore impose a set of value systems of one group on another, instead of teaching the students an objective set of skills.
Page 1985
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Implication
Despite the strong counter-arguments, the value of teaching the scientific method must not be underestimated, even if it means teaching a culturally biased model. Amongst the various types of practical work that can be done in the laboratory, problem solving activities and investigations are useful in bringing about a certain level of understanding of the scientific method.
Implication 1 - using problem solving activities
To promote the scientific method of thought is also to give training in problem solving (Kerr, 1963). Practical work can be implemented in a form of problem solving rather than the mere verification of previously stated facts. If the problems are real and are related to their everyday life, the students would probably want to solve them.
When the student is engaged in problem solving, he is, it is thought, acting in a scientific manner (Kerr, 1963). It is claimed that he will be trained to recognise problem situations, ask meaningful questions, make skilful observations, act objectively, be open-minded about new facts, and cautious about making conclusions. Kerr further claims that studies in the psychology of learning supports the claims for problem solving approach as a method to aid scientific thinking development.
Page 1986
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Implication 2 - using investigations
It is thought that independent study of a specific, real problem is thought to have particular educational merit (Kerr, 1963). Through the process of investigation, the wonder and thrill of discovery can be experienced and the outlook of an inquiring mind, it is claimed, can be cultivated. There are national award schemes and many local competitions organised to encourage young people in individual initiative and effort. In Singapore, there is the National Youth Science Fair and the A*STAR Science and Engineering Fair, which aims to encourage students to engage in investigative research.
Investigations can lead to a greater understanding of evidence. The ability to design experiments, acquire and process date remains highly variable amongst many post-16 students. Investigations offer an opportunity for students to address or revise issues crucial to the understanding of science (Parry, 1998).
However, Investigations are the least used of all kinds of practical work in school science (Kerr, 1963). In the surveys conducted, it was hardly carried out in the curriculum at all. Several reasons were cited as reasons why investigations are not a common feature in schools: (a)
extensive syllabuses
(b)
large classes
(c)
practical examination does not cover investigations
(d)
no time allocated for investigative work
(e)
system and conditions in which teachers work does not permit it
Page 1987
Purpose of Practical work in School Science (f)
students attitude towards practical work rests on getting the right answer rather than
developing an inquiring mind
Although the merits of problem-solving and investigative work are well elaborated, it is seldom put into practice due to the current practices and problems highlighted above.
Recommendations
From the survey done about the purposes and the type of practical' work in school science, I have summarised them into table 2 as shown below: Purposes
Types of practical
Cognitive
Demonstrations
Interest
Demonstrations
Skills
Standard practical
Scientific Method
Problem solving activities and Investigations
Table 2: Relationship between purposes and types of practical
Each purpose of is matched with a suitable type of practical work. From the table 2, we can identify three main types of practical work: (a)
the standard practical, where the training of sub-skills are done independently;
(b)
problem solving activities and investigations, where all the sub-skills are integrated;
(c)
the simple demonstrations, where the purpose is to support the learning of theory.
Page 1988
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Woolnough (1976) recommends that a compendium of activities rather than the ubiquitous 'standard experiment', which typically lasts for one double period, is more appropriate in fulfilling the stated aims of practical work. The compendium includes: (a)
Standard exercises
(b)
Discovery experiments/problem solving activities
(c)
Projects/Investigations
(d)
Demonstrations
In Kerr's recommendation made in 1963, he claimed that there is the "urgent necessity to make the examination more flexible. It could become a combined assessment based on examination, interview, continuous assessment, record book and individual investigation project or, more likely, on a selection of these methods of evaluation". Kerr also suggested that more responsibility for the assessment of practical ability should be given to the teacher by allowing the schools to set, supervise and mark their own tests.
Based on the evaluation of the purposes of practical and the recommendations suggested by Kerr and Woolnough, I find that the current practice of standard experiments conducted in the laboratory is not satisfactory. A possible model would be a teacher-based assessment of practical skills. This would eliminate the need for huge organisational arrangements for the implementation of the examination while at the same time, allows the practical skills to be taught and assessed without much difficulty. The type of activities can range from standard experiments to problem-based activities and project level investigations. In this way, most of the objectives of the practical work can be fulfilled.
Page 1989
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Use of ICT in practical work in school science
Advances in ICT (Information and Communication Technology), has brought about changes in the laboratory as well. Modern ICT systems are good at: (a)
collecting and storing large amounts of data,
(b)
performing complex calculations on stored data rapidly,
(c)
process large amounts of data and displaying it in a variety of forms,
(d)
helping to present and communicate information (Wellington, 2000).
With these advances, there are more possibilities in practical work as well. Practical work can be now conducted in the following ICT-assisted manner: (a)
Simulations
(b)
Data Logging
(c)
Internet-based practical lessons
Baggott (1998) claims that simulations have a number of distinct advantages. Simulations: (a)
promote active learning;
(b)
are cheaper than actual experiments;
(c)
are considerably safer than the actual experiments, which may be dangerous;
(d)
are more ethical than say, in dissecting life animals;
(e)
can be as realistic as a live situation;
(f)
can be repeated many times;
(g)
can lead to a better skill transfer;
(h)
allow the possibility of critical thinking, motivating interaction and stimulating
discussion;
Page 1990
Purpose of Practical work in School Science (i)
can control the time of experiment;
(j)
can change the time-base of events to fit time-consuming events into the learning time
available; (k)
can avoid the discouraging situation of experiment not falling into expectations.
Barton (1998) highlighted that the use of data loggers to collect and plot graphs, reduces the waiting time in the experiment, and allows for more discussion to take place. The additional time saved from the plotting of graphs can be used to allow students to be involved in the other aspects of practical work which is equally, or if not more important.
Wardle (1998) sees that the Internet, besides allowing people to carry out experiments over the Web, allows the teachers and students to collect and share data, collaborate on projects, and report their work in various formats.
Although the treatment of the application of ICT in practical work is not complete here, it has shown that there are other possibilities of practical work that the science teacher can call upon to make the laboratory experience a more enriching one.
Page 1991
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Conclusions
I began the review of practical work by discussing the purposes, and the arguments for and against it. My conclusion is that the purposes of practical work in school science can be summarised into the four main categories: (a) to support the learning of theory, (b) to generate interest in the subject, (c) to develop practical skills', (d) to teach the Scientific Method.
From the evidences shown, it is clear that not one single type of practical work, but a whole compendium of practical work should be implemented in our curriculum so that the purposes of practical work can be met. Furthermore, ICT use should be exploited further in practical work, so that the aims can be better met.
For practical to be fruitful and rewarding, the conduct and assessment should not be limited by organisational considerations. In view of the multi-faceted mode of assessment, the practical examination should transform into a teacher-based continuous assessment, so that the organisational difficulties of assessment would not hinder the achievement of the aims of practical work.
The picture painted above is a possibility about the form practical work in school science can take shape in the future. The future depends very much upon the teachers and students who are implementing the practical tasks, to make it a meaningful and fruitful one.
Page 1992
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Integrated Training in the Scientific Method in novel Physics experiments
The School-based Practical Assessment has been implemented in Singapore government schools since 2003. The School-based Practical Assessment is sub-divided into four skills: (a) Design (b) Implementation (c) Analysis (d) Evaluation The assessment tasks are usually based on one, two or three of the skills above. However, the four skills are seldom tested together, as the Design skill, if implemented wrongly, would have affected the students’ performance in the subsequent skills.
If the SPA tasks are not assessed, perhaps teachers would be more courageous to set tasks that cover all the four skills of the SPA. I have set the following as the task for the SPA for a group of three students who are members of my Astronomy Club. Task
Apparatus:
You are required to design an experiment to investigate how a chosen factor affects the range of a gas-water propelled rocket launched from a fixed point. Your investigation should include : 1. the general strategy, based on scientific knowledge and understanding. You should pay due attention to the variables factor to be investigated approach to the task 2. a detailed procedure. You should pay due attention to choice of appropriate apparatus safety aspects reliability of results Gas compressor and launch pad, common laboratory equipment and any other materials/apparatus.
Page 1993
Purpose of Practical work in School Science The students designed the experiment and performed the task, collected and analysed the data, and make evaluations about the design of the experiment.
Carrying out the experiment The students’ report is attached in Annex A.
Page 1994
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Physics Demonstration Laboratory that supports the theory lessons
There are a few experiments that are useful as demonstrations for the Physics Laboratory. I have prepared a few demonstrations and carried out during normal lessons in the Science Research Laboratory. They include: (a) Determining the acceleration due to free fall using a trap door (b) Meld’s experiment on stationary strings (c) Resonance Tubes on stationary sound waves (d) Current Balance experiment (e) Electromagnetic Induction experiments (f) Rectification of Alternating current to direct current (g) J.J. Thomson’s experiment (h) Measuring the activity of radioactive pallets
These experiments gave the students a hands-on experience about the key concepts that they have learnt. One example is given in Annex B.
Final Conclusions
Has practical work met the objectives that are highlighted above? Currently the models that I have proposed do not take into account the complications that arise due to formal coursework assessment. As a result, the objectives of Teaching for scientific method and demonstrations to illustrate theory are easily met. However, once formal coursework assessment is introduced, other issues will arise. We shall leave it to the reader to make a judgement. The End
Page 1995
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
Annex A
PROJECT INTENSE-LAUNCHING-EXERCISE (PROJECT-ILE) A. AIM: To investigate the effect of angle and volume of water on the distance traveled by the water rocket. B. HYPOTHESIS: (a) The water rocket will fly the furthest when launched at an angle of 45○, according to the laws of Projectile Motion. Derivation: Assuming no air resistance.
u u sin
u
u u cos
At the top of flight, v 0 v u at 0 u at u t a Horizontal motion is not affected by gravity, x 2u t u sin x 2u cos a x
2u 2 cos sin a
Since the acceleration provided during flight is due to gravity u2 x sin 2 g X is maximum only when sin 2 1
Page 1996
Purpose of Practical work in School Science 45 (b) Also, the amount of propellant that is optimal to give the rocket the furthest range is 50% of maximum capacity. Explanation: By Newton’s Third law, the amount of thrust provided will be proportional to the mass of water given out. As the mass is increased, the amount of thrust provided will also be increased. Thus, the amount of water in the water rocket will determine the initial amount of thrust given to the rocket. The amount of compressed air will also determine the thrust of the rocket. The higher the amount of air, the more energy is stored, giving the rocket a higher amount of potential energy. With more water, there will be a lesser amount of volume for air, and vice versa. Thus, a balance of the amount of water and the volume of air would give the optimal amount of thrust and potential energy, maximizing the distance travelled by the rocket. C. INTRODUCTION: Water rockets are an excellent tool to learn about rockets, propulsion, and aerodynamics. Bottle rockets or water rockets, what are they? When someone mentions bottle rockets, do you envision placing a firecracker attached to a stick into a glass bottle and launching it? Water rockets have been a source of entertainment and education for many years. They are usually made with an empty two-liter plastic soda bottle by adding water and pressurizing it with air for launching. Thrust is the force which moves the rocket through the air, and through space. Thrust is generated by the propulsion system of the rocket through the application of Newton's third law of motion; For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. In the propulsion system, an engine does work on a gas or liquid, called a working fluid, and accelerates the working fluid through the propulsion system. The re-action to the acceleration of the working fluid produces the thrust force on the engine. The working fluid is expelled from the engine in one direction and the thrust force is applied to the engine in the opposite direction. Thus, by expelling the water using air pressure, thrust is given to the water rocket. The simplest rocket engine uses air as the working fluid, and pressure produced by a pump to accelerate the air. This is the type of "engine" used in a toy balloon or a stomp rocket. Because the weight flow of air is so small, this type of rocket engine does not produce much thrust. A bottle rocket uses water as the working fluid and pressurized air to accelerate the working fluid. Because water is much heavier than air, bottle rockets generate more thrust than stomp rockets. D. MATERIALS:
Page 1997
Purpose of Practical work in School Science 1. 50cm3 measuring cylinder 2. 500cm3 soda bottle 3. Water 4. Corrugated plastic board 5. Rubber cone 6. DP-2050F air compressor 2 HP / 1.5kW, 50L 7. Extension wires 8. Pail 9. 2 wooden boards 10. Metal pipes 11. Plastic pipes 12. 2 metal hinges 13. 2 metal rings 14. White tape 15. Waterproof sticky tape 16. Plastic cable ties 17. Rubber hose 18. Nylon strings 19. 100m measuring tape 20. Weights (Coins) 21. Stopwatch
Page 1998
Purpose of Practical work in School Science E. PROCEDURES: 1. Cut out 4 fins of suitable size from the corrugated plastic board. Use the waterproof sticky tape to attach the fins to the 500cm3 soda bottle. Attach the rubber cone to the bottom of the bottle the same way, sealing the weights inside of the cone. 2. Use the wooden boards and hinges to make an adjustable launch pad. Attach the metal and plastic pipes to form the completed launch pad. Using waterproof tape, attach the nylon strings to the bottle holder on the launcher to create the trigger. 3. Attach the rubber hose to the end of the launcher and the air compressor. Make sure that the system is secure and that there are no leaks. 4. Fill the soda bottle with 150cm3 of water and angle the launcher 30○. 5. Place the water rocket on the launcher. Increase the air pressure in the soda bottle by turning on the air compressor which will inject air into the bottle. Compressor is to be placed constantly at 6atm before turning the compressor on. 6. Pull the string (trigger) to launch the rocket. Amount of time between turning on of the compressor and releasing the trigger is to be kept constant, i.e. 10s. 7. Use the 100m measuring tape to measure the distance between the starting point and the rocket. 8. Repeat the procedure from steps 4 to 7, increasing the amount of water in the soda bottle, i.e. 200cm3, 250cm3, 300cm3, 350cm3. In each case, make sure the time between turning on of compressor and pulling the trigger is constant. The following two measurements are required: (a) the amount of water placed inside the soda bottle (b) the distance that the rocket travels 9. Repeat the procedures from steps 4 to 8, increasing the angle of which the rocket is launched, i.e. 40○ and 50○. The previous two measurements are also required. 10. Set up a control in the same way, but do not fill it with any water. Control is being subjected to the same conditions as the experiment. This is to allow accurate comparisons of results of treatments due to changes in the independent variables. 11. Do 3 replicates of each volume of water. 12. Repeat the experiment at least twice with reference to statistical analysis.
Page 1999
Purpose of Practical work in School Science F. VARIABLES TO BE CONSIDERED: Independent Variable: Angle of which the rocket is launched Amount of water placed inside the bottle Dependent Variable: Distance which the rocket flies Control Variable: A fixed amount of air pressure is placed in the soda bottle before launch Amount of lift of the rocket is to be kept constant, by using the same fins on the rocket Aim of the Control Control is being subjected to the same conditions as the experiment – to allow accurate comparison of the results of treatments due to changes in the independent variables. G. SAFETY MEASURES: Launch Safety Precautions Never stand directly over the launch pad while setting rocket on pad or during launch. Do not stand in the path of the rocket during launch. Make sure that the area of space – at least 50m – in front of the launcher is clear before launching the rocket. Select a grassy field that measures at least 30m in width. Place the launcher in the center of the field and anchor it in place. (If it is a windy day, place the launcher closer to the side of the field from which the wind is blowing so that the rocket will drift onto the field as it descends.) Use a string as a trigger so as to minimise contact with the launcher during launch. Keep the compressor and wires dry at all times so as not to get electrocuted As you set up your rocket on the launch pad, observers should stand back several meters. It is recommended that the launch site should be roped off. Pressure Testing Precautions When pressurizing the rocket, everyone should stand back at least 10 feet from the rocket for the countdown. Launch the rocket when the recovery range is clear. Use a suitable soda bottle so that the rocket will not explode when too much air pressure is inserted into it. The pressure inserted into the bottle must not exceed the capacity of the soda bottle (150psi for 500cm3 bottles) The compressor is not to exceed 7atm at any time during the experiment. Water Rocket Precautions As the bottle undergoes a lot of stress through many attempts of firing, the soda bottle should be retired after about 15 launches. Nobody should attempt to catch a falling rocket. Rockets can come down at a tremendous speed, and can cause injury if a sharp nosecone is attached. Retrieve rocket after it has safely landed on the ground.
Page 2000
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
H. RESULTS Angle of launch/° 40
50 Volume of water used/ cm3 150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
350.0
Control (0.0)
Raw 44.25 45.66 48.10 51.14 52.82 44.50 71.93 78.12 50.35 49.85 64.32 62.28 39.98 33.64 39.10 23.20 25.93 21.00
Average 46.00
49.49
66.80
58.82
37.57
23.38
Raw 41.21 41.79 41.47 48.10 50.50 46.13 49.42 55.20 63.70 54.42 50.20 49.04 24.70 36.11 37.94 17.51 20.06 20.73
- Anomalous data
Page 2001
Average 41.49
48.24
56.11
51.22
32.92
19.43
30 Raw 35.93 34.86 41.68 49.82 49.91 46.37 57.07 53.52 58.01 39.12 37.28 40.17 34.91 36.43 30.92 16.09 16.50 15.42
Average 37.49
48.70
56.20
38.86
34.09
16.00
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
80.00
Range / m
Angles /
70.00
30 deg 40 deg 50 deg
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
Amount of H2O / cm3 0.00 0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
400.00
I. RELIABILITY
There should be at least 2 repeats and 3 replicates of the experiment to ensure reliability and accuracy of the experimental results
J. EVALUATION The independent variable, the angle of trajectory, is optimal at (50±5) °. The independent variable, the volume of water used is optimal at (250±10) cm³. The dependent variable, the maximum distance travelled by the rocket is (68±5) m. Sources of error/limitations of Improvements suggested experiment The launch pad recoils, due to the force Attach weights to the launch pad and tie exerted by the thrust of the rocket and the the pad to the ground to restrict movement action of pulling the rope, resulting in an to guarantee that the distance measured inaccurate distance measured. accurate. The use of markings on the bottle to The volume of water placed in the bottle indicate the precise amount of water is not accurate as it is filled as a present inside will allow for greater measuring cylinder is used. accuracy. There is a leakage of water when The use of markings on the bottle to attaching it to the launch system, either indicate the precise amount of water into the pipe or spilling out when present inside will allow for greater inverting it, leading to an inaccuracy in accuracy. the amount of water present. Use a lever system, as illustrated below. The force of pulling the rope is not Gently push the block off the table, which constant which may cause the force the will always fall with the acceleration of rocket leaves with to vary. the Earth’s gravity, thus making the force constant.
Page 2002
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
Table
Block
K. CONCLUSION Our first hypothesis made about the optimal angle of trajectory being 45° was not true. Launching the rocket an angle of 50° proved to attain the greatest distance. Our second hypothesis, about the optimal mass of the rocket being 50% of its total weight, was proved to be true for all 3 angles used. Improvements: 1. The use of a wider range of angles, including 45° and 60°, would have yielded more accurate results and helped to us to discern the best possible angle to use to achieve the furthest distance. 2. Using other bottle with different capacities, such as 2 liters and 1.5 liters, would allow us to further prove our hypothesis that filling 50% of the full capacity of the bottle with water would provide the greatest distance.
Page 2003
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Annex B The Free Fall Experiment.
Switch Electromagnet
R
Ball bearing
S
2 V cell
0v
Time T Start Fast - Timer
Trap door
Page 2004
2 V cell
Stop
Purpose of Practical work in School Science Theory Any object falling freely under gravity has a constant acceleration g. 2 It can be described using the equation: S u.T 21 gT . Procedure Measure the distance S, using a metre rule. Measuring the time taken T, using a fast timer circuit as shown above. Repeat the experiment for other values of S for the corresponding T values. 2 Since the initial velocity u = 0 m/s, equation becomes S 21 gT . Plot a graph of S against T2. From the graph, the gradient gives a value of ½ g.
Page 2005
Purpose of Practical work in School Science
References
Clifford E.S., et al, 1996. Teaching Introductory Physics: A Source Book. American Institute of Physics, 1997, p8. Kerr, J. F. 1963. Practical work in school science: An account of an inquiry sponsored by the Gulbenkian Foundation into the nature and purpose practical work in school science teaching in England and Wales. Leicester University Press, 1963. Wellington J, 2000. Teaching and learning secondary science: contemporary issues and practical approaches. Routledge, 2000. Wellington J, 1998. Practical work in school science: Which way now? Routledge, 1998. Wellington, Jerry. Practical work in science: time for a reappraisal. Millar, Robin. Rhetoric and reality: what practical work in science education is really for. Jenkins, Edgar. The schooling of laboratory science. Hodson, Derek. Is this really what scientists do? Seeking a more authentic science in and beyond the school laboratory. Barton, Roy. IT in practical work: assessing and increasing the value-added. Baggott, Linda. Multimedia simulation: a threat to or enhancement of practical work in science education? Wardle, John. Virtual science: a practical alternative? Woolnough, 1990. Practical science - the role and reality of practical work in school science. Open University Press, 1991. Tamir, Pinchas. Practical work in school science: an analysis of current practice. Millar, Robin. A means to an end: the role of processes in science education. Gott, Richard Mashiter, Judith. Practical work in science - a task-based approach? Gunstone, Richard F. Reconstructing theory from practical.
Page 2006
Purpose of Practical work in School Science White, Richard T. Episodes, and the purpose and conduct of practical work.
Chia, Song Choy, 1987. Some Critical Comments on HSC Laboratory Physics, in Physics Education in Asia, A selection of edited papers and reports presented at the Regional Physics Education Symposium on School-University Interface and ASPEN General Conference, which were part of the Asian Science and Technology Congress, 1987, held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on 14 - 17 October, 1987. Malaysian Scientific Association, p 99 - 105. Dynan M. B. C, Kempa, R. F. Teacher-based assessment of practical work in sixth-form physics, in Physics Education, Vol. 12, No. 6, September, 1977, p 364 - 369. Linton, J. 0., 1994. Assessing practical skills at Key Stage 4 and at A-level, in Physics Education, Vol. 29, No. 6, November, 1994, p 347 - 351. Osborne, Jonathan, 1996. Untying the Gordian Knot: diminishing the role of practical work, in Physics Education, Vol. 31, No. 5, September, 1996, p 271 - 278. Parry, Malcolm, 1998. Introducing practical work post-16, in Physics Education, Vol. 33, No. 6, November, 1998, p 346 - 355. Woolnough Brian E., 1983. Exercises, investigations and experiences, in Physics Education, VoL 18, No. 2, March 1983, p 60 - 63. Woolnough, Brian E., 1976. Practical work in sixth-form physics, in Physics Education, Vol. 11, No. 6, September, 1976, p 392 - 397.
Page 2007
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
TAIWAN ASTRONOMY FIELD TRIP
Informal Learning during the Taiwan Astronomy & Earth Science Field Trip
Tan Hoe Teck
Catholic Junior College, Singapore
Page 2008
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
Abstract The realm of informal learning is an under-utilised and an under-studied area. If we reflect on it carefully, science education could be greatly enhanced. University Research Centers and Interactive Science Centers can provide an opportunity for informal learning that the teacher can tap upon. Catholic Junior College has been organizing for its Astronomy Club and Physics students every year for the last three years to Taiwan for a period ranging from seven to nine days. During the trip, we visited the Astronomy and Earth Science university faculties, museums and observatories and learnt about the application of fundamental physics principles in matters concerning the Earth and the Universe. Investigations on the outcomes of the informal learning have shown that it contributes significantly to the cognitive and affective domains and to the transfer of learning.
Page 2009
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
1. Informal Learning The realm of informal learning is under-utilised and under-studied area. If we reflect on it carefully, science education could be greatly enhanced. According to Schibeci (1989), there is evidence to suggest that ‘factors outside of schools have a strong influence on students’ educational outcomes, perhaps strong enough to swamp the effects of variations in education practices. Informal education could be used to enriched science education and the work of classroom teachers. Lucas (1983) delineated the main differences between informal and formal learning in the table below. Informal Learning
Formal Learning
Voluntary
Compulsory
Often haphazard, unstructured and unsequenced
Structured and sequenced
Non-assessed, non-certificated
Assessed, certificated
Open-ended
More closed
Learner-fed, learner centered
Teacher-led, teacher-centered
Outside formal settings
Classroom and institution based
Unplanned
Planned
Many unintended outcomes (outcomes more difficult to measure)
Fewer unintended outcomes
Social aspect central e.g. social interactions between visitors
Social aspect less central
Low ‘currency’
High ‘currency’
Undirected, not legislated for
Legislated and directed (controlled)
Page 2010
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
According to Wellington (2008), there is a huge variety of informal sources of learning that impinge on science education:
everyday experiences the media: television programmes, radio, newspapers, podcasts, internet websites, learning media, and other sources visits to museums, science centers, workplaces
These sources of learning can be further classified into another 2 dimension: ‘Intentional’ versus “Unintentional’ sources, and ‘Deliberate’ versus ‘Accidental’ Encounters. The informal sources of learning can be classified as follows:
From the classification, it is obvious that there is a variation in the amount of ‘control’ within the informal education sector. As accidental encounters and unintentional sources are totally out of the control of the teacher, visiting a science center provides the best
Page 2011
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
possibility for the teacher to design an informal program to complement the formal science program.
2. Interactive Science Center or Exploratorium
Within the various science centers, there is a new category of “Exploratorium”, whereby there is a departure from the traditional artifacts display or ‘objects in glass display’. The key driving forces behind this type of museum is Frank Oppenheimer, who stresses the need for involvement, activity and ideas.
Interactive Science Museums are hard to define, but it becomes obvious when we enter one. One of the clearly distinguishable features is the general air of noise, enjoyment and activity that greets all those who enter.
Secondly, they contain activities or exploring stations (McManus 1992) that visitors are invited to touch and to interact with. A typical center will contain anything from 50 to 200 exhibits, most of which are robust and hard-wearing, with at least a few under repair.
Thirdly, the Exploratorium will have guides to help the visitors in interaction with the exhibits, and sometimes to explain the phenomena behind the exhibits. However, it would be impossible to answer all the queries that the visitor may have as the amount of concepts that each exhibit illuminates usually are more than just one. This usually requires a science teacher to support the learning process.
Page 2012
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
The focus of Interactive Science Center or Exploratorium is as follows: (a) Interactive and hands on learning experiences rather than exhibits in glass cases (b) (c) Emphasis on play and enjoyment as an element of learning
The areas that are NOT the focus of the Interactive Science Center of Exploratorium are: (a) Understanding and explanation – although each exhibit would have a short caption to explain the activity, they are hardly every read. (b) Answering worksheet questions – it is a discouraged activity as it would remove the fun element and the free-spirited learning that the opportunity allows. There are however, several strategies that can be used to promote a longer retention of learning. Examples included: a. Setting the examination question related to the activity. But students must be informed early. b. Requiring students to provide some learning points in their reflection at the end of the day. c. Taking photographs of the students in action. So that they can remember the experiences when they see the picture.
Wellington (2008) highlighted the advantages of Exploratorium or Interactive Science Centers: (a) The exhibits do relate closely to the curriculum that the students are currently studying, or at least, may have learnt it or will be learning it in the future.
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
(b) ISC can provide demonstrations that usually cannot be performed in the school laboratory, because of the cost involved or the level of safety precautions or apparatus required. In the ISC, dangerous experiments can be performed using an isolation chamber, which is a costly equipment (c) ISC can provide a complicated but fascinating experience beyond the curriculum for the students that the school laboratory cannot provide. One good example is the learning of the plasma state as the fourth state besides solid, liquid, and gaseous state. This topic is never taught at high school because it is not easy to produce plasma ions in the secondary or high school laboratory. And three important key points about learning: (a) Learning depends on what the learner already knows. Learning is a process which involves interaction between what is already known and the current learning experience. For learning to be lasting and meaningful, it must connect with prior knowledge, prior conceptions and prior experience – otherwise it becomes rote or parrot-fashion learning. (b) Meaningful learning often occurs in a social context although not always. Learners can help each other by talking and interacting. Teachers can help learners by supporting, guiding, structuring and scaffolding their learning. Learners construct their own knowledge, but they often do it best socially. (c) Learning is a situated process. All of our knowledge is situated in a certain context or domain. Knowledge learnt in one context such as the classroom does not always travel to another context. The transfer of learning or generalizing skills is not easily
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
achieved unless opportunities are provided for the students to see the transfer for themselves. Although stressing the importance of informal learning, we must recognize that formal school learning contributes more to some of the key points than informal learning in Interactive Science Centers. Nevertheless, learning science in Integrated Science Centers is not a substitute for learning in a more formal school context, but an important element to complement it.
3. University Research Centers
Besides the Exploratorium, where the exhibits are specifically designed to promote education, University Science Research Centers are also great venues for informal learning. However, there are a few factors that are critical to the successful delivery of the program: (a) Personal relationship with the university professor (b) Early arrangement and coordination before the trip (c) The type of department (d) Time duration of the visit (e) The ‘guides’ required to explain the topics to the students (f) Other logistics requirements (g) Payment for any lesson materials used (h) Token of appreciation to the department
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
To understand how scientists work, the best way is to visit them at their work place. University research centers are where the center of action takes place. During the visits to the university departments, the programme would be conducted by the university staff, which may be the Professor themselves, research staff, or the post graduate students.
4. Field Trip
It is too obvious that too much learning has taken place within the classroom that we have forgotten the potentially powerful learning experience that is available in the fieldwork. Although the field trip may be a costly enterprise, the experience of a field trip can last longer than any formal education can retain in the students.
According to Chiappetta (2006), teachers should incorporate fieldwork into their curricula because it offers authentic learning experiences for students, giving them greater understanding of the natural and technological world in which they live. Field trips are perhaps the most enjoyable and memorable of academic experiences for students.
Factors to consider
Field trips requires much time to arrange and conduct, hence the selection must be based on a few factors when making decisions: (a) Is the field trip based on the goals and content of the official curriculum? (b) Which of the learning objectives are best taught in the field trip?
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
(c) Which of the learning objectives are not within the official curriculum but worthy of learning by the students? (d) What are the field sites available? Especially the Interactive Science Centers. (e) What are the costs involved? (f) How can you arrange it so that it is practical for the implementation?
There are many ways to carry out field trips. It can be conducted as short field trips to the local science center or a longer learning journey, which lasts about a few days, that encompasses a few science centers, universities and field locations in one journey. In the paragraphs that follow, I would be highlighting the Taiwan Astronomy and Earth Science Field Trip, which has been carried out from the years 2005 to 2008 by a group of Catholic Junior College students, to various locations in Taiwan during our Astronomy and Earth Science field trip.
5. Taiwan Astronomy and Earth Science Field Trip
For the last four years, Catholic Junior College Astronomy club has organized at least three Field trips to Taiwan as part of its club activities. Over the years, the program has been modified slightly depending on the opportunities and funding available.
During these trips, the aims were to visit (a) University Research Centers (b) Interactive Science Centers or Exploratorium or Museums
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
(c) Field Trips to Observatories (d) Tourist sites, where we can also learn about the food, culture and transport system of Taiwan
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
A summary of the three trips are listed in the table below: Category
Details
2005
2007
2008
Institute for Astronomy
Yes
Yes
Yes
Center for Remote Sensing and Space Science
Yes
University Research Centers
Astronomy
Yes
Department of Atmospheric Science
Yes
Department of Earth Science
Yes
Yes
Earth Science
Institute of Space Science
Yes
Interactive Science Center or Exploratorium or Museum Science
National Science Museum
Yes
Yes
Biological
Marine Biological Museum
Yes
Astronomical
Taipei Astronomical Museum
Yes
Earth Science
921 Wufeng Earthquake Museum
Yes
Physics
Ken Ting 3rd Nuclear Power Station Museum
Yes
Chinese
National Palace Museum
Yes
Yes
Biological
Cheng Kung High School Butterfly Museum
Yes
Yes
Yes Yes
Community Sin Tai Elementary School Toy Workshop Service
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Yes
Yes
Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
Field Trips Observatory
National Central University Lulin Observatory
Yes
Yes
Yes
Observatory
National Taiwan University Ken-Ting Observatory
Yes
Ximenting
Yes
Yes
Yes
Shilin Night Market
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Tourist Sites
Taipei
Taipei 101 Taichung
Fengjia Night Market
Yes
Tainan
An Ping Fort Night Market
Yes
Kao Hsiung
Liuhe Night Market / River Ai
Yes
Heng Chun Town
Yes
Maobitou (Coral Reefs are lifted above sea level)
Yes
Yes
Chuhuo (Natural Gas vent)
Yes
Yes
Ping Tung
High Speed Rail Experience (200 km/hr)
Yes
Yes
Language Difficulties of the trip
There were a few problems that were not realized during the planning stage of the trip. One was the language barrier.
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
Although most of the participants are Chinese, there was a language issue that was overlooked. I realized that despite knowing the language, the students were not aware of the names of the scientific terms in mandarin. As a result, I had to translate the terms continuously after the briefing has been done by the ‘guides’ as they were not sure about the meanings of the scientific terms. One lesson learnt from this difficulty is to conduct a lesson on the technical terms in mandarin or at least to provide a conversion list for the students before the visit.
Selection of participants
Usually, twenty participants are selected for the eight to ten days trip. The students are selected from the following groups: (a) Astronomy Club members (b) Physics or Geography students (c) Students involved in the National Youth Achievement Award programme
Methodology for evaluation
Before the trip, the students are briefed on the programmes and the expectations during the trip.
During the trip, briefings are done at the beginning and at the end of the day so that the students are aware about the latest changes or updates.
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
Although the learning process is informal, the objectives are communicated to the students so that they are clear that this lesson that compliments the formal education. To give directions to the students, the teacher will brief the students about the ‘takeaways’ before proceeding to a museum or the university research centers. One typical task would be to ‘collect’ three to five things to be learnt.
At the end of the day, all students are guided through a reflection process whereby they jolt down the learning achieved in the day.
Evaluation of the field trip
Evidence about the learning process is collected through the reflections that these students penned down at the end of the day. Examples are as follows:
(a) Learning about Radioactivity the practical way
“The guide even showed us on the precautions they workers have to go through if they just need a quick fix of the equipment. They had to wear many protective layers to prevent themselves from being exposed to radiation, and after that had to dispose them in the biohazard waste. I realised how important it is to ensure that everything goes well in the station and that everyone has to be on the alert.” (Grace Toh @ Nuclear Power Station, 2008)
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
(b) Learning about the best methods to learn
“Next, we went to the Institute of Space Science where we had a short lecture regarding the various satellites that Taiwan has currently. This time round, the lecturer was more lively and managed to engage us. He provided us with some materials to make our very own Formosat satellites. This hands-on activity was interesting because I find that it is actually easier to learn things through this way instead of listening to many dry lectures. Thus, it was indeed productive to me.”
(Eugenia @ Institute of Space Science, National Central
University, 2008)
(c) Learning about Marine Life “We also visited the National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, located in Checheng, where we got to see many sea creatures, learn their evolution and how they came about. Many exhibits about the different sea creatures found in the different parts of the world also could be seen.” (David @ National Museum of Marine Biology, 2008)
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
(d) Learning about Physics the fun way “We were then led into another room where a physics professor gave us a short presentation of a plasma bell jar experiment where low pressure air plasma was generated in the bell jar of the vacuum rig. Due to the high pressure, the bright violet and pink glow of streamers oscillated in-between the two pale-pinkish glowing electrodes. I also learnt that different gases present in the bell jar produced a different coloured glow.” (Rachel @ Department of Atmospheric Science, NCU, 2008) Plasma Bell Jar Experiment, showing a beautiful violet hue
(e) Students can be motivated to learn on their own
I knew that this visit would be of exceptional significance because I have a passion for geography. In addition, as I am a geography student, earthquakes are one whole chapter in my syllabus. I would therefore be able to take learning beyond the parameters of the classroom and see how the theoretical knowledge I have learnt is applied to real life. (Rachel @ 921 Wufeng Earthquake Museum, 2008)
(f) Impromptu learning during a field trip
“We were going to Alishan Gou Hotel to spent the night. However, we had to change bus at
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
certain point. The bus that would take us to the hotel only could accommodate half of us. Thus, one group of people would go to the hotel first, then the bus would return to fetch the rest. Most of the Astronomy Club members took the second round, so we had to wait for the bus to fetch us. While waiting, Mr. Tan suggested having star gazing session. Each of us was given a star chart. Then, we had to identify some of the constellations on the sky above with the aid of the chart. We did this until the bus came to fetch us to the hotel.” (Novilisa @ Lulin, Alishan, 2005)
Conclusions
This particular model of informal education has been implemented for at least three years and we have established good relationship with the staff of the National Central University and the Lulin Observatory. As seen from the reflections of the students, there are potentially many opportunities for unstructured learning experiences that the students can learn from. The challenge here is for the teacher is to design programmes that can allow informal education to take place.
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Pictures of the trip
Science Center – Space On a Sphere (SOS)
Lulin Observatory
3rd Nuclear Power Station
Radar dish
Marine Biological Museum
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
Earthquake Museum
Lulin One meter Telescope (LOT)
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Taiwan Astronomy Field Trip
References
Schibeci R.A. (1989) 'Home, school and peer group influences on student attitudes and achievement in science', Science Education, no. 73, p.13.
Lucas, A.M. (1983) ‘Scientific literacy and informal learning’, Studies of Science Education, no. 10, pp. 1-36.
Wellington, J.J. (1990) 'Formal and informal learning in science: the role of the interactive science centres', Physics Education, no. 25, pp. 247-50.
Chiapetta, E.L., & Koballa jr., T.R. (2006). Science Instruction in the Middle and Secondary Schools, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Mcmillan.
MaManus, P. (1992) 'Topics in museums and science education', Studies in Science Education, vol. 20, pp. 157-82.
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Primary age chemistry
Chemistry Through Children’s Eyes
Chemistry Through Children’s Eyes: hands-on activities for ages 9-11
Samantha Tang and Martyn Poliakoff
School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
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Primary age chemistry
Abstract Two activities developed with the assistance of primary school teachers in the UK (US grades 4-6, Singapore primary education orientation stage) are described. These hands-on activities were created with the objectives that they are relevant and supplementary to teaching, and can fit into a school lesson; what makes the activities unusual is that they are delivered by a visiting staff or student member of the University of Nottingham, at no cost to the school, and children‟s artwork is used to illustrate an interactive talk. This is followed by a practical experiment for the children to do individually, in pairs or groups. By using children‟s artwork it was hoped that school pupils would relate to the topic better, and that practical work reinforced scientific principles.
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Primary age chemistry
Chemistry Through Children‟s Eyes: hands-on activities for ages 9-11 This paper reports how a UK university used pictures produced by children in Germany to create two unique, hands-on science activities for young children, which are safe, easily reproducible, and relevant to science teaching. This paper aims to share best practice so that these activities can be replicated by any teacher or educator of young children. Background In May 2003 in Germany an exhibition took place of around 1000 works of art created by school children. The exhibition attracted over 200,000 international visitors and students and was organised as part of a conference by DECHEMA, the Society for Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology. The works of art were created for a competition called “Chemie - Augen - Blicke” (or “chemistry as we see it”) and pupils aged between 10-19 years were asked to depict their thoughts or associations with chemistry. The aim of such a competition was to investigate what children first thought of when asked to think about chemistry, and it was clear from the art produced that children thought of chemistry in a variety of ways, and considered subjects such as engineering, biology and the environment as being a part of chemistry too (see Figure 1). Whilst attending the conference the secondary author of this paper, Prof. Poliakoff, visited the exhibition and had the notion that these artworks would be suitable for incorporation in talks about science for schoolchildren; it was hoped that children would relate better to the topics discussed if they saw pictures created by pupils around their own age, and by using art show that there is creativity in science. The organisers of the exhibition kindly gave the authors of this paper permission to use copies of the artwork for the purpose of education, and analysis of the competition has been published by Hirche and Kreysa (2003).
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Primary age chemistry
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 1.Pictures drawn by German schoolchildren for the Dechema 2003 conference. The children had different viewpoints of chemistry; (a) the role of chemistry in biology, specifically DNA, (b) the consumer products from chemistry, particularly cosmetics, (c) the effect chemicals have on the environment, illustrated in this case by an oil tanker spill, and (d) the stereotype of a “mad” scientist carrying out a dangerous experiment. The Creation of ‘Chemistry Through Children’s Eyes’ Prof. Poliakoff‟s idea to use the artworks in presentations to schools became one of five projects that were funded in 2004 by the UK‟s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), as part of the remit of the then newly appointed Public Awareness Scientist (PASc) at the University of Nottingham, Dr. Tang (this paper‟s primary author). The PASc decided that, rather than visiting schools with just a short talk, experiments and demonstrations should be included in the activity to encourage discussion, Page 2032
Primary age chemistry
allow the children to put ideas into practice, and provide a more memorable experience for the pupils. It was also important for the talk itself to be as interactive as possible, so that the audience did not feel “talked at”, but rather, an active and essential part of the presentation. The way in which the pictures would be incorporated into the presentation would be to pose a question on an otherwise blank slide, encourage responses from the pupils, and then show a picture of the correct/ most common answer, depending on the nature of the question. It became clear upon sorting through and categorising these pictures that certain themes emerged that were pertinent to the thoughts and perceptions of students, such an environment, hazards and safety, and consumer products. By matching some of these themes to the UK school science curriculum, two activities were developed that used the pictures to illustrate key science topics, whilst allowing the incorporation of practical experiments: the first was about crude oil, and the second about colour. An internet search of existing practical activities was conducted to see if suitable experiments could be linked to the themes; these provided inspiration and some were modified to suit the school classroom. The duration of the EPSRC grant was three years, and for each of the five projects funded by this grant a quantitative target was set before the projects commenced. For „Chemistry through Children‟s Eyes‟, the target was two talks at our partner school, Chetwynd Road Primary School, and at six other schools in the first year, and at twelve schools in the second year, with more schools if possible in the third year.
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Primary age chemistry
Activities Two activities have been developed for children aged 9-11. Both activities are suitable for scaling up or down depending on the number of children in a class or whether the activity is carried out with more than one class at a time. The activities were designed with cost, safety and reproducibility in mind; materials and equipment used were bought from supermarkets and general stores, and are therefore cheap, easily sourced and safe for children to use, thereby minimizing the hazards listed on the risk assessment for each activity. The only resources required from the school were for the tables to be protected by covering them in newspaper, for access and use of a sink, and use of the classroom‟s computer and data projector. The Slick Side of Science This was the first activity to be developed by the author Dr. S. Tang in consultation with Mrs. Ann Gleave, who was headteacher of Chetwynd Road Primary School in Nottingham. The activity comprises of two parts: 1. A talk with slideshow – using children‟s artwork, a presentation has been developed that explains to children what crude oil is used for and its importance, how it is formed, and when a rare spill occurs, why it is important to clean it up quickly. The children are asked lots of questions throughout the talk (see Figure 2), and at the end of the talk they are asked to produce pictures themselves, of chemistry or science in general (this artwork can be done whenever it suits the teacher of the class). These pictures could then be used for future talks for schoolchildren.
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Figure 2. Slide from „The Slick Side of Science‟ slideshow. In PowerPoint the question at the top of the slide is shown first, and responses from schoolchildren are elicited before the image and explanation appears on the mouse click. 2. An environmentally friendly oil spill experiment (see Figure 3) – The children get into groups and create their own “sea” by adding a little blue food colouring to water in a large plastic container. They then create “crude oil” by mixing vegetable oil and cocoa powder together, and slowly pour this onto the surface of the sea to create an oil slick. Using a range of household materials e.g. sponge, cotton wool, and paper towel, they attempt to clean the spill up and compare how well each material does so, by giving each one a score (see Table 1). Once they have cleaned the spill up as best they can, they put some feathers into the water, and discover that the feathers are not covered in oil – they have therefore cleaned the spill up successfully!
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Figure 3. Equipment used by children during the experiment as part of „The Slick Side of Science‟. Materials are store-bought to minimise risk to children and also allow anyone to easily obtain them in order to replicate the experiment themselves. Material Cloth Paper towel String Sponge Plastic cup Cotton wool Plastic scrubber
Oil soaked up? None Some Lots 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Water soaked up? None Some Lots 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1
Total score
Table 1. Table completed by children to determine scores for each material tested. Pupils reach a decision in their groups and draw a circle around the number to show how much oil and water was soaked up. They add the oil score and water score in each row to get a total score out of ten for each material.
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Colourful Chemistry The activity is based around a slideshow presentation interspersed with fun, relevant experiments and demonstrations. Topics covered by the activity include why and how we see colour, and the significance of its use, both current and historical, in the form of inks and dyes. Like the „Slick Side of Science‟, the slideshow requires children to respond with answers and opinions. The children are given the opportunity to work individually and perform chromatography using felt tip pens and filter paper, and work in pairs to investigate surface tension by dropping liquid detergent into a dish of milk containing drops of food colouring. The children also watch a chemical colour change demonstrated by the visiting scientist using glucose, sodium hydroxide and indigo carmine dye.
Figure 4. Slide from „Colourful Chemistry’ slideshow. Examples of the way in which people use colour; to decorate our surroundings, decorate ourselves, identify objects, and as labels and warnings. Page 2037
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Outcome In the first two years of the project 9 academic staff and 10 undergraduate and PhD students of the University of Nottingham talked to 1440 pupils at 20 local schools. The activity ties closely into several areas of Key Stage 2 of the UK schools curriculum, giving teachers flexibility in how they exploit this activity in their teaching programme. Demand exceeded ability to supply this activity; since there are more than sixty primary schools in the Nottingham area alone, the PASc implemented two strategies to disseminate this activity more widely. The first was to encourage the scientists at Nottingham Trent University (NTU) to carry out this activity in schools throughout the Nottinghamshire area; they responded very enthusiastically and are currently visiting even more schools than the authors‟ own institution. The second strategy was to partner with the School of Education at the University of Nottingham to demonstrate the activity to PGCE students so that they can perform the activity themselves and show the presentation which was provided for them. The response from the PGCE students was excellent. Both of our talks, on Crude Oil and on Colourful Chemistry, were successfully tested at our partner Chetwynd Road Primary School and over the 3-year course of the project both activities were constantly improved and refined with the input from the teacher‟s evaluations. Copies of the talk have also been supplied to teachers in other parts of the UK and the PASc gave a short talk about this activity at the Green Chemistry Workshop at the British Embassy in Tokyo, with the children‟s slides translated into Japanese. Evaluation An evaluation form for teachers was created in consultation with Dr. Len Newton of the School of Education, University of Nottingham, and Colin Johnson OBE, formerly Director of the Techniquest science centre in Cardiff, UK. Evaluation of the children‟s
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reaction was via the many paintings and drawings which they sent to the University after the activity. Over the first two years of the project the comments and feedback provided by teachers, pupils, and the academic staff that ran the activities was used to improve both the slideshows and practical aspects of „The Slick Side of Science‟ and „Colourful Chemistry‟; both were very much works in progress, and over time several changes were implemented. One example was to encourage the children to read instructions out loud to the rest of the class; this gave the pupils more opportunity to speak in front of an audience, learn the pronunciation of new words (such as pipette), and had the effect of making the rest of the class pay attention to the reader. Another modification was to encourage discussion amongst the pupils about fair testing, and how they could improve the experiment themselves if they were to repeat it. By the third year the feedback from teachers was consistently positive with few if any suggestions for improvement. Visits to local schools with these activities continue to the present date. Conclusions Chemistry through Children’s Eyes has proved to be an extremely successful activity, discussing science with primary school children using presentations based on children‟s pictures; the message is then reinforced with a hands-on experiment for the whole class. Over the period of the grant, 26 schools were involved, with multiple visits each interacting with two classes in a day, so that over the three years approx. 2040 pupils would have experienced science in this format. Each visit involved the PASc and an academic member of staff, who presented the talk; occasionally, the PASc gave the talk and a postgraduate or undergraduate student assisted with the experiment. The nature of the experiments are such that they can be replicated at the school by the teacher at a later date, or the children can perform them at home with their families since all the materials are store bought and easily sourced.
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References Hirche, C., & Kreysa, G. (2003). Public Understanding of Science: Chemie Augen Blicke. Chemie in unserer Zeit, 37(6), 438-441. Environment Canada (2006). Oil, Water and chocolate Mousse: An EnvironmentallyFriendly Oil Spill Experiment. Environment Canada. Retrieved October 13, 2009 from http://www.environment-canada.ca/ee-ue/default.asp?lang=en&n=6AEDF280 Roesky, H. Green-Red-Yellow: An Unusual Traffic Light. Chemical Curiosities (pp. 262263). Germany: VCH. Spangler, S. (2009). Color Changing Milk. Steve Spangler Science. Retrieved October 13, 2009 from http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/experiment/00000066 Neale, N. (2008). Current Kit in a Kase activities. Nottingham Trent University Centre for Effective Learning in Science. Retrieved October 9, 2009 from http://www.ntu.ac.uk/cels/outreach/Kits/Primary_kits/index.html
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Nanoscience Roadshow
The “NanoWhat?” Roadshow
The “NanoWhat? Totally Tiny Technology!” Roadshow
Samantha Li Yu Tang* and Sally Ann Rymer
*School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
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Nanoscience Roadshow
Abstract In 2008 the University of Nottingham collaborated with seven other universities, science organizations, and a UK government body on a project to deliver a roadshow about nanoscience and nanotechnology to the public at six different locations across the East Midlands region of the UK. The event was called the “NanoWhat? Totally Tiny Technology!” Roadshow, and was a free exhibition for schools and the general public to attend. Over the course of 17 days spread over a 3-month period, 23,000 members of the public visited NanoWhat? to find out about the applications, benefits and research into nanoscience. NanoWhat?‟s key objectives were:
To demonstrate to the public the role that nanotechnology plays in their everyday lives
Invite and encourage regional school groups to visit the events and engage in follow up school based work
Illustrate to all visitors the career opportunities in the field of science and technology
To develop visual and interactive displays specifically aimed at capturing the interest of the general public
Reflect the nanotechnology strengths and interests of the hosting universities
To emphasize the strength of science activities in the East Midlands region In addition to the public, 40 organized school groups consisting of a total of 1296
school children visited the exhibition, the schools having been sent workbooks, teacher guides and free resources prior to the event, in order for schools to carry out classroom-based activities relating to the exhibition both pre- and post-visit. These resources can all be downloaded by teachers free from www.nanowhat.co.uk.
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The “NanoWhat? Totally Tiny Technology!” Roadshow The concept of the “NanoWhat? Totally Tiny Technology!” Roadshow (abbreviated to NanoWhat?) was a programme of public awareness events and demonstration activities staged at six locations across the East Midlands region in the UK. The activities were to focus on the subject of nanotechnology. Typically, each event would last for three days and include a week-end day. Each event would be located in a public venue with a high footfall. The event structure would be a connected series of three domed „marquees‟ which housed a central film theatre, a selection of „Nano‟ based interactive displays and an interactive quiz. NanoWhat? Would bring together the expertise and strength of science in the region, threaded with the theme of nanotechnology, and demonstrate how nanotechnology has an impact on our everyday lives, and in applications in the future (jobs, health, consumer goods etc). Objectives The key objectives of NanoWhat? were:
To demonstrate to the public the role that nanotechnology plays in their everyday lives
To invite and encourage regional school groups to visit the events and engage in follow up school based work
To illustrate to all visitors the career opportunities in the field of science and technology
To develop visual and interactive displays specifically aimed at capturing the interest of the general public
To reflect the strengths and interests in nanotechnology of the hosting universities
To emphasize the strength of science activities in the East Midlands region.
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Eight East Midlands universities (Nottingham, Nottingham Trent, Leicester, Leicester De Montfort, Loughborough, Derby, Lincoln and Northampton) worked in partnership by participating in the specifically commissioned „nano‟ films, staffing the event with academics and student ambassadors, and supplying interactives for events closest to their home city/ town. Other public bodies including local City Councils also supported NanoWhat? by either donating the sites for free or at a discount. NanoWhat? was funded by the East Midlands Development Agency (emda), and the roadshow organisation and delivery was led by the University of Nottingham (the authors of this paper were both part of the organising team). NanoWhat? was inspired by a successful, smaller event that took place in 2007 called “Nano in Nottingham”, a three-day free public exhibition of interactive displays and a quiz. For “Nanowhat?”, a 20 minute film was commissioned to demonstrate seven nanotechnology themes in everyday terms and to show how they play a part in everyday life. The film was played on a loop in the NanoWhat? theatre throughout the event. Visiting schools With the exception of the event at Lincoln, each of the six events had a dedicated school day for school groups (UK Years 7 and 8, ages 11-13) to attend exclusively. Schools local to each of the five other locations were contacted and groups ranging from 45-60 pupils were organized to attend NanoWhat? throughout the day, each group visiting for 1.5 hours duration. A work book and teachers‟ guide were developed by the author Dr. S. Tang in consultation with colleagues at The University of Nottingham along with other activities and competitions, and these are the subject of further discussion later in this paper. As part of the conditions of funding NanoWhat?, emda stipulated that one of the objectives was to ensure each school child undertook six hours of „nano‟ work, during and after the event.
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Evaluation The University of Nottingham collected data and monitored the impact of the project following the guidelines developed by emda‟s Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM) Programme Evaluation Framework. Data was collected on a daily basis by means of the interactive quiz, and an „invention‟ competition. Evaluation forms were distributed to all visiting schools, participating academics and onsite staff. This information was collated and analysed by P. L. Murphy Consultancy Services (PLMCS), who produced a confidential report for the event organisers, and some of the findings of this document are presented in this paper. Objectives of this paper This paper will report the outcomes, successes and areas of improvement associated with the organisation and delivery of this event, in order to share best practice. In particular, this paper will focus on the production of classroom-based materials provided to schools in advance of the event, namely the teacher‟s guide and student workbook, and the feedback of teachers and students who attended the roadshow. Other factors concerning such large-scale event organisation, such as publicity and promotion, logistics, and security are beyond the scope of this paper and will not be discussed. Methodology This section will describe some of the different components that made up NanoWhat?; choice of locations and dates, structure and content of NanoWhat?, publicity and promotion of the event, organization of visiting schools, design of classroom materials, and methods of evaluation.
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Nanoscience Roadshow
Event locations and dates It was essential that, in order to maximise the number of potential visitors to NanoWhat?, and give consideration to the teaching schedules of local schools, locations and dates were chosen that were suitable for both school groups and the general public. The majority of events therefore took place in the city or town centre, in an area within the main shopping district, and with at least one weekend date in order to attract as diverse a range of visitors as possible; in the case of Lincoln and Northampton, NanoWhat? became part of a large festival organised by external companies and the dates were beyond the control of those organising NanoWhat?. Since NanoWhat? was a standalone, outdoor structure, it was necessary to select dates during the warmer months in the UK, but not in the summer when schools have finished for the academic year. Locations and Dates in 2008 Nottingham, Market Square:
11th-13th April
Leicester, Humberstone Gate:
17th- 19th April
Loughborough, Granby Street Car Park:
15th-17th May
Derby, Market Place:
12th-14th June
Lincoln Show Ground:
18th-19th June
Northampton: Rockingham Speedway
1st-3rd July
Structure and Content NanoWhat? activities were housed in three domed, highly visual interlinked inflatable marquees occupying an area of some 30 x 20 metres (see Figure 1). Two marquees held demonstration modules provided by all of the participating regional universities, plus other hired computer games and display materials related to nanotechnology. The central marquee was a theatre holding 35 seats showing the specially commissioned film based on seven
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themes related to the practical application of nanotechnology, and featuring short „sound bites‟ by academics from each of the universities. The event was manned by academic and non-academic staff as well as student ambassadors from all universities.
Figure 1. Inflatable structures used to house the NanoWhat? Roadshow. Aerial view taken of the Market Square in Nottingham, the second largest square in the UK, showing the location of the roadshow in the city centre. Themes Seven nanotechnology themes were chosen that were felt to be relevant to the general public and would best demonstrate the application of nanotechnology in everyday life. These themes were demonstrated on displays boards. Each internal banner carried approximately 50 words of description on each theme to explain how this type of nanotechnology could be applied, and the commissioned film was split into these seven themes. These themes played an integral part in a very popular interactive quiz.
Science Fact or Science Fiction?
Nano in Nature
Nano Lifestyle
Nano in Transport
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Nanoscience Roadshow
The Nano Hospital
Nanoelectronics
Nano in Forensics
Interactive Displays The following interactive exhibits and displays were available during the event.
Lotus Car Challenge (Group Lotus plc)
This activity was very popular and constantly busy throughout the exhibition. It was used to highlight exciting possibilities for the designers and manufacturers of cars and how the use of materials based on nanoparticles will enable cars to be safer, more environmentally friendly and more comfortable for the driver and passengers.
Catch that Molecule (The University of Nottingham)
Hydrogen storage for fuel cells was demonstrated by this display which presented research on chemical nanoscience, in particular the way in which chemical frameworks could be made in order to preferentially take up certain materials, such as hydrogen, thereby providing a method of storage that is theoretically safe and non-flammable.
Hydrogen storage demonstrator (The Energy Materials Group, The University of Nottingham)
Hydrogen gas, stored in nanoparticles of a metal hydride packed in a small tube, was passed through a fuel cell which generated sufficient electricity to power a motor connected to a fan. A second demonstrator showed how photovoltaic cells, based on nano-materials, could produce hydrogen from water that also powered an electric fan.
NanoMission™ computer game (Playgen Ltd)
This was a cutting-edge engaging learning experience which educated players about basic concepts in nanoscience through real world practical applications, from microelectronics to
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drug delivery. The nanomedicine module invited the player to select a suitable vehicle to deliver an anti-cancer compound, and then navigate through the bloodstream to the site of the tumour, while avoiding the body‟s natural defense mechanisms.
NanoScale computer game (Playgen Ltd)
This enabled the player to visualise and understand the spatial relationships between objects at all scales, from picometres through to nanometres and all the way up to gigametres.
Build a drug (CELS, Nottingham Trent University)
Using Molymod® molecule building kits and pictorial aids, people were able to build various drugs and see the challenges facing drug development scientists. The aim of this display was to promote nanotechnology in healthcare.
Nanotechnology for the improvement of asthma treatment (Loughborough University)
The history of the asthma inhaler was described and the exhibit showed how modern nanotechnology is being used to enable more effective asthma treatment.
Nanomaterials to Capture Sunlight (Loughborough University)
This exhibit detailed current work focused on taking a leaf from nature and developing natural, „leaf-like‟, solar cells.
Nanocomposites for Security Marking (Loughborough University)
Research in using polymer nanocomposite materials to prevent theft through the manufacture of counterfeit products was showcased.
Crime Scene (University of Derby)
The Crime Scene featured a 'body' of a murdered individual with several obvious pieces of evidence located around it, including footprints, blood, and incriminating documents.
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Nanoscience Roadshow
Visitors were encouraged to think about the evidence that they cannot see e.g. fingerprints, hairs and nanoscale materials such as DNA.
The Nanotechnology film
This specially commissioned film incorporated the seven nanotechnology themes. For each theme, academics from each participating regional university were consulted, interviewed and participated in the production. A local school also took part and featured in the film. Copies of the film were distributed to the visiting schools and any request made on the website. It can be viewed on the “NanoWhat?” website www.nanowhat.co.uk/watch.
Interactive nanotechnology quiz An interactive quiz was devised to ensure that visitors were engaged and understood
the information and activities around them. On arrival, visitors were encouraged to complete a multiple choice quiz card. Each quiz card had a plastic magnifying glass attached which was used to read a „nano‟ sized question printed on the bottom of each of the information boards. By reading the information above the question, the correct answer could be selected on the quiz card. There was a prize draw for an iPod nano which was drawn on each day. This ensured that visitors had to read about each of the themes to be able to answer the questions. Schools participation The target audience was Year 8 (12-13 year olds) and high-achieving Year 7; the local university of each venue was responsible for the recruitment of schools to their event (with the exception of Lincoln, where NanoWhat? was part of a public show). Adherence to a tight timescale drove a concentration on schools with which the organisers had existing links through their widening participation programme. Whilst there are some gaps in the data from the Department of Children, Schools and Families (DCSF), the academic performance of
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schools that attended NanoWhat? in terms of GCSE results rating suggest that the schools that attended were reasonably diverse in terms of performance measures and geography. Classroom-based Activities One of the objectives stipulated by the funding agency for NanoWhat? was to ensure each school child undertook six hours of „nano‟ work, during and before or after the event. Since each school group was scheduled to visit NanoWhat? for 1.5 hours, it was decided that the amount of classroom-based activity needed to occupy a minimum of 4 hours, and that the work given to students would be in the form of a workbook, accompanied by a guide for the teacher with answers and instructions to assist them in the delivery of the material. To fulfil this requirement several activities were devised that fit into the following criteria:
All activities must be linked to nanoscience and technology, but not necessarily linked to each other, so that teachers have the freedom to pick and choose whichever activities they wish to run/ have time to deliver.
Activities should not rely on the use of equipment or materials that are difficult or too expensive for schools to source.
Where possible, the resources for activities should be provided by the organisers of NanoWhat?, and must therefore be suitable for mass production whilst staying within the confines of the project budget. Activities were developed at the University of Nottingham by the author, Dr. S. Tang,
in collaboration with a postdoctoral researcher in nanoscience, Dr. Dan Marsh, and in consultation with Mr. David Brentnall, a local secondary school teacher on secondment as a Teacher Fellow at the University. The event organisers were conscious that the schools should be made to feel valued and an integral part of NanoWhat?, that the materials given to schools did not have the appearance of conventional school textbooks, and were of a
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professional quality rather than photocopied documents. The corporate branding used in the marketing and publicity of the roadshow was therefore incorporated into the design of the workbook and teacher‟s guide. Pages from these documents can be seen in Figure 2.
(a)
(b)
(c) Figure 2. Resources provided to visiting schools prior to their visit to the roadshow. (a) is the cover and (b) shows two pages from the student workbook. (c) shows two pages from the teacher‟s guide.
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Four activities were provided for schools to carry out either before or after their visit: Activity 1 – Big or small? Short or tall? How we understanding size This activity asks the students to consider scientific language and how this differs from conversation or prose. Students are then asked to compare different sized objects and produce a scale from smallest to largest. This is achieved by asking 17 students to each hold a card depicting an image of an object (objects range from a gold atom to the sun), whilst the rest of the class instruct these students to line up in size order. Teaching outcomes: To recognise that the size of an object needs to be defined precisely, and to understand the length scale and powers of 10. Resources provided to schools: Laminated A4 cards depicting images of 17 different objects. Activity 2 – Weak or strong? Round or long? Say hello to carbon The students begin by working as a class to play the game of „element splat‟. The class is divided into 2 groups. One student from each group approaches a poster of the periodic table. The teacher calls out the name of an element and the student has to find the element on the poster and “splat” it with their hand, with the help of their groups calling out directions if necessary. The teacher determines how long this game lasts. The students then work in pairs to identify different forms of carbon (allotropes). Using descriptions in their workbooks, the students cut out 6 pictures and match them to the description before adhering them to the allocated spaces on the workbook page. Finally, the students work individually to create their own model of buckminsterfullerene using card. Teaching outcomes: To recognise that pure carbon can exist in different allotropic forms, and that the physical properties of carbon change depending on the form it is in.
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Resources provided to schools: One A0 size laminated poster of the periodic table, A4 size sheet of 6 pictures of carbon allotropes (one sheet per student), A4 size sheets of card with patterns for making buckminsterfullerene (2 copies of Pattern 1 and 1 copy of Pattern 2 per student). Activity 3 – Making observations, Seeing nanoparticles The teacher gives a demonstration about light scattering, by dropping milk into a beaker of water on an overhead projector. The particles of milk scatter light projected from beneath the beaker and the mixture appears blue in colour. This demonstration explains why the sky appears blue due to particles in the air. The class then engage in a „card loop‟ activity: 30 cards have each been printed with a question on one side and an answer to a different question on the other side, i.e. the answers to 30 questions have been muddled up. The class is arranged as a big circle. Each student holds one card and one starts by asking the first question. The class determines which student is holding the answer to this, and once this card is found, the student holding that answer card gets to ask their question. This continues until all the questions have been asked and matched with their answers. Outcomes: To make and record observations about a scientific demonstration. To understand how nanoparticles can interact with light. To revise facts learned in previous sessions. Resources provided to schools: 30 A5 size „card loop‟ question and answer cards, one teacher‟s Molymod® kit (small plastic balls and sticks for making simple molecules). Activity 4 – Make a poster and tell everyone about nanoscience! Students work individually, in pairs or small groups to create an A3 size poster about NanoWhat?, and are encouraged to be as creative as possible. Content of the poster must include information about either or both the classroom activities and the roadshow visit.
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Posters could be submitted by teachers to the roadshow organisers, who selected the best posters for show at subsequent roadshow dates. Outcomes: To create a poster demonstrating the student‟s knowledge of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Resources provided to schools: A3 size padded envelope addressed to roadshow organisers for teachers to send student‟s posters. The workbooks and resources were mailed to participating schools in advance of their visit to the roadshow, so that teachers could familiarise themselves with the content before their visit (although for schools scheduled to visit in April 2008, the lead-in time between delivery of the resources and their visit dates was very short, due to the short timescale between confirmation of funding and the first event). In addition to these items each school child was given a „goody bag‟ upon completion of their visit which contained stationery and clothing items, with the aim of increasing the impact of the event and providing lasting souvenirs. Evaluation There were several methods by which the impact of NanoWhat? was measured. Visitors were counted and where quiz sheets or „invention cards‟ were completed, these provided details of the age, gender, and address of participants. Schools were asked by the event organisers to complete a feedback form, covering, amongst other things, pre-event information and the quality, style, content and level of the classroom resources. Further feedback was sought by PLMCS for their report; the target for their study was to secure 20 interviews with schools, 10 interviews each with schools that did and did not attend. Initial contact was by email followed up by repeated phone calls but the response rate was poor and only 13 interviews were forthcoming. It was noted that there was some evidence of
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“evaluation fatigue” with two teachers in particular expressing irritation at being contacted repeatedly for feedback; this observation is important as it should inform any future evaluation procedure. The general public was invited to complete a short questionnaire exploring how much they felt they had enjoyed, understood, and learned from the event. Academics and student ambassadors were also asked for feedback, and to report memorable comments made to them by the visiting public. Anecdotal evidence in the form of comments from the public, and the staff and university students that contributed to the delivery of the event, was also collected. Outcomes and Discussion Overall, the event was extremely successful in meeting the objectives of raising public awareness, with 23,124 visitors over a total of 17 days. Of these, 1296 were schoolchildren who were part of 40 organised school groups. A large cross section of society came to the event and played on the games and interactive displays as well as looking at the information, with people from different ages and backgrounds. Feedback from the public suggested the film was informative, easy to understand, interesting and was suitable for most ages (7 years and older). This film subsequently won the Royal Television Society‟s Award for Best Corporate/ Non Broadcast Programme in 2008. The quiz proved to be the most popular attraction with people of all age ranges completing the quiz. Resources developed included a film, teacher‟s guidance pack and student workbook. These resources, which continue to be available on the NanoWhat? website, were designed with Year 8 (or high achieving Year 7) students in mind and were sent out to schools ahead of their visits. 40 school groups brought 54 teachers and 1296 students, but quiz completion data suggests that in total more than 5,000 young people under the age of 21 attended the events. These tangible products of the project continue to be useful.
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Discussions with representatives of the partners and review of feedback collected at the events suggest that the experiences were very positive and that the roadshow achieved the desired impacts. Feedback on the day and responses to a follow-up survey of participants in November 2008 suggest that the roadshow was well received by members of the public as well as teachers and pupils. The academics involved were also enthusiastic about the opportunity of presenting their science to a wider audience. Evaluation activities This chapter focuses on the outcomes summarised by the PLMCS report of NanoWhat?, which collated the responses from teacher and student questionnaires, and interviews with schools. Feedback from interviews Interviews were conducted with 13 schools of which eight had attended the 2008 event. Two further interviews with science advisory teachers were conducted (from Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire County Councils). The key strengths of Nanowhat? identified by this group were:
The hands-on demonstrations were the most valuable as these effectively engaged the attention of the students (see Figure 3);
The event was seen as an excellent “educational enrichment” activity particularly relevant to the gifted and talented pupils;
Getting off-site was welcome and schools are willing to travel up to an hour for an event that is particularly relevant;
The professionalism of the roadshow was commented upon;
The prizes were attractive to the children;
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The events had broad appeal across the range of abilities and were attractive to students at all stages and were not constrained by adherence to the National Curriculum;
The enthusiasm of the presenters and the fact that the displays showed cutting-edge research added excitement;
All schools that attended indicated that they would go again but more notice would be appreciated;
Some of the children re-visited the events with their parents subsequently.
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Figure 3. Ratings assigned by teachers to the different elements of the roadshow. Source: PLMCS report.
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The areas in which scope for improvement was identified were:
The school packs, although good quality, were not seen as relevant in the classroom as there was no obvious link to the National Curriculum;
On the day, the videos were the least attractive of the displays although some teachers were happy to use them in science clubs subsequently;
Travelling to events is onerous in terms of administration and cost but time away from the classroom is a major barrier. A preference was expressed (albeit reluctantly) for delivery on the school site to overcome this;
There is a plethora of resources and events available to teachers and better coordination between agencies would be helpful;
Scheduling of events towards the end of the Summer Term (June/July) would be optimal;
The opportunity to promote academic scientists as role models was not fully exploited;
Information about careers in industry was lacking;
Evaluation of such an enrichment activity is not a priority for teachers as it is not core to the National Curriculum;
Teachers would be willing to collect data only if it were part of their normal teaching cycle;
Whilst enjoyable, the roadshow is not core to the educational progression of the pupils.
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Teacher outcomes Evidence of impact on teachers was limited. It relates primarily to the following areas: ability to teach STEM subjects, including building practical applications into lessons, the development of links with local HEIs, and interest in future STEM enrichment and CPD. Teachers’ ability to teach STEM subjects, including building practical applications into lessons A key project output was the work packs and associated materials. These included: information on the applications and effects of nanotechnology; activities and quizzes; and supporting tools such as the periodic tables. The packs were designed to be used flexibly, as suits different teaching environments. The interviewees believed that teachers had made use of the packs in a variety of ways, some taking „bits and pieces‟ from them and others working through them in a more systematic fashion. Responses to the teacher survey suggested that the materials were an aspect of the project that was particularly popular with some teachers, one respondent stating that they had a particular liking for NanoWhat? as „it has support materials for students and teachers to help develop their ideas with visual examples at the Roadshow itself‟. Teachers were reported to have been very enthusiastic about the event and the associated resources and their potential contribution to both their students and their own (professional) development. Student outcomes Due to the limitations of the evidence base, only tentative conclusions about the impact of the project on students can be drawn. Project interviewees believe that the work has made a difference, but are not confident it will be possible to disentangle the influence of the project from other variables (e.g. school, family, the media or experience of other STEM initiatives). Evidence of impact is at present restricted to two particular areas: students‟
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enjoyment of, and interest in, STEM subjects, and students‟ awareness of, and interest in, STEM careers. Both these impact areas may in turn influence attainment and subject choices. Students’ enjoyment of, and interest in, STEM subjects Project interviewees were cautious in reporting impact in this area. However, one noted a high volume of requests from teachers for resources associated with the project, for example super-sized periodic tables, which they surmise has been fuelled by students‟ expressions of interest. Comments from the small sample of teacher survey respondents support claims in the post-event report that the roadshow was very popular with pupils. Student survey responses indicate that many young participants found their visit to the roadshow an enjoyable learning experience („very interesting and I learnt a lot‟; „I enjoyed learning how tiny the nanometres were‟). Some comments suggested a more lasting influence: „I‟ve learnt loads of science information and [it] has encouraged me to find more of an interest in it‟. Students’ awareness of, and interest in, STEM careers Nanotechnology covers a range of disciplines and professional areas, from car design to forensics, and is employed in a host of industries in the region. In terms of exposure to new ideas and information, one of the anticipated consequences of holding the event in busy public places was that a wider cross-section of the public might be engaged than in a more conventional, static exhibition. It seems possible, as suggested by one interviewee, that visitors might include less informed and aspirational parents and children, i.e. where there was particular scope to extend awareness and encourage an interest. Schools from more disadvantaged areas were targeted for involvement. One of the commitments made in the original project application was to „work towards changing the image associated with careers and study in science and technology‟.
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Actions to promote this change included the involvement of academics and students from groups under-represented in science and technology, in particular women. However, whether the provision of information will produce attitudinal and behavioural change is not possible to say at this point – and may never be. Whilst one of the interviewees proposed that changing the way a tiny proportion of visitors thought about science and their attraction to it as a career would be a very satisfying result, they expressed doubt as to whether such an impact could ever be convincingly demonstrated. Other outcomes This project was designed primarily as a public awareness activity and as such was intended to have an impact on the wider population of the East Midlands (i.e. not exclusively teachers and students). Though there was no systematic collection of baseline data, members of the public were canvassed about their knowledge of nanotechnology in the making of the original film. Few even knew what this science was. Where people engage with projects with neither forethought nor intent (i.e. they „just wander in because they wonder what‟s sitting in their square‟) it could be expected that there would be variable impact. However, the authors witnessed that many visitors spent more time at the roadshow than might be expected from a casual passer-by. A significant number of people spent quite substantial amounts of time in the show, such that it reached maximum occupancy on numerous occasions, and people queued for the privilege of access. It cannot be said with confidence what exactly these visitors took away, but the organisers believe that they managed to communicate their message (what nanotechnology is and why it matters) quite effectively. Media coverage of these events would hopefully have spread the message beyond those in direct contact with the project. It is clear from quiz completion data that many children and young people came to the event independently or with parents and carers
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– the involvement of the latter may be significant in terms of later conversations within these family groups about the event and therefore the lasting impact the event will have. However, the long-term impact of the events is impossible to measure without the establishment of a baseline and longitudinal survey. The other respect in which this project is relatively unique is in its involvement of several regional universities. This was both a necessary condition for the success of the project (and as such is noted again in the section titled „Good Practice‟, below) and in terms of the resultant relationships and mechanisms for partnership working towards a valuable outcome, which might support other projects and activities in the future. Good practice Project interviewees and documentation suggest the following features and factors may have been pivotal in the success of the project:
Strong leadership (the project being championed by individuals with passion and credibility and fronted by a respected institution);
The alignment of the HEIs (with the model encouraging shared ownership and commitment to the success of the events, but allowing each institution to preserve and promote its own identity);
The use of detailed and tested project management methodologies;
The use of marketing / communications and events experts;
The potential of the project having been previously demonstrated;
Events being heavily staffed with students and academics who were there „for the fun of it‟ and very enthusiastic about sharing their knowledge with the public;
Locations with a „high footfall‟, chosen with the help of local authorities;
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The wide-ranging application of the technology, which made it possible to engage people in a variety of different ways. Conclusions NanoWhat? was a successful project that was well-received by schools and the public
across the East Midlands region of the UK. Unfortunately due to the economic downturn it was not possible to secure funding from emda or any other agencies to provide a further grant to support the continuation of this project in 2009. As one might expect, some practical lessons have been learnt which would be taken into account were the project to run again in future years. More significantly, perhaps, it is likely that new themes would be introduced under the „nano banner‟, to maintain the interest of both the public and the people delivering the events themselves. Themes under consideration are food, energy and green issues, including those around which there is some controversy and public debate. Feedback from teachers, via the teacher survey, suggested that extensions to the work with schools might be valued by some schools. One respondent suggested it „would be good if you could provide some experts to assist / deliver some of the follow-on materials in school‟. Whilst for children, getting away from the school site may be valued, staff are conscious of the challenges and costs of attending events off-site and another teacher encouraged events organisers to „Bring them into schools more‟. In general, early communication / notification of events is helpful to schools, though clearly this is difficult for project staff to provide where projects have a very short lead-in time. The project was, first and foremost, a public engagement event but also served as a valuable curriculum enrichment opportunity for the schools that attended. Demand for another roadshow was high and should the event run again, schools will certainly attend. However, although adult learners and those already in the workforce are cited as important
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targets for training and upskilling in national policy documents, the PLMCS report detected a discernable shift away from pure public awareness to school-based activity as the preferred mechanism for driving uptake of STEM subjects at regional and national level. It is likely that this is driven in large part by difficulties in measuring impacts and value for money. In order to re-configure NanoWhat? as a school-focussed activity, the educational content of the programme will need to be addressed and better links to the National Curriculum defined. This will undoubtedly place some constraints on the subject matter for any future programme and could reduce the “cutting-edge” attractiveness of the demonstrations that were identified as particularly valuable by teachers and students. Whether such constraints would lessen the attractiveness of the model to academic researchers is as yet unknown but certainly the amount of interactions with parents/guardians and adult learners delivered by the roadshow model will be significantly reduced if a focus on schools is pursued. Uptake of the school programme will be contingent upon clearly defining the benefits to the pupil of participation and quality and relevance of the educational content.
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References Nanowhat? – The East Midlands Nanotechnology Roadshow. Teacher’s guide, student workbook and classroom resources. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from www.nanowhat.co.uk/teach Molymod® Molecular Models. Retrieved August 28, 2009, from www.molymod.com
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Periodic Videos
Periodic Table of Videos
The Periodic Table of Videos
Samantha Li Yu Tang and Martyn Poliakoff
School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. Email: [email protected]
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Abstract Tables charting the chemical elements have been around since the 19th century - but this modern version has a short video about each one. Our group has launched a website, www.periodicvideos.com, which has become one of the most successful science channels on YouTube. This session, for a general audience, explores the advantages of presenting science as online videos rather than live experiments in the lecture. The University of Nottingham has collaborated with video journalist Brady Haran to pioneer the use of YouTube for communicating actual science to the widest possible audience. It now has 3 YouTube channels with a total of nearly 400 videos. The most successful channel of the Periodic Table of Videos has been running for 11 months and already has had nearly 7 million hits from over 200 different countries. The audience has ranged from young children to Nobel Prize winners, and the videos appeal to students, teachers, and anyone with an interest in science! Overall, the aim of these videos is to excite and stimulate their audience, to promote chemistry and the elements, and to encourage future generations to take up a career in the sciences.
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The Periodic Table of Videos The Periodic Table of Videos (abbreviated to PTOV) is a website, www.periodicvideos.com, based on YouTube where viewers can click on any one of the 118 elements and watch a video about that element (see Figure 1). PTOV is a collaboration between UK East Midlands-based freelance video journalist Brady Haran and a team of chemists at the University of Nottingham. Initially completed in July 2008, PTOV has been updated weekly with new videos; some about elements or topical subjects, as well as chemical road trips to Sweden, Ethiopia and the USA. On average, each video has been watched 35,000 – 40,000 times, and two have had over 350,000 hits; the whole site has attracted more than 7 million hits (excluding multiple viewing by school classes across the world).
Figure 1. The Periodic Table of Videos website. Screenshot of the frontpage of the website.
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The authors believe that PTOV is now one of the most successful science channels on YouTube and it was highlighted in the UK‟s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) International Review of Chemistry in 2009. Funding for PTOV has come partly from EPSRC with more than matching funds from the University of Nottingham. PTOV has now spawned a sister website, “Sixty Symbols” www.sixtysymbols.com applying a similar approach to physics. Background PTOV was the brainchild of video journalist Brady Haran who, in 2008, was making YouTube videos of scientists in the East Midlands as part of the Nottingham Science City initiative. This led to him meeting author M Poliakoff and together they started filming PTOV. Rapidly they co-opted three more academics; Dr. Peter Licence, Dr. Deborah Kays and Dr. Stephen Liddle, as well as author S. Tang and senior technician Mr. Neil Barnes. The whole team was taken by surprise by the almost instantaneous success of the website. Even before PTOV was finished, it had attracted national and international press coverage and was being heavily discussed in the blogosphere. The audience was very wide, ranging from schoolchildren and teachers to active scientists and interested members of the public. In October 2008 PTOV won the Petronas Award for Excellence in Education from the Institution of Chemical Engineers. Methodology The beauty of YouTube is that people can communicate with the team almost in real time, with questions, suggestions and requests for new videos. As time goes on, the team has developed an unusual formula for the videos. They are entirely unscripted, with each of the participants talking about a particular subject largely unaware of what the others are saying. These contributions are then edited very professionally but in a way that preserves the Page 2071
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spontaneity and avoids the stifling corporate feel that pervades most university videos. Indeed, Nottingham is barely mentioned in most of our clips. PTOV‟s appeal is neatly summed up by a recent comment about Mendelevium (Md) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JlshAo8DuE “You guys on periodicvideos are brilliant - I'm amazed at how you can make a boring element like Md interesting. If I looked it up on wikipedia I could probably find its isotopes, its electronic structure, maybe its physical properties. But I'd never have known that you can get vodka labelled as "C2H5OH+H2O" or that the periodic table's called the mendeleev table in russia etc :)” and a comment on a blog written by American science and engineering research students, http://blog.benchside.com/2009/07/video-pedia/ which said "The interesting thing, at least to me, is that the videos succeed not only in conveying interesting concepts in, hopefully, an easy-to-understand format, but that they do what textbooks and slides and figures and online encyclopedia's can never do: they humanize the science and the scientists behind them. And, if that happens effectively, then social media may be the most powerful scientific tool ever." When PTOV was initiated, there were already a number of websites dedicated to the periodic table, listing facts and textbook paragraphs of somewhat dry description accompanied by static images. What sets PTOV apart from these is the human aspect of the video recordings, with the presenters not only providing details about each element but also sharing their personal stories related to them, and the style of delivery incorporates humour which adds to the enjoyment of watching the video. Each video of each element follows a similar format and approach: a mixture of talk and (where possible) demonstration, using dog toys as molecular models, describing important applications, and including amusing anecdotes, as well as examples of cutting edge research. Page 2072
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Each PTOV video is posted online in three different locations simultaneously: our dedicated
website
www.periodicvideos.com,
on
our
YouTube
channel
http://www.youtube.com/user/periodicvideos where viewers have the opportunity of posting comments,
and
on
a
video
server
at
the
University
of
Nottingham
http://www.periodicvideos.com/nyt/index.htm for those (such as some schools) who cannot access YouTube because of blocking by system administrators. Each member of the team brings a different skill that is needed to produce the successful series of videos. The members are sufficiently closely linked that, when necessary, they are able to respond to breaking news e.g. four hours between the announcement that element 112 was named Copernicium appearing on the BBC News website and the completion and upload of our video (which attracted over 14,000 views in its first three weeks). The film-maker Brady not only produces high quality, well-edited videos in a short period of time and maintains the website, but also has an uncanny knack of identifying what will interest the viewers. The research scientists communicate a mixture of basic chemical information and cutting edge research and bring a human side to science with anecdotes; for example Dr. Liddle‟s video on uranium including his discovery of the first uranium-gallium bond
has
attracted
more
than
230,000
views
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8vVZTvJNGk. Neil Barnes is a senior technician who has devised apparatus that allows spectacular demonstrations to be carried out safely whilst retaining their visual impact. All the scientists are experienced in public engagement and Brady is a professional journalist who ensures that the right questions are asked and is fully aware of what material is appropriate to be released into the public domain. The remit of the videos has been expanded to incorporate subject matter and content related to chemical
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processes, equipment or phenomenon, which have been met with positive responses from the public. Chemistry is diverse culturally and already on PTOV we have included male and female chemists, scientists from China and Ethiopia, and researchers at all levels, from undergraduate to senior professor. Outcomes and Discussion The indications from our PTOV website and the more recent www.sixtysymbols.com strongly indicate that there is an audience for such videos and that this audience is nowhere close to saturation. On 1 October 2009, PTOV had 16, 516 subscribers on YouTube who are alerted as each new video is uploaded. To put this in context, this number is slightly more than the number of subscribers for Chelsea Football Club‟s YouTube channel, close to that of UK television series “EastEnders”, and more than one third of the number of subscribers to the channel of the journal “New Scientist”. The number of PTOV subscribers is currently increasing at a rate of 100-500 per week. In addition, the website has been promoted in magazines and websites accessible to science teachers as well as to the general public. The advantage of YouTube and websites is that they provide instant access to a wide range of statistics that can act as feedback and enable one to judge the success of any particular video in real time. Therefore, this provides a very active and positive feedback loop to monitor and improve the impact of our output. Initially, PTOV was not targeted at a particular audience, but there was a strong hope that the nature of the medium and its content would appeal to young people. It has turned out that the audience has been much wider than this but the PTOV team have received considerable feedback from teachers across the globe that their videos really are appealing to school pupils at an age when they can be turned on to science. For example, the following message from Radley College, Abingdon, UK was received:
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“the periodic table videos that have now become an essential opening to any lesson with the chemistry set that I teach. Thanks again for developing such a wonderful teaching aid that has already inspired great interest in chemistry” Brady Haran has visited Barker Road Middle School in Pittsford, New York, USA where PTOV is used regularly, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLxESqXdj4o and brought back questions
from
the
pupils
for
Martyn
Poliakoff
to
answer:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0F_ztEv_v1Y There is also some anecdotal evidence that our videos have been used in at least one UK school in their home economics class! The team strongly believes that the internet is by far the most cost-effective way of distributing these videos. However, with sponsorship from the chemical and pharmaceutical group Solvay, the PTOV team recently collaborated with Catalyst Discovery Centre in Widnes (one of the few chemistry-centred museums in the UK) to set up a free-standing PTOV display targeted at school-age children which is proving highly successful. Finally, once created these videos will be permanently available on the internet. Thus, since much of our existing audience is teenage, new children will be continually entering this age group and be added to the potential audience. An interesting feature of YouTube videos is the ability to add subtitles which have been done successfully on a number of our videos. This has the following benefits: i.
it will make the videos accessible to those with impaired hearing,
ii.
it will help those who do not have English as their first language, particularly because YouTube is introducing an automatic translation service for subtitled videos. It will also help those who have difficulty in adapting to the variety of regional accents of the PTOV presenters,
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iii.
it will enable videos to be watched by individuals in classrooms, libraries, or other „quiet areas‟, where audible sound would be unacceptable. So, for example, each pupil in a class could watch a different molecule at the same time without disturbing the others, without the need for headphones. Publicity and Dissemination
On 2nd May 2009 the PTOV team performed a live demonstration lecture/ video event at the Nottingham Broadway Media Centre to coincide with the One Nottingham 2009 Partnership Week (see Figure 2). „Chemistry Goes Live in Science City‟ was commercially quite successful, and gave local viewers of the videos the opportunity to meet the team. Footage recorded by B. Haran of this event was edited and uploaded We also hope to participate at ESOF 2010 in Turin in July, where have applied to present a multi-media demonstration lecture.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Performance of „Chemistry Goes Live in Science City‟ at the Broadway Media Centre, Nottingham. (a) S. Tang and M. Poliakoff perform one of several live demonstrations. Image courtesy of Laura Patterson. (b) Audience members meet the PTOV team (in red labcoats) at the end of the event.
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PTOV has a loyal fan base with over 15,000 subscribers to the YouTube channel, and has been featured online in regional news articles (Nottingham Evening Post, The Western Mail, a Welsh National) and national newspapers (The Guardian, The Telegraph, and The Daily Mail), in addition to scientific journals (nature.com and The Chemical Engineer), and on BBC Radio 4 („Material World‟ on 28 August 2008, and „Music Group‟ 21 April 2009). It has also been picked up by numerous internet bloggers with an interest in science and all recommend their readers to visit the website. Monitoring and Evaluation YouTube videos generate a mass of feedback data including the number of views (hits), the geographical location of the viewers (often very precise e.g. central Leeds in the UK), and the duration of viewing including an analysis of the elapsed time at which people stop watching. YouTube also allows registered users to rate a video on a 5 star scale and to post comments – sometimes very pertinent. In addition PTOV encourages viewers to email the website or one of the PTOV team directly. At present it is not clear how the data and statistics from the PTOV website could be best transformed into a robust evaluation of impact, suitable for publication; as far as we are aware, there is no standard methodology of how to do this but we are currently experimenting with the mass of information already acquired for the website. Brady Haran is assembling the data for analysis with Professor Brigitte Nerlich of the Institute for Science and Society and mathematician Professor Mike Thelwall, a specialist in webometrics and cybermetrics (both are academics at the University of Nottingham) with a view to publishing a paper about the three Nottingham YouTube sites (PTOV, Sixty Symbols and Test Tube). At present the PTOV team use feedback information in real time to maximize the impact of their videos in the following ways:
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(i) The number of hits is used to gauge the immediate and longer term impact of each video. (ii) The star rating also acts as a guide; nearly every PTOV video has scored 5 stars – so any significantly lower ratings will be quite a stark warning of viewer disquiet. (iii) Viewers‟ comments enable the team to identify popular aspects of the videos and the “viewing time” data is used to avoid repeating features that cause viewers to turn off. (iv) The team respond to YouTube comments, as appropriate, and answer all e-mails from viewers. Conclusions PTOV is a significant and, the authors believe, an educationally valuable website. It enables university academics to bring to life chemistry concepts and communicate them to a wide ranging YouTube audience. The EPSRC International Review of Chemistry commented on the value-for-money of PTOV as a public engagement activity. The PTOV team hopes to continue making videos about the chemical sciences by expanding the content to include molecules of significant interest; such videos would allow the presenters to highlight the chemical problems and solutions associated with many topical issues, e.g. climate change and sustainability, that are currently major concerns of the public in general and young people in particular.
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References Haran, B. (2009). The Periodic Table of Videos. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.periodicvideos.com Haran, B. (2009). Sixty Symbols: Videos about the symbols of physics and astronomy. Retrieved October 1, 2009 from http://www.sixtysymbols.com Phan, A., Tseng, B., Suh, E. & Tseng, K. (2009). Bench Press: The Crossroads of Science and Tech. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://blog.benchside.com/ Greenwell, M. (2009). Uni‟s link to the first man on the Moon. Nottingham Evening Post. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.thisisnottingham.co.uk/news/Rocketproblems-solved-Nottingham/article-1181505-detail/article.html Norman, K. (2009). Chemist‟s explosive videos are YouTube hit. The Western Mail. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/walesnews/2009/07/23/chemist-s-explosive-videos-are-youtube-hit-91466-24218531/ Pickard, A. (2008). Giraffe-like models and Poliakoff‟s brother. The Guardian. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/sep/08/realitytv.digitaltvradio Moore, M. (2009). 'Mad professor' becomes YouTube hero with explosive science videos. The Telegraph. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/6086040/Mad-professor-becomesYouTube-hero-with-explosive-science-videos.html From the blogosphere (2008). Authors: From the blogosphere. Nature. Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v455/n7210/full/7210xiiic.html The Chemical Engineer (2008). YouTube in its element. tce today. December 2008/ January 2009, 24.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR ENGAGED LEARNING
USING FACEBOOK AS A MULTI-FUNCTIONAL ONLINE TOOL FOR COLLABORATIVE AND ENGAGED LEARNING OF PRE-UNIVERSITY SCIENCE SUBJECTS
Tay Kai Yun Karen, Tan May May Daphne, Oh-Tan Xiao Juan Magdalene Innova Junior College
This paper is the result of an action research conducted in Innova Junior College to investigate the effectiveness of Facebook in creating a collaborative and engaged learning environment for the teaching and learning of Chemistry and Biology at the Pre-University Level. Correspondence concerning this paper could be addressed to any of the following authors via email. Email: [email protected], (Chemistry) [email protected], (Chemistry) [email protected], (Biology)
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE ABSTRACT This paper explores advantages of utilising Facebook (see http://www.facebook.com), as an online platform for the teaching and learning of Chemistry and Biology at the Pre-University level. With the ease of information sharing through the emergence of Web 2.0, popular social networking sites (e.g Twitter.com, Friendster.com, MySpace.com) are not merely utilised for connecting friends, but are also suitable platforms for business marketing, political campaigns, social outreach as well as collaborative learning in education. Whilst there is much experimentation amongst tertiary education institutes in employing Facebook in teaching and learning, a systematic study of its effectiveness particularly in the Singapore context, is largely unexplored. An action research which spans across subjects such as Chemistry and Biology, was conducted in Innova Junior College with first year PreUniversity (JC1) students. In the course of the action research, Facebook was utilised as a revision tool, an assessment tool as well as a peer-to-peer teaching tool. This paper will describe how Facebook can be employed in creating an online learning environment, which is both rich in resources on Science subjects as well as conducive for academic discussion. Survey results on various aspects of the action research were analysed and discussed. These findings shed light on the effectiveness and potential of Facebook as an effective learning platform.
Keywords: Facebook; collaborative learning; online learning; Chemistry; Biology
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE INTRODUCTION New era, new learning objectives, new pedagogical practices Rapid technological advancements in the new century not only alter the world‟s economic landscape but also pose new challenges to the education scene. In Singapore, school syllabus and learning objectives are reviewed and revised periodically so as to equip students with the relevant knowledge and skills that will enable them to contribute meaningfully to the rapidly progressing economy. For instance, the most recent GCE „A‟ Level Chemistry and Biology syllabi place greater emphasis on the understanding and application of scientific concepts and principles and its scope has been redefined to include new topics that will provide students with relevant knowledge in preparation for their participation in a technologically driven economy (SEAB 2009). The importance of equipping our young with the appropriate skills and mindsets to prepare them to navigate a fast changing, globalised world, popularly referred to as “21st Century Skills”, was also addressed on several occasions by education leaders, in particular Dr Ng Eng Hen, Minister for Education during the MOE Workplan Seminar 2008.
However, in order to achieve the desired outcomes of scientific understanding as well as 21st Century Skills, suitable teaching pedagogies will need to go hand-in-hand with the revised learning objectives. Though the current “lecture, tutorial and practical” system has been effective for imparting scientific knowledge as well as examination answering techniques for the past decades, it needs to be supplemented by other teaching and learning platforms in order to tap on the wealth of resources and learning experiences that has recently emerged due to the new technology, in particular, Web 2.0.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Web 2.0 presents opportunities for innovative pedagogical practices This second generation of web development is best known for the popularisation of social networking sites, such as MySpace, Friendster, Twitter and Facebook where harnessing collective intelligence is sometimes described as the core pattern of Web 2.0 (Warr, 2008). Social networking sites, when appropriately used, can bring about a learner-centered environment where students are content creators rather than passive consumers. Facebook is chosen as the research focus due to its popularity and multi-functionality for creating a collaborative and media-rich online learning environment where students can be engaged in learning.
Facebook‟s potential as an effective tool for authentic learning Facebook.com was founded in February 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, a former student at Harvard University. The social networking site can be vaguely described as “a social utility that connects you with the people around you”. It is where online and offline connections are bridged and Facebook community is essentially crafting online lives that seamlessly meld with their offline world (Muñoz & Towner, 2009). With this unique function, Facebook is an ideal choice for supplementing offline face-to-face classroom learning with online collaborative learning. This inevitably expands curriculum time and facilitates peer-to-peer tutoring.
Facebook‟s popularity leads to ease in implementation The advantage of using Facebook also lies in its popularity and user-friendliness. As of July 2009, Facebook boasts a network of 250 million people and is ranked the most popular social networking site collectively by Inbound Links, Alexa Rank, and U.S. traffic data from Compete and Quantcast (http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social-networking). Its popularity
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE in connecting students and alumni of more than 2,200 colleges and universities (Charnigo & Barnett-Ellis, 2007) also results in the sharing of rich academic resources and applications which make it a welcoming and convenient tool for learning. Being amongst the top 30 countries with the highest number of Facebook users, Singapore has an estimated number of 1.3 million users. Since, most of the local students are already Facebook users or are interested in becoming one of them, the ease in implementing Facebook as a learning tool is almost expected.
Facebook‟s ability for integrated presentation of content aids in visualisation of scientific concepts Currently, online management and learning systems such as Microsoft Learning Gateway (MLG), Integrated Virtual Learning Environment (IVLE) and e-portals are utilised to meet the needs of distance learning in Singapore schools. Though many of these online learning platforms afford online discussions or content sharing in controlled and safe environments, they seldom allow integrated presentation of academic content in various formats, such as text, videos, pictures, website links as well as discussion threads onto a single view as seamlessly as Facebook. Very often, students will need to upload a document from one page, refer to related videos or pictures in another and engage in academic discussion in a discussion forum found in yet another page. The navigation from page to page will result in students‟ frustration and worse, less coherent understanding of all the academic materials.
In the learning of Chemistry and Biology, visualisation of abstract scientific concepts is crucial to achieve understanding. Hence, teachers will often supplement textbook content by playing suitable animations, applets and videos during lectures or tutorials. With Facebook, a single integrated platform where academic content in various formats can exist on the same
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE webpage is created. This will inevitably aid the application of content knowledge as well as visualisation of abstract concepts that will facilitate students‟ understanding. Moreover, learning can take place beyond curriculum time and students can review the resources at their own pace.
Facebook‟s features catalyses academic discussions Teacher-student
and
student-student
interaction
are
facilitated
using
Facebook‟s
communication features such as “livechat” and “discussion boards”. “Livechat” is a real-time application which displays a list of the user‟s online friends and allows the user to invite a friend to chat. “Discussion boards” are similar to forums which allow users to pose questions and discuss topics. Teachers can inform students of assignments deadlines by “setting event” and the Facebook Wall can be utilised for group announcement. “Setting event” is a mass messaging tool to a Facebook Group on upcoming events and the Facebook Wall is a space on every user‟s profile page that allows friends to post messages for the user to see. With these features, students can use Facebook to contact both classmates and teachers about questions regarding class assignments and examinations, as well as collaborate on group projects in this online environment.
Moreover, the online environment for academic discussion can be made exclusive or less distracting. By creating a closed Facebook Group where members are added based on invitation, a safe study space equivalent to that of a private portal is crafted out for all members to share academic content and engage in discussion threads or live chats. A Facebook Group can be set up by “inviting friends” consisting of members of a class or module. Materials of various formats can be made available on a single platform by all members in the group. Academic discussions can then take place in-situ with the various
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Facebook communication functions. Although the functions of Facebook are not sophisticated and extensive enough to serve as a complex school management system, it is ideal for teachers to set up simple online courses at absolutely no cost.
Facebook‟s applications expand potential of its use in learning The availability of multiple applications set up by the impressive network of Facebook users further expands the potential of Facebook into an assessment tool (Quizzer, Liveblog), an one-on-one tutoring tool (Livescribe), a revision tool (Bestchoice Chemistry) and a research tool (Videosearch). If written communication is not sufficient to provide a clear explanation, “Livescribe” which is a screencasting tool will facilitate online consultation by allowing recording of narration accompanying with step-by-step explanation similar to that of a faceto-face consultation. This allows students to follow through clear explanations and thoughtprocesses of teachers at home, similar to those presented at lectures and tutorials. “Videosearch” which searches through all video sharing websites including YouTube, is a research tool that can lay the foundation for informal learning. It can hence be tapped on for project-based learning.
Sound pedagogical theories as the pre-requisites for effectiveness Another important factor that will contribute to the effectiveness of Facebook or any platform in engaging students in Science education is the employment of suitable teaching pedagogy. Assessing students‟ cognitive ability as well as learning style is necessary to craft tasks or provide materials that will aid them in learning. Teachers need to ensure that there is sufficient scaffolding so that students can achieve the learning objectives set at their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as advocated by Vygotsky (1978). Learning tasks set at the lower limit of ZPD serves as suitable first assignments as it is pitched at the level which
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE students can achieve independently. The difficulty of the tasks will have to be leveled to the upper limit of the ZPD where weaker students can achieve with the help of the tutor or moreabled students. Consideration of the needs of students of various learning styles will also ensure that teachers set up suitable materials that cater for visual, audio and kinestatic learners. The perception survey gathered from the action research conducted will be discussed in the light of these factors. METHOD Three sets of investigations were conducted, each with a different focus on the use of Facebook for the teaching and learning of Chemistry and Biology. The three sets of investigations had the following focuses: Set A: Using Facebook as a revision tool- Chemistry Set B: Using Facebook to teach and learn new topics that are beyond the main syllabus - Chemistry Set C: Using Facebook as an online consultation tool as well as collaborative learning tool for learning of new topics- Biology
Set A: Using Facebook as a revision tool- Chemistry Participants: 21 JC1 H2 Chemistry students were chosen as the target group. They were between 16-17 years old and consisted of 16 girls and 5 boys. All the students were able to gain access to the internet from their homes and 75% of them were already Facebook users.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Materials and Procedures: Target Group 21 JC1 H2 Chemistry Students
Selection based on mean class GCE „O‟ Level aggregate score (L1R5 = 12)
“Pre-Facebook” perception survey
Compare & Analyse
“Post-Facebook” perception survey
1 week later 10 YouTube videos on subject content were published and shared in Facebook Group
Discussion threads were used for discussion, clarifications and submission of students‟ 50 word summary on their learning points
Topical Quiz administered using Facebook application “Quizzer”
Document sharing on Facebook application “Go.Daddy.com”
5 weeks
The topic of Chemical Bonding was selected to explore the effectiveness and suitability of using Facebook to aid visualisation of abstract concepts as well as an online revision tool. The usual “lecture, tutorial and practical” system was employed when teaching this topic of the GCE „A‟ Level Chemistry syllabus a few weeks before using Facebook for revision. Students found the principle of Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR) difficult to grasp even though it was explained using molecule models during lectures and tutorials. This resulted in them being unable to predict the shapes and bond angles of simple molecules.
A pre-research perception survey was conducted to determine students‟ comfort level as well as interest in utilising online platforms for learning.
To assist students in the revising of the VSEPR theory, relevant YouTube videos were embedded on the Facebook Group that was set up exclusively for the class. Students were
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE then tasked to write a summary of 50 words on what they had learned from the videos on the discussion threads in the Facebook Group. The students were also encouraged to discuss the concepts or raise their doubts through the discussion threads created in the Facebook Group. After one month, a topical quiz was crafted and uploaded using the application “Quizzer” to test the conceptual understanding of students. In addition, tutorial materials were uploaded using the Go.Daddy.com File Folder to supplement classroom teaching. This allowed students to gain access to all their Chemistry materials in one single platform.
A post-test survey was conducted after one week. The data collected was analysed to find out the students‟ perceptions in using Facebook as a revision tool as well as the level of engagement in collaborative learning. The pre and post-research perception survey data were compared to find out if there is a change in the students‟ interest and comfort levels after using Facebook to revise Chemistry concepts.
Set B: Using Facebook to teach and learn new topics that are beyond the main syllabus - Chemistry Participants: 15 H2 Chemistry students from the Chemistry Talent Programme were chosen as the target group. These students were amongst the better scoring students in Chemistry and they were between 16-17 years old. The group consisted of 10 girls and 5 boys. All the students were able to gain access to the internet from their homes and 67% were already Facebook users.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE
Materials and Procedures:
Target Group 15 JC1 H2 Chemistry Students
Selection based on mean class GCE „O‟ Level aggregate score (L1R5 < 12 & A1 in Pure Chemistry)
Compare & Analyse
“Post-Facebook” perception survey
2 weeks later Student post materials on new subject content and ti introduce and initiate discussion among peers
“Pre-Facebook” perception survey
Document sharing on Facebook application “Go.Daddy.com”
Youtube videos and website links were posted in Facebook Group
Use of discussion threads and Wall-toWall messages for discussion and clarifications
Facebook application “LiveScribe” and “LiveBlog” used to teach subject content
3 weeks
Due to the constraint of curriculum time, enrichment content needs to be introduced outside the curriculum time. The topics of Further Quantum Numbers, Further Acids and Bases Theory, Precipitation Titration, Flame Theory and Ultra-violet Spectroscopy were introduced to the students using the multi-functional Facebook platform. As these topics are beyond the A Level Syllabus, they will not be covered during the usual “lecture, tutorial and practical” system. Hence, Facebook is used both for content delivery as well as collaborative learning.
A pre-research perception survey was conducted to determine students‟ comfort level as well as interest in utilising online platforms for learning. As students were new to Facebook as a learning platform, a briefing session was conducted to familiarise them to a Facebook Group
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE set up exclusively for them. They were also introduced to less familiar applications such as Liveblog, Livescribe and GoDaddy.com File Folder.
Word documents of Further Quantum Numbers and Further Acids and Bases Theory were shared using GoDaddy.com File Folder. Supplementary materials such as YouTube videos and website links were made available in the Facebook Group. Discussion threads were set up for each topic as well as to facilitate the answering of some questions that were raised from the topics learnt. Students were also encouraged to discuss amongst themselves or direct their queries to their teacher by sending a Wall-to-Wall message. Livescribe, a screencasting tool that captures written explanation coupled with narration from a tablet personal computer, was used to answer some of the queries by the students. Precipitation Titration was taught using Liveblog, where resources of various formats (e.g, a YouTube video, a link and followed by text on the experimental techniques as well as results and calculations) were presented on the same page, together with a discussion forum.
After three weeks of familiarisation, collaborative learning was encouraged as students were tasked to put up content on new topics such as Flame Test and Ultra-violet Spectroscopy onto Facebook and also to initiate discussion amongst themselves. A post-test survey was conducted two weeks later. The data collected was analysed to find out the students‟ perceptions on the ease of presenting academic information of various formats as well as its effectiveness with regards to facilitating discussions with peers and having online consultation with teachers. The pre and post-research perception survey data were compared to find out if there is a change in the students‟ interest and comfort levels after using Facebook to learn new Chemistry concepts.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Set C: Using Facebook as an online consultation tool as well as collaborative learning tool for learning new topics- Biology Participants: 21 JC1 H2 Biology students were chosen as the target group. They were between 16-17 years old and consisted of 16 girls and 5 boys. All the students were able to gain access to the internet from their homes and 75% of them were already Facebook users. Materials and Procedures: Target Group 21 JC1 H2 Biology Students
Selection based on mean class GCE „O‟ Level aggregate score (L1R5 = 12)
Compare & Analyse
“Pre-Facebook” perception survey
Pre-lecture 7 YouTube videos on subject content were published and shared in Facebook Live Blog
Lecture series commence Online consulations and active discussion using Facebook Wall
“Post-Facebook” perception survey
Post-lecture Students submission of 50 word summary on their learning points on a small part of the subject content
1 week later
3 weeks
The topic on Genetics of Viruses has always been a difficult one for many students, especially on the subtopic of the Influenza virus and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Many students found it difficult to visualise the replication cycles of the viruses and hence are unable to discuss ways to effectively control the diseases that are resulted from infection caused by these viruses. Due to limited curriculum time, students may not be able to clarify their doubts through face-to-face consultations with their teachers.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE A pre-research perception survey was conducted to determine students‟ comfort level as well as interest in utilising online platforms for learning. A briefing session was conducted so as to orientate new Facebook users to the features of Facebook and also to introduce them to the Facebook application “Liveblog”. As 75% of the students were already familiar with the Facebook Wall, this feature was only briefly introduced to the new users.
Seven YouTube videos which covered bacteriophages, influenza virus and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) were selected by the teacher and links were posted on Liveblog and the Facebook Wall before the topic was introduced in lecture. Students were encouraged to view the videos posted before attending the lecture so that they would already be familiar with the terminology of the topic and hence could better understand the key concepts during lecture.
After the commencement of a series of lecture on the topic, students were tasked to comment on the posted videos for its accuracy of the contents, clarity of concept delivered and relevance of the video to the topic. Students were also strongly encouraged to clarify any doubts that arose from the videos using the Facebook Wall. The questions will then be addressed by their teacher through the Facebook Wall. Due to the high level of interest of the students, the discussion was extended beyond the curriculum and covered current issues such as the Influenza A/H1N1 (2009) and the AIDS pandemic. Student-to-student interaction also took place in the form of discussion and sharing of related web resources on Facebook Wall.
After three weeks, students were tasked to write a short paragraph of about 50 words on what they have learnt in a video on the inhibition of HIV. A post survey was conducted after one week. The data collected was analysed to find out the students‟ perceptions on the
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE effectiveness of using Facebook to introduce new topics as well as its effectiveness with regards to having discussion with peers and having consultations with teachers. The pre and post-research perception survey data were compared to find out if there is a change in the students‟ interest and comfort levels after using Facebook for collaborative learning on Biology topics.
Samples of the pre-research perception survey and post-research perception survey are shown in Annex A & B.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE RESULTS Set A: Using Facebook as a revision tool- Chemistry Pre-research Survey Results
I am comfortable using an online platform for learning.
SA A D
I am interested to use an online platform for learning.
SD 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Post-research Survey Results
I am comfortable using Facebook for learning. I am able to apply most of the concepts learnt through Facebook in assignments given by my tutor. Facebook is useful for the introduction of new topic. Facebook is useful for revision of topics.
SA A
Facebook allow s me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts.
D
Facebook allow s me to engage in academic discussion w ith my peers.
SD
It is easy to share academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook. It is easy to assess academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook. It is interesting to use Facebook for learning. 0%
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10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Set B: Using Facebook to teach and learn new topics that are beyond the main syllabusChemistry Pre-research Survey Results I am comfortable using an online platform for learning.
SA A D SD
I am interested to use an online platform for learning. 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Post-research Survey Results
I am comfortable using Facebook for learning. I am able to apply most of the concepts learnt through Facebook in assignments given by my tutor. Facebook is useful for the introduction of new topic. Facebook is useful for revision of topics.
SA A
Facebook allows me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts.
D SD
Facebook allows me to engage in academic discussion with my peers. It is easy to share academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook. It is easy to assess academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook. It is interesting to use Facebook for learning. 0%
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10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Set C: Using Facebook as an online consultation tool as well as collaborative learning tool for learning of new topics- Biology Pre-research Survey Results
SA
I am comfortable using an online platform for learning.
A D
I am interested to use an online platform for learning.
SD 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Post-research Survey Results
I am comfortable using Facebook for learning. I am able to apply most of the concepts learnt through Facebook in assignments given by my tutor. Facebook is useful for the introduction of new topic.
Facebook is useful for revision of topics. SA A
Facebook allow s me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts.
D SD
Facebook allow s me to engage in academic discussion w ith my peers. It is easy to share academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook. It is easy to assess academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook. It is interesting to use Facebook for learning. 0%
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10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE DISCUSSION An interesting learning platform that allows teacher-student consultation beyond curriculum time Based on the post-research perception survey results, the questions “It is interesting to use Facebook for learning” and “Facebook allows me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts” received extremely favourable response with at least 80% of students responded with “strongly agree” and “agree” for all 3 sets of investigation.
The high interest in Facebook shown by students is anticipated as Facebook is already an integral part of the lives of these digital natives, who log on to Facebook almost everyday after school hours to connect with their network of friends. They update their profiles and upload personal pictures and videos regularly. This sets a familiar and informal platform for open academic sharing and discussion. With the use of Facebook as a learning tool, learning is integrated into the students‟ leisure activities. Not only can the students update each other on their latest happenings, thoughts and feelings, they can also engage in academic discussion. Hence, it is no wonder that learning through this „cool‟ and „hip‟ platform appeals to them as “pedagogical measures can be successful only if they do justice to the various realities of young people‟s lives”. (Tully, 2003).
The positive response to the post-research perception survey question “Facebook allows me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts” shows that students welcomed the opportunity for them to engage in academic discussions and consultations with their subject tutors outside curriculum time. This is especially so, when the discussion and consultation took place in their “natural habitat”. This may also be attributed to the various communication tools available on Facebook such as “discussion board” in Facebook Group, “Facebook Wall”, “Livescribe” and “Livechat”. These communication tools helped teachers address doubts Page 2098
FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE posed by individuals (one to one) such as “Wall-to-Wall messages”, “Livescribe” or “Livechat”. Sometimes, such interaction could even take place real-time when both the teacher and student were accessing Facebook at the same time. The stability of the platform allowed messages posted to be viewed by both parties instantly and facilitates a conversation. “Livescribe” in particular, is a screencast tool that offers students an alternative to face-toface contact, allowing them to follow through clear explanations and thought-process at home similar to attending live lectures. As answers were addressed to individuals, they could be customised to suit individual students‟ needs. This is particularly useful for slower learners who might not able to follow the fast pace of teaching in the classroom. “Facebook Wall” and “Discussion Board” in Facebook Group also allowed teachers to address common misconceptions to a group of students.
A multifunctional learning platform that facilitates understanding of abstract concepts and for collaborative learning Four other questions received relatively good response with at least 80% of all students responded “strongly agree” and “agree” for two out of three sets of investigation. The responses for “It is easy to access academic materials of various forms using Facebook” and “It is easy to share academic materials of various forms using Facebook” confirmed the collaborative and multifunctional nature of Facebook. The convenience of having text content, videos, photos, website links and file attachments uploaded on a single webpage, allowed students to focus on the learning rather than struggle to navigate through different platforms.
Moreover, as all members of a Facebook Group can be authorised to share materials, students were given the rights to be active content creators and not just passive consumers. From the research, students seemed comfortable in contributing academic materials as they were
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE already accustomed to the interactive nature of Web 2.0. This is evident in Set C of the investigation where students used Facebook for the learning of Biology. Although, the content at the early stage of implementation was initiated by the teacher, students subsequently contributed suitable videos related to the topic of HIV. In Set B of the investigation that involved the better-abled students in Chemistry, students seem at ease when tasked to contribute academic content. They even supplemented the text content with suitable visual aids as well as initiated discussion threads for one another to participate in. This explains the positive response in the post-research perception survey question “Facebook allows me to engage in academic discussion with my peers”. Through the use of Facebook, collaborative learning can be achieved and students readily and confidently took up ownership of their learning.
The multifunctional nature of Facebook is able to cater to the needs of both visual and audio learners through pictures and videos. It also caters to the needs of kinestatic learners through interactive applets accessible through webpage links or interactive Facebook applications. It aids students‟ understanding of abstract scientific concepts which explains the favourable response in the post-research perception survey question “I am able to apply most of the concepts learnt through Facebook in assignments given by my tutor”. It was observed that in Set C of the investigation where students used Facebook for the learning of Biology, students displayed analytical thinking through the 50 words write up assignment. Students were able to discuss the feasibility of preventing HIV in a coherent manner by integrating knowledge and understanding gained in lectures and through Facebook. Another reason that might have contributed to the high level of understanding may be the accessibility offered by e-learning. Unlike real-time lectures which are “one-time off”, students can refer to the academic
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE materials at their own time and pace, even repeatedly if they do not understand it in the first viewing. Pre-requisites to engaged and collaborative learning Active participation is a pre-requisite to students benefitting from the learning environment. To benefit from the network, one has to interact, which takes the form of creating a profile, joining the group, posting and reading threads on forum, adding content and generally being part of a conversation. (Slyvester, 2008). Hence, from the individual responses gathered, students who responded positively to “Facebook allows me to engage in academic discussion with my peers” were the ones who played an active role in learning, engaging in discussion and sharing of academic materials. Hence, they were also the ones who responded positively to “It is easy to share academic materials of various forms using Facebook”
Intrinsic motivation in students for learning is another pre-requisite to the students‟ interest which leads to active participation and benefiting from the learning environment. In two out of three sets of investigation, there was a slight decrease in interest of students on using Facebook for learning. This may be because to a minority which lacks intrinsic motivation for learning, the novelty of using Facebook for learning has worn off and they realised that hard work is required even for learning using a “fun” platform.
Although most students are exposed to Facebook, they have different levels of proficiency in using the platform. Hence, clear communication is crucial in ensuring students know where to locate the materials within Facebook. Comparing the results of the pre-survey and the postsurvey, a consistent trend was observed in all three sets of investigation. In terms of comfort level of students using Facebook, there was an increase in the percentage of students who “strongly agree” that they were very comfortable using Facebook as a learning tool. This may
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE be because these students were already very familiar with Facebook, hence having high proficiency in navigating Facebook, they found it easy to access and share materials with others. However, there was an also increase in students choosing “disagree” for the same question. This may be due to the students finding it more difficult to gain access to the vast amount of materials that were posted on the Wall and hence they were unable to find materials that they would like to revisit. These responses belonged to students with lower level of proficiency in Facebook. This problem may be resolved if clearer instructions were established and effectively conveyed to everyone and special assistance could be rendered to those students who were in need.
Recommendation Even though Facebook has the potential to be used as a revision tool, an online learning tool, an assessment tool and a research tool, it is still very dependent on teachers‟ competency in structuring the online learning such that it complements the “lecture-tutorial and practical” system. For example, lecture of content can be more easily understood when students are exposed beforehand to related or similar content put up on Facebook.
For the more technology-savvy educators, a potential area for future research will be the development of customised and subject-specific Facebook applications for the teaching and learning of the intended group of students. This will definitely make the academic materials more relevant to the Singapore context. This will also allow differentiated learning if such applications are designed with tasks or quizzes of varied difficulty.
Lastly, the action research team members believe that all education technologies should be supported by sound pedagogical principles and correct assessment of the learning needs of
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE their students. Hence, it is important for teachers to understand their students‟ ability and potential so that they can put up materials or assign tasks of the appropriate level of difficulty. Sufficient scaffolding is necessary in aiding students to attain their next potential level of development (Brush & Saye, 2001; Dabbagh, 2003 in Lee et al, 2008) or narrow their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as advocated by Vygotsky (1978). Hence, it is advisable for teachers to offer academic materials and exercises that match the students‟ level of academic competency, especially during the initial stage of implementation. Only when it is observed that the stronger students are helping the weaker ones, will increasing the difficulty of the materials and tasks be appropriate. In another words, only when students showed positive signs of peer collaboration, teachers can then let the students take more responsibility in their online learning.
In conclusion, Facebook has proven to be an effectiveness tool for collaborative and engaged learning for Pre-University science subjects. However, the extent of its effectiveness largely depends on strong pedagogy foundation of the teachers in order to achieve the desired learning outcomes.
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE REFERENCES Papacharissi, Z. (2009). The virtual geographies of social networks: a comparative avalysis of Facebook, LinkedIn and ASmallWorld. New Media & Society. 11(1&2), 199-220. Warr, W. A., (2008). Social software: fun and games, or business tools? Journal of Information Science, 34 (4), 591-604 Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C., Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “Friends:” social capital and college students‟ use of online social network sites. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 12(4). Tully, C. J. (2003). Growing up in technological worlds: How modern technologies shape the everyday lives of young people. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 23(6), 444-456 Russo, J.P. (2004). New Media, New Era. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24(6), 500-508 Dabbagh, N. (2003). Scaffolding: An important teacher competency in online learning. TechTrends, 47(2), 34-44 Brush, T., & Saye, J. (2001). The use of embedded scaffolds with hypermedia-supported student-centred learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 10(4), 333356 Caswell, T., Henson, S., Jensen, M., Wiley, D. (2008). Open Educational Resources: Enabling universal education. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(1). Retrieved 9 July, 2008 from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/469/1001 Kumar, C. J., Govindaraju, P. (2007) Applications of ICT in Virtual Universities. Distance Education and ICTs. Retrieved 9 July, 2008 from http://www.i4donline.net/nov07/1559.pdf Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board. (2009). H2 Chemistry 9647 Syllabus and H2 Biology 9648. Retrieved on July 18, 2009, from http://www.seab.gov.sg/SEAB/aLevel/syllabus/2010_GCE_A_Level_Syllabuses/9647_2010. pdf http://www.seab.gov.sg/SEAB/aLevel/syllabus/2010_GCE_A_Level_Syllabuses/9648_2010. pdf Muñoz, C.L., Towner, T.L., (2009). Opening Facebook: How to use Facebook in the college classroom. Presented at Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education Conference in Charleston, South California. Sylvester. M., (2008). Learning opportunities embedded in social networking, the future of learning. Dec 2008 issue of CLO Magazine. EDUCAUSE. (2006). 7 things you should know about Facebook. Retrieved 9 April, 2009 from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7017.pdf
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE Kumar, C. J., Govindaraju, P. (2007) Applications of ICT in Virtual Universities. Distance Education and ICTs. Retrieved 9 July, 2008 from http://www.i4donline.net/nov07/1559.pdf
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FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE ANNEX A– Pre-research Survey Using an online environment for learning and collaboration
2009
Legend: SA
Strongly agree
A
Agree
D
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
SD
Instructions: Answer all questions In this survey, examples of online platforms are MLG, blog, discussion forum, Facebook etc. S/No
Question
Response
1
I am comfortable using an online platform for learning.
SA
A
D
SD
2
I am interested to use an online platform for learning.
SA
A
D
SD
3
I am aware of an online platform that allows sharing of academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link)
Yes
No
If yes, please specify __________________________ I am aware of an online platform that allows me to engage in academic discussion with my peers. 4
Yes
No
If yes, please specify __________________________ I am aware of an online platform that allows me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts. 5
Yes If yes, please specify __________________________
In your opinion, what are the characteristics of a good online platform for learning?
Thank you for answering the survey.
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No
FACEBOOK AS AN ONLINE TOOL FOR LEARNING SCIENCE ANNEX B – Post-research Survey 2009
Facebook provides a learning environment
Legend: Strongly SA agree
A
Agree
D
Disagree
SD
Strongly Disagree
NA
Not applicable
Instructions: Answer all questions S/No
Question
Response
1
I am comfortable using Facebook for learning.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
2
I am able to apply most of the concepts learnt through Facebook in assignments given by my tutor.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
3
Facebook is useful for the introduction of new topic.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
4
Facebook is useful for revision of topics.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
5
Facebook allows me to consult my tutor and clarify doubts.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
6
Facebook allows me to engage in academic discussion with my peers.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
7
It is easy to share academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
8
It is easy to assess academic materials of various forms (e.g text, video, photo, link) using Facebook.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
9
It is interesting to use Facebook for learning.
SA
A
D
SD
NA
Suggestions for improvement on the use of Facebook in learning:
Thank you for answering the survey.
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A blended science teacher education programme
Developing teacher identity, teacher confidence and classroom practice: The influence of a blended science teacher education programme
Neil Taylor and Susan Rodrigues
School of Education, Social Work and Community Education (ESWCE), University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee, DD1 4HN Scotland
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Abstract Initial science teacher education programmes involve a variety of models. In Scotland, initial teacher education programmes are typically 36 weeks in duration and involve 18 weeks in the classroom. On the University of Dundee blended initial secondary science teacher education programme, students engage in face to face tutor contact, online synchronous and asynchronous activity and classroom based teacher education. Also, the University of Dundee has three possible exit points at 38, 54 and 72 weeks affording students a degree of flexibility to meet their personal circumstances. When students complete this programme they are guaranteed a one year teaching post as part of their induction programme. When students complete the teacher education and induction programme they can register to teach in Scotland. The University of Dundee blended teacher education programme is relatively new, having been established just over five years ago. As such it affords us an opportunity to track and trace the influence of the programme on past students' current teaching practice. In this paper we will report on the perceptions and views of our past cohorts regarding the influence of the structure of the programme in developing their teacher identity, teacher confidence and current classroom practice. It will report on their perception of how well the programme prepared them for their induction year in schools and it will describe the strengths and weaknesses of the programme as perceived by the various cohorts. Introduction Teacher education programmes in Scotland vary significantly in their structure. At the University of Dundee, the teacher education programme for secondary school teachers is a blended teacher education programme. Many (see for example, (Barr &
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A blended science teacher education programme
Tagg, 1995; Biggs, 2003; Ramsden, 1992) have argued that it is important for students in higher education to feel confident enough to question their existing beliefs and assumptions and start to take increasing responsibility for their own learning. In this paper we provide a brief overview of the nature of a programme that has been developed and deployed at the University of Dundee to support student teachers and to enable them to take increasing responsibility for their own learning. We signal some of the literature that documents the advantages and disadvantages of a blended programme, and we discuss the perceptions and views of some of our past cohorts regarding the influence of the structure of the programme in developing their teacher identity, teacher confidence and current classroom practice. In the UK, we have seen a lot of investment in technology-enhanced learning and teaching (Davies, Brown, Hewitt, Jenkins and Jenkins, 2008). Our blended teacher education programme, values collaboration (Pifarre 2007) and social interactions, as well as feedback to students (Sadler 1998; Shephard 2006). In addition, we have multiple methods and types of assessment that include both formative and summative elements (McMillan 2000) and include strategies that may best and effectively use the benefits of a blended learning environment (Dabbagh 2003; McLoughlin 2002). A blended teacher education approach can establish strong links to the values of teacher education. Research exploring distance, online and adult education suggests that computer-based environments support interaction and foster strong learning communities (Bonk et al, 1998). Online teacher education students developed a strong sense of community (Rovai and Jordan, 2004), and there is no noticeable difference in the drop out rate or difference in achievement (Anderson and Simpson, 2004).Our programme includes an e-portfolio element, and as Jafari, (2004) suggested, despite the potential of e-portfolios, their implementation can be Page 2110
A blended science teacher education programme
problematic. Nevertheless, research shows that e-portfolios support student-centred learning (Botterill, Allan, and Brooks, 2008; Kimball, 2005). They are also believed to support student teacher reflection on and in action while allowing student teachers to establish links between various learning experiences (Kimball, 2005). It has been argued that e-portfolios encourage critical reflection while linking and gathering evidence from within the formal and informal learning environments, while also promoting skill development. Overview of the programme Background The City of Dundee has a strong tradition of initial teacher education (ITE). Initially ITE provision was provided by Dundee College of Education (DCE). DCE was originally in Park Place, Dundee and then moved to a new Campus at Gardyne Road, Dundee. DCE provided a full suite of ITE programmes and across all secondary subject areas. Due to pressures of finance during the 1980‟s and Government restrictions on recruitment DCE merged with the University College of Education (AGC) to form „Northern College‟ (University of Dundee, 1987) with two campuses – one in Dundee and one in Aberdeen. As a result of this merger, it was widely accepted by both parties that primary ITE would be hosted at Dundee and secondary ITE hosted at the Aberdeen campus. The reality was that the University of Aberdeen campus hosted both primary and secondary and the Dundee campus hosted only primary students. In 2001, Northern College was „de-merged‟ - the Aberdeen Campus merged with the University of Aberdeen and the Dundee Campus merged with University of Dundee to form the then Faculty of Education and Social Work which has since become the School of Education, Social Work and Community Education (ESWCE). Page 2111
A blended science teacher education programme
To help promote the image of the University of Dundee as a key provider of ITE the Professional Graduate Diploma I education (Secondary) PGDE (S) programme was developed to complete the portfolio for ITE at the University of Dundee. The programme was also developed to address key recommendations from the HMIe „Scoping Report of ITE‟ (HMIe, 2002). One of the key recommendations of this report was to provide wider access to ITE for people from more rural areas in the hope of increasing staffing capacity in these more areas; and those people with personal commitments which might prevent them following more traditional programmes of study. The blended learning approach developed at the University of Dundee PGDE(S) programme is ideally suited to provide and support such students. To support the students‟ remote learning they were, in the initial 4 years of the programme, provided with a laptop pre-loaded with software such as: Microsoft Office SuiteTM; Inspiration TM
( a mind mapping and planning tool which was issued to every state school in
Scotland); Crocodile Chemistry TM ( software for chemical experiment simulations which was issued to every state school in Scotland); Crocodile Physics TM and Concept Cartoons TM (common pieces of software in Scottish schools‟ science departments). The purpose of the software was to provide a standard platform in terms of word processing etc and to provide the students with some facility to „try out‟ and learn about experimental procedures before using the procedures in the science classroom. The students are also supported in their learning by means of a virtual learning environment (VLE) called Blackboard TM. In this environment students undertake learning tasks to develop their understanding of science education and pedagogy. Students had access to several discussion fora to share responses to tasks, query each Page 2112
A blended science teacher education programme
others‟ understanding, receive support and instruction from tutors and share resources which they had developed for lessons they were delivering. Also, the students‟ final assessment is in the form of an electronic portfolio in which they provide hyperlinks to resources and reports they provide as evidence of meeting the Standards for Initial Teacher Education (SITE) (General Teaching Council for Scotland, 2006). During all assessments the students are expected to provide and receive peer feedback electronically. During the students‟ school placement, which consists of three periods of six weeks, the students are also expected to send in a weekly evaluation of their progress to date. The students‟ tutors then provide formative feedback to support the students‟ progress based on the information contained in the weekly evaluations. More recently students are also becoming familiar with the Scottish Schools‟ intranet called GLOWTM (Learning and Teaching Scotland, nd). This intranet is a secure facility for Scottish state schools to share materials with pupils, parents, and teachers and to permit pupils to work collaboratively with pupils from other geographic areas across Scotland. It is important that the next generation of Scottish Science teachers have a working knowledge of GLOW. Data collection This paper reports on data collected to help us address the following questions: What are the perceptions and views of past student teacher science education cohorts regarding the influence of the structure of the programme in developing their:
teacher identity?
teacher confidence ?
current classroom practice
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A blended science teacher education programme
We relied on convenience sampling to contact 35 students. As a small teacher education programme we are able to ensure that there is some on going contact with student teachers when they leave the University. These 35 students were involved in the one year PGDE(S) programme during the period 2004 to 2008. We relied on our established networks to contact past student teachers. We asked the sample to complete and return short surveys (see appendix 1). The data presented in this paper reflects the views of six respondents and we draw on the responses from these past cohorts to inform our findings and discussions. Our sample respondents provided the following demographic data: No. of years teaching:
probationer (x1); 1 year (x2); 3 years (x3)
Gender: F(3) M(3)
Main Subject: Chemistry (3); Physics (3) Findings
Our findings are presented under the subheadings that address the three key questions identified in our methodology. Perceptions and views of past cohorts regarding the influence of the structure of the programme in developing their teacher identity From our sample it is clear that before beginning the programme the students were „confident‟ in using ICT but were less confident about using ICT in their teaching.
Before you began the programme: were you confident using ICT? were you confident about using ICT in your teaching?
Extremely confident
Confident
Unconcerned
5
1
2
1
Table 1: Levels of confidence in using ICT
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Unconfident
3
Extremely unconfident
A blended science teacher education programme
The majority of respondents were confident and familiar with the standard Microsoft Office programmes such as WORD, EXCEL and PowerPoint. Several were familiar with desktop publishing and one respondent was confident in using various databases and information handling systems. In terms of the use of the Internet and social networking sites the respondents were very familiar with using the Internet but less so with the social networking aspects of the internet such as wikis, blogging and podcasting. There was also limited awareness of the types of software that students would encounter in schools. The use of hardware was generally items such as digital cameras and scanners. The teachers were asked: Which of the following tools/software were you familiar with before starting your ITE programme? (They were allowed to select as many as appropriate) Table 2 below provides an overview of their familiarity. Software 6 Word processing 6 Excel 6 PowerPoint 3 Desktop publishing 1 Crocodile Physics 1Crocodile Chemistry 0 Inspiration 0 Kartouche Composer 0 Concept Cartoons 6 Internet 4 Youtube 2 Wikis 3Blogs 1 Podcasting 1 Web page development 1 Specialist record systems 1 Microsoft Access
Hardware 5 Digital camera 2 Digital Movie Camera 6 Scanner 0 Digital microscope 1 Data logger 2 Interactive whiteboard 3 Other
Table 2: teacher familiarity of common hardware and software As can be seen, very few, or none of the students, had encountered dataloggers, digital microscopes or interactive whiteboards (IWB).
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A blended science teacher education programme
The respondents were asked: Before entering ITE what ways, if any, did you envisage using ICT in the classroom? (Please describe your thoughts). The responses from the six are provided below. With regards to respecting respondents‟ anonymity each individual respondent has been assigned a letter of the alphabet to identify their replies. A. I thought that I would mainly use PowerPoint to generate lessons in terms of notes, quizzes and games. B. Use of computer suites for distinct project work and revision. I was not aware that most schools had access to interactive whiteboards, panels or multimedia projectors so did not anticipate using ICT in this way. C. I had come across Crocodile Physics so had an idea about using simulations. I have a note in my PGCE interview notes about using ICT to support learning and to aid pupils in handling data and presenting information; and using ICT to engage pupils / opportunities for interactive approaches. I can‟t remember clearly beyond those notes though. D. PowerPoint presentations for teaching higher. Projecting questions etc on the board E. I imagined that the ICT would mostly be used by the teacher as a means of demonstration. I found that some local authorities have well funded ICT resources which benefit both teacher and pupil, such as IWB, voting kits, data loggers etc. F. I thought that ICT would be mainly limited to PowerPoint presentations.
Before entering the programme the general perception students had of using ICT in the classroom was restricted to the use of word processing and presentation software such as PowerPoint.
Perceptions and views of past cohorts regarding the influence of the structure of the programme in developing their teacher confidence with regard to ICT use
Respondents demonstrated an increasing confidence in their approaches to using ICT as a consequence of participating in the PGDE (Secondary) programme. The respondents were asked: „How useful was the science software which was provided in supporting your use of ICT?‟
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A blended science teacher education programme
Very useful
Useful
Unhelpful
2
3 5
1 1
1
4
1
3 2 4
2 3 2
1
Understanding of school science concepts Understanding of school science practical work Understanding of school structures (e.g. 5-14
Very unhelpful
Guidelines; Conditions & Arrangements for Higher etc; Curriculum for Excellence.)
Confidence in teaching concepts Confidence in teaching practical work Confidence in using ICT in your science lessons Table 3: Usefulness of the science software
The respondents were asked to use a likert scale ranging from: 1 Extremely unconfident, to 5 Extremely confident to signal how confident they were with regard to specific programmes/software in their teaching after finishing their ITE programme. Software
1
2
3
Word processing Excel
1
PowerPoint
4
5
Hardware
3
3
Digital camera
1
4
1
Digital Movie Camera
1
3
3
Scanner
2
1
Digital microscope Data logger
Desktop publishing
3
Crocodile Physics
1
3
2 2
1
3 3 2
2 1 1
1
1
4
Internet
3
3
Youtube
2
3
2
1
Crocodile Chemistry Inspiration Kartouche Composer
1
Concept Cartoons
Wikis
1
Blogs
1
Podcasting
2
1 1
2 1
Interactive whiteboard
1
2
3
4
5
3
2
1
3
1
3
2
1
5 2
3
1
1
4
1
1 1
Table 4: Confidence in using ICT after programme completion The general trend was an increasing confidence in the use of ICT in the classroom and a greater range of applications being used for an increasing variety of learning
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A blended science teacher education programme
and teaching approaches e.g. increased confidence with IWB, dataloggers and specific software applications. Although respondents indicated a greater knowledge of ICT applications there were still several students who were less confident with applications such as wikis, blogging and podcasting. Students stated that the online support that they received via the VLE and weekly reflections was mostly „very useful‟ to their development. All the respondents found the „face to face‟ sessions „very useful. The respondents‟ comments included: A: Internet lessons using „classroom in a box‟, saving work on, and adding to, ppt presentations or smartboard files plus occasional use of croc physics, scholar, studywiz, short video clips from tapes, DVDs, Brainiac, you-tube and other (mainly American) sites illustrating techniques (eg titration), plus large-scale use of Internet in job searching. B: I used Crocodile chemistry and Physics to clarify and easily practice experiments that I would be covering in class. Obviously the technique couldn‟t really be practiced but it was great as a refresher and starting point to help myself to define and clarify the teaching points and potential problems with the experiments. It was a good tool when used alongside the actual practice of the experiment. C:Which software? If you mean software such as croc physics and concept cartoons then I used them to enhance my own knowledge of the subject and also in class as discussed below. I have no doubt that had I not been exposed to the use of ICT during ITE through the use of the laptop then I would not be using ICT to the same degree in my teaching today. D: During PGCE year I used Promethean IWB, Crocodile Physics, PowerPoint in the classroom, publisher for developing resources and various websites and simulations. E: No response. F: Made particular use of software which explained misconceptions as a means of effectively questioning pupils and dealing with such misconceptions. Made use of videos to support theory work and make lessons more enjoyable/engaging for pupils. Used NAB and past paper materials to match learning to likely examination questioning. Accessing SQA, LTS and similar sites for arrangement documents, definitions; looking for resources to improve and augment lessons; researching „problems‟ eg Asperger‟s, ADHD, etc.
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A blended science teacher education programme
Therefore, in general, the extended comments indicated that the respondents used the resources provided to:
enhance their subject knowledge;
practice certain „experiments‟ so they were aware of experimental outcomes and dangers and the students could then consider and plan their key teaching points;
explore and challenge pupils‟ alternative conceptions;
engage the pupils‟ interest in science;
motive the pupils; provide a wider range of stimuli for the pupils;
access other educational sites to enhance their understanding of the requirements for exams etc;
access materials to enhance their professional development; and to promote collaborative learning opportunities for the pupils and to give the pupils greater responsibility for their learning.
It is noteworthy that the respondents believed that technology and face to face communication elements of the blended programme were equally useful How useful did you find Very the following in support useful you as a distance learning student? The use of the VLE 5 (Blackboard) Weekly reflection 4 feedback Being provided with the 5 laptop/hard drive. Face to face meetings. 6 Table 5 Usefulness of support strategies
Useful
1 2 1
As one respondent stated,
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Unhelpful
Very unhelpful
A blended science teacher education programme
“Certainly, on reflection, my use of the laptop provided was not only a sweetener to take the course (decent laptops are costly) but gave me a lot of confidence in the use of all sorts of software and VLE.”
Perceptions and views of past cohorts regarding the influence of the structure of the programme in developing their current classroom practice As one respondent stated,
“I have no doubt that had I not been exposed to the use of ICT during ITE through the use of the laptop then I would not be using ICT to the same degree in my teaching today.” The level of detail that respondents gave in this section of the survey was significantly more. The range of approaches in which these newly qualified teachers (NQT) use ICT in their current practice is quite extensive. It is clear that these NQTs have a greater confidence and awareness of how effective use of ICT can enhance their pupils‟ learning experiences. It was interesting to see the range of use as indicated by the respondents to the following: „Please describe how you use ICT, in whatever form, in your practice today.‟ A: During PGCE year I used Promethean IWB, Crocodile Physics, PowerPoint in the classroom, publisher for developing resources and various websites and simulations .of an Interactive white board (IWB) in my classroom means that I get to use ICT all of the time. I use PowerPoint‟s to make up vocabulary games, I use Crocodile chemistry to revise and recap on experimental techniques, outcomes and procedures. I use media clips and I am currently trying to introduce a Wiki and the use of Podcasts particularly for my Intermediate 1 class.
B: Whiteboard for saveable board work. Various animations to demonstrate science/physics principles. Laptops and datalogging equipment for individual pupil activities. PowerPoint‟s for lesson framework. Virtual Physics for illustration and for individual revision. Virtual physics monitoring for formative Page 2120
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assessment. Concept cartoons as lesson starters.. Quizdom for assessment.. Internet for linking teaching to current stories/issues. Glow (just beginning to use in class). Various websites C: Promethean IWB for pupil activities (e.g. sorting and grouping activities, following co-operative learning task on health, sorting food groups, recording group experiment results) and in conjunction with PowerPoint for sharing learning intentions / lesson pace and structure / key questions / lesson starters. Individual pupil laptops using: internet for research; Crocodile Physics for designing, building and testing circuits; extension tasks for more able pupils e.g. echalk resources. Classtools.net random name generator for class quizzes / team tasks / revision work / online quiz/games resources. Various websites and packages with animations and simulations (e.g. Virtual Physics / Physics Animations) either as introductions or to review practical work and discuss results. Inspiration for mind mapping to explore prior learning. Comic Life (using as pilot with primary liaison project). Excel for graphing results and drawing conclusions from data. Digital photographs of equipment to aid discussion and explanations of practical work.Videoing pupils presenting work and e.g. being particles so they can peer assess. Youtube – variety of resources for different topics. Glow – setting up class groups for information and resources. Qwizdom. Windows Movie Maker to edit pupil videos and extract relevant clips from longer films. Data Harvest – with heart rate sensor to demonstrate pulse increasing with exercise and recovery rate (S1 / Standard Grade). Alba data loggers – cooling curves, charging and discharging capacitors (S2 / Standard Grade / Higher). Pasco Motion Sensors – creating displacement time graphs, velocity time graphs, acceleration time graphs (Standard Grade / Higher). General Microsoft Office Word / Publisher: production of notes and activity support sheets / enhancing classroom display. Creating templates for pupil use.. Concept Cartoons – whole class and group discussion both as starters and extension. Some Concept Cartoon style questions developed on flipchart / PPT for older pupils. D: Mainly for presentation, not as interactive as I would like
E: Created Glow Groups for a selection of my classes, to help support extra differentiated work, provide homework sheets, and generally support the pupils throughout their coursework. Use computer and projector to show simulations, videos etc. Make use of IT suites whenever possible to help develop IT skills in pupils through the understanding of Chemistry. F: Internet lessons using „classroom in a box‟, saving work on, and adding to, ppt presentations or smartboard files plus occasional use of croc physics, scholar, studywiz, short video clips from tapes, DVDs, Brainiac, you-tube and other (mainly American) sites illustrating techniques (e.g. titration), plus large-scale use of Internet in job searching.
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There is an increased use of ICT for collaborative work, a greater use of ICT to promote discussion so that pupils can openly justify and evaluate their work, greater use of creating and editing pupils‟ video work, increased use of web based facilities to increase students‟ self-study opportunities, and increased use of hardware such as dataloggers and IWBs. As their specific comments relating to science software suggests, the programme has enabled respondents to become more confident in their use of a variety of software. A:Crocodile Chemistry was and is used to recap on experimental processes and also as a way of running through the experimental procedure catering for a wider variety of learners. I often used Inspiration to create whole and sub-topic mind maps to highlight how all parts of the topic fit together. Concept cartoons are fantastic. It is a great way of establishing prior knowledge and gives great ideas for teaching science in different ways. I have personally attempted loads of these ideas most of which have had very positive and exciting results. B: Whiteboard for saveable board work. Various animations to demonstrate science/physics principles. Laptops and datalogging equipment for individual pupil activities. Powerpoints for lesson framework. Concept cartoons as lesson starters. Internet for linking teaching to current stories/issues. Various websites C: During PGCE year I used Promethean IWB, Crocodile Physics, PowerPoint in the classroom, publisher for developing resources and various websites and simulations. D: Concept cartoons – adapted to take account of misconceptions of my class / to relate to topics covered in different courses. E: Made use of videos. Showed “dangerous experiments” using Crocodile software. With S1 and S2, used concept cartoons to cover main learning points in a fun way. F: Internet lessons using „classroom in a box‟, saving work on, and adding to, ppt presentations or smartboard files
Discussion The feedback from the respondents indicates that they entered the programme confident in the use of several ICT applications. Obviously, with only a small number of respondents it is difficult to make generalizations, however, given we only have a Page 2122
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small yearly intake, and that the respondents in our paper represents 17% of our total cohort for the period 2004 to 2009, it was pleasing to see that our student teachers are confident in their use of ICT and not only in their use of the ICT we provided during the programme. It is clear from the responses received that very few of the respondents had really considered how ICT could be used to enhance pupils‟ learning and or support their teaching and that they were less confident in using ICT in their teaching. However, as a result of the blended learning approach used in the University of Dundee PGDE (Secondary) programme and the provision of hardware and software along with face to face inputs there is a noticeable shift in how the NQTs perceive the use of ICT in their practice. It is clear that the students found the support they received on the whole useful to their professional development and to their increased confidence in using ICT in their teaching and that the programme supported and promoted the use of ICT in a much wider range of teaching strategies. Also having experienced the use of the VLE whilst they were studying at the University of Dundee has resulted in them gaining a better understanding of how they might make effective use of the Scottish intranet – GLOW. References Anderson, B., & Simpson, M. (2004). Group and Class Contexts for Learning and Support Online: Learning and affective support online in small group and class contexts. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(3). http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/208/291 Retrieved 15 September 2009. Barr, R. & Tagg, J. (1995). From learning to teaching: A new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, 27(6), 13-25. Page 2123
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Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for quality learning at university. (2nd Ed). Buckingham, UK: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University. Bonk, C. J., Hansen, E. J., Grabner-Hagan, M. M., Lazar, S. A., & Mirabelli, C. (1998a). Time to "connect": Synchronous and asynchronous case-based dialogue among pre-service teachers. In C. J. Bonk & K. S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner-centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship, and discourse (pp. 289-314). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bonk, C.J. & Kim, K.A. (1998b). Extending sociocultural theory to adult learning. In M. Smith and T.Pourchot (Eds.), Adult learning and development: Perspectives from educational psychology. (pp. 67- 88). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc Botterill, M., Allan, G. & Brooks, S. (2008). Building community: Introducing ePortfolios in university education In Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/botterill-poster.pdf Retrieved 15 September 2009. Dabbagh, N. (2003). Scaffolding: An important teacher competency in online learning. Techtrends, 47(2), 39-44. Davies, J. Brown, T., Hewitt, R., Jenkins, M. & R. Jenkins (2008). 2008 survey of technology enhanced learning for higher education in the UK. Universities and Colleges Information Systems Association (UCISA). http://www.ucisa.ac.uk/publications/tel_survey.aspx Retrieved 15 September 2009.
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General Teaching Council for Scotland (2006) The Standards for Initial Teacher Education http://www.gtcs.org.uk/Publications/StandardsandRegulations/The_Standard_for_Init ial_Teacher_Education_(ITE).aspx Retrieved 15th October, 2009 HMIe (2002). Scoping Report of Initial Teacher Education http://www.hmie.gov.uk/documents/publication/HMIE%20Scoping%20review%20of %20ITE.doc Retrieved 12th October, 2009 Jafari, A. (2004). The "sticky" ePortfolio system: Tackling challenges and identifying attributes. Educause Review, July / August, 38-48. Kimball, M. (2005). Database e-portfolio systems: A critical appraisal. Computers and Composition, 22(4), 434-458. Learning and Teaching Scotland (nd) What is GLOW? http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/glowscotland/about/Whatisglow.asp Retrieved 12th October, 2009 McLoughlin, C. (2002). Learner support in distance and networked learning environments: Ten dimensions for successful design. Distance Education, 23(2), 149-162. McMillan, J. (2000). Fundamental assessment principle for teachers and school administrators. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 7(8), 1-8. http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=8 Retrieved 15 September 2009. Pifarré, M. (2007). Scaffolding through the network: analysing the promotion of improved online scaffolds among university students. Studies in Higher Education, 32(3), 389-408. Sadler, D. (1998). Formative assessment: Revisiting the territory. Assessment in Education, 5(1), 77-84. Page 2125
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Shepard, L. A. (2006). Creating coherent formative and summative assessment practices. Orbit, 36(2), 41-44. Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to teach in higher education. New York: Routledge. Rovai, A.P. & Jordan, H.M. (2004). Blended learning and sense of community: A comparative analysis of traditional and fully on-line graduate courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 5(2), 1-17. http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/192/274 Retrieved 15 September 2009. University of Dundee (2007). Museum Services: The Dundee College of Education Collection. http://www.dundee.ac.uk/museum/education.htm Retrieved 15th October, 2009
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Appendix 1 No. of years teaching:
Gender:
Main Subject:
An evaluation of the provision of hardware/ software during the PGDE year. Please respond as accurately as possible. Please put a cross in the appropriate box.
Before you began the programme: were you confident using ICT? were you confident about using ICT in your teaching?
Extremely confident
Confident
Unconcerned
Unconfident
Extremely unconfident
Before entering ITE what ways, if any, did you envisage using ICT in the classroom? (Please describe your thoughts).
Which of the following tools/software were you familiar with before starting your ITE programme? (Please select as many as appropriate)
Software Word processing Excel PowerPoint Desktop publishing Crocodile Physics Crocodile Chemistry Inspiration Kartouche Composer Concept Cartoons Internet Youtube Wikis Blogs Podcasting Other (please specify)
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Hardware Digital camera Digital Movie Camera Scanner Digital microscope Data logger Interactive whiteboard Other (please specify)
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Against the list please indicate how confident ranging from: 1 Extremely unconfident, to 5 Extremely confident; you were about using ICT in your teaching after finishing your ITE programme.
Software
1
2
3
4
5
Hardware
Word processing
Digital camera
Excel
Digital Movie Camera
PowerPoint
Scanner
Desktop publishing
Digital microscope Data logger
Crocodile Physics Crocodile Chemistry Inspiration Kartouche Composer Concept Cartoons
1
2
3
4
5
Interactive whiteboard
Internet Youtube Wikis Blogs Podcasting Other (please specify)
How useful did you find the following in support you as a distance learning student? The use of the VLE (Blackboard) Weekly reflection feedback
Other (please specify)
Very useful
Useful
Being provided with the laptop/hard drive. Face to face meetings.
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Unhelpful
Very unhelpful
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How useful was the science software which was provided in supporting your: Understanding of school science concepts Understanding of school science practical work Understanding of school structures (e.g. 5-14 Guidelines; Conditions & Arrangements for Higher etc; Curriculum for Excellence.) Confidence in teaching concepts Confidence in teaching practical work Confidence in using ICT in your science lessons
Very useful
Useful
Describe the ways in which you used the software to support your professional development.
Describe ways in which you used the software in your science lessons.
Please describe how you use ICT, in whatever form, in your practice today
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Unhelpful
Very unhelpful
Writing-to-Learn Science
IMPROVING SCIENCE THROUGH MODIFIED WRITING-TO-LEARN
Improving Student Science Learning Through Modified Writing-To-Learn Strategy
Teng Hang Chuan (Co-author: Jashanan Kasinathan)
Si Ling Primary School No 61, Woodlands Avenue 1, Singapore 739067
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IMPROVING SCIENCE THROUGH MODIFIED WRITING-TO-LEARN Abstract This paper draws on an exploratory action research into a teaching practice featuring quantitative and qualitative analysis of the experiences of modified writing-to-learn strategy approach in the teaching of elementary science. Specifically, the research describes and interprets how writing-to-learn strategy can support learning of science concepts and ideas. This study seeks to quantify and qualify the effects of using writing-to-learn strategy for a lower, middle ability group of students in a two treatments post-tests approach. The experimental group went through the first treatment, a 10-week session of „genre hypothesis‟ writing-to-learn approach to learn science. The second treatment employed a mixed of writing-to-learn strategy in another 10-week for 2 consecutive periods. Result from comparing post-tests of similar profile group suggests no significant improvement in 3 standard tests carried out in the period of 30 weeks. However, both independent and dependent t-tests and effect size suggest incremental students‟ performance. In the qualitative study, students‟ comments provided positive and encouraging feedback on the strategy used. The action research concludes that while writing-to-learn tasks in the teaching of science can support conceptual understanding and helps students in remembering ideas, teachers should be mindful of the fact that a diversified approach of writing-to-learn and understanding the students‟ performance profile play a significant role in their ability to be engaged in learning.
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Introduction Science educators have suggested that writing is a powerful tool to enhance learning of science contents. A review of writing-to-learn (Meiers, 2007) across subjects indicates that writing does contribute to students learning. Writing in general, helps students to make connections between what they experience and what they think and understand. In many ways, writing-to-learn strategies provide a noteworthy tool that build up reading comprehension, and enables students to reflect on and question concepts and information learn in classroom. It also helps students to become more active in their learning.
Writing by its nature enhances thinking and is a powerful process for shaping thoughts. A review of writing to learn in science indicates that writing can enhance the learning of science when various conditions are met. First and foremost teachers need to tailor tasks to attain meaningful curricular goals. Second, students need to possess the necessary meta-cognitive knowledge and thirdly, the instructional environment provided by the teachers need to sustain a view of scientific literacy that embraces conceptual understanding rather than chunks of knowledge (Rutherford & Ahlgren, 1989). It is a strategy used by teachers knowingly or unknowingly. Students are usually encouraged to be engaged in or assigned to complete a writing task. Writing can be done for many purposes. In most cases, writing is done for communicative purpose. In this way, students will attempt to integrate new information with prior knowledge. (Newell, 1983)
Writing-to-learn strategies varies according to how it can be implemented. Some strategies can be short in-class writing and others on-going projects. As suggested, writing can be in the form of entrance or exit slips given to pupils at the beginning or end of the class. Page 2132
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Students make list of questions, summaries what was discussed on that day or reflection on the lesson. Written conversation by students and even self-assessments of project or something the students are working on. For on-going projects, writing can be in the forms of journals and learning logs. Students explore content learnt, experiments carried out and even record areas of doubt as a form of writing activities. Other strategies include the use of scrapbooks of students‟ interesting discoveries, readings logs, chats, on-line discussions and letter-writing exchanges between teacher and students. (Meiers, 2007) Other than producing the end-product, Resnick (1987) recognized that writing can serve as a potential role to cultivate and enable pupils to exercise higher order thinking. This is true when we consider writing as a mean or an exercise by the students to think through arguments and to master forms of reasoning and persuasion.
Much of our experience from teaching science and marking science examination papers tells us that the lower and middle ability students have difficulties in answering openended questions. Generally they perform fairly in the multiple choice segment but the answers given in the open-ended questions are usually incoherent, not related to the questions being asked at all and in some cases are left blank.
Students are engaged in writing more in English language lessons than science lessons. In many science lessons, students are encouraged to start their discovery or understanding of the topics with big ideas or inquiry questions. They will then go through activities and experiences that are targeted to grasp the scientific concepts that would help them in their understanding of themselves and the world. Students are also provided with opportunities to develop skills, habits of the mind and attitudes necessary for scientific Page 2133
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inquiry and mastery of content knowledge. The holistic approach in developing the pupils is evident in the school and the culture. Students not just learn the scientific knowledge, understand the concepts and apply the concepts learnt; they are also equipped with thinking skills and science process skills. On top of that, positive attitudes and ethics are infused in the teaching of science.
Current emphasis in thinking school and curriculum design is propelled by the recognition that discrete knowledge should not be learned for its own sake. Students are encouraged to use scientific knowledge and the big ideas they have learnt to understand the surrounding world and in solving meaningful problems. Many science test questions are written in that manner. Much of the writing in science lessons only occur when students are doing project works or answering structured questions in activities. They rarely use writing as a learning task. Writing in the form of answering structured questions are mainly seen as an end-product that a student should be able to do. All instructions in carrying out an activity, purpose of experiment and questions are provided by publisher in pupils‟ activity book. All science activities are planned in line with learning outcomes deemed by the Ministry of Education. The science teachers will usually carry out the science activities with various
strategies like games, investigation, construction of concept maps, problem solving and many others. Students will then carry out the activities as prescribed in these activity books. Science teachers will then explain and even post discussion questions on the activities and conduct group‟s discussions with the students. Throughout the activities, students do not need to write out the activities‟ aims, materials used, draw diagram to illustrate the experimental setup and even the questions.
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Research Methodology Action research has many interpretations, most of which include the idea of carrying out an action and reflecting on the action and improves on the action taken. Action research is used in many settings; schools, businesses, government unit and so on. It is often used as a tool to enhance the practices of daily work in an environment. Action research is based on the premise that local conditions can vary widely and the solutions to the problem may not be generalized truths. In teaching, action research questions one‟s own practice and it becomes part of the work and culture of the school environment. Reflection is the key component of action research. Action research emphasizes a systematic approach of making improvement, alternating between action and reflection on the practitioner (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, Sorensen, 2006). Action research is very much suitable to be used by classroom teachers because it focuses on experienced reality of daily events happening, on top of that, it assumes that no one has absolute control for all relevant or irrelevant variables when dealing with students in a (classroom) controlled but social situation.
Purpose of Study The purpose of this exploratory action research study is to firstly investigate the role of a modified „genre hypothesis‟ writing-to-learn approach in the learning of science, followed by a repertoire of writing-to-learn strategy. We sought to assess the effect of writing-to-learn science on the learning of simple and integrated knowledge, as measured after completing a 10-week, 20-week and 30-week cumulative learning and revising of science topics covered in Primary 6 syllabus. We expect that students who used the writing-to-learn strategy to learn science in a greater depth and retain their understanding better compared to students just using publishers‟ designed science activity books. We also expect that the pattern of Page 2135
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differences among the experimental group would vary according to time. The null hypothesis that framed the quantitative part of the study is:
There would be no significant difference in mean score of 3 science tests that can be attributed to treatment1 (modified writing-to-learn genre-approach) and treatment2 (a repertoire of writing to learn science approach). The qualitative component of the study was framed by two questions. The first
focused on the role of writing to learn strategy on learning: How did the use of writing-tolearn science influence students‟ knowledge and lessons carried out? A second question addressed how writing by individual students consolidates their own learning: How has the writing to learn science approach helped them?
Method and Context As noted by Rivard (1994), there are many issues that need to be addressed before writing-to-learn strategies can be accepted by science educators. Some are inadequately reported, some lacked ecological validity and in most cases researchers would rather study writing in isolation than in context. Predominantly, contextual issues are important and it may determine the success or failure of writing-to-learn strategies implemented in the classroom.
Instead of just having one lessons, a series of science activities and lessons were carried out in a regular classroom context. No special prior arrangements were made in selecting the students or deliberately using different teaching strategies. The only exception was that these students only used their science journal for all their science activities and lessons. The format of each lesson and students‟ learning journal entries can vary but the core feature is that pupils need to write. For some science lessons and discussions, students were
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tasked to write down the questions we are interested in, discussions points and science concepts or ideas they have learnt.
For all science activities, the students were tasked to write down the aim, material, results, discussions and questions as the teacher dictate, discuss and carry out the learning activities with them in class or outside class. The modified „genre hypothesis‟ writing-tolearn strategy was used in all hands-on and experiment activities throughout the intervention period. This modified approach was adopted because it is the most natural way of explaining to students the „why‟, „where‟, „when‟ and „how‟ the activities should be carried out. In this way, the students are also able to organize relationships between the „why are we doing it this
way‟ and „how this data are useful in our prediction‟ and thereby among these elements of knowledge generate their own knowledge and understanding. The students also kept this learning journal in which they used it to do homework assigned to them.
The topics covered in these thirty weeks include : –
Classifying living things and non-living things
–
Forms of Energy
–
Sources of Energy
–
Forces
–
Living Together
–
Characteristics of Environment
–
Adaptations of Plants and Animals
–
Man and Environment
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Data Collection A mixed method quasi-experimental design was used for this action research. The experimental group was compared with a control group with almost similar performance in a similar science examination carried out the previous year. The quantitative component is a three post-tests only design. The three post-tests were given right after a period of 10 weeks. For the first test, students have to answer 20 multiple choice questions and 12 structured questions based on the same topics taught. For the second test, students have to answer 30 multiple choice questions and 14 structured questions based on the topics taught in the 20 weeks. In the third test, students sat for the same test format as the second test except that the topics covered now include those learnt in previous schooling years. The effect size calculation was used to provide a quantitative perspective of treatment.
Effect size
calculation was performed by calculating the Cohen‟s d value as provided by Meier (2006, p.156). Impact of treatment as determined by Cohen d effect size calculations are: an effect size of .20 is small, an effect size of .50 is medium, and an effect size of .80 is large.
Table 1: Equivalent groups, 3 post-tests design only Group
Mean score
1st
Post-
2nd
Post-
Post-
from
Independent
test 1
Independent
test 2
test 3
previous
variable
variable
year examination Experimental
Y1
X1
Y2
X2
Y3
Y4
Control
Y1
-
Y2
-
Y3
Y4
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For the qualitative component, all students‟ journals from the experimental group were examined for consistency with the implementation of writing-to-learn strategy throughout the 30-weeks. Feedbacks on progress and learning for experimental groups were carried as deem by the class teacher. The second qualitative element of the raw data was students‟ reflections on the lessons carried out in the first ten weeks follow by the end of Post-test 3. This feedback and reflection provides insight of students‟ views of using the learning journals and how writing-to-learn science is useful to them.
Results
The results are reported in two sections to reflect the two components of the study. The first sections reports on the quantitative results; the second component reports on the qualitative results.
Analysis of quantitative result
The post-tests result of the experimental group was compared with control group with almost similar examination score. All tests were conducted in the same day for both classes. Students who were absent were excluded in the analysis of all post-tests. This was to ensure that the test answers were not divulged. Actual means based on the raw data are calculated. All independent T-test, dependent T-test and effect size are reported, for p < 0.05 unless otherwise indicated. Effect size calculations were performed using Cohen d measures provided by (Ary et al., 2006). Sample size of experimental and control group is 25 each.
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Table 2: Post-test 1,2 and 3 statistics. Post-test 1
Post-test 2
Post-test 3
Experimental
Control
Experimental
Control
Experimental
Control
Mean
40.4
39.16
31.98
33.66
39.18
34.98
SD
11.54
8.88
9.84
8.29
11.05
8.64
Table 3: Independent T-test results of 3 post-tests.
Independent T-test
Post-test 1
Post-test 2
Post-test 3
-0.42
0.65
-1.49
Table 4: Dependent T-test. Pre-test score is based on exam results from previous year. Pre-test
Post-test 3
-0.29
0.72
Dependent T-test (Paired T-test)
Table 5: Effect size of 3 post-tests based on Cohen‟s d-value.
Effect size
Post-test 1
Post-test 2
Post-test 3
0.12
-0.18
0.42
Both independent and dependent T-test results indicated that there is no significant difference in mean score of 3 science tests that can be attributed to treatment1 (modified writing-to-learn genre-approach) and treatment2 (a repertoire of writing to learn science approach) in determining performance in a test situation. The effect size calculated for the 3
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post-tests also suggests that the treatment is negligible in increasing test performance. However, it is worth noting that the independent T-test, dependent T-test and effect size suggest a trend that writing-to-learn science could improve students‟ performance in test situation over a period.
Analysis of students’ learning journals
Randomly picked science journals were used in the analysis. This analysis was done with respect to the post-test scores of the students. The analysis includes two segments. The first focused on the role of writing to learn strategy on learning: How did the use of writingto-learn science influence students‟ knowledge and lessons carried out? A second question addressed how writing by individual students consolidates their own learning: How has the writing to learn science approach helped them? Most of the 25 students in the experimental group were able to follow through the lesson proper and write down as dictated or discussed as a class. Almost all of them followed the instruction of filling in the content page which served as a record of the activities conducted. Freedom was given to students on how to organize the notes, drawings, tables and questions. Most of the students were able to organize the writing text and pictures neatly in a logical manner. Rosalina commended in her reflection, “We can write wherever we want, which is comfortable for us and easier for us to revise. We can highlight some important notes which look very colourful and nice.”
Based on the reflections written by the pupils in the experimental group, it appears that some students focused on the rote-writing as opposed to the writing-to-learn and engaged in thinking and discussions. Most of the students remarked that they have increased their understanding of the topics covered and science as a subject. Science was not just seen as a
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subject but a practical experience and how data can be connection to theories or concepts taught. Many are able to describe the lessons covered during the 30 weeks in their reflections.
Surprisingly, in almost all reflections, the students in the experimental group are able to describe in details of how some of the science activities were carried, what they have learnt, which lessons they like best and why. The top two lessons that were mostly quoted in their reflections are the use of data-logger lesson to investigate the physical parameters of environment and the milk-can activity in which students have to investigate which can (black or white) absorb more heat. Frank stated that “the way we organize [activity] is first we need to put in the temperature sensor to the data logger and the light sensor too…the things I learnt is that there are different temperature reading in different places…different characteristics.” Zack stated that “We did the milk can activity and the aim was to find out if black-can or silver-can absorbs more heat.” He added “I learnt that dark colour absorbs more heat but light colour absorbs less heat.” Nancy commended “We found that we can‟t tell which [can] absorb more heat. But we understand that the Sun was the source of energy…we learnt that the darker the colour the more heat it absorb.” The modified writing-to learn strategy helps lower and middle ability students to retain important ideas of carrying out science experiment.
Writing-to-learn tasks help students to build coherence in their learning. For lower and middle ability students, the scaffolding provided by the teacher is paramount. In the science lessons, when the teacher foresee that students may have difficulties in making connections between ideas, writing-to-learn serves as a tool to make that connection. In addition, students‟ own records would support their understanding when they refer back to the different segments of the experiment or activities carried out again. This coherence is also built when pupils note down pointers as discussions were carried out. Noting down is usually Page 2142
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dictated by teachers and this serve as part of the reminders that teachers give during lessons. Tommy stated in the lesson on habitats “I have learnt that different animals have different habitats and need different temperatures.” Subsequently, in the lesson on sweet potato community, he commended “Earthworms need a lower temperature and they make tunnels to live in.” Four of the students in the experimental even proposed and attempted to use mindmap to write their reflection during the reflection session.
Other than learning about the concepts taught, some students in the experimental group highlighted the value of perseverance from the lessons taught. Susan stated that “And sometime it may not be successful. So we try again until it works.” Diane commended “If we do our experiment wrongly, we will try again or borrow another teacher‟s material until we done our experiment properly.” Jenny commended “the teacher will let us try the experiment again when we fail.”
Limitations of study
There are limitations to this action research. The sample size of the research is small. This could potentially influence the effect size of the implementation. Moreover, it was only carried out in one school. The research was done in a period of 30 weeks with 3 hours of science lessons per week. Thus, the limitations of such short term interventions will have to be taken into consideration. The results and reflections may not be representative of the overall population of the school as well as the cohort. As such, more studies will be required to validate the results further. In retrospect, this action research does have its own merits as it provide the policy makers an idea of the impact of writing-to-learn strategies on the upper primary, lower to middle ability students. With the spirit of action research, the students and teachers had gained from the learning and there will be a greater awareness of the use of
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Writing-to-Learn Science
writing-to-learn strategies in the teaching of science. Although the initial results may not be significant, it will spur further similar studies and provide the foundation necessary on a whole-school scale.
Discussion of Results The results of the study indicate that the use of modified „genre hypothesis‟ writingto-learn strategy (writing of aim, materials, methods and discussion) as the lesson progresses and further writing-to-learn strategies are beneficial for students‟ in the understanding of science concepts but not necessary on answering test questions. However, it is worth noting that there is a positive trend in the effect size. This further confirmed many studies results that the impact of writing-to-learn-science increased over time when students had multiple experiences. In recognizing the limitations of the sample size and its effect on potential confidence in students‟ reflections on their learning, the study nevertheless highlights an important perspective in introducing writing-to-learn strategy. As suggested in the study conducted by (Hand, Hohenshell, & Prian, 2004), the impact of non-traditional writing activities on performance on conceptual questions increased over time when students had multiplied experience, in retrospect, Students could be engaged to write in diverse forms so that they could benefit fully in the writing-to-learn experiences. Students‟ comments support and continue to highlight the value of writing-to-learn science. They indicate the value and effectiveness of clarifying meaning further for self and others. However, in examining students‟ comments, we would point out that they are specific to engagement with the teacher‟s used of writing tasks under classroom and background conditions as outlined. It should be viewed with some caution when generalizing to all writing tasks.
This action research also incorporated teacher-devised genre approach
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Writing-to-Learn Science
templates to guide students‟ structuring their writing. Students of lower and middle ability found this support in organizing ideas useful, and hence their comments give support for the validity of genre-based theories of how writing serves learning. Whereas less able students in the experimental group benefited from explicit teacher-led scaffolding of text structures, others devised their own and some even asked whether they could present ideas learnt in ways they preferred. This suggests that the use of genre approach and their degree of specificity should be closely based on teacher‟s awareness of students‟ need and capacities and should not be seen as the only way in which writing can serve learning.
For many reasons, writing should be engaged in a variety of writing tasks in science classrooms to support the development of better conceptual understanding of primary science. This study found that primary school, lower and middle ability students are able to create meaningful understandings of science, across topics through a modified approach of writing-to-learn strategies. In addition, writing-to-learn tasks enabled students to monitor their understanding of science throughout the school term, from initial ideas of prior knowledge to drawing linkages between observations and scientific understandings.
This study adds to the existing literature on writing-to-learn strategies for the teaching of science. It is also timely for the school leaders and science teachers attempting to implement writing-to-learn strategies as well as student-centered assessment. This study provides school leaders and science teachers with a case study of implementing modified writing-to-learn strategies action research in schools. Hence, new initiative or change can be a slow process, yet is it paramount to keep moving forward through professional development, personal reflections and collaborative experiences with colleagues and school leaders.
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Writing-to-Learn Science
This study also shows that some of students in the experimental group were not clear about the uses writing-to-strategies. When ask to reflect on how the writing tasks helped them learn, most of them focused on describing the tasks they experienced. Many believe that the primary reason was to create a written record of knowledge and assist them in memorizing important details of lessons.
Writing skills (text type of a scientific report) were not explicitly taught in the experimental group science classroom. It took some time for the students to get used to the chunks of information and how are they related. In future studies, it would benefit students if they were exposed to reading articles in primary science magazines, notes of scientists in simplified forms and writing-to-learn experiences.
This action research has provided insights of explicitly modeling thinking and writing scientific information in primary school classroom. Simply by asking students to write about science, describe an experiment, concepts learnt or even to answer open-ended questions would almost lead to disappointments in their learning and their perspectives of science
education. In addition, the reflections of students indicated that writing-to-learn tasks are most effective when combined with other teaching pedagogies (outdoor experiences and the use of IT tools) that support active learning. Many of the existing science activities can be modified to incorporate writing-to-learn strategies in various forms to encourage students to write about what they learned. Writing-to-learn tasks are also a valuable way to encourage personal reflections and the infusion of values within the lessons.
In retrospect, the investigators see several factors which should be considered for any future implementation of writing-to-learn strategies. In implementing, writing-to-learn, teachers should be much more mindful of the need to model thinking and writing expected in Page 2146
Writing-to-Learn Science
the science classroom. In particular, in encouraging students to write short notes about their science thinking before the class, during the class and “looking-back” or “thinking-over” notes after lessons. It is definitely advisable to provide explicit, modified writing-to-learn structure and instruction in tandem with regular feedbacks. The modified and even writingto-learn tasks in primary school classes is generally unfamiliar with first year science students (Primary 3), therefore , careful explanation, deliberate steps and the spirit of trying must be taken into account for writing tasks and learning to be meaningful. Writing-to-learn can be a potential strategy for teaching thinking, reasoning and understanding because such activities provides students the chance to exercise their cognitive capacity to synthesize, manipulate and present their conceptions of science concepts and ideas to themselves and to others.
Implications
This study has implications for current theories of how writing serves learning and for future action research in this field. This study suggests that genre approach of writing-t-learn science can be integrated into curriculum framework and science department work plans of schools to provide meaningful activities for students to learn science concepts. Secondly, it suggests that writing-to-learn strategies can be employed for teachers who teach low to middle ability students. Thirdly, implementation of writing-to-learn strategies should be evolved according to the learning needs as the students‟ progress. Lastly, for writing-to-learn strategies to work, it requires sustained effort.
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Writing-to-Learn Science
References Ary, D. Jacobs, L.C. Razavieh, & A. Sorensen. C. (7th ed.). (2006). Introduction to Research
in Education. Thomson, Wadsworth. Hand, B. Hohenshell, L. & Prian, V. (2004) Exploring Students‟ responses to conceptual
questions when engaged with planned writing experiences: A study with Year 10 science students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 2, 186-210.
Meiers, M. (2007). Writing to learn. NSWIT Research Digest, (2007). Retrieved April 14,
2009, from http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au.
Newell, G.E. (1984). Learning from writing in two content areas: A case study/protocol
analysis. Research in the Teaching of English, 18, 265-287.
Rivard, L.P. (1994). A review of writing to learn in science: Implications for practice and
research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 969-983.
Rutherford, F.J., & Ahlgren, A. (1989). Science for all Americans: A project 2061 report on
literacy goals in science, mathematics and technology. Washington, DC: American
Association for the Advancement of Science.
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Teachers’ Collaborative Practice in Teaching and Learning of Science
Teng Siew Lee Fazleen Mahmud, Sarawanan s/o Kasinathan, Tan Chun Ming, Tang Hui Boon, Teo Ying Zhi, Widayah Othman
Compassvale Secondary School 51 Compassvale Crescent Singapore 542585
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Abstract
A group of secondary school Science teachers conducted an Action Research on teachers‘ collaborative practice in developing lesson packages. The collaboration required the teachers who taught the same subject and level in school coming together to design lesson packages for Secondary 3 Science. The idea of an interlocking ‗Borromean knot‘ which focuses on the ‗primary task‘, ‗collaboration‘ and ‗reflective practice‘ was used as the guiding framework for our investigation into teacher‘s collaborative practice. Data were collected through observation notes about the collaborative practices, teacher‘s reflection journals and students‘ evaluation. Findings showed that teacher collaboration encouraged sharing of expertise among teachers, enhanced the individual teacher‘s effectiveness in classroom teaching and strengthen teachers‘ professional development.
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Introduction
Collaborative practice among teachers is found to be a good approach for school effectiveness. It allows teachers to pool their resources together, share their expertise and their experience in teaching and learning (James, Dunning, Connolly & Elliot, 2007). In 2009, the Minister of Education of Singapore announced the measures to deepen the professionalism of the teaching service through nurturing a teacher-driven culture of professional excellence. One of which is the development of schools as professional learning communities and the importance of continuous professional dialogue and feedback in driving enhancement and innovation in the classroom (Ministry of Education (MOE), 2009). In Compassvale Secondary School (CVSS), the teachers in the Science Department have an average of less than three and a half years in the teaching profession while the majority being beginner teachers of less than 2 years in the teaching profession. Previously, the collaborative practices among the teachers are mainly sharing a common pool of teaching resources and distributed the jobs such as preparing common resources for the whole level. As a result, professional improvement was often self-regulated only through personal reflective practice although in-depth discussion with more experienced teachers in content teaching happened when the need arose. At the same time, we were concerned about the use of inquiry-based learning (IBL) in classroom practice. IBL seeks to actively engage students in exploration, discovery and creation (Carlson, Humprey & Reinhardt, 2003). In a teacher‘s perception survey conducted on IBL prior to the action research, the beginning teachers found themselves with insufficient experience in pedagogy and content knowledge to create effective IBL lessons. They hoped to
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receive help and peer support in planning IBL packages. This motivated us to explore how teacher collaboration could help us in our professional role.
The present study is an extension of our Action Research in the teachers‘ collaborative practice in inquiry-based Chemistry lesson in which the study involved the more experienced teachers guiding the beginner teachers by focusing on teaching content knowledge through the use of IBL, and meeting the professional needs of teachers‘ professional collaborative practice to improve in teacher‘s effectiveness and enhance the learning of the younger teachers (Teng, Saravanan, Tan, Tang, Teo & Othman, 2008). The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between teacher collaboration and teacher effectiveness in terms of confidence and motivation as well as engagement in professional discussions in the teaching of Biology. It provided opportunity for the teachers to contribute their professional expertise, sharing of resources and learning from one another. This paper describes the Action Research processes and outlines the collaborative practice of a group of young Biology teachers, with average of two years of teaching experience, putting their heads together to develop a lesson package on the ‗Transport in Men‘ to engage their Secondary 3 students. Key outcomes of the collaborative practice are discussed and suggestions made for future research.
Literature Review
Action research is a tool that is used to help teachers and other educators uncover strategies to improve teaching practices (Sagor, 2004). Thus, it is a viable and realistic endeavor for all educators. Action research requires teachers to design a
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study in an area of interest that they would like to carry out in their classrooms or schools. For example, teachers can test a new instructional strategy, assess a new curriculum program, or evaluate an existing pedagogical method. Specifically, action research is defined as one form of meaningful research that can be conducted by teachers with students, colleagues, parents, and/or families in a natural setting of the classroom or school. It allows teachers to take ownership of their teaching and occurs when teacher researchers contemplate on a classroom or instructional issue, design a study, execute the study, track data and results, and reflect.
Collaboration can bring many benefits both to the teachers and students (James
& Connolly, 2000). However, in terms of professional development,
collaboration between teachers is particularly effective as it allows teachers to pool their resources, share their experience and expertise while focusing on the primary task. During the collaboration process, teachers discuss what is to be taught and what are the common learning obstacles the students face. After the lessons end, the teachers can get together and discuss what can be improved in future lessons. In collaborative practice, reflection about the lesson planning process and the post-lesson also allows the teachers to improve future practice (James et al, 2007). We considered collaboration, reflective practice and a focus on the primary lesson planning task are vital in our own collaborative practice. Collaboration with a focus on the primary task but without reflection will lead to few improvements to future lessons. Reflective practice and a focus on the primary task without collaboration will limit the individual capacity for reflection. Figure 1 shows a diagram called a ‗Borromean knot‘ (Lacan, 1973 in Fink, 1998) illustrating the collaborative process of our Action Research. The
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three circles represent collaboration, reflective practice and a focus on the primary task. The overlap of the three cycles represents our collaborative practice.
Figure 1: A Borromean knot showing the three fundamentals of collaborative practice.
Each overlapping circle in the Borromean knot is arranged in an interlocking fashion such that if one of the rings is cut, the other 2 rings will fall apart. This signifies that all three circles are vital in collaborative practice and if any of the components is missing, the result will be less than optimal. Reflective practice has been described as building, maintaining, and further developing the capacities of teachers to think and act professionally throughout their teaching careers (Kane, Sandretto & Heath, 2004) and as not just recalling a teaching incident in a general manner (Lee & Tan, 2004). Reflection should be focused and directed at a particular issue or concern about teaching and is triggered by the perceived need to examine one‘s practice because there is an awareness of some problematic aspects of the
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situation. Bell (2001) noted that discipline based collaborative practices activities have been quite effective for
teaching staff
as these activities involve peer
observation that in turn encourage shared reflections on teaching experiences. Martin & Ramsden (1994) also noted that it would be a holistic, experience-based approach when skills, reflection and actual teaching experiences are integrated in a cooperative learning environment.
In this study, we are using the Borromean knot model to define collaborative practice which includes collaboration between teachers, a focus on the primary task and the reflective practice of teachers. The collaborative practice involved collaboration, in which teachers pooling their skills and knowledge together as a team to develop a lesson package on a topic to improve both the teaching and learning process. The focus on the primary task is the inquiry-based learning which is the specific pedagogical method in enhancing the learning process of the students. Reflective practice involved teachers thinking through the lessons by focusing on the primary task. This includes the pre- and post-lesson reflection in which the teacher reflects on the subject content, the purpose and the pedagogy to approach the topic based on their past teaching experience in relation to student‘s learning. Post-lesson reflection allows the teachers to further improve the execution of the next lesson.
Our previous research suggested that the study of the teachers‘ collaborative practice in designing lesson package, peer observation may draw more input and feedback for improvement in our classroom practice (Teng et al, 2008). Peer observations are often used in many teacher development programmes to serve as an important learning opportunity for beginning teachers (Richards and Lockhart, 1992).
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In particular, beginning teachers can learn from various teaching models and this would allow them to take away precious ideas, methods and fruitful insights (Richardson, 2000). Teachers can learn from one another while preparing instructions, developing resources, observing one another interact with students and brainstorming on the effects of their behavior on their students (Joyce and Showers, 1996). Hence, we included peer observation in the present study. In addition, we included the component of student evaluation. Student evaluation was conducted after the topic to evaluate if the learning objectives are met and to obtain inputs from students on their learning. In constructing an evaluation form, the questions asked corresponded to the aspects of teaching that the teachers consider important. The inclusion of space for students‘ comments allows specific suggestions for building on strengths and improving of weaknesses of the teaching or lesson (Murray, 2005).
Research Procedure
This research was carried out to extend the action research we conducted on teachers‘ collaborative practices in inquiry-based Chemistry lesson, to learn more about collaborative practice in enhancing the learning of beginner teachers in planning IBL lesson package. The study was conducted to further improve the collaborative process and explore different IBL strategies, including the use of Information Technology (IT), teacher‘s questioning techniques and hands-on activity. The research team consists of two groups of teachers. A team of four Biology teachers (Teachers A – D), each had less than two and a half years of teaching experience. This group of teachers worked collaboratively in planning and developing a lesson package
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on a selected topic on the Transport in Men to Secondary 3 Express Science (Biology) classes. Other team members made up the observers of the collaboration.
The collaboration was carried out over a school term, which the teachers met once a week. The four basic action research steps taken were 1) Planning, 2) Acting, 3) Observing and 4) Reflecting. These basic steps were repeatedly done as the teachers progressed through the research.
In the first step, the teachers had a discussion on the teaching of Biology topics. The teachers decided on the topic on Transport in Men for the Secondary three based on the Scheme of Work and timeline of the research. The teachers brainstormed on the ways to teach the topic and decided to focus on two areas for the lesson package: the use of information technology (IT) and inquiry-based learning. They shared experiences in teaching this topic, some activities that have been carried out and were well received by the students as well as the difficulties faced when teaching the topic. By reflecting on their past experience they brainstormed on what to Keep, Improve, Stop and Start. Teacher A suggested ideas to approach the topic with a webquest project as a platform for to allow students to be researchers and independent learners. Teacher B suggested the idea of a practical demonstration on the dissection of the heart, which he felt the students were engaged and learned the parts of the heart well when he carried out the activity in the previous year. Follow-up tasks were discussed and adopted by all teachers. Teacher A created the web-quest assessment task which required students to research on the structure and function of the heart and a particular heart disease. Teacher C created the rubrics for the assessment tasks fro the web-quest project. All the teachers discussed and improved in the tasks such as
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the clarity and its relevance to the syllabus. They also decided to learn from Teacher B on how to dissect the heart through peer observation.
In the acting stage, a web-quest project and the rubrics for the assessment task were given to the students as their June holiday assignment. A peer observation was conducted when Teacher B had a practical lesson on dissection with a Pure Biology class. During the observation, the teachers learned the dissection skills and also looked out for students‘ response to the activity. Following that, Teachers C and D conducted an improved and modified dissection lesson with the other Secondary 3 classes. During this time, they shared and improved in their teaching and learning processes. They wrote down individual post-lesson reflection and discussed to extend the teaching to the next topic and on how the lesson could have been better.
While the discussion was in progress, one of the Biology teachers recorded the points of their discussion. The teacher-observers of the research team took down notes, paying special attention to the teachers‘ collaborative practice according to the Borromean model (See Table 1.1).
The teachers kept reflection journals throughout the study. They reflected on what they had expected to achieve from the pre-lesson discussion and their experiences and take-away in the post-discussion. As the action research progressed, they sought clarification with one another along the way. They met up to improve and improvise as they went through the lesson package created. Each teacher wrote down individual reflections on the learning experiences that they had garnered during the brainstorming session. Template was not used for the reflection as the research
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team wanted the reflection to be as personal and honest as possible but not to be curbed by any criteria or check points. Excerpts of their reflections are discussed later.
The action research cycle of ‗Planning – Acting – Observing – Reflecting‘ was repeated when Teachers C and D met again to discuss on the lesson conducted and the next lesson. Teacher D shared a hands-on practical activity she learned online on the teaching of blood pressure through inquiry-based learning, ‗Heart. Stop. Look. Listen‘. The teachers discussed on how to conduct the lesson in the most effective manner, the questions which need to be asked following the activity and the key points that students need to take away from the lesson. Thus, the collaborative practice seemed an effective way to improve teaching practice. The teachers seemed able to construct new knowledge for themselves while making links to their prior knowledge.
The teachers decided on the use of student evaluation on the teaching and learning of the entire topic and created the checklist based on the intended learning objectives of the lessons. This included quantitative and qualitative questions to obtain a more accurate feedback from students on how they felt towards the lessons and activities throughout the topic. We needed this to measure the effectiveness of the collaborative practice in creating a lesson package (See Table 1.2). The students were not told that the feedback was also for our research project because we did not want them to give biased feedback. Finally, the teachers reflected on the students‘ feedback and listed out the learning points from the entire collaboration and research.
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Table 1.1: Checklist for teachers‘ collaborative practice No.
Description
Collaboration 1 Staff (teaching and non-teaching) work together 2 Teaching skills and knowledge are pooled together 3 Discussion of topics to focus Discussion of common learning obstacles faced by 4 students 5 Discussion of teaching pedagogies such as IBL Reflection Practice Teachers conduct individual reflection on the execution 6 of the lesson.
Teacher Teacher C D √ √ √
√ √ √
√
√
√
√
√
√
7
Teachers conduct individual post-lesson reflection for future improvements.
√
√
8
Teachers conduct group reflection on the execution of the lesson.
√
√
9
Teachers conduct group post-lesson reflection for future improvements.
√
√
Focus on Primary Task 10
Specific pedagogical methods involved
√
√
11
Teachers intend to apply their post-lesson reflection in their future teaching.
√
√
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Table 1.2: Students‘ Evaluation of the Learning Package A. Research Project The assessment was clear in stating its 1 objectives and instructions.
SA
A
D
SD
29.6%
64.1%
6.3%
0%
20.3%
68.8%
10.9%
0%
15.6%
65.6%
18.8%
0%
54.7%
40.6%
4.7%
0%
43.8%
45.3%
10.9%
0%
42.2%
54.7%
3.1%
0%
50.0%
46.9%
3.1%
0%
32.8%
62.5%
4.7%
0%
29.7%
53.1%
17.2%
0%
31.2%
64.1%
4.7%
0%
20.3%
65.6%
14.1%
0%
I have a deeper understanding of the 12 structure of the heart through the lesson on the dissection of the heart.
37.5%
56.3%
6.2%
0%
The activity on ―Heart. Look. Listen.‖ 13 Allows me to make connections between pumping of the heart and blood pressure.
18.8%
67.2%
14.0%
0%
The rubric was a useful guide on what we should focus on for the project. The project gave me a good head start to 3 the topic. B. Lessons on Dissection of the Heart Explanation was given during the 4 dissection was clear. I was able to identify the different parts of 5 the heart better after I saw the dissection. 2
6
The lesson was interesting and meaningful.
My teacher was able to dissect the heart to show me the parts clearly. C. Activity on Hear. Stop. Look. Listen. The activity was interesting and 8 meaningful. The activity allowed me to make links 9 between blood pressure and pumping of the heart better. Explanation given after the activity was 10 clear. D. Overall I have a deeper understanding of the topic 11 through my research for the web-quest project. 7
SA: Strongly Agree A: Agree D: Disagree SD: Strongly Disagree
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Results
The results for teachers‘ collaborative practice were derived by analyzing the pre- and post-lesson reflections by the two teachers, Teacher C and Teacher D, as shown in Table 1.1. The criteria for the checklist were based on the Borromean knot showing the three fundamental aspects of collaborative practice.
Four teachers collaborated in lesson preparation and Teachers C and D carried out the planned lesson. Those teachers who delivered the lessons were also part of the planning team as shown in criteria 1 to 5 in Table 1.1. Individual reflections on the execution of the lessons as well as post-lesson reflection were also done as demonstrated in criteria 6 and 7.
All the teachers reflected on the specific pedagogical methods involved, namely the inquiry-based learning through the use of web-quest, questioning techniques in practical demonstration and hands-on activity. The reflection journals produced by the three teachers were analysed to gauge how the collaborative practice had enhanced teacher confidence, teacher satisfaction and motivation and teacher relationships.
Data of students‘ evaluation on the lessons prepared by the three teachers is shown in Table 1.2. The data is obtained from a sample size of 64 students. This piece of data is crucial to determine if the learning objectives crafted out by the teachers during the lesson preparations were achieved.
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Discussion
Our findings show that teachers have adopted and benefited much from the Borromean knot showing the three fundamentals of collaborative practice. They expressed that they had gained more confidence through professional sharing during the collaborative practice and became more motivated in conducting the inquiry-based lesson through professional support. The findings support our previous action research in the teachers‘ collaborative practices in Chemistry lesson (Teng et al, 2008).
From the discussion notes and the reflections they had during the course of the collaboration, they found out that being new to the service did not deter them from learning a lot of Biology knowledge from one another. The collaboration had become a platform for these teachers to pool their knowledge and resources together. In addition, teachers refine their lessons together as a team and provide professional feedback to one another to produce a lesson package of quality and meet the learning objectives. More purposeful reflection enhances the collaborative practice when the teachers focused on the primary task set at the beginning of the collaboration.
Teacher A found the experience of collaboration enriching. Through the collaborations, the teachers are able to create a lesson which is not only effective but leaves a stronger impression of the topic. Teacher A had never dissected a heart before and the ―collaboration has allowed [him] to be more confident in [his] class and it had encouraged [him] to conduct dissections on his own.‖
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Teacher B commented that initially he wanted to share an effective lesson he conducted before which engaged students in learning. He felt that the feedback by his colleagues after the peer observation helped him to further improve in teaching the lesson and pooling of teachers expertise together saves time and resources. In his reflection, he wrote,
“…we have shared many scenarios and situations where students faced problems in understanding the concepts… we have saved each other‟s time (through the sharing of) different teaching approaches and the materials used for teaching the topics.”
Teacher C expressed that she was not confident about the direction to dissect the heart. The Biology teachers had discussions prior to the lesson observations to figure out ways to cut the heart to ensure that all the chambers will be dissected properly. They arranged lesson observations in each other‘s lessons so as to provide feedback for improvement.
“By the time I brought my class to the lab, I was more confident in carrying out the dissection. I managed to do a good cut …”
Teacher D expressed that by observing one of the teachers (Teacher B) doing the dissection of the heart, she was more aware that there are other ways to dissect the heart after the peer observation,
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“This was interesting as I never knew that this direction is the quickest way to get the best view of the internal structure”.
She further expressed that it was a well-planned lesson as it was an effective way to teach as the students get to see, touch and explore the heart. While Teacher B dissected the heart, he had also asked questions which prompted the students to ―analyse what they saw and [to] think about it.‖
In her reflection after she conducted the lesson, she wrote,
“I conducted a similar lesson to Teacher B‟s except for a few modifications… I showed the heart dissected by Teacher C, who had dissected the heart in a slightly different manner from Teacher B (and had kept the heart for my lesson), to the students which is able to show the blood vessels more clearly… I was very lucky because I was the last [teacher] to conduct this lesson. Thus, I have learnt so much from my colleagues who have done it before me.”
In their post-lesson discussion, Teacher C and Teacher D were able to give input which would further enhance the students learning.
“We [Teachers C and D] found out that having two hearts during the session, one to be cut and one to show the original whole heart, allowed the students to better compare the structure of the heart.”
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Teacher A, C and D mentioned that through the lesson observations they had with Teacher B, they had garnered more confidence and motivation to conduct the dissection than before. They also felt that the common time set aside for professional development (PDT) had allowed them to review the lesson package and enhanced their teaching pedagogy.
In addition, the positive results from students‘ evaluation in Table 1.2 showed that the students were engaged in the learning activities and the learning objectives were achieved. More than 90% of the students indicated that the lesson was interesting and meaningful as shown in criteria 6 and 8. With reference to criteria 4 to 10, more than four-fifths of the students commented that the explanations given during the lesson were clear and they were able to understand better on the topic. Generally, the majority of the students felt that the lesson was enriching and they benefited from the well-planned lesson. In their remarks for the strength and weaknesses for the lessons, some students wrote,
“[The lessons are] interesting and easy to understand. The [Web-quest] project gave us a head start in the Chapter… The [„Heart. Stop. Look. Listen‟] activity gave us a better understanding on [our] heart.”
“It helps me [to] understand about the heart and blood pressure better than just looking at [reading from] the notes.”
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“We get to experience seeing and touching a real heart and get to listen and take note of our heartbeat or pulses which everyday we do not notice [are not aware].”
“[We are all engaged] and everyone is involved and can learn - very interesting presentation that attracts [our] attention.”
“…the lesson was well-organized and [we] would know the parts of the heart very well after the dissection…[We] could also touch the heart and feel the texture of the parts…”
Thus, the evidences collected for our research project show that teachers found that collaboration encourages sharing of expertise among teachers, enhances teacher‘s effectiveness in classroom teaching and empower teachers in professional development. Our findings concur with Bell‘s (2001) findings that the participants expressed a developing sense of confidence in their teaching approached in a supported reflective practice programme with peer observation. In addition, students‘ evaluation showed that the lessons were effective and the teachers had helped them to understand the Biology topic better through the various inquiry-based activities.
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Conclusion and Directions for Future Research
The action research of the teachers in CVSS shows that collaborative practices among the colleagues encourage sharing of expertise, enhances teacher‘s effectiveness in classroom teaching and empower teachers in professional development. Future research may explore on how peer observations and group reflection enhance teachers‘ collaborative practice in teaching and learning. Suggestion is made for teacher training course to include developing lesson packages in groups and peer observations among the trainee teachers and the beginning teachers to enhance professional development.
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References
Bell, M (2001). Supported reflective rractice: A programme of peer observation and feedback for academic teaching development. The International Journal for Academic Development. Volume 6, Number 1. May, pp. 29-39(11). Taylor & Francis Ltd. Carlson, M.O., Humphrey, G.E. & Reinhardt, K.S. (2003), Weaving science inquiry and continuous assessment using formative assessment to improve learning. Corwin Press, Inc. James, C.R., Dunning, G., Connolly, M. & Elliot T. (2007), Collaborative practice: a model of successful
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http://www.jstor.org/stable/4151546 09/09/2008. Lacan, J. (1975), Encore. Editions de Seuil, Paris. Translated into English by B. Fink (1998). Lee, W.H. & Tan, S.K (2004) Reflective practice in Malaysian teacher education: Assumptions, practices, and challenges, Contemporary Issues in Education series, Marshall Cavendish Academic, Singapore, pp. 12 – 16.
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Martin, E. & Ramsden, P. (1994) Effectiveness and efficiency of course in teaching methods for recently appointed academic staff. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Ministry of Education (MOE) Work Plan Seminar 2009, Teachers — The Heart of Quality, Press Release, September 17. O'Connor, K.A., Greene, H.C., & Anderson, P.J. (2006), Action research: A tool for improving teacher quality and classroom practice. ERIC Digest. Retrieved on 10 February 2008. Online Submission, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, Apr 7, 2006) Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers‘ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy conduct. Review of Educational Research, Volume 62 Number 3, pp. 307-332. Richards, J.C. and Lockhart, C. (1992). Teacher development through peer observation. TESOL Journal, Volume 1 Number 2, pp. 7–10. Richardson, M.O. (2000). Peer observation: Learning from one another. The NEA Higher Education Journal, Thought &. Action, Volume 16 Number 1, pp. 9-19. Roehrig, Gillian H. and Luft, Julie A. (2004), Inquiry Teaching in High School Chemistry Classrooms: The Role of Knowledge and Beliefs, Journal of Chemical Education, Volume 81 Number 10 October 2004, pp. 1510 – 1516. Sagor, R. (2004). The action research guidebook: A four-step process for educators and school teams. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Teng, S. L., Saravanan K., Tan, C. M., Tang, H. B., Teo, Y. Z. & Othman, W. (2008). Teachers‘ collaborative practices in inquiry-based Chemistry lessons, Teachers in Action. Prentice Hall, Singapore. pp. 156–167.
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Turquet, P. (1985), ―Leadership: the individual and the group‖, in Colemn, A.D. and Gellar, M.H. (Eds), Group Relations Reader 2, A.K. Rice Institute, Jupiter, FL.
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Tutees in the Footsteps of Rutherford – Discovering the Atom’s Model by Analogy to the Solar System Jacob Thimor, Department of Education in Technology & Science, Technion – Institute of Technology, Haifa – Israel ([email protected]) Taha Massalha, The Academic Arab College for Education, Haifa – Israel ([email protected])
Abstract In the conventional teaching of the atom’s model, on introduction to the particle model of matter, students are confronted with the details of various natural phenomena which can only be explained by a particular structure of the atom. This is mostly illustrated through images and computer simulations, and trusted to convey the atom’s model. This form of learning leaves no room for the learner to play any active role in the conceptual construction of the atom’s model. In the study presented herein, an alternative was explored for (as far as we know) the very first time to teach the atom’s structure by way of guided discovery and thereby invoke active thinking on the part of the learner. Guided discovery as was employed in our experiment involved an analogy which made tutees grasp the basic atom’s model more readily. The atom’s model was first compared with the “long perceived” solar system, and the tutees were provided all pieces of knowledge they were missing with regard to the latter. The tutees were then guided into Socratic thinking by analogy. Finally, a private case was explored of using the solar system analogy to discover the atom’s structure. The end product of such learning was therefore the perception of the solar system in its entirety and employment of an analogical process to discover the atom’s model. Since the cognitive processes involved in the astronomic realm of ever increasing distances resemble very closely those leading to the discovery of the ever decreasing particles, we also suggested that these two subjects be taught side by side.
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The Rationale Intermediate school pupils in Israel are taught the structure of the atom in one of two ways: (1) by drawing conclusions from macro processes which are tangible to them and are explained by the teacher using the micro and more abstract atom model; (2) by being shown the model of the atom. In either way, the pupils remain entirely passive, with nothing to make them think of the model. The method we chose, however, although requiring us to provide supplementary data on the solar system, set the ground for to pupils to start thinking of the atom model by way of analogy. In other words, in contrary to the conventional methods, the pupils were actually involved in the learning process, and the question to be asked is “Does the gain not exceed the loss of time invested in imparting extra information on the solar system?” Pupils have already been acquainted with the initial concepts of the solar system in their daily lives. It is easier to supplement data on a tangible (solar) basis than to start with the entirely new and more abstract concepts of the atom. This was why we chose to teach the solar model first and then use this foundation to later build up the model of the atom (Jacob & Massalha, 2009). What Analogy Means Definition: If, in Case 1, two features occur together, then, in Case 2, the occurrence of one feature will also reveal the other (Copy, 1968). This is when learning takes place. The structure of an analogy: The first (base or introductory) line is the one containing both of the features, and the second (target) line contains one feature and calls for the discovery of the other, analogous feature.
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Analogy Examples 1.
Artificial language
to
base line
to
target line
Is like
(Where the small triangle represents the newly learned information) 2.
Natural language
Shark to
Fish
base line
Fowl
target line
Is like Bird
to
(Where fowl represents the newly learned information) 3.
Analogy in research (the Rutherford model)
The sun attracts the planets by gravitational force
base line
Is like Positive particles attract negative particles by electrical force
target line
(Where electrical attraction force represents the newly learned information) The role of analogy in learning - as a tool by which to develop perception As far as teaching is concerned, analogy is one way of presenting an explanation; reasoning by analogy is a form of inductive reasoning. Basically, an analogy is a statement of a logical relationship between two similar things which are compared with each other. An argument by analogy is presented in the form of "A is like B," or "X is similar to Y." In the teaching process, reasoning serves two purposes:
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a. To present the learner with new information as has been adapted to own assumed methods of perception b. To eliminate any unknown or misguided information own by the learner whose perception is different from the scientific perception Educational psychology employs two concepts in the context of using analogy for teaching:
analogical instruction, which means teaching new concepts by making
connections (analogies) with information which the pupil already understands, and analogical thinking – `heuristics in which one limits the search for solutions which are similar to the one at hand (Woolfolk, Hughes, Walkup. 2008). A brief description of the Rutherford experiment Our study relies on an analogy as was conceived by Rutherford. To understand it more clearly and know how to employ it in teaching so as to secure better perception on the part of the tutees, let us present below a summary of the Rutherford experiment and findings as had led to his conclusions with respect to the model of the atom in analogy to the solar system. Rutherford experiment procedure: Blasting of thin gold leaves with particles. Experiment results: 1. Most particles continued their motion along their original course. 2. Some particles shot back by nearly 180. Rutherford’s Conclusions: 1. A 180 deviation can only be caused by electrical repulsion forces between the positive particles and the positive element of the gold atom; hence the atom contains a large positive element. 2. The atom mass is concentrated in a positive nucleus weighing thousands of times more than the electrons orbiting about it. 3. Since most of the particles remained on course, it follows that the atom mostly comprises a void.
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These conclusions had served Rutherford to construct his atom model by analogy to the solar system. The structure of the analogy between the solar system and the atom structure The analogy elements which we have employed herein to help learners grasp the structure of the atom by way of guided discovery are as follows: 1. The planets are attracted to the sun in the same way the electrons are attracted to the atom’s nucleus. 2. The planets orbit around the sun like the electrons does about the nucleus. 3. The solar mass is as large relatively to that of the planets as the nuclear mass is relatively to that of the electrons. 4. The space between the planets and the sun is a void similar to the void between the electrons and the atom’s nucleus which is a vacuum. 5. The distance between the planets and the sun is as large relatively to their size as the distance between the electrons and the atom’s nucleus is. The cognitive/ methodical aspects of the study 1. The pupils are taught how to use guided discovery to understand the model of the atom. 2. The pupils use the solar system to imagine how the atom’s model would look like (following the Rutherford model). 3. The pupils learn what analogy is and experiment its application to a concrete model so as to perceive an abstract one. 4. The pupils are made to apply a high level of thinking.
The research problem Pursuant to the rationale as presented above, the study presented herein explores how pupils can be instructed to think their way to the structure of the atom by a process of guided
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discovery. This way, the atom’s model is no longer abstract and is strongly perceived by analogy to the concrete manifestation of the concept – the solar system. Objectives 1. To find out whether or not pupils can be guided into discovery of the structure of the atom; 2. To evaluate the age when schoolchildren can start to grasp the atom’s structure by way of guided discovery; 3. To learn whether or not pupils are capable of applying analogy in the process of guided discovery; 4. To evaluate the age when schoolchildren are capable of applying analogy in the process of guided discovery; 5. To study how teachers training students learn how to teach by analogy. Hypotheses 1. If pupils learn of the structure and properties of the solar system, then they will be able to apply analogy in guided discovery of the atom’s structure, by way of exploring answers to leading questions. 2. If low graders learn through guided analogy to the solar system, they will discover the atom’s structure at an earlier age than that scheduled under their curriculum (learning acceleration). 3. If teachers training students practice learning by analogy, they will be able to apply this approach in their teaching of elementary and junior high classes. Research questions 1. Are schoolchildren capable of applying guided discovery by way of analogy to discover the structure of the atom? 2. Are elementary school pupils capable of applying guided discovery by way of analogy to discover the structure of the atom? 3. Are teachers training students capable of learning how to instruct schoolchildren into discovery of the structure of the atom?
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The experiment population The population studied comprised 1156 Israeli 6th to 7th graders, of whom 289 6th graders (elementary schoolchildren) and 867 7th graders (junior high schoolchildren). The teachers were 3rd year physics teachers training students specifically trained for teaching by analogical thinking. Accessibility to the classes (6th grade in elementary schools and 7th grade in junior high schools) accounted for the different number of participants from these two levels). The experiment procedure The first phase of the experiment comprised a concentrated 6-day workshop for 3rd year physics teachers training students. Instruction covered analogy and how to use it in teaching high school science, and also how to lead, explore and analyze scientific education research in elementary and junior high schools. As a part of the workshop, the teachers training students applied the analogy between the solar system and the atom’s structure by the Rutherford approach. In the second phase, the same, specially trained teachers training students, equipped with adequate scientific and didactical tools by which to lead such a unique project and also with two questionnaires – a preliminary one and a summary were deployed in the various schools and embarked on the project as follows: a. The participating schools were selected randomly. In the schools selected, grades 6 and 7 were chosen. b. The preliminary questionnaire (Supplement A) was distributed and analyzed by major and subcategories to indicate how the pupils perceived the concepts of the solar system and the atom’s structure. c. A dynamic presentation of the solar system was prepared and displayed to the pupils, with a discussion and a round of questions to follow. d. The pupils were taught analogy and given examples from various disciplines of how to develop creative and critical thinking.
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e. A Rutherford analogy between the solar system and the atom’s structure was discovered. f.
A summary questionnaire (Supplement B) was distributed and analyzed, followed by a discussion of its findings.
Findings and conclusions Analysis of the preliminary and summary questionnaires, of 6th grade pupils answering, revealed two major findings. One was the significant change of trend in the number of pupils who failed to answer (62% in the preliminary questionnaire, as compared with 12% in the summary). The second was the significant increase in the number of correct answers – 15% in the preliminary questionnaire as compared with 54% in the summary. See following diagrams 1 of 6th, and diagrams 2 of 7th.
Diagram 1: The number of 6th grade pupils answering correctly Question 10 in the preliminary questionnaire vs. those answering correctly Question 3 in the summary questionnaire. The blue bar represents pupils who answered correctly, and the red bar represents those who did not answer at all.
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Diagram 2: The number of 7th grade pupils answering correctly Question 10 in the preliminary questionnaire vs. those answering correctly Question 3 in the summary questionnaire. The blue bar represents pupils who answered correctly, and the red bar represents those who did not answer at all.
Results showed, for example, that in the 7th grade, 60% of the 867 pupils could describe all stages of the analogy between the solar system and the atom’s model, on having demonstrated their knowledge by drawing the atom’s model which they had discovered. 6th grader results showed that 40% of the 289 pupils could give a step by step account of the analogy which had led them to discover the atom’s model. This approach has thus also accelerated the learning process, seeing that the subject is normally taught no earlier than in the 7th grades. 1. The structure of the atom can be taught through guided discovery by way of analogy to the solar system. 2. The various examples of how to use analogy, as developed by the teachers training students, provide evidence to the effect that the cognitive structure of the analogy process was so strongly perceived by the students as to allow them to apply it in the classroom and construct their own aids. In other words, they no longer had to rely only on what they had learned, thereby proving a high level of learning.
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Hence, we may safely assume that they will be able to apply the same way of reasoning to other topics, which is the ultimate goal of every learning process. 3. The pupils were highly enthusiastic with this teaching method since it also contained a strong element of involvement and games which made learning an enjoyable and motivating experience. When the teaching students realized how successful they were in the classroom, they too were greatly motivated to continue teaching by this method and so actually reported. Yet this was not only about an enjoyable experience but also about a learning experience. Recommendation for further research This study can serve to examine the correlation between pupils’ perception of the increasingly large distances in the solar system and their perception of the increasingly smaller distances in the atom world. Our assumption is that it would be easier to first grasp the dimensions of the solar system since these are more concrete, and then move to the atom dimensions which we assume to require the same cognitive process to understand. This concept is currently under further study.
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Supplement A: Preliminary Questionnaire for Teaching Students and Learning Pupils
From Astronomy to the Atom Class: School: Male/ Female:
Dear Student, This questionnaire was designed to evaluate how teachers training students and schoolchildren perceive the “world of astronomy” as compared with “the world of the atom”.
1. What substance lies in the space between one planet and another?
2. What special effect is noticed between planet Earth and the sun?
3. What special effect is noticed between the planets and the sun?
4. What does the term “planet” mean?
5. Are there any forces which act between the planets and the sun?
6. What can you say about the distance from the sun to planet Earth? Can you give a number which, in your estimation, indicates this distance? Is this number large?
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7. What is the ratio of the sun’s diameter to the Earth diameter?
8. What is the ratio of the sun’s diameter to the diameter of the Earth orbit around the sun?
9. What do you know about the atom?
10. What do you know about the structure of the atom?
11. Is there a resemblance between the structure of the atom and that of the solar system? If so, where is the resemblance? If not, how are they different?
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Supplement B: Summary Questionnaire for Teaching Students and Learning Pupils
Discovery of the Atom’s Structure by the Rutherford Approach Class: School: Male/ Female:
Dear Student, This questionnaire was designed to evaluate how teachers training students and schoolchildren have perceived the “atom’s structure following Rutherford’s footsteps”.
1. What bodies do you recognize in the solar system?
2. Can you draw the structure of the solar system? Also indicate in your drawing as many of the various elements of the system as you can.
3. What are the elements which compose the atom?
4. Can you draw the structure of the atom? Also indicate in your drawing as many of the various elements of the atom as you can.
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5. Is there a resemblance between the structure of the atom and that of the solar system? If so, where is the resemblance? If not, how are they different? Please make your answer as full and well argued as you can.
References -
Copy, M., Irving. (1968). Introduction to Logic. 3-rd Ed. The Macmillan Company.
-
Thimor, J., and Massalha, T., (2009). "Discovering the Atom’s Model by Analogy to the Solar System". Massalha, T., the Proceeding of the Science Teaching conference Marking the Astronomy year and Darwin Theory Bicentennial, Haifa, Israel, 29.
-
Woolfolk, A., Hughes, M., and Walkup. V. (2008). Psychology in Education. Pearson Education Limited, Essex CM20 2JE, England.
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Teaching Conception Development
Investigating Practice Teachers‟ Mathematics Teaching Conception Development
Chih-Yeuan Wang
General Education Center, Lan Yang Institute of Technology [email protected]
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Teaching Conception Development
Abstract This paper mainly explores the developmental processes about the teaching conceptions of mathematics practice teachers. Six cases of practice teachers in different secondary schools and their mentors were involved in the final year study of a three-year longitudinal research project. The case study method, including observations and interviews, was used as the major approach of inquiry. Based on our data collected through classroom observations and interviews, we preliminarily addressed some reasons that led the teaching conceptions of practice teachers to change, adjust or maintain. Those include practice teachers‟ learning willingness, mentors‟ mentoring strategies and attitudes, teaching circumstances practice teachers engaged in and teaching resources they could utilize, and their professional competencies. The reasons about transformation or maintaining of practice teachers‟ conceptions in teaching were varied depending on the objective contextual conditions and subjective value judgments. Practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions were changing or maintaining at different periods reflecting their values upheld for teaching. We thought that there appeared to be some implications about activating the developments of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions then to develop their professional competencies. First, the educative programs in universities should be appropriately revised to cultivate practice teachers‟ learning abilities, and bring out their correct attitudes and learning willingness in teaching. Next, mentors should understand the attributes of practice teachers fully, and then give them proper teaching suggestions. Finally, the teaching resources of schools should be matched up with the needs of practice teachers possibly so that they could display their intended teaching adequately.
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Teaching Conception Development
Investigating Practice Teachers‟ Mathematics Teaching Conception Development Introduction Practicing, learning to teach and professional development Student teachers of secondary mathematics in Taiwan study both mathematical and educational courses in the university departments, followed by a paid placement of teaching practice at a junior or senior high school as practice teachers. Some experienced school teachers are assigned to be their mentors. This new internship of addressing in-school teaching practice and mentoring plays an important role in Taiwanese teacher preparation programs. It is necessary for teachers to pursue professional growth in the process of teacher education continually; however the stage of teaching practice is a very important period for practice teachers to learn professional competencies. Wenger (1998) proposed a social theory of learning, and the primary focus of this theory viewed learning as social participation. He thought that participation is “a more encompassing process of being active participants in the practices of social communities and constructing identities in relation to these communities” (p. 4). At the same time, he indicated that “a social theory of learning must therefore integrate the components necessary to characterize social participation as a process of learning and of knowing” (p. 4) and “these components include meaning, practice, community and identity” (p. 5). When practicing in school, we viewed such schools as scale-down societies. There are not only many experienced teachers, but varied social status and identities in those schools. Thus, naturally the circumstance of school shapes a large-sized learning community of practice (COP) (Wenger, 1998); and the classroom including mentors and students shapes another miniature learning COP. So, practice teachers learn to develop their professional competencies of teaching in such two-level COP simultaneously. We found that mentor could
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Teaching Conception Development play an important role to improve practice teachers‟ “mathematical power” and “pedagogical power” (Cooney, 1994). Cooney (1994) defined students‟ mathematical power as “the ability to draw on whatever knowledge is needed to solve problems” (p. 15), at the same time, he thought the mathematical power for students can be paralleled to the pedagogical power for teachers as “if mathematical problem solving has to do with recognizing the conditions and constraints of a problem, then pedagogical problem solving has to do with recognizing the conditions and constraints of the pedagogical problem being faced” (p. 15). As mathematics teaching is a complicated and professional activity, teachers should constantly reflect in and on the teaching activity in order to enhance their pedagogical power (Huang, 2002); and that mathematics teacher‟ understanding and grasp with regard to pedagogical power effects the formats of teaching activities and the efforts of student learning deeply (Chen, 2002). Thus, the content and pedagogy that teachers think and act should be at the heart of promoting the professional growth of teachers (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). Huang & Chin (2003) indicated that the content of teacher professional development is the knowledge and competencies teachers must possess, that these knowledge and competencies may transit in the process of teacher professional development constantly, and that the knowledge and competencies should include the facets of cognition (knowledge) and affect (beliefs and values). Simon (1994) asserted that “the Learning Cycle consists of an exploration stage, a concept identification stage, and an application stage which triggers a new exploration stage” (p. 76) and proposed a six-learning-cycle model. According to Simon, the learning of mathematics content (Cycle 1) offers prospective teachers the opportunity to explore what it means to do mathematics (Cycle 2) and how mathematics is learned (Cycle 3). And then teachers develop understanding of students‟ learning of specific mathematical content and the
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Teaching Conception Development sense-making behaviors of learners (Cycle 4). The Learning Cycle 5, which focuses on learning about the instructional planning, serves as an application phase for each of the first four learning cycles, and it will reach the explorative phase of actual teaching ultimately (Cycle 6). On the other hand, Tzur (2001) distinguished the professional development of mathematics education participants into four levels including learning of mathematics, learning to teach mathematics, learning to teach teachers, and learning to mentor teacher educators. Because practice teachers are not experienced in teaching, they must learn to reinforce their profession of teaching; that is, they mainly learn to develop their mathematical and pedagogical power. Lerman (1994) described critical incidents as “ones that can provide insight into classroom learning and the role of the teacher, ones that in fact challenge our opinions and beliefs and our notions of what learning and teaching mathematics are about” (p. 53), and “critical incidents are those that offer a kind of shock or surprise to the observer or participant” (p. 55). Skott (2001) further defined critical incident of practice (CIP) as having the feathers of offering potential challenges, requiring decision making, and revealing conflicts. In the light of this, CIPs can be conceived from teaching aspects, because the incidents might invoke the conflicts and challenges of practice teachers‟ beliefs and values, as well as thinking about their professional identities from teacher‟s stand in order to make the best on-the-spot decisions they could on the teaching process. Teachers’ teaching beliefs, values and conceptions Sullivan (1999) indicated that teaching is a kind of complicated activity which involves students‟ cognitive processes, motivation and learning, as well as teachers arranging teaching activities, and framing classroom norms; at the same time, he thought that teachers could be aware of the teaching questions and possible methods to solve them in specific context, and be able to make teaching decisions. So, we thought that the teaching conceptions mean that practice teachers reveal their thought about the mathematical contents and
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Teaching Conception Development pedagogical strategies when they are dealing with the teaching of specific topics. Such thought is involved in mathematics teachers‟ value judgments and choices of pedagogies. So, teaching conceptions are kinds of objective and intended mental actions based on a variety of knowledge, and they are adjusted in terms of the topics, learners, learning circumstances and learning contexts. But some researchers showed that it is difficult to change the mathematics conceptions of teachers (Cooney, 1999; Lerman, 1999; Thompson, 1992), because it maybe is affected by their own pre-experience of teaching, social identification, or lack of teaching competencies (Chen, 2002). Cooney (1999) and Lerman (1999) thought that an important reason about teaching beliefs being difficult to change is student teachers have possessed some ingrained teaching conceptions before they learn to teach, thus fundamentally they treat mathematics through their individual inherent perspectives. At the same time, we thought that mentors play the role as instructor to tutor practice teachers‟ teaching, so they may influence practice teachers‟ teaching conception development. Our interest is to explore the reasons about the development of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions and what role the mentors play during the processes. Shulman (1986) distinguished teachers‟ professional knowledge into three major categories: subject matter content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and curricular knowledge. Gudmundsdöttir‟s (1990) research indicated that teachers‟ pedagogical content knowledge has been reorganized to take into considering students, classrooms and curriculum revolving around their personal values, in other words, the values decided what teaching methods are important for students‟ learning the teachers believe. When teachers decide and choose how to design lesson activities, and think about when to address the critical questions, they have held important guiding principles of teaching in their hearts to lead them to make final decisions. These guides or principles leading classroom actions are conceived as the
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Teaching Conception Development pedagogical values of mathematics teachers (Bishop, Seah & Chin, 2003; Chin & Lin, 2000; Chin & Lin, 2001; Chin, Leu & Lin, 2001; Gudmundsdöttir, 1990). Boaler (2002) described the relationships of practice, knowledge and identity as the three major conceptions of the learning theorem based on COP. The framework describes that students learn mathematical knowledge through classroom practice, in which the practice and the arising of knowledge are highly correlative. At the same time, they would develop their learning identities when engaging in the practice of mathematical learning; and the connection of identity and knowledge is then constructed through disciplinary relationship. Boaler argued that students are “able to transfer mathematics, partly because of their knowledge, partly because of the practices in which they engaged and partly because they had developed active and productive relationship with mathematics” (p. 47). Chang (2005) further extended the relationship of student teacher‟s teaching identity, practice and conception based on Boaler‟s framework. The framework could be used to explore the development of relationships of teachers‟ teaching identities, classroom teaching practices, and teachers‟ conceptions of mathematics and pedagogy, paralleled to that of Boaler‟s framework about students‟ learning of mathematics. Mathematics teachers thus undertake their teaching practices according to their teaching conceptions, and at the same time, they may renew such conceptions through classroom teaching practices, which in turn enhance or extend the educational knowledge and theorems that they already know and thus might develop their own styles of mathematics teaching (that is teaching identities). We intend to investigate the effects of practice teachers‟ teaching conception development in varied practice circumstances and the relationship of teaching conception and practice. Research methods In this study, we adopt the case study method, including classroom observations and pre and post-lesson interviews, as the major approach of inquiry to investigate the Page 2192
Teaching Conception Development development processes and the values of mathematics practice teachers about teaching conceptions. Case study is used to examine the documents or particular incidents about a special situation or a single individual in detail, and using the research methods of sociological studies (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). This process involves all characteristic of qualitative research including understanding, describing, discovering and generating theory. It could explain the causal relations of actual incidents involved, describe the background of incidents involved, evaluate some specific topics, and investigate the activities which we intend to evaluate. The major purpose of the paper is to explore the developmental processes of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions, to identify the reasons about changing, adjusting or maintaining of those conceptions and to discover the underlying values in the transformation or maintaining for those conceptions, so it seems appropriate to adopt the case study method. The systematic induction process and the constant comparisons method based on grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) were used to process data and confirm evidence characterized by the method of the present study. The grounded theory is a method which generates new theories through the inductive and deductive process of collecting and analyzing data systematically (Mewborn, 1999). Data for the current study were collected through classroom observations and interviews. Different methods of data collection might limit “personal biases that stem from single methodologies” (Denzin, 1989, p. 236), help to uncover more richness and diversity of the phenomenon being studied, and offer multiple sources of data because of the differences inherent in different methods (Neuman, 1997). The selected teaching CIPs which are collected through the classroom observations of practice teachers‟ teaching offer a kind of shock or surprise to us, and eventually, they may invoke practice teachers to make decisions for teaching. Then, their implicit principles of and reasons for such decision-making during teaching might become explicit.
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Teaching Conception Development Six practice teachers (Ai, i=1~6), their mentors (Mi, i=1~6) and students (S) participated in the 2005 academic year as the third of this three-year longitudinal case studies on the beliefs and values of pre-service teachers for secondary mathematics. The sampling of participants is not probabilistic in nature. The second author of this paper was the university tutor of the six practice-teacher cases. We as both the researcher and tutor visit every Ai twice during the academic year (2005.9-2006.6), one in the first semester (2005.9-2006.1) and the other in the second semester (2006.3-2006.6), observing one lesson of Ai‟s classroom teaching with Mi and interviewing Ai. Mentors usually request practice teachers to teach a few lessons of the same topic in their own classes, and one of them is observed by both the mentor and us as well as others videotaped for further analysis. The first lesson of the topic is strongly suggested. In these lessons, we essentially play a non-participant role, adopting the non-interactive mode of observation to look for a comprehensive, detailed and representative account of an individual‟s teaching behavior. The classroom observations are focused on collecting CIPs of Ai‟s teaching and their immediate reactions when the CIPs occurs, and the classroom interactions between Ai and S. Classroom observational data are audio-video recorded for further systematic re-instatement and analysis. They are used to capture nonverbal communication and contextual details in the classrooms, and transcribed later. Post-lesson interviews are used to clarify and consolidate the critical issues or events emerging from the observations, and could also be used to explore the conceptions of and underlying values for the Ai‟s teaching decision-making. We understand that a practice teacher‟ decisions and actions that researchers observe and interpret are functions of the researchers‟ own cognition, experience and sensitivity, which may likely differ from the practice teacher‟s viewpoints. Through re-confirmations and re-clarifications with practice teachers are important for that researchers are substantially not value-free can influence the interpretations regarding the practice teachers‟ values. Therefore, during the interviews, we
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Teaching Conception Development respected all of the practice teachers‟ perspectives and there was no attempt to correct their statements and opinions. All interviews were tape recorded and transcribed later. Results and discussions According to the data collected through classroom observations and interviews, we initially find some reasons leading the change, adjusting or maintaining of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions. Those include that the personality and learning willingness, the teaching circumstances practice teachers engaged in and the teaching resources they could utilize, and their professional competencies and future goals settles. It is not possible for us to report all teaching CIPs of the 6 cases in detail, but an outline of our discoveries for the development processes of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions is given in table 1. We will briefly describe the transcripts and interpretations about the categories and reasons of the 6 cases‟ conception development processes. Table 1: Preliminary categories of the development processes of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions observed
Category Case
Reason
Maintaining
Change/Adjusting
A1
A2
A4
A3
A5
A6
Mentor‟s attitudes Teaching circumstances
Teaching circumstances Professional competencies Mentor‟s attitudes
Mentor‟s attitudes
Mentor‟s attitudes Learning willingness
Personality Mentor‟s attitudes
Professional competencies
Case of A1 A1 took a paid placement of teaching practice at a private junior high school, and her mentor (M1) adopted the common teaching materials of the school to teach. At the same time, M1 took more time to explain the examples and exercises, and narrating contents was more than developing conceptions. Because A1 was in charge of more administrative transactions, she had fewer opportunities of practice teaching. We also observed that M1 offered fewer
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Teaching Conception Development opportunities to teach for her and didn‟t discuss anything about teaching with her after lessons, so A1 was unable to teach some topics or to observe other mathematic teachers‟ teaching. So, we found that A1 maintained her teaching conceptions during the 2 teaching observations. In the first visit, we observed that A1 connected the examples of real life with teaching contents to motivate students‟ learning. She asserted that “mathematics teachers must be able to control the atmosphere of classroom learning, and I think that connecting real life can make students feeling learning mathematics is pleasure”. However, A1‟s teaching conceptions are different from
M1‟s, and we think that those are A1‟s “original” conceptions (Hsu, 2007). In the second visit, we also found that A1 still kept the activities of „motivating‟ as the first visit, and her thought still was original. Lack of teaching practice experiences, inactive attitudes of her mentor and inadequate teaching resources of the school caused the maintaining of A1‟s teaching conceptions. Case of A2 A2 took a paid placement of teaching practice in a form like “co-mentoring” (Jaworski & Watson, 1994) which is different from the form of traditional internship. So, she could observe many mentors‟ teaching, interact with students and actually teach. Because A2‟s mentor (M2) designed the mentoring strategies carefully and the teaching resources matched with A2‟s teaching needs sufficiently, A2 had more time to centralize the learning focus in teaching and more opportunities to teach. At the same time, A2 possessed more resources in teaching practice, and she could learn the teaching styles and skills of varied mentors. In the situation, A2 can reveal her thoughts and conceptions about teaching fully. We found that A2 maintained her teaching conceptions during the 2 teaching observations. A2 had much more own autonomy in teaching, and could plan the teaching contents. In the first visit, we found that A2 emphasized the use of some activities or examples related
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Teaching Conception Development with real life to develop the mathematical conceptions, which connected her own thoughts with the suggestions of mentors. She indicated that “I integrate some mentors‟ thoughts in teaching which are useful for me with my own conceptions, in other words, I reorganize those to be my teaching activities myself”. And she said that “my professional competencies are still insufficient, so I must refer to the teaching contents of other teachers”. In the second visit, we found that A2 tried to integrate
other teachers‟ suggestions in her teaching designs much more. And we thought that teaching circumstances, professional competencies and mentor‟s attitudes caused the maintaining of A2‟s teaching conceptions. Case of A3 A3‟s mentor (M3) mainly taught according to his own designed materials, and asked A3 to lecture using his materials fully. We observed that when A3‟s teaching was problematic or inadequate, then M3 would intervene in his teaching directly. In the first visit, we found that A3 first had observed M3‟s teaching of the same topic before he taught, and generally he used M3‟s teaching materials to teach directly, so, A3‟s planning of classroom teaching was almost identical with M3‟s. He mentioned that “I don‟t consider how to teach the topic before the lesson, and because I refer to M3‟s materials to teach fully, I don‟t see other textbooks or references”, and
“M3 is an experienced teacher in teaching after all”. So, we view A3‟s teaching as „copying‟ M3‟s teaching in the period. In the second visit, we found that A3 revealed many personal thoughts and methods of teaching in designing materials. He thought that “it is my own lesson”. But A3 considered that he might still be incapable to handle the whole contents, so he finally copied M3‟s partial thoughts and methods of teaching to design his materials. In the period, A3 revealed more personal thoughts of teaching than the first period. Although he partially revealed to „copy‟ or „connect‟ the thoughts and methods of M3, he already changed from the state of full acceptance to trying to add his own designs and thoughts of teaching. At the same time, he
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Teaching Conception Development changed his teaching conceptions from highlighting the contents of mathematics to concerning students‟ learning. Case of A4 A4 took a paid placement of teaching practice at the junior high school where he had studied and learned before, and his mentor (M4) was his mathematics teacher in schooling. M4 asked A4 to observe his teaching initially, and then to actually teach some topics; M4 gave A4 much room to represent his thoughts and methods during the teaching, and then discussed with him after lessons. Because M4 gave A4 more autonomy of teaching, so, in the first visit, we found that A4 mainly prepared his material contents by himself, and he could arrange some activities to motivate students‟ learning and develop mathematical conceptions. And, in teaching design and conception development, A4 would consider the possible students‟ trajectories of learning or learning difficulties according to his pre-experiences of learning. When his thoughts about teaching conflicted with the M4‟s suggestions, he still might consider his own teaching to choose his own methods to teach. A4‟s teaching conceptions sometimes are different from M4‟s, and we think that those are A4‟s original conceptions. Because M4 didn‟t intervene in A4‟s teaching and just reminded him how to do in private, as he said that “I think that he will encounter some difficulty in the future and he must face and solve it of his own, and this event is a valuable experience for him to learn and feel”, so, in the second
visit, we found that A4 continued to teach using his own methods as the first period. Although A4‟s teaching was inadequate or problematic, and classroom situations sometimes were not under control, M4 didn‟t intervene directly. So, A4 could maintain his own teaching styles to teach most lessons in his practice periods. We thought that A4 maintained his teaching conceptions during the 2 teaching observations.
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Teaching Conception Development Case of A5 A5‟s mentor (M5) wished her not to copy her materials when A5 was preparing her teaching materials. We found that although A5 designed materials by herself, however, she would first observe M5‟s teaching before she actually taught, so, A5 almost copied M5‟s material contents to design her teaching contents. In the first visit, we found that A5‟s teaching about mathematical conceptions was not problematic, and we thought that it was related with observing the same topic of M5‟s another class before teaching. At the same time, M5 would discuss the teaching contents with A5 before her teaching, so, there was no much difference between M5 and A5‟s teaching contents. So, we view A5‟s teaching as „copying‟ M5‟s teaching in the period. In the second visit, M5 changed her mentoring strategies to give A5 more freedom and let A5 teach directly without observing M5‟s teaching. So, we found that A5 changed much more in the period. A5 seemly could ask students some questions to lead their thoughts actively after M5 guided A5 how to question and lead students‟ conception development. A5 gradually trended to connect her own teaching conceptions with M5‟s. Because A5‟s personality, she accepted the opinions of other persons easily, so, she had fewer self-opinions in learning to teach. So, A5 copied M5‟s teaching conceptions in the first period, although M5 asked A5 not to teach according to her materials fully, however, M5 didn‟t give many suggestions. But, in the second period, M5 asked A5 to prepare her teaching materials by herself, so, A5 began to connect her own thoughts with M5‟s methods, not only to copy M5‟s materials. We thought that A5 had already changed from the copying to trying to add her own designs and thoughts of teaching. At the same time, she changed her teaching conceptions from listening to students‟ questions passively to actively questioning students.
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Teaching Conception Development Case of A6 Although A6 would observe M6‟s teaching before her own teaching, M6 gave A6 much more freedom and hoped that A6 could try to teach and learn how to teach first, and then discussed with her pre and post lessons. In the first visit, we found that A6 designed her teaching materials according to M6‟s materials, and then taught some lessons using those materials. But she didn‟t observe all M6‟s lessons of the same topics which she would teach. During the A6‟s teaching, she would choose the contents of teaching materials, examples and exercises considering the discrepancies of students‟ competencies. Because A6 emphasized the interactions with students and their learning very much, so she would change the designs of materials and the order of conception developments, and she could intend to close students through many „affective vocabularies‟ and represented the mathematical symbols using colloquial words. We think that those are A6‟s original conceptions. We observed that M6 intervened in A6‟s teaching when she was teaching, and most of the interventions occurred when A6 had difficulty in developing mathematics conceptions or solving questions. When A6 found that she was lacking teaching competency and her teaching made students confused, she would begin to think whether her designs and materials of teaching were inappropriate or not. In the second visit, we found that A6 paid much attention to the suggestions of M6 very much in the designs of teaching contents, and she copied M6‟s materials to design her own materials largely. When A6‟s teaching could not match with the expectation of M6, it would yield enormous pressures for her to change her teaching methods and conceptions. We thought that A6 had already changed from her original ideas to accepting M6‟s suggestions fully because of her deficiency of professional knowledge. At the same time, she changed her teaching conceptions from using many affective vocabularies to close students to reducing those words according to M6‟s suggestions.
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Teaching Conception Development Reflections and implications Revising the contents of teacher education programs in universities appropriately We know that the traditional teacher education programs in Taiwan focused on the development of theories, and fewer programs were connected with real teaching situations. At the same time, teacher educators perhaps don‟t understand student teachers‟ conceptions about teaching fully, and that didn‟t improve the varied opportunities to motivate student teachers‟ learning of teaching and to correct their learning attitudes and willingness. In the study, we find that the teaching contexts in COP and the accumulation of practice experiences influence the developments of the cases‟ teaching conceptions significantly. Wenger (1998) highlighted that learning must be activated in social contexts, and people develop their identities and meaning through practice in the interactions of COP; moreover, they also learn some things through their own capabilities and accumulating experiences. So, teacher educators can use the exemplar teaching CIPs as practice materials to connect with the pedagogical theories, to stimulate student teachers‟ thoughts and to challenge their perspectives. Brown & Borko (1992) indicated that pre-service mathematics teachers lack conceptual understanding about curricular knowledge while learning to teach. Ball, Lubienski & Mewborn (2001) noticed that teachers‟ mathematics knowledge is a kind of very important pedagogical resource, and it is necessary for good teaching to possess the plentiful background of mathematics knowledge and the professional practice competencies. So, student teachers still need to have solid mathematics knowledge besides possessing the correct learning attitudes, the high learning willingness and the accumulated practice experiences. Thus, teacher educators should think how to reinforce the mathematics knowledge of student teachers, to their learning attitudes, to enhance their learning
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Teaching Conception Development willingness, and to assist them to accumulate practical experiences in their teacher education programs. Emphasizing the responsibility and strategies of mentoring We find that mentors‟ attitudes and mentoring strategies play important roles in the transformation of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions. So, mentors must comprehend their sublime responsibilities in developing practice teachers‟ professional competencies. Because the different practice circumstances may restrict the varied learning forms, and the different mentors possess the varied mentoring perspectives, so, practice teachers engaging in the different contexts of COP will be influenced by the learning forms and mentoring perspectives above. Mentors can adopt the other varied mentoring strategies to improve the professional development of practice teachers by asking practice teachers to observe their own mentors‟ teaching, discussing some teaching incidents after lessons with practice teachers, and letting practice teachers actually teach some topics. For example, first, mentors may invite other mentors to observe practice teachers‟ teaching in their own classes, and then open the teaching of practice teachers to other mentors‟ comments. Secondly, mentors could encourage practice teachers to observe other mentor or mathematics teachers‟ teaching, and then share and interchange substantial ideas of and about teaching mathematics with practice teachers. Thirdly, mentors could arrange practice teachers to teach other mentor or mathematics teachers‟ classes, and then involve other school teachers in a form of “comentoring”. Finally, mentors could invite university tutors to engage in mentoring jointly. Providing appropriate teaching resources of schools In the study, we identified influences on the transformative situations of practice teachers‟ teaching conceptions what teaching circumstances they engage in and whether they
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Teaching Conception Development have enough applicable teaching resources or not. For example, A2 who possesses more abundant teaching resources is relatively active in learning to teach; A6 increases her teaching experiences through teaching observations and discussion with other practice teachers; M5‟s experience of being as a practice teacher influences her mentoring strategies and methods to mentor A5; and because of a lot of administrative work in the practice school and lack for the opportunities of practice teaching, A1‟s learning of teaching was influenced. We also find that the amount of practice teaching will influence the transformative forms of practice teachers‟ teaching knowledge. For example, A3, A5 and A6 have more opportunities to correct their contents and methods of teaching because of constant accumulations of teaching experiences, and to compare and implement varied pedagogical methods. So, their changes of teaching conceptions are more significant during two periods. Wilson, Cooney & Stinson (2005) indicated that experiences are helpful for teaching, and that the accumulations of teaching experiences are helpful for the managements of curriculum, and for understanding students‟ misconceptions about mathematics and the general needs of students‟ learning. It reveals the importance of perspectives on practice teaching. Thus, practice teachers who have exposed to many pedagogical theories from teacher education institutes must possess much more teaching opportunities to accumulate their practice teaching experiences.
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References Ball, D. L., Lubienski, S. T., & Mewborn, D. S. (2001). Research on Teaching Mathematics: The Unsolved Problem of Teachers‟ Mathematical Knowledge. In Virginia, Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (4th ed.) (pp. 433-455). Washington, D. C.: AERA. Bishop, A. J., Seah, W. T., & Chin, C. (2003). Values in mathematics teaching-the hidden persuaders? In A. J. Bishop, M. A. Clements, C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick, & F. K. S. Leung (Eds.), Second International Handbook of Mathematics Education (pp. 717765). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Boaler, J. (2002). The development of disciplinary relationships: knowledge, practice and identity in mathematics classrooms. For the Learning of Mathematics, 22(1), 42-47. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1998). Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theory and Method (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Brown, C. A., & Borko, H. (1992). Becoming a mathematics teacher. In A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (pp. 209-239), NY: Macmillan. Chang, G. Y. (2005). Pedagogical values identification of student teachers: Six case studies. Unpublished master‟s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University. (In Chinese) Chen, S. J. (2002). The development of student teachers’ conception(s) of mathematics teaching: Three case studies. Unpublished master‟s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University. (In Chinese) Chin, C., Leu, Y. C., & Lin, F. L. (2001). Pedagogical values, mathematics teaching and teacher education: Case studies of two experienced teachers. In F. L. Lin, & T. J. Cooney (Eds.), Making sense of mathematics teacher education (pp. 247-269). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
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Teaching Conception Development Chin, C., & Lin, F. L. (2000). A case study of mathematics teacher‟s pedagogical value: Using a methodological framework of interpretation and reflection. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Part D: Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, 10(2), 90-101. Chin, C., & Lin, F. L. (2001). Mathematics teacher‟s pedagogical value clarification and its relationship to classroom teaching. Proceedings of the National Science Council, Part D: Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, 11(3), 114-125. Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 947-967. Cooney, T. (1994). Teacher education as an exercise in adaptation. In D. B. Aichele & A. F. Coxford (Eds.), Professional development for teachers of mathematics: 1994 year book (pp. 9-22). Reston: NCTM. Cooney, T. (1999). Considering the paradoxes, perils, and purpose of conceptualizing teacher development. Proceedings of International Conference on Mathematics Teacher Education (pp.1-33), Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University. Denzin, N. K. (1989). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gudmundsdöttir, S. (1990). Values in pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Teacher Education, 41(3), 44-52. Hsu, H. L. (2007). Professional development in teaching of mathematics practice teachers: Six case studies. Unpublished master‟s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University. (In Chinese) Huang, K. M. (2002). The effect of mentoring on the development of a secondary mathematics probationary teacher’s conception(s) of mathematics teaching: An
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Teaching Conception Development action research. Unpublished master‟s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University. (In Chinese) Huang, K. M., & Chin, C. (2003). The effect of mentoring on the development of a secondary mathematics probationary teacher‟s conception(s) of mathematics teaching: An action research. Journal of Taiwan Normal University: Mathematics & Science Education, 48(1), 21-44. (In Chinese) Jaworski, B., & Watson, A. (1994). Mentoring, co-mentoring and the inner mentor. In B. Jaworski, & A. Watson (Eds.), Mentoring in mathematics teaching (pp. 124-138). London: The Falmer Press. Lerman, S. (1994). Reflective practice. In B. Jaworski, & A. Watson (Eds.), Mentoring in mathematics teaching (pp. 52-64). London: The Falmer Press. Lerman, S. (1999). A review of research perspectives on mathematics teacher education. Proceedings of International Conference on Mathematics Teacher Education (pp.110-133), Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University. Mewborn, D. S. (1999). Reflective thinking among preservice elementary mathematics teachers. Journal for Research in Mathematical Education, 30(3), 316-341. Neuman, W. L. (1997). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Simon, M. (1994). Learning mathematics and learning to teach: Learning cycles in mathematics teacher education. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 26, 71-94. Skott, J. (2001). The emerging practices of a novice teacher: The roles of his school mathematics images. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 4(1), 3-28.
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Teaching Conception Development Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basis of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Sullivan, P. (1999). Thinking teaching: seeing an action role for mathematics teacher. Proceedings of International Conference on Mathematics Teacher Education (pp.194-204), Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University. Thompson, A. G. (1992). Teachers‟ beliefs and conceptions: A synthesis of the research. In Grouws, A. (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (pp.127-146). New York: Macmillan. Tzur, R. (2001). Becoming a mathematics teacher-educator: Conceptualizing the terrain through self-reflective analysis. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 4, 259283. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wilson, P. S., Cooney, T. J., & Stinson, D. W. (2005). What constitutes good mathematics teaching and how it develops: nine high school teachers‟ perspectives. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 8, 83-111.
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Earth phenomena
Idea of ‘heat’ and students’ understanding of earth phenomena Xueli Wang, Beaumie Kim, Mi Song Kim National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University
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Earth phenomena
Abstract Contrasting to previous studies that focus mainly on discovering students’ misconceptions about earth processes, this study explores the idea of ‘heat’, which emerged in students’ discussion on earth phenomena. It has been noted by many research studies that students’ ideas about natural phenomena are formed through their personal experiences. Students participated in present research also seem to devise their experience of ‘heat’ in their everyday life (e.g. ‘sauna’, ‘boiling water’) to their explanations’ of the Earth’s phenomena. By adopting Gobert (2000)’s protocols on studying students’ conceptions of internal earth dynamics, we tried to classify the ideas about how earthquake occurs and volcano erupts, and to further explore the preconceptions underlying their elaborations on such earth phenomena. This case study begins with a report on the ideas relating to earthquakes and volcanoes by Singapore secondary students (14 and 15 years old). We argue that the idea of ‘heat’ is employed by students to interpret the unobserved internal earth dynamics, which might affect students’ understanding of earth phenomena (e.g., volcano, earthquake).
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Earth phenomena
Introduction According to Singapore Geography Syllabuses for Lower Secondary (2006), students at secondary one (14 to 15 years) are required to understand earth science in terms of the Earth’s material (e.g., rock), structure (e.g., interior of earth) and process (e.g., mountain and volcano). Students and educators in some countries perceive the understanding of earth science as the complex aspect of geological learning. It is not only because the concepts of earth science are intangible and abstract, but also because learning of these concepts is multi-dimensional: it requires understanding in Earth’s structure, material and process. Hence, we assume that, similar to research conducted in other countries (Bezzi & Happs, 1994; Blake, 2005), Singaporean students’ preconceptions in the aspect of earth process exist since those phenomena cannot be encountered in everyday life or laboratory. This paper discusses the secondary students’ conceptual understanding of causality of earth phenomena to support students’ learning (Blake, 2005), since these preconceptions of students are the focus of conceptual changes and may influence further learning (Blake, 2005; Hayes, Goodhew, Heit, & Gillan, 2003; Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992, 1994). As the ideas of ‘heat’ are becoming prevalent in explanations of occurrence of earthquake and volcano in both previous studies(Bezzi & Happs, 1994; Ross & Shuell, 1993) and the present study, we intend to investigate the influences of the ideas stemmed from everyday experiences on the students’ understanding. Specifically, the impact of ideas of ‘heat’ on developing the models of causality of the two earth phenomena is explored.
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Earth phenomena Previous research on students’ conceptions of earth sciences In today’s world, students have wide access to a range of information through various media such as television, books and Internet. It is not surprising that students may shape their ideas of the world through these media. Numerous researchers devoted themselves to investigate students’ prior knowledge in the last two decades (e.g. Driver, 1989; Marques & Thompson, 1997; Rakkapao, Arayathanitkul, Pananont, & Chitaree, 2007; Ross & Shuell, 1993; Tsai, 2001). Some studies reveal that students hold a set of prior knowledge of natural world before instructions which are different from the concepts taught in school (e.g. Blake, 2005; Hayes et al., 2003; Ross & Shuell, 1993; Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992, 1994), and that student’s own sensemaking are critically connected to their authentic experience (Vosniadou & Brewer, 1992). Although researchers’ awareness of the way students conceptualize the daily phenomena has increased, shortage in science learning research still exists. Previous studies have tried to identify students’ existing ideas and find ways to facilitate conceptual changes (e.g. Panagiotaki, Nobes, & Potton, 2008; Vosniadou & Brewer, 1994) in the domains of physics, biology and chemistry, whereas the research of existing ideas in earth science has been more limited (Dal, 2006). Research on student’s conceptions of earthquakes and volcanoes has been a topic of considerable concern to researchers and educators (e.g., Bezzi & Happs, 1994; Blake, 2005; Dal, 2007). Students have more preconceptions of these two phenomena than others, because it’s difficult to reproduce those phenomena in class (Gobert, 2000; Marques & Thompson, 1997). Previous studies reveal that students have little knowledge of the causes of earthquake and volcano. There are evidences that students develop their own ideas, mainly non-scientific, of understanding of earth concepts before instructions. With regards to causality, naïve ideas are
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Earth phenomena given by students to explain the occurrences of earthquakes due to human causes (e.g., children lighted a fire and forgot it), myths (e.g., earth ‘upset’ or God wants it), weather or natural disasters (e.g., rain, wind, landslide, etc) (Ross & Shuell, 1993; Sharp, Mackintosh, & Seedhouse, 1995; Simsek, 2007). In addition to that, there are evidences that students tend to confuse volcano with earthquake (Dove, 1998). Bezzi and Happs (1994) and Sharp, Mackintosh and Seedhouse (1995) , for example, indicate that students relate earthquakes to volcanic eruption, few students suggest volcano get hot and shake to create earthquake. As shown in the research by Ross and Shuell (1993), students define earthquake and volcano by recognizing those earth phenomena’s observable attributes such as, earthquake shakes but volcano doesn’t; volcano erupts with lava but earthquake doesn’t. This notion may have the origins that both these earth phenomena are violent natural disaster and happen in similar area. Interestingly, in the several studies, the terms of ‘hot’, ‘fire’ and ‘hot burning’ are often used by students to describe volcano (Dal, 2006). ‘Heat’ and ‘magma’ are given by students to answer the cause of volcanic eruption frequently (e.g., ‘volcanic eruption are caused by heat buildup’) (Gobert, 2000; Hemmerich & Wiley, n.d.). We summarized the common interpretations related to ‘heat’ mechanisms in existing studies and those seen in the students’ answers as following:
Volcanic eruption. Volcano get hot and shake to create earthquake (e.g., Sharp et
al., 1995)
Magma. Magma is pushed up by heat /hot air and cause volcano. (e.g., Blake,
2005; Dal, 2007; Hemmerich & Wiley, n.d.)
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Core. Core act as heat source in causing volcano /earthquake (e.g., core get hot
and hit surface; core release heat and cause volcano happen) (e.g., Bezzi & Happs, 1994; Ross & Shuell, 1993; Sharp et al., 1995) The existing literatures help to clarify which notional fields need to be dealt with. As students are toward connecting the occurrence of earthquake and volcano with ‘heat’, it is clear that in supporting students’ learning in causality of earth phenomena attention must be given to the influence of the common ideas of ‘heat’ proposed in students’ explanations. Gobert (2000)’s study identifies and characterizes the types of models held by students in aspects of dynamics and causes of earthquakes and volcanoes, starts separating the ideas of ‘heat’ from others. In her study, students’ ideas are classified into three types of models different in dynamics and causal processes involved in volcanic eruptions, namely, Local models (heat-related and movement related), mixed related and integrated models. Her study indicates that students’ ideas of ‘heat’ are associated with their explanations of cause of earthquake, volcanic eruption, plate movement and magma movements. Herimmch and Wiley (n.d.) apply Gobert (2000)’s typology with minor amendments to understand students’ preconception of causality of volcano. Their study reveals that most students hold the heat related models in causality of volcano. Based on the findings of previous studies, the closer relationship between ideas of ‘heat’ and the notion underlying students’ elaborations on such earth phenomena is evident. Purposes of the present study In support of earlier studies, the ideas of ‘heat’ have also emerged in students’ minds in present study to interpret causality of earth phenomena. Students who participated in present research seem to devise their experience of ‘heat’ to their explanations’ of the earth phenomena (volcano and earthquake). This study will use the students’ notion of ‘heat’ to investigate how
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Earth phenomena they make a connection between everyday encounter with geology and their understanding in earth phenomena which explores the question raised by Dal (2006, p. 55) which is ‘to what extent do children make connections between everyday encounters with geology and their formal classroom learning?’ This study will enrich the research of students’ earth science learning through the exploration of students’ conceptual understanding on causality of earth phenomena .While previous studies on earth science learning have focused more on the investigation of a wide range of understanding of earth phenomena held by students, this study will explore the impact of commonly occurring single ideas repeatedly proposed by students about causality of earth phenomena. We argue that the commonly feature in students’ explanations may reflect certain alternative framework rooted in students’ minds. Additionally, this study will extend the exploration of the process of student’s model construction by discussing the process of developing students’ models within group discussion context.
Methodology The data for this paper comes from a larger research study known as ‘Voyage to the age of dinosaurs’. The main objective of this research project is to develop a game for learning Earth system science. The participants were at their Secondary 1 year of study (equivalent to US grade 7) and they have no prior formal experience from school on the questions that were to be asked. The purpose of this interview was to establish deeper understanding of students' preconceptions of earth science ideas prior to be exposed to the formal classroom lesson. Interviews were conducted with 20 Singaporean students to uncover and analyze their concepts in earth science by getting them to respond to a range of questions. During the interviews, the participants
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Earth phenomena discussed topics related to fossil, earth structure and occurrence of earthquake and volcano. In this paper, we will concentrate the discussion on occurrence of the two earth phenomena from one group which consisted of three students from same school (3 boys-Tony, Ben and Harry). Students’ ideas are classified by coding their interpretation of the causes of the two earth phenomena. We initially use Gobert (2000)’s coding scheme for analysis Then the coding scheme are modified to account for the purposes of this study. As mentioned in the previous section, Gobert (2000) categorize students’ ideas into the models, namely, Local models, Mixed models and Integrated models. Local models in Gobert (2000)’s typology includes two single models–heat related models and movement related models. The present study separates heat related models from Local models and create a individual type of model which emphasize the analysis of the ideas of magma and ‘heat’ more since the present study focuses on the ideas of ‘heat’ in interpretation of causality of earth phenomena. Additionally, the incorrect, superficial models are created in this study to account for the models we observed in our protocols (Hemmerich & Wiley, n.d.). From our coding scheme, the students’ ideas about causality of earth phenomena were classified into the following categories: Incorrect, superficial models: Ideas were assigned to Incorrect superficial models if the explanations of causality of earth phenomena are related to natural disaster or weather. An example of explanation in the criteria of incorrect superficial models is that raining and avalanche causes earthquake. Heat related models and Movement related models: This study splits Local models in two separate models. Students’ ideas related to heat and magma are coded as heat related models. For example, the occurrences of earthquakes are caused by heat built up; likewise, ideas related to
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Earth phenomena plate movement and magma movement are assigned to movement related models. An example of explanation in the criteria of Movement related models is that plate movement cause ground breakage. Mixed Models: Mixed models include the movement related and heat related mechanisms, but without explanation of the relationship between them. Integrated Models: Contrasting with Mixed models, the causal relationship should emerge in integrated models to combine the two mechanisms. Gobert (2000) defines the integrated models as ‘well-integrated and include many heat related and movement related mechanisms’ (p. 946). Students’ explanations of this type is that magma got hot and heat up plates which cause plates to move and then cause volcanic eruption and earthquake. As mentioned, this study employs focus group interviews which aimed to elicit diversified views within a group context for investigating students’ opinions and views on causality of earth phenomena. According to the purposes, the present study intends to adopt the Gobert (2000)’s typology to analyze the students’ ideas of causality of earthquake and volcano. In contrast to previous studies (Gobert, 2000; Hemmerich & Wiley, n.d.), the coding scheme is adopted by the present study for a qualitative research rather than a quantitative research. More specifically, quantitative research may potentially oversimplify the complexity of participant opinion through the counting of the relationship between participant’s perception of the causality of volcano and earthquake and phenomenon of employing ideas of ‘heat’ to interpret the dynamics inside the earth. Also, unlike its quantitative counterpart, qualitative research focuses more on the meaning of a phenomenon rather than on behavior. This can help researchers to understand the possible impact of ideas of ‘heat’ emerged in students’ mind on the interpretation of the Earth’s phenomena.
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Earth phenomena Students’ ideas of ‘heat’ ‘Heat’ is perceived by students to be an attribute of a volcano and core, and is often associated with causing earthquakes (Bezzi & Happs, 1994; Marques & Thompson, 1997; Sharp et al., 1995). This is consistent with the present findings where students used the idea of ‘heat’ to justify the cause of volcanic eruption which is implied through the explanation of a ‘sauna’ and ‘boiling water’:
Tony: You know how sauna is made or not? They say near volcanoes right the magma is under under the magma is here right then the water is just on top of it. so it’s like very very hot flowing up lah then the water like very cooked the water like sauna like that lah. We argue that one of the probable explanations that the student uses the above example was because of influences from the media which depicts volcanic scenes with violent eruptions. In this scenario, ‘boiling water’ is equated to a volcanic eruption which is caused by ‘heat’. This concurs with findings by Blake (2005) where students adopted the ‘pressure cooker’ effects of ‘heat’ to interpret volcanic eruption. It signifies that students prefer to employ something that they physical experience and observe to explain phenomena. In this study, we classify the ideas of ‘heat’ by students according to the following table: Table 1 Students’ ideas of ‘heat’ Prior knowledge of ‘heat’ Heat makes things rise /expand
Excerpts 1) Ben: The heat is very hot very hot then heat don’t come out then it will gush out so it just heat up the magma, the magma gets hot then it keeps rising. 2) Ben: Maybe there’s too much heat on the ground then it’s forces this one to open it. (Ben) 3) Tony: The magma is under the ground. Ben: This is for example this is the magma and here’s all the heat.
Heat is force
Heat is under the earth
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Earth phenomena Table 1 summarizes the preconceptions of ‘heat’ repeated in this study. From the excerpts turn 1-2 in Table 1, students’ discourses reveal that student has preconceptions of heat ‘rising’ and student perceives heat as kind of powerful energy. In turn 3, students indicate the ideas that ‘heat’ is together with magma which is under ground. As described, researchers in their previous studies on sciences learning reveal that students’ existing knowledge and experiences have influences on learning science (Driver, Squires, Rushworth, & Wood-Robinson, 1994; Tsai, 2001). Thereby, it’s reasonable to assume that the students’ ideas of ‘heat’ reflected in their discussion about causality of earth phenomena may have effects on their understanding in this domain.
Students’ understanding of earth phenomena
Volcanoes and earthquakes are principally concepts that we investigate in present study. From focus group interview, two common problems emerge which are consistent with previous studies. Similar to Marques and Thompson (1997) and Blake (2005)’s findings, students mainly make associations with directly-observable elements. They perceive earthquake and volcano as violent earth phenomena which ‘shake’/ ‘crack’ the ground of the earth, ‘erupt’ with ‘magma’ respectively. The students participated in this study linked the term volcano to ‘heat’ and ‘magma’. What is interesting is that the students defines volcano as a mountain with ‘heat’ or lava. This correlates with previous studies (Blake, 2005; Ross & Shuell, 1993) which state that students have some information of magma and plates before formal learning. When asked ‘where did you get the information?’, students indicate that the ideas are from parents (Tony) and media (Ben) by saying ‘parents taught me (the ideas of plate) parents told me’ and ‘(saw on) discovery channel’.
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Earth phenomena Another observation from this study reveals that the unobservable dynamics inside the earth are difficult for students to imagine. For example, at the beginning of discussion, the students responded that they did not know what caused volcano and earthquake to form. To have a deeper understanding of students’ understanding and idea on the causal and dynamic process in the interior of earth, we will classify students’ ideas using the typology of causal and dynamics mechanisms model (Gobert, 2000; Hemmerich & Wiley, n.d.). The four types of models involved in volcano eruption and earthquake occurrence are identified in present study: incorrect superficial models, heat-related models, movement-related models and integrated models.
Incorrect, superficial models Incorrect superficial models are presented at the beginning of the discussion to inform causality of earth phenomena. The three boys (Tony, Ben and Harry) state ‘avalanche’, ‘hurricane’ and ‘rain’ are reasons of earthquake. Particularly, Ben emphasizes that volcano is responsible for the occurrence of earthquake. These findings are similar to Ross and Shuell (1993)’s findings in that students perceive the occurrence of earthquakes by energies. It’s probably because students are trying to look for sources of energy which have enough power to crack ground and vomit magma.
Heat related models Heat related models are observed at the primary stage of the discussion as well. Ben proposes ideas of ‘heat’ to describe the reason of volcano and earthquake initially and insists on his ideas in the discussion. Heat is perceived as energy which is underground and forces ground breakage. Ben’s initial ideas are as follows:
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Earth phenomena
Ben: Maybe there’s too much heat on the ground then it’s forces this one to open it. (At the beginning of the discussion) Additionally, Ben and Tony mention that the magma is underground together with heat: Tony: The magma is underground Ben: This is for example this is the magma and here is all heat (In the middle of the discussion) Movement related models There are a few ideas of plate movement emerged in students’ conversations, whereas they do not understand cause of movement of plate. The ideas of ‘friction’ and ‘ground rubbing’ are generated by Tony to explain earthquake occurrence. He perceives the plate as ground, although he identifies the scientific term ‘plate’ and replaces the ‘ground rubbing’ with ‘plate movement’ later. He depicts, Tony: But I heard is like that you see actually maybe it’s not really split up. At first it crash then it start crumbling into each other. It start rubbing each other rub after rubbing rubbing rubbing it slowly come up then crack then slowly when it come up slowly behind it cracks then later cannot withstand the friction anymore then the earth inside just break lor. Then the earth here just break open lor. That’s how it hole. And then when we do friction that time it’s like crashing . Tony:……The ground rubbing against each other, how to say it’s like rubbing your own hand like that until your hand later like how to say (At the beginning of discussions) At this point, Tony has the understanding that cause of earthquake is related to movement related mechanisms, whereas he doesn’t seem to understand the heat-related mechanisms involved in plate tectonics. More specificially, he does not understand the reason of plate movement. Integrated models
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Earth phenomena At the end of discussion, Tony and Ben revise their ideas of dynamics inside the earth and assimilate ‘new’ ideas from each other to include more heat-related mechanisms and movement related mechanisms. In their descriptions, ideas of ‘heat’, ‘magma movement’ and ‘plate movement’ are integrated. The concepts of ‘heat’ raised by students play a role of causal agent which is responsible for magma explosion and plate movement. At this point, they have ‘integrated models’ of causal mechanisms responsible for volcano and earthquake as they have integrated heat related and movement related mechanisms in their models. Here Tony and Ben respond together, excerpt is below: Ben: Like the [Tony: I think the heat] magma gets hot lah then the, gets hot then [Tony: maybe the earth start] the earth start [Tony: shaking] yah just like heated the plates and the plates just crack the earth just crack lor (At the end of the discussion) From above analysis of types of models of causal process inside the earth, we notice that, contrasting to integrated models, all the three simple models (Incorrect superficial models, heat related models and movement related models) are constructed at the beginning of the discussion. There may be a process of revising the three existing models and constructing integrated models. Additionally, we note that students participated in the present study insist on the ideas of ‘heat’ and tend to employ those ideas to reason the cause of plate movement and magma explosion. This could be attributed to the fact that students participated in the present study heard phrases such as ‘plate movement’, ‘magma’, ‘lava’ and have awareness that these words may have connection with earthquake and volcano occurrence, even they have little knowledge about the reason. At this point, existing ideas of ‘heat’ may serve to integrate these pieces of knowledge and reason about causality of the natural phenomena addressed here. These interesting findings attract us to do the further exploration on the relationship among ideas of ‘heat’, volcano and earthquake. We try to observe the process of integrated
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Earth phenomena models forming, in other words, investigation on how did the heat-related models and movement related models integrate is the focus of the following discussion. Due to that, we categorize students’ ideas into volcano concept groups and earthquake concept groups initially. As elaborated in student’s conversation, magma and plates are significant points to portray the causalities of the two earth phenomena as they are ‘observable’ elements of those two earth phenomena. In Gobert (2000)’s and Hemmerich and Wiley (n.d.)’s protocol, heat related mechanisms are mostly conceptualized with the idea of hot magma while movement related mechanisms are conceptualized as plates. Therefore, the present study separates the two key concepts (magma and plates) from volcano and earthquake concept groups and creates new concept groups respectively. Finally, concepts related to occurrence of earthquakes and volcanoes are identified and classified into the four groups: plate, magma, volcano and earthquake.
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Figure 1: Initial relationship among concepts groups of magma, plate, volcano and earthquake From observation and the analysis of Incorrect superficial models, heat related and movement related models, we note that several ideas emerged in students’ mind before constructing integrated models. Moreover, the ideas of 1) magma is a material of volcano, 2) plate is ground, 3) plate movement (but without causality ideas) and 4) volcano causes earthquake connect the four concept groups separately (See Figure 1).Additionally, students also reveal the perspectives of 1) volcano is associated with heat 2) magma is underground 3) ground shaking when earthquake occurs and 4) magma come out when volcano erupts (See Figure 1). However, from Figure 1, it is interesting to note that initially there are no intersection between magma (volcano) and plate, which means that the causally relationship between heat related models and movement related models (i.e. heat as a causal agent in forming convection currents
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Earth phenomena which push plates to move) are not emerged in students’ mind. Given that, it’s reasonable to assume that 1) students at this grade level have basic information of volcano and earthquake before formal instruction; 2) integrated models is more difficult to build than others as students were not conscious of the connection between movement related mechanisms and heat related mechanisms (plate and magma) before formal learning.
Figure 2: Relationships between ideas of ‘heat’ and the four concepts groups In order to develop more sophisticated explanations of occurrence of earthquake and volcano, and especially to make sense to the cause of plate movement and magma explosion, students generate the ideas of ‘heat’ to interlink those four concept groups (See Figure 2). Meanwhile, we notice that the constructed models (Incorrect superficial models, heat related
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Earth phenomena models and movement related models) presented in this study and students’ ideas of ‘heat’ support and facilitate integration and inference-making together. This is addressed as following: 1) The inference students made is that magma movement is based on the attribute of its location that ‘underground is heat’ and the preconception of ‘heat make things rise’.
Ben develops and improves his ideas by considering and responding to the questions posed by Tony about ‘why would it (magma) suddenly just come out like that?’ and ‘where does lava flow come from?’. We note that those questions facilitate them to search their existing knowledge and integrate all the information to make sense. With that, Ben states heat is responsible for pushing magma to explode. We notice that although some of Ben’s ideas are not correct, he is starting to integrate his preconceptions of magma (i.e. magma is underground together with heat) with his ideas of ‘heat’ (i.e. heat makes things rise, heat is underground).The excerpts from their conversation are as follows: Tony: ….The magma stores somewhere. I don’t know how they (magma explosion) being caused why the lava come out Ben: The heat is very hot very hot. then heat don’t come out then it will gush out so it just heat up the magma the magma gets hot then it keeps rising rising rising. Tony: One thing I don’t understand. You know why the magma right why would it want to why would it suddenly just come out like that Ben: Because it’s like expand already … Tony: But I don’t know how the magma, right, want to escape for what. There’s some reason Ben: Expands. Expands until like too hot too hot then it must cannot stand that heat. (In the middle of the discussions) 2) It’s important to note that the interesting inference they made about plate movement is based on the ideas that volcano causes earthquake and preconceptions of ‘heat is force’.
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This question of ‘what cause them (plates) to rupture?’ posed by Ben and Harry facilitates Tony to generate sophisticated reasons by integrating the preconceptions. Regarding Tony’s ideas, he starts to link magma and heat with plate movement due to the preconceptions of volcanic eruption causing earthquake. He also adopts the ideas of ‘heat is force’ from his group member (Ben) to make sense of the reason of plate movement. More specifically, he may think that plates are forced to rub by the ‘heat’ from hot magma. Excerpts are as below:
Ben: What cause them (plates) to rupture? Harry: I don’t know what makes the plates rub against each other. Tony: I still go the ideas of volcanic eruption. Maybe the magma make the plate hot and start to (rub)…. (In the middle of the discussion) 3) Students generate the relationship between earthquake and ‘heat’ in indirect ways, which is based on the previous inferences of causal relationship in volcano, earthquake and plate movement. By incorporating Ben’s ideas of the relationship between earthquake and volcano (i.e. volcano causes earthquake), Tony states that earthquake happens because there is an enormous amount of pressure caused by volcanic activity. His interpretations demonstrate that earthquake is a kind of ‘volcanic eruption’, but without the outflow of magma. Then, based on the previous inferences of cause of magma movement and cause of plate movement, he explains magma explosion is responsible for plate movement which causes earthquake, excerpt is as below:
Tony: Maybe as the volcano erupts then the magma want to come out then the volcano is very safe and then it just press the pressure then plates just move then (In middle of the discussion )
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Earth phenomena 4) One of the significant finding is that the ideas of ‘heat’ create a relationship between the magma and plates which are not shown in Figure 1. They reason that ‘heat’ and magma movement is responsible for plate movement. More specifically, students reason about the causal relationship between ‘heat’, magma and plate movement (see Figure 2), reflecting that the heat mechanisms and movement mechanisms are incorporated in explanation as the excerpts shown under integrated models section. Based on the definition of integrated models proposed by Gobert (2000), it’s reasonable to infer that integrated models are formed. Interestingly, the absence of the scientific term ‘convection current’ is revealed in the group discussion although related explanation of this conception is mentioned in the integrated models by the students. The understandings of ‘convection current’ are generated from heat related models and movement related models which are formed by their preconceptions of ‘heat’, ‘volcano’, ‘magma’ and ‘plate’. Moreover, in present study, the progressively refining of students’ models are facilitated by means of keeping posing question to each other like ‘why / how magma come out’, ‘what cause them (plates) to rupture?’ and ‘where is lava from?’.These findings may mean that ‘scientific information’ or adult conceptions are inspired by students’ own imagination, experience and logical thoughts even if students were not given the relevant information in class or other formal instructions. Based on the above discussion, this study reveals that a certain kind of knowledge base built since the scientific vocabulary (e.g. magma, eruption, plates) are acquired by students (which may come from media and parents). Students with more sophisticated information of earth phenomena can make initial inference from existing knowledge of earth science. Students’ ideas of ‘heat’, in this study, are used in further developing the understanding of the dynamics
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Earth phenomena inside the earth. Specifically, ideas of ‘heat’ provide significant sources of information which facilitate the inference-making and integrate those scattered knowledge. Additionally, in the present study, two elements are identified for facilitating students learning in causal and dynamics inside the earth. 1) Focus group discussion Findings of this case study imply that focus group discussions facilitate students to integrate ideas of ‘heat’, and form ‘integrated models’. In this workshop, all students are provided with the opportunity to share their responses and ideas with their group members. During their discussion, learners negotiate the dissonances and similarities between their own ideas. Meanwhile, students can obtain requisite preconceptions which are needed to understanding causal and dynamics concepts from other group members. An example can be found in the discussion of earthquake. From the excerpts shown in previous section, Tony puts forward ideas of ‘ground rubbing’ as the reason of earthquake initially. Ben, who insists on ideas of ‘volcano causes earthquake’, proposes that heat is an energy forcing ground cracking. Having different ideas, Ben queries Tony’s ideas of plate related mechanisms by probing the question of the cause of the ground rubbing. To make sense and support his own ideas, Tony looks to his preconceptions or knowledge and generates scientific terms ‘plate movement’ whereas he cannot respond to Ben’s question. By keeping negotiating the different ideas, Tony further incorporates Ben’s heat mechanisms ideas into his initial ideas of plate movement to make sense of the cause of plate movement and occurrence of earthquake. 2) Rich preconceptions In this study, we note that both Tony and Ben may have rich preconceptions and exposure to the media in earth phenomena and ‘heat’. They look to those resources to make
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Earth phenomena sense of their interpretations of causality of earth phenomena. Example can be found in the discussion of volcanic eruption. Ben perceives volcanic eruption and ‘heat’ as the reasons of occurrence of earthquake and insists on these ideas in the whole discussion which indirectly promote Tony to employ ideas of ‘heat’ to explain the movement of plate. In order to understand causal and dynamics inside the earth, certain ‘correct’ preconceptions are needed to support knowledge integration and inference (Gobert, 2000). For example, if students do not hold ideas of heat ‘rising’, it cannot support inferring about how the ‘heat’ acts as a causal agent for the magma movement which causes convection currents to form and then push on the plates. Teachers need to identify what students know and understand before teaching such topics as the preconceptions not only facilitate learning, but also may act as a barrier to further learning. Conclusions and implications By analyzing and discussing the types of student’s models of the causality of the earth phenomena, we observe that the students have the opinions that:
Volcano and earthquake have directly observable elements such as magma, lava, heat, shaking and eruption
Volcano and earthquake occurs because of powerful energy
There are plate-related activities within the Earth (without understanding of cause of plate movement)
Earthquakes are a complicated process and students do not have the necessary words to describe them (e.g., convection current)
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Earth phenomena This study not only presents students’ preconceptions in dynamics inside the earth, but also provides information and implications on the process of model construction, from Incorrect superficial models to integrated models. The findings from this case study provide insight into the influences of students’ preconceptions on their understanding of earth phenomena. It reveals that the students shape their own ‘information knowledge’ in earth science which could be used to facilitate 'new' concepts learning. Moreover, the ‘scientific view’ of unobservable concepts can be created by their experiences, existing ideas and analogical thoughts (Blake, 2005). In addition, this study reveals that students use scientific terms to demonstrate their ideas, but lack of complete understanding. For example, every student uses the term of ‘magma’ when responding to the questions of cause of earthquake and volcano. However, they confuse 'magma' with 'lava' which are used interchangeably. Upon the probing question posed by a student, none of the students is able to give a scientific view of the reason of magma movement. It signifies that using the scientific terms in explanation can not imply the understanding of the terms, especially in aspect of causality. In considering of students’ understanding in earth science, scale is a persistent theme in this domain. It is difficult to get an opportunity to observe and reproduce the earth phenomena in laboratory. To mediate between these barriers and earth science learning, this study implies suggestions on teaching in this domain. This study suggests that instead of following previous studies of focusing on how to overcome the preconceptions, researcher may employ those preconceptions to serve the understanding of relevant concepts, especially the unobservable dynamics of earth. In order to support students to understand the dynamics inside the earth more efficiently, educators can take advantage of ideas of ‘heat’ to explain this topic. As found in
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Earth phenomena previous studies and the present study, most students have existing ideas of ‘heat’1 from living experiences and former learning (e.g., Gobert, 2000; Ross & Shuell, 1993). Volcano and relevant materials exposed by media are conceptualized with the image of ‘heat’ by students. Instead of introducing the knowledge of dynamics inside the earth right away, teachers could talk about ‘heat’ first in the class. The ideas of ‘heat’ can serve as ‘flash point’ to foster the greater understanding in this domain. Besides, this study implies that students, under motivated environment, can bring their ideas with prior experiences to make thinking forward. Students who participated in this study are given more opportunities to express their own ideas on explanation of phenomena, and to reason on how a certain phenomenon happened. We hope this study could contribute to the research of students’ understanding of earth’s process.
1
According to the syllabus of primary schools in Singapore (from the website of Singapore’s Minister of Education), ‘heat’ is a topic in the geosciences education.
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Earth phenomena References Bezzi, A., & Happs, J. C. (1994). Belief systems as barriers to learning in geological education. Journal of Geological Education 42, 134-140. Blake, A. (2005). Do young children's ideas about the Earth's structure and processes reveal underlying patterns of descriptive and causal understanding in earth science? Research in Science & Technological Education, 23(1), 59-74. Dal, B. (2006). The origin and extent of student’s understandings: The effect of various kinds of factors in conceptual understanding in volcanism. Electronic Journal of Science Education, 11(1), 38-59. Dal, B. (2007). How do we help students build beliefs that allow them to avoid critical learning barriers and develop a deep understanding of geology? Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 3(4), 251-269. Dove, J. E. (1998). Students' alternative conceptions in Earth science: A review of research and implications for teaching and learning. Research Papers in Education, 13(2), 183-201. Driver, R. (1989). Students' conceptions and the learning of science. International Journal of Science Education, 11(5), 481-490. Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P., & Wood-Robinson, V. (Eds.). (1994). Making sense of secondary science: Research into children's ideas. New York: Routledge. Gobert, J. D. (2000). A typology of causal models for plate tectonics: Inferential power and barriers to understanding. International Journal of Science Education, 22(9), 937-977. Hayes, B., Goodhew, A., Heit, E., & Gillan, J. (2003). The role of diverse instruction in conceptual change. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86, 253-276. Hemmerich, J. A., & Wiley, J. (n.d.). Do argumentation tasks promote conceptual change about volcanoes? Journal. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from
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Earth phenomena http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:KiMna6fKXgQJ:litd.psch.uic.edu/personal/ jwiley/CS02Hem.pdf+Do+argumentation+tasks+promote+conceptual+change+about+vo lcanoes%3F&hl=en&gl=sg Marques, L., & Thompson, D. (1997). Misconceptions and conceptual changes concerning continental drift and plate tectonics among Portuguese students aged 16-17. Research in Science & Technological Education, 15(2), 195-222. Panagiotaki, G., Nobes, G., & Potton, A. (2008). Mental models and other misconceptions in children's understanding of the earth. Journal. Retrieved September 30, 2009 from www.elsevier.com/locate/jecp. Rakkapao, S., Arayathanitkul, K., Pananont, P., & Chitaree, R. (2007). High school students’ misconceptions on the topic of earthquakes. Paper presented at the Siam Physics Congress 2007. Ross, K. E. K., & Shuell, T. J. (1993). ChiIdren's beliefs about earthquakes. Science Education 77(2), 191-205. Sharp, J. G., Mackintosh, M. A. P., & Seedhouse, P. (1995). Some comments on children’s ideas about Earth structure, volcanoes, earthquakes and plates. Teaching Earth Sciences, 20(28-30). Simsek, L. (2007). Children's ideas about Earthquakes. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 2(1), 14-19. Singapore Ministry of Education. (2006). Geography syllabuses: Low secondary. Retrieved September 30, 2009 from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/syllabuses/humanities/files/geography-lowersecondary-2006.pdf.
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Earth phenomena Tsai, C.-C. (2001). Ideas about earthquakes after experiencing a natural disaster in Taiwan: An analysis of students’ worldviews. International Journal of Science Education, 23(10), 1007-1016. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. (1992). Mental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change in childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 535-585. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. (1994). Mental models of the day and night cycle. Cognitive Science, 18, 123-183.
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Integrated Teaching Approach in Quantum Physics
Promoting an Integrated Teaching Approach to Enhance Student Expectation in Quantum Physics Classroom
Sura Wuttiprom
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Ubonratchathani University, Warinchamrab, Ubonratchathani University 34190 Thailand; [email protected]
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Integrated Teaching Approach in Quantum Physics
Abstract It is widely known that students’ attitudes, beliefs and assumptions are important factors in governing learning and understanding processes. These factors are broadly defined as student expectations. This article will be presented that student expectations can be effectively enhanced by a simple integrated approach. A new integrated teaching approach was designed this purpose behind the central idea of sociocultural. It has been shown that students’ best learning experiences take place when they are engaged in activities that they enjoy and care about. Gains in learning can be improved when social interaction occurs. The designed teaching approach consisted of a reading assignment, role-playing, a quiz show and conceptual writing. Questionnaire and interview data provide fruitful evidence that shows this approach led to a positive change in student expectations.
Keyword: teaching approach, introductory quantum physics, student expectations
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Integrated Teaching Approach in Quantum Physics
Promoting an Integrated Teaching Approach to Enhance Student Expectation in Quantum Physics Classroom
It is widely known that students’ attitudes, beliefs and assumptions are important factors in governing learning and understanding processes. These factors are broadly defined as student expectations (Redish, Saul, & Steinberg, 1998; Kortemeyer, 2007). This study shows that student expectations can be effectively enhanced by a simple integrated approach. A new integrated teaching approach was designed this purpose. Questionnaire and interview data provide fruitful evidence that shows this approach led to a positive change in student expectations.
Class Environment The context of the study was a Science Camp organized by Mahidol University, Thailand, an elite university in the fields of science and medicine. This camp is regularly held in the pre-semester period. The purposes of the camp are to encourage student’s interests in science, to guide their views regarding its importance, and especially review some fundamental knowledge needed to study physics at a university level. Two days of physics activities were divided into three forums: discussion, laboratory and lecture. In the latter forum, students were exposed to different styles of active learning in various topics. The active learning techniques employed were well known and approved by physics education community and included Hands-on activities (McDermott, 1996) in electricity, Interactive Lecture Demonstrations (Sokoloff & Thornton, 1997; 2006) in heat and temperature and an integrated teaching approach in quantum physics.
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Integrated Teaching Approach in Quantum Physics
To explore our teaching approach we chose the area of quantum physics because nowadays it has become a main stream of research on conceptual understanding (Thacker, 2003; Falk, 2007; Fletcher, 2004). The rapidly growing number of research studies in this area indicates that the topic will play a more important role in physics education research in the future. Our study was conducted with 334 pre-university science students who just passed the entrance examination and would enroll in the first year calculus-based physics course in the coming semester.
Developing a Teaching Sequence The central idea behind an integrated teaching approach is sociocultural (Cowie, 2005). It has been shown that students’ best learning experiences take place when they are engaged in activities that they enjoy and care about. Gains in learning can be improved when social interaction occurs (Sokoloff & Thornton, 1997). Participants were randomly divided into three subgroups for three sessions, roughly 100 students per group and were taught by the same approach in each session. A conventional classroom was modified into a theater hall. There was a big projector screen as a background and a u-shaped stage surrounded by students. The designed teaching sequences consisted of a reading assignment, role-playing, a quiz show and conceptual writing. The last three processes were carried out in one hour. 1. Reading assignment: Two days before the activity, students are provided with before-class reading material, dealing with the critical experiments in the pre-quantum physics era. These experiments, (i.e. blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect and atomic spectra) cannot be explained by the straightforward ideas of classical mechanics.
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Integrated Teaching Approach in Quantum Physics
2. Role-playing: This activity aims to encourage participation of students in class. The students act as travelers touring through the quantum world and teachers act as guides. The scenarios were started by encouraging students to think about what the differences between the classical and quantum worlds are, according to the standard (Copenhagen) interpretation of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle. During this process a video was used as a guide to demonstrate the phenomena. Five multiple-choice conceptual questions from Quantum Physics Conceptual Survey (QPCS) (Wuttiprom, Sharma, Johnston, Chitaree, & Soankwan, 2009) were also included, those dealing with the double slit experiment. A Peer Instruction (Mazur, 1997) approach was used to administer the QPCS. This process is used to exploit student interaction in class and to focus the student’s attention on the underlying concepts. The activity period in this stage is about half an hour. 3. Quiz show: This activity is an attempt to assess student knowledge pertaining to quantum physics using quiz-show style questions. The activity format is inspired by a television game show. The time spent for activity is 10 minutes. 4. Conceptual writing: This activity aims to encourage students’ active thinking. It provides a probe to investigate understanding, and serves as a tool for developing effective communication skills (Rivard, 1994; Slater, 2008). Participants are assured that the results of this writing exercise have no effect on their assessment for the course and would not take longer than 20 minutes to complete. The strategies to introducing conceptual writing to the classroom start by providing important keywords relating to quantum mechanics, i.e. de Broglie wavelength, wave function, wave-particle duality. Students are asked to select one to five keywords and then to write a short paragraph containing the keywords. The paragraph therefore must be relevant to the idea of quantum physics. All student responses are then collected and graded by using a simple rubrics scoring system: 0 point for using everyday
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experience and everyday knowledge; 1 point for ideas that mix between everyday conceptions and scientific theory; and 2 point for using acceptable scientific theory.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Approach In order to evaluate the effectiveness of our integrated teaching, we administered questionnaires to students and interviewed some of them after instruction (as well as carrying out informal observations during the activity). The student responses were categorized and students’ evaluations of expectation toward our approach were analyzed. The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Percentage of students’ evaluations toward the integrated teaching approach. % of students’ evaluations Categorize of item responses Like
Dislike
Undecided
A. covered contents
60
37
3
B. assignment in time
55
37
8
C. interesting & concentration
87
8
5
D. understanding
63
22
15
E. participant
68
30
2
This approach had a variety of beneficial effects. 1. This was popular with most students, obviously seen from student comments. “I enjoyed this lecture style, it made me thinks about what is happening” “I never though that physics lecture could make me laugh and fun” “I prefer lecture like this in every hour”
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“This approach improve my concentration” “I think that I learn better in group” 2. Most of the students believed that this approach helped them think, especially writing in science. This is conceptualized as a process to develop a deeper understanding of ideas reasoning, promotes personal summarizing in relation to scientific explanations and serve as a tool for identifying student misconception. 3. This is an effective way to dramatically increase the level of classroom interaction between instructors and students as well as students and students. 4. Instructors can assess student performance in every process, unnoticed by students. The test can be conducted in various ways depending on situations; true or false, multiple choice, conceptual survey, and writing task. 5. This successfully teaches basic physics concepts to a large fraction of students in an introductory physics class, without a large investment in time or equipment.
On the basis of evidence collected, it is clear that our approach has great potential to enhance student expectations and can also improve student understanding in physics. However, instructors who want to bring this approach into their classrooms should be aware that this approach inevitably increases work load in terms of planning, grading and support from other instructors to work as a team.
Implications This approach offers enjoyment for both lecturers and students. It can easily be introduced into existing course structures because the complete activity takes only one hour to finish. This approach is flexible and can be used in a variety of subjects and levels. It can
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Integrated Teaching Approach in Quantum Physics
be used as a supplement to interactive teaching and learning. Instructors who are not comfortable with employing the full teaching strategy as described, may select just some part into your classroom. Nonetheless, we hope that this approach may be of interest to other lecturers looking for a new way to enliven their lectures.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank staff at Physics Education Network of Thailand (PENThai) group, Mahidol University, Thailand for support and feedback. We also thank Professor Ian Johnston at Sydney University Physics Education Research (SUPER) group, Australia for their value comments on this article and students who were willing to share their feelings with us. We gratefully acknowledge the funding support from the Faculty of Science, Ubon Rajathanee University, Thailand.
References Cowie, B. (2005). Student commentary on classroom assessment in science: A sociocultural interpretation. International Journal of Science Education. 27(2), 199-214. Falk, J. (2007). Students’ Depictions of Quantum Mechanics: A Contemporary Review and Some Implications for Research and Teaching. Ph.D. thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden. Fletcher, P.R. (2004). How Tertiary Level Physics Student Learn and Conceptualise Quantum Mechanics. Ph.D. thesis, University of Sydney, Australia. Kortemeyer, G. (2007). Correlations between student discussion behavior, attitudes and learning. Physical Review Special Topics - Physics Education Research, 3(1), 0101011-010101-8.
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Mazur, E. (1997). Peer Instruction: A User’s Manual. Prentice Hall, NJ. McDermott, L.C. (1996). Physics by Inquiry. John Wiley & Sons. Redish, E. F., Saul, J. M., & Steinberg, R. N. (1998). Student expectations in introductory physics. American Journal of Physics, 66(3), 212-224. Rivard, L. P. (1994). A review of writing to learn in science: Implications for practice and research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 35(9), 969-983. Slater, T. F. (2008). Engaging student learning in science through writing. The Physics Teacher. 46(2), 123-125. Sokoloff, D. R., & Thornton, R. K. (1997). Using interactive lecture demonstrations to create an active learning environment. The Physics Teacher. 35(10), 340-347. Sokoloff, D. R., & Thornton, R. K. (2006). Interactive Lecture Demonstrations: Active Learning in Introductory Physics. Wiley Thacker, B. A. (2003). Recent advances in classroom in classroom physics. Reports on Progress in Physics. 66, 1833-1864. Wuttiprom, S., Sharma, M. D., Johnston, I. D., Chitaree, R., & Soankwan, C. (2009). Development and Use of a Conceptual Survey in Introductory Quantum Physics. International Journal of Science Education. 31(5), 631-654.
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Dispelling the Stereotypical Myths of a Scientist
Dispelling the Stereotypical Myths of a Scientist through an Integrated Literature Approach
Francis Jude Yam1, Dr Hoh Yin Kiong2
1. North Vista Primary School, Singapore, [email protected] 2. National Institute of Education, Singapore, [email protected]
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Abstract It has been seen that few young people are interested in Science. In fact, very few actually pursue science as a career and from this pool; boys are usually more likely to take the science route as compared to girls (Lee, 1998). In addition, comments about Scientists and the nature of their work show narrow-minded perceptions. In a survey commissioned by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, it has been found that college and high school students share a common preconceived stereotype of scientists. The typical stereotype is mostly a queer, eccentric male (with “mad scientists” looks and “Einstein hairdos”) wearing a white coat. Consequently, students having negative images of scientists can discourage them from pursuing careers in the sciences (Gardner, 1986; Mason, 1986). Hence, an authentic and engaging worldview of scientists is critical for motivating students‟ interests toward pursuing careers in science, mathematics, and engineering where there is a critical shortage of trained professionals (Jones and Bangert, 2006).
Over the last 10 years, numerous articles on strategies that can be used to help dispel the various misconceptions that children in particular have about Scientists have been published. These include highlighting the achievements of women in Science with special mention of the various female Nobel Prize winners (Hoh and Boo, 2003), ScientistsStudent partnerships (Flick, 1990; Kesselheim, 1998) and the use of literature (Melber, 2003). In particular, the use of literature about Scientists for children seems to be a rather unique way to introduce Science to children (Melber, 2003). In this paper, the “Draw a Scientist-Checklist (DAST-C)” (Chambers, 1983) was used to elicit children‟s perceptions of Scientists. A literature programme was then used as an intervention to help dispel the various myths of Scientists. These literature sources included autobiographies, information texts and Internet websites.
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Dispelling the Stereotypical Myths of a Scientist through an Integrated Literature Approach
Introduction Stereotypes have most likely been in society for as long as human culture has been in existence. A stereotype is defined as a fixed, commonly held notion or image of a person or group. This is often based upon oversimplification of an observed or imagined trait of behaviour or appearance. As we look back on our everyday experiences, stereotypes have often served as a blessing or a curse to man. For example, we often look at African Americans as talented musicians or sportsman; on the other side, movies and the media have also portrayed them as the “hood”, hanging out in “tough” neighbourhoods, making a life on the streets through gangs and drugs. On a lighter note, we often hear remarks by men saying that an errant driver who has cut into his lane must be a woman driver. In the Asian context, we often talk about the Chinese as good business people, often making a successful living through business enterprise. In Universities, Indian nationals are seen mostly as having an inclination towards the Math and Sciences, striving in disciplines like engineering and medicine. The list goes on.
As have been mentioned so often, various stereotypes have appeared largely through the influence of writers, directors, producers, editors and reporters. However, it can also be argued that stereotypes can also be useful to the media because they provide a quick identity for a person or group that is easily recognised by an audience. When deadlines loom, it's sometimes faster and easier to use a stereotype to characterise a person or situation, than it is to provide a more complex explanation.
Looking to Science Education, stereotypes and their effects have also been seen. During my first year as a beginning teacher, I remember having a conversation with a Primary Five class when the topic came up about Scientists. I posed this question to them, “Have any of you met a Scientist?” To my surprise, a lot of chattering was heard among my students and common phrases I heard were comments like “Those men in white coats”, “The Mad Scientist”, “Biology”, “Chemistry” and “Crazy Inventions”. Apparently, these were what students thought about Scientists. At that moment, other comments from children about how “boring Science was”, “so much to remember” and “difficult to Page 2246
Dispelling the Stereotypical Myths of a Scientist
understand” came to my mind. To add to my already baffled mind, I started to realise that of these comments, many seemed to have come largely from the girls. Were these ideas connected to their perceptions of Scientists? Did these preconceived stereotypes of Scientists somehow creep into their subconscious to think of Science in this manner?
This paper serves to highlight the various studies that have been carried out in relation to students‟ images of scientists. It also covers the various strategies that have been proposed to dispel the negative stereotypes many students and teachers alike have of scientists. In particular, it looks into the effectiveness of a literature-based programme and how it can help dispel the various misconceptions students have of Scientists.
Objectives This paper aims to determine the effectiveness
of
Programme”
about
dispelling
the
a
myths
“Literature Scientists and
in
various
misconceptions that children have on Scientists. Review of the literature The plan to embark on a research project involving student images of scientists
Figure 1: Typical stereotypical features of
began a year ago with a research article
scientists as illustrated by children
by McDuffie (2001) on the mental images students have on scientists. It was the reading of the article that triggered the recall of a class discussion in which I had five years ago with a class of Primary Five students. From that discussion, I began to realise that my pupils did not seem to have a very practical and accurate view of science. To make matters worse, many of their comments were somewhat negative. These comments included the following: “science experts are nerds”, “there is too much to remember in science” and “science is boring”. In addition, many of these comments came from the girls.
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After a literature review into student images of scientists, I decided to administer the DASTC to a group of primary five pupils (Figure 1). The purpose of this was to elicit any stereotypical mental images pupils have of scientists. As predicted, the results produced from the test were similar to those of what was available in current literature. These findings (Table 1) were subsequently presented at the International Science Education Conference that was held at the National Institute of Education, Singapore in December 2006. Table 1: Results of the DAST-C from a group of primary five pupils in Singapore (Yam, 2006)
The study of students‟ perceptions of Scientists began as early as 1957 with the publication of classical papers like those of Mead and Metraux (1957) and Chambers (1983). With these articles and subsequent studies, it was found that students and even teachers have a shared stereotypical view of a scientist (Moseley, 1999). Accompanied by these findings were the illustrations of numerous drawings that depicted the scientist as an “eccentric man in white”. The drawings which were a component of the Draw-a-scientist test and developed by Chambers (1983) have since been a popular tool used in eliciting student images of scientists (Schibeci, 2006). The earliest indication that students were having inaccurate perceptions about science and scientists, most likely emerged from the studies from Mead and Metraux (1957). From a
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nation wide analysis of essays from high school students, it was found that many students shared a common negative image of a scientist. „„The scientist is a man who wears a white coat and works in a laboratory. He is elderly or middle aged and wears glasses. He is small, sometimes small and stout, or tall and thin. He may be bald. He may wear a beard, may be unshaven and unkempt. He may be stooped and tired. He is surrounded by equipment: test tubes, bunsen burners, flasks and bottles, a jungle gym of blown glass tubes and weird machines with dials. The sparkling white laboratory is full of sounds: the bubbling of liquids in test tubes and flasks, the squeaks and squeals of laboratory animals, the muttering voice of the scientist. He spends his days doing experiments. He pours chemicals from one test tube into another. He peers raptly through microscopes. He scans the heavens through a telescope. He experiments with plants and animals, cutting them apart, injecting serum into animals. He writes neatly in black notebooks.‟‟ “His work may be dangerous. Chemicals may explode. He may be hurt by radiation, or may die. If he does medical research, he may bring home disease, or may use himself as a guinea pig, or may even accidentally kill someone.” “He neglects his family-pays no attention to his wife, never plays with his children. He has no social life, no other intellectual interest, no hobbies or relaxations. He bores his wife, his children and their friends-for he has no friends of his own or knows only other scientists-with incessant talk that no one can understand…….” (Mead and Metraux, 1957)
While it is acknowledged that students also have a positive image and respect for scientists and their work, the overall impression of a scientist‟s work as one that reaps little or no rewards is a cause for worry.
In the above study, various recommendations were also proposed to help counter such negative stereotypes. They included changing the way mass media projected science and scientists (to a more humanistic and collaborative working environment), changing the
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way science are taught in schools and a new emphasis on the life sciences, just to name a few.
With the introduction of the Draw-A-Scientist Test (DAST) by Chambers (1983), numerous other studies were carried out and from the results, most students seemed to view Scientists as people who spent their days wearing white lab coats and conducting experiments in solitary laboratories. These include those of Schibeci (1983, 1986 & 1989), Rosenthal (1993), Huber (1995), Bowtell (1996), Rahm (1997), Fort (1989), Evans (1992) and Barman (1997).
Adding to the DAST findings, which were conducted mostly in western countries, similar stereotypical images of scientists were also found in the studies of She (1998), Song and Kim (1999), Fung (2002) and Rubin (2003). These studies involved students of Taiwan, Korea, Hong Kong and Israel respectively. In contrast, however, Arab students viewed a scientist as an Arab male while many Hebrew speaking students viewed a scientist as a western male.
Overall, the fact that students from many countries, exposed to different cultures, having similar stereotypical images of scientists is indeed a worrying trend.
In response,
numerous studies focusing on intervention programmes to help alter students‟ stereotypical perceptions of Scientists have been carried out.
Mason and his co-workers described the effectiveness of a teacher intervention programme in altering students‟ perceptions on Science and Scientists (Mason et al., 1991). The study was conducted in the view that „in addition to the pervasive social and curricular perspective, a major factor in attitude formation and/or change is the classroom learning environment.‟
The study in question was conducted with the aim to improve the enrolment of females in Science. Mason believed that positive attitudes and a broad-based, less stereotyped image of Science was needed. It is with this that the teacher intervention programme was carried out and evaluated.
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From the results obtained from the DAST, it was found that the experimental group drew a significantly higher percentage of
female
scientists.
In
addition, interviews were also used as a follow-up.
In another study, Bodzin and Gehringer
carried
out
an
investigation to determine the effect
classroom
visits
by
Scientists had on students‟ perceptions of Scientists. The study involved using the DAST
Table 2: Taken from Bodzin & Gehringer (2001).
before and after the visit of a Scientist. Over the course of the study, the three classes under investigation were visited by a female chemical engineer from a worldwide technology company and a male physicist from the local university (Bodzin and Gehringer, 2001).
In the study, the students were first administered the DAST; the drawings analysed and the various key features as put forth by Chambers were collated. Following that, the classrooms were visited by the Scientists as mentioned above. During the visit, the visiting scientists talked about themselves, both on a personal and professional level. They then conducted activities with the students.
On comparing the pre and post test results, it was found that the drawings revealed a change in students‟ perceptions of scientists. For example, the posttest data revealed a decrease in many stereotypic features after the scientist visited the classroom. Also, more female images were drawn during the post-test. In addition, fewer indications of danger were illustrated in the post visit. This was in contrast to the pre-test drawings where pupils depicted a scientist as a man in a white lab coat, dealing with dangerous equipment Page 2251
Dispelling the Stereotypical Myths of a Scientist
(Table 2). Hence, the scientists‟ visit did play a role in altering students‟ misconceptions about Scientists.
Other similar studies relating to partnerships with scientists were also carried out by Moreno (2001). In such partnerships, it is believed that all parties benefit as scientists are able to enhance their communication, teaching, and community outreach skills while teachers gain a deeper understanding into the subject matter in question, hence creating confident teachers
In addition to the classroom visits by Scientists, another strategy that was discussed involved the use of children‟s literature in altering students‟ misconceptions of scientists. This involved immersing students‟ in various texts about Scientists and their work. Also, this provided an opportunity for an integration of the English language with Science. Melber (2003) proposed such an approach in the study “Science stories: A day in the life of a scientist”. In her opinion, „there (is) no better way to understand the work of a scientist than have it explained firsthand-in the scientists own words…… This direct connection with scientists gives students an authentic view of the scientific process. It is an important step towards getting students excited about science and the work of scientists, while countering any misconceptions or stereotypes that may have already developed.
In ensuring that students understand the material (Table 3) that is given to them, Melber also suggested various strategies that could help in comprehension. Such strategies include Living Science!, where students assume the persona of a scientist (a drama approach). Other strategies that were mentioned were the use of creating field journals, designing a travel brochure (highlighting the place where the scientist in question had carried out the study) and debates.
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Suggested literature selections that highlight various processes of science. Bishop, Nic. 2002. Digging for Bird-Dinosaurs: An Expedition to Madagascar. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Dingus, Lowell, and Luis M. Chiappe. 1999. The Tiniest Giants: Discovering Dinosaur Eggs. New York: Doubleday. Higginson, Mel. 1994. Scientists Who Study Wild Animals. Vero Beach, Fla.: Rourke. Kramer, Stephen. 2001. Hidden Worlds Looking Through a Scientist’s Microscope. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Lehn, Barbara. 1999. What Is a Scientist? Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press. Mallory, Kenneth. 2001. Swimming with Hammerhead Sharks. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Maze, Stephanie. 1999. I Want to Be a Veterinarian. San Diego, Calif: Harcourt. Montgomery, Sy. 1999. The Snake Scientist. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Table 3: Taken from Melber (2003). Methodology In this action research study, the Intact Pretest-Posttest One Group Design was used.
The candidates selected for the literature programme was a primary three class who was taking Science as an official curriculum subject for the first time. As students in this age group were beginning their foundational years in Science, this was a good platform for them to find out their misconceptions and through the intervention programme, allowed them to begin their foundation years on a positive note. This view was also taken as a result of the previous study on a Primary Five class (Yam, 2006). It was found that after these students graduated to Primary Six, less time was available on addressing scientists‟ misconceptions. Hence, it was with the impression that when this batch graduated to secondary school, many might have carried over their misconceptions. On the other hand,
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with a Primary Three batch, it is with the aim that these students would be immersed with a science education based on both content and real-world application.
The Pretest-Posttest One Group Design was carried out as follows:
Pretest-Posttest One Group Design (Intact class) Treatment group
I
O
X
O
The “Draw a Scientist-Test Checklist (DAST-C)” (Chambers 1983) (Appendix A) was administered to an intact class (I) as a pretest (O) to determine the current misconceptions students have on Scientists. From the test, the various misconceptions that students have on a particular scientist stereotype were calculated as a percentage of the whole class. Following the test, the class was put on a 10-week “Literature Programme” (X) where in addition to the current syllabus requirements; literature was incorporated into the lessons. This was in the form as book introductions to selected Scientists, websites and student introductions (Table 4). In addition, students were tasked activities to reflect on the above. The frequency of such introductions was on a weekly basis (every Monday). After the 10 weeks, the “Draw a Scientist-Test Checklist (DAST-C)” (Chambers 1983) was administered as a posttest (O) to the class. The percentages of students indicating the particular stereotype was calculated and compared to the pre-test.
In such an experimental design, the threat to internal validity may have included factors such as maturity, gender and attitude towards text (in the case of the literature programme). In an attempt to control this, book introductions in the form of text and
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websites helped to vary and cater to the various learning styles of students. Texts were also chosen with effective illustrations in mind to help cater to both the auditory and visual learners.
Table 4: Book Resources for the 10 week Literature Programme 1
Forecast Earth: The Story of Climate Scientist Inez Fung (Women's Adventures in Science) by Renee Skelton (Joseph Henry Press (December 31, 2006))
3
Beyond Jupiter: The Story of Planetary Astronomer Heidi Hammel (Women‟s Adventures in Science) by Fred Bortz (Joseph Henry Press; illustrated edition (December 31, 2006))
4
Bone Detective: The Story of Forensic Anthropologist Diane France (Women's Adventures in Science) by Lorraine Jean Hopping Joseph Henry Press; illustrated edition (December 31, 2006))
5
Robo World: The Story of Robot Designer Cynthia Breazeal (Women's Adventures in Science) by Jordan D. (Brown Joseph Henry Press; illustrated edition (December 31, 2006))
6
Nature's Machines: The Story of Biomechanist Mimi Koehl (Women's Adventures in Science) by Deborah Parks (Joseph Henry Press; illustrated edition (December 31, 2006))
7
A Life in the Wild: George Schaller's Struggle to Save the Last Great Beasts by Pamela S. Turner (Publisher: Farrar, Straus and Giroux (BYR); 1st edition (October 28, 2008)
8
Sea Life Scientist: Have You Got What It Takes to Be a Marine Biologist? (On the Job) by Lisa Thompson (Compass Point Books (January 2008))
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Results and Discussion With the intention of getting students perceptions of Scientists, the DAST-C checklist (Chambers, 1983) was adopted and a survey was administered to a class of Primary Three students (sample size of 38) in a local school. Among the group, the sample of students (an even mix of boys and girls) comprised a mix of high and low ability students. This formed the pre-test component of the pre-test post-test one group experimental design. Table 5: Student’s Stereotypic Images of a Scientist (Primary Three Class) Common Stereotype
Students responding
Students responding (Post-
(Pre-Test) (%)
Test) and difference (%)
1. Scientist wearing a lab coat
31
14 (-17)
2. Scientist wearing eyeglasses
11
11
3. Scientist with facial hair
11
5 (-6)
4. Symbols of traditional research
64
32 (-32)
5. Symbols of knowledge
25
14 (-11)
6. Symbols of high or modern
8
22 (+14)
7. Relevant captions
0
0
8. Male Gender only
61
62 (+1)
9.Caucasion only
NOT OBSERVED
NOT OBSERVED
10. Scientist in middle age/older
NOT OBSERVED
NOT OBSERVED
3
14
NOT OBSERVED
NOT OBSERVED
13. Scientist is working in a lab
81
65 (-16)
14. Indications of danger
31
22 (-9)
15. Scientist with a smile
53
65 (+12)
displayed
technology represented
11.Scientist
has
Mythic
Stereotypes 12. Indications of Secrecy
On analysis of the results (Table 5), it was found that of the students in which the survey was administered, a large percentage of students held the common stereotypical image of a Scientist. As with most studies that were done with students of other nationalities, students here held the common perception that scientists were men (we stress the gender
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in this instance as 61% of those surveyed drew a male scientist) who wore lab coats (31%). Many students viewed a scientist‟s predominant role as mixing chemicals solitarily in a laboratory. In other words, they were perpetually engaged in “experimental work”. In addition, the “mad scientist” was also shown in a number of drawings.
Fortunately, in a large majority of instances, the drawings of the scientists were generally positive with two images depicting a negative image (the “deranged” scientist). Of all the drawings, less than five depicted a scientist working in the outdoors.
In a separate study by Rahm (1997), only 4% of the images depicted a computer. In his view, student‟s perceptions of science seemed to be stagnant with mental images of their last chemistry class. With a strong emphasis with information technology and the use of the internet as an information tool in today‟s curriculum, it was certainly unusual that these were absent from a scientist‟s laboratory. Though the results obtained were of a relatively small sample, the stereotypical images depicted are still a cause for concern as they produced common stereotypes as with other studies of much larger sample sizes. Similarly in this study, technology ranked a mere 8% in which a computer or other modern device was depicted in the laboratory. In the majority of all other images, a scientist‟s inventory of tools consisted of nothing more than test tubes, chemicals, books and microscopes.
During the literature programme, various introductions were made on the personal and professional lives of Scientists. In the selection, many were based on both the life and physical sciences. On a personal note, it was observed that many students were interested to learn more on the lives of scientists. They were especially interested when a scientist like Amy Vedder was presented. During the lesson, students were presented with illustrations and a short description on Amy‟s professional life in her study of the behaviors and life of the Gorillas, followed by her growing up years as a child and a wife and mother. In addition, pictures like the one showing Amy in the field with the gorillas and one where she was cuddling it struck a powerful note in the hearts of the students (Figure 2). In particular, this sharing was especially useful as it tied in with the topic that students were studying; animals.
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In all, a total of 8 book introductions were made and activities ranging from student sharing of reflections to classroom discussion were carried out. Due to the need to integrate the literature approach and at the same time maintain the curriculum needs and Figure 2: Amy Vedder’s personal and professional life
standards, a conscious effort was made to keep the duration of such activities to half an hour a week. As a result of students‟ displayed interest, many of these books were left in the class library where students were allowed to bring the book home for further reading. The web addresses for the various related sources were also given to students.
Following the post-test, it was found that students showed an increased awareness towards the mental image of a Scientist. In terms of the typical image of a Scientist in a lab coat, a large proportion of pupils drew a Scientist in more casual clothes. In the case of students depicting Scientists in a lab coat, they were illustrated in the context of a laboratory. The reason for this positive change of mindset could have been attributed to the classroom book introductions where Scientists who were out of the laboratory were mostly in normal outdoor civilian attire. Such pictures that were shown included a Scientist working underwater, Amy Vedder working with the Gorillas in the field and George Schaller‟s conservation expeditions.
The corresponding decrease in traditional research symbols such as test tubes, Bunsen burners and microscopes also reinforced the change of the stereotypical mindset. In many
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post-test drawings, the perceived exclusive uses of traditional research symbols were abandoned for high technology equipment. This shift was important as it highlighted a change in stereotypical mindset to reality.
Another interesting finding was that in terms of traditional research symbols, the percentage of occurrence in students‟ pictures showed a drop of 32%. In the post-test, more variety of pictures were seen with Scientists working in the field with animals, studying the weather, observational studies of plants and teaching. Relating to the use of technology, an increased proportion of pupils in this instance included modern high technology devices into their pictures (increase of 14%). Such modern technology included computers, weather studies apparatus, microscopes and hydroponics.
On the other hand, it was also seen that while many negative misconceptions were observed to have decreased, the depicting of a scientist as a mythical character increased by 11%. The other indicators of Scientists wearing eyeglasses, male gender only and a scientist with a smile showed a small difference in percentage occurrence. With the exception of male gender, these other aspects were deemed as minor and hence were not a cause of concern for the study findings.
Although steps have been taken by our Science curriculum and educators to highlight the contributions of women in Science as well as the relevance of the subject to real life situations, it is seen that the pre-test revealed students stereotypical thinking of Science and scientists. Such images were observed namely in the area of the stereotypical tools of the scientists, male scientist and the tendency for scientists to work in a laboratory. In many students‟ drawings, students‟ image of a scientist at work revolved around test tubes and the laboratory. These were consistent with other studies done in other societies. They include those of Schibeci (1983, 1986 & 1989), Rosenthal (1993), Huber (1995), Bowtell (1996) and Rahm (1997). Other studies include Fort (1989), Evans (1992) and Barman (1997). As the results were revealed by Primary 3 students who are officially beginning their journey in Science, the results did not bring about a serious cause for concern as remedial steps taken at this early stage could bring about changes in our students‟ stereotypical mental images of Scientists.
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Our findings in this study seemed to indicate that a literature approach as put forth by Melber (2003) towards the changing of students‟ mental images of scientists did to a certain degree change a proportion of our students‟ stereotypical images. In the case of student A, a major change was seen in his view of a scientist and his work. In the pre-test, the mental image of a scientist at work revealed a man (mustached) in a lab coat, mixing chemicals in the laboratory. His picture description was: „The scientist is creating something. He is making something with his tube.‟ In contrast, his picture in the post-test revealed a scientist in a weather station, looking through a weather scope (Figure 3). His picture description revealed more insight into his change of perceptions: „The scientist is studying the weather and outer space. He is studying the weather because he is a climate (I believe he meant climate scientist)………‟
Pre-test
Post-test
Figure 3: Student A Pre and Post-test depiction of a scientist at work
Even though his description and illustration were not exactly accurate, it was clear that a change of perception had occurred. He had realized that a scientist‟s work was not just mixing chemicals. The term climate scientist probably came from the class lesson on climate scientist Inez Fung (Figure 4). It has to be noted though that despite the introduction of a female scientist, this student still went back to a climate scientist of a
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male gender. This preference for a scientist of a male gender was also seen in the overall percentage result that in both pre and post-tests, no significant change was seen in the incidence of drawing a male scientist.
In another instance of perceptual change, student B drew in her pre-test a female scientist in a laboratory. On her work desk, a chart of living and non-living things was laid over, suggesting that the scientist was carrying out a classification exercise. She wrote: „This is a scientist. A scientist knows how to solve the problem about science.‟ In the above, we see a pupil who has little or no knowledge of a scientist and her work. This could be seen in her picture which showed minimal details and the description
which
only
Figure 4: Inez Fung from Forecast Earth; the story of climate scientist Inez Fung.
communicated the notion that a scientist
solves
scientific
problems.
On the other hand, the post-test showed a picture of a female scientist working in a hydroponics facility. The detail of the picture and the arrangement of seedlings in a water bed indicated that student B did have an accurate idea of what hydroponics is. In fact, she even went into details like the labeling of a plant such that the scientist would know what she is studying. This was in contrast to her initial picture (Figure 5).
She wrote: Page 2261
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„Scientist will water the plant and put the plant on the sun….. She will write the sign at the back than she will know what is the plant.‟ Pre-test
Post-test
Figure 5: Student B Pre and Post-test depiction of a scientist at work
A possible explanation for the knowledge of hydroponics was most likely from a social studies lesson where pupils were studying the changes in Singapore‟s farming methods. This lesson was steered in the direction on the work of a scientist.
Another illustration that is worth highlighting would be the work of student C. In her pretest, she indicated a female scientist caring for a flower. During that particular test, she could not write in words what her scientist was doing. However, in her post-test, not only did she draw a detailed picture of a scientist rescuing a whale, she also drew an additional scientist, indicating the inter-dependent and collaborative nature of scientists (Figure 6). She wrote: „The scientist like whale. They help for when the whale sick they take care of whale they really like it.‟ Again like the previous lessons, the illustration could have come from the lesson where the work of a sea life scientist was shared (Figure 7). In that particular was mentioned about scientists saving whales.
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book, a case
Dispelling the Stereotypical Myths of a Scientist
Pre-test
Post-test
Figure 6: Student C Pre and Post-test depiction of a scientist at work
Figure 7: Sea Life Scientist
In addition to the above examples, there were also other illustrations that indicated a conceptual change. Using literature and pictorial sources to illustrate the life of a scientist presented them in a dynamic mode. From the collaboration of Chinese and western scientists to save the pandas, the life of sea life scientists, the marriage of Amy Vedder and pictures of her family to the love a scientist have for animals and nature brought forward a very sincere and human perspective to not only the work but the „heart and soul‟ of a scientist. Despite indications of a positive shift towards a more accurate depiction of a scientist, the one aspect which still proved difficult to change was the male gender of the scientist. Despite the introductions of the various female scientists in the literature programme, the post-test results still remained relatively the same. Looking at the before and after pictures, pupils still showed a strong tendency to draw a male scientist. An interesting point to note was that of the girls that participated in the study, all but three depicted a female scientist at work. This could be Page 2263
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an indication that the girls in the study at the very least viewed the possibility that women could be professional scientists. However, in the post-test, the numbers remained the same with one girl drawing a female instead of a male scientist. Needless to say, all the boys in the study depicted a male scientist.
In reviewing the literature approach, the use of real life examples of scientists and their work in a real life context did seem to be an effective strategy in altering pupils‟ stereotypical view of scientists. However, it is also recognized that as pupils reach further maturity, actual involvement in the work of scientists might be a more fruitful learning experience. In addition, more could also be done in the immersion process. This could take the form of the inclusion of scientists‟ autobiographies in English comprehension worksheets or grammar cloze exercises. In schools where the curriculum is built around the sole discretion of the school, with little or no conformity to subscribed texts, a whole thematic unit could also be built around scientists and their work. The possibilities are endless.
Looking at the practice of some schools, it seems that such shared opinions exist. In the March 2004 edition of Contact, a publication of the Ministry of Education, Singapore, a feature was made on three junior college students and their attachments to Research Institutes in Singapore. For 17-year-old of Eugene Chua, his experience changed his perceptions of scientists: “It is not like your stereotype of people sitting in a lab, not talking to each other, just doing their work. It‟s actually a very alive place, with a lot of interaction among the researchers and what they are doing.”
Another student, 19-year-old Liu Yan of Raffles Junior College spoke of her experience at the Institute of Infocomm Research (I2R): “Before this attachment, I thought researchers were serious and work-oriented people who never had any kind of entertainment. But I found that they are very friendly and helpful, and they have a great sense of humour”
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From these experiences, it can be seen that actual attachments and the close proximity that they bring to scientists leave a deep impression on students. Hence, from the primary school journey towards higher institutes of learning, it is important that class-based experiences eventually should lead to real-life application. Adapting Moreno‟s (2001) study on creating school-scientists partnership programme, primary schools can invite students who have been to research attachments share their experiences with the younger children. In cases where parents of children are scientists, what more a paternal or maternal figure to give an assembly talk to the whole school or target levels. Having a much narrower age difference, primary school pupils might benefit more from such arrangements.
In enhancing the literature approach, other aspects of English such as drama and debates could be added to increase the benefits of the programme. Such examples include Living Science and debates as put forth by Melber (2003).
Conclusion Adopting a literature approach towards the altering of students‟ stereotypical images of scientists has showed promise from the perceptual changes that took place in the study. With the development of more structured activities built around the theme of scientists, such a programme implemented on a school or nation wide level can help to give primary school children a more accurate view of science, the roles of scientists and their work. Implemented at the age where students are in their foundational years of science might help to create a sense of awareness on the equity of the genders in science. Indeed, this could help increase the enrolment of females in science courses in the long run.
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References Barman, C.R. (1999). Completing the study: High school students‟ views of scientists and science.Science and Children, 36(7), 16-21. Barman, C.R. (1997). Students‟ Views of Scientists and Science: Results from a National Study. Science and Children, 35(1), 18-23.
BBC News (2000). Scientists are „boring eccentrics‟, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/1072502.stm
Bodzin, A. & Gehringer M. (2001). Breaking Science Stereotypes. Can meeting actual scientists change students‟ perceptions of scientists? Science and Children, 38(4), 36-41.
Bowtell, E. (1996). Educational Stereotyping: Children‟s Perceptions of Scientists: 1990s style. Investigating: Australian Primary and Junior Science Journal, 12(1), 1.
Chambers, D.W. (1983) Stereotypic images of the scientist: The Draw-A-Scientist test, Science Education, 67, 255-256.
Eccleston, J. (1999). Girls Only, Please. Science and Children, 37(2) 21-25
Evans, A. (1992). A look at the scientist as portrayed in children‟s literature. Science and Children, 29(6), 35-37.
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Flick, L. (1990). Scientist in residence program improving children‟s image of science and scientists. School Science and Mathematics, 90(3), 204-214.
Fort, D.C. & Varney, H.L. (1989). How students see scientists: Mostly male, mostly white and mostly benevolent. Science and Children, 26(8), 8-13.
Fung, Y. F. (2002). A Comparative Study of Primary and Secondary School Students‟ Images of Scientists. Research in Science & Technological Education, 20(2), 199-213
Gardner, A.L. (1986). Effectiveness of strategies to encourage participation and retention of precollege and college women in science. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
Harwell, S.H. (2000). In Their Own Voices: Middle Level Girl‟s Perceptions and Teaching and Learning Science. Journal of Science and Teacher Education, 11 (3), 221242.
Hoh, Y. K., Boo, H. K. (2003). Prominent Women Biologists. The American Biology Teacher, 65(8), 583–589.
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Huber, R.A. & Burton, G.M. (1995). What do students think scientists look like? School Science and Mathematics, 95(7), 371-376.
Jones, R. & Bangert, A. The CSI Effect. Science Scope. November, 38.
Kesselheim, C., Graves, R., Sprague R. & Young, M. A. (1998) Teacher and Scientist: A Collaboration of Experts. Science and Children, May, 1998, 38-41.
Lee, J. D. (1998). Which Kids Can “Become” Scientists? Effects of Gender, SelfConcepts, and Perceptions of Scientists. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61 (3), 199-219.
Lundeberg, M. (1997). You Guys Are Overreacting: Teaching Prospective Teachers About Subtle Gender Bias, Journal of Teacher Education, 48 (1), 55-61.
Mason. C. L. (1986). Student attitudes toward science and science-related careers; An investigation of the efficacy of a high school biology teachers‟ intervention program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, DA8622192. (University Microfilms No. 86-06, 2105A).
Mason, C. L., Kahle, J.B. & Gardner, A.L. (1991). Draw-a-scientist test: Future implications. School Science and Mathematics, 91(5), 193-198.
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McDuffie, T.E. (2001). Scientists - geeks and nerds? Science and Children, 38(8), 16-19.
Mead, M. and Metraux, R. (1957). Image of the scientist among high-school students. Science, 126: 384-390.
Melber, L.M (2003). True and Tales of Science. Science and Children, 41(2), 24-27
MOE (2004). A Whole New World. Contact, March (54).
Moore, J.E. (2003). Girls in Science Rule! Science and Children, 40(7), 38-41.
Moreno, N.P. et al. (2001). Teaming up with Scientists. Science and Children, 39(1), 4245.
Moseley, C. & Norris D. (1999) Preservice Teachers‟ Views of Scientists. Science and Children, 39(1), 42-45.
Rahm, J. & Charbonneau, P. (1997). Probing stereotypes through students‟ drawings of scientists. American Journal of Physics, 65(8), 774-778.
Rosenthal, D.B. (1993). Images of Scientists: A Comparison of Biology and Liberal Studies Majors. School Science and Mathematics, 93(4), 212-216.
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Rubin, E. & Cohen, A. (2003). The images of scientists and science among Hebrew and Arabic-speaking pre-service teachers in Israel. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 821-846
Schibeci, R. A. (1986), Images of science and scientists and science education. Science Education, 70, 139-149.
Schibeci, R. A. and Sorenson, I, (1983), Elementary student‟s perceptions of scientists. School Science and Mathematics, 67, 255-265.
Schibeci, R. A. (1989), Images of scientists. Investigating A.P.S.I, 5, 25-27.
Schibeci, R. A. (2006). Student Images of Scientists: What are they? Do they matter?. Teaching Science, 52 (2), 12-16.
She, H. (1998). Gender and grade level differences in Taiwan students‟ stereotypes of science and scientists. Research in Science & Technological Education, 16, 125-135.
Song, J. & Kim, K. (1999). How Korean students see scientists: the images of the scientist. International Journal of Science Education, 21, 957-977.
Yam, F. J. (2006). The Men in White: Children‟s Perceptions of Scientists. MOE-NIESTAS International Science Education Conference 2006. Conference Paper.
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Appendix A Name: ______________________ Class: _________________________ ss: _______________________ 1. Draw a picture of a Scientist doing Science.
Describe your picture. ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________
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2. Draw a picture of yourself doing Science.
Describe your picture. ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________
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Running head: KNOWLEDGE ADVANCEMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Knowledge Advancement in Environmental Science through Knowledge Building
Jennifer Yeo & Yew-Jin Lee National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University [email protected], [email protected]
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Abstract This paper describes how five elementary school students learnt about environmental science and the nature of science as they were engaged in Knowledge Building (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2003) during a Nature Learning Camp project. Unlike the emphasis on ―doing‖ in inquiry-based project work, which precludes making cutting edge discoveries by students, Knowledge Building channels students‘ attention on the continual advancement of group ideas and thus opens the way for appropriating the scientific process of knowledge creation. This is because it takes advantage of a young child‘s inquisitiveness to develop him/her to become a mature knowledge producer as he/she pushes up his/her level of understanding. In this study, we tracked the knowledge development of this group of students and its process as they studied about plants. Using qualitative discourse analysis, we found advancement in students‘ ideas about science process skills and the nature of science. However, much support from the teacher was needed for knowledge advancement to take place; the teacher played an important role in engaging the students in sustained talk around the topic and in directing the focus for on their own, students‘ talk was rather shallow and ideas were fleeting. We conclude that to engage students in Knowledge Building effectively, science argumentation skills are important discourse skills to develop.
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Knowledge Advancement in Environmental Science through Knowledge Building
Introduction Inquiry-based work has been favored as the pedagogical approach to achieve the aims of science learning in many countries (e.g., National Research Council, 2000). Following global trends, the primary science syllabus for Singapore promotes inquiry as the framework to achieve the aims of science learning (MOE, 2004, 2007). Typical science inquiry activities take the form of practical work, project work or problem-based learning as these actively involve students in ―doing‖ science like scientists (Greenwald, 2000; Gallagher, Stepien, Sher, & Workman, 1995). While such tasks may mirror some of the work of scientists, the completion of tasks is paramount as is the arrival at similar answers that the teacher has in mind (Tan, 2008). Inquiry-based learning does not capture the knowledge creation enterprise that characterizes the heart of actual scientific practice. It is here that we introduce an alternative to task-centered inquiry activities known as Knowledge Building. This is an approach to inquiry which places ideas at the center and was first adopted in elementary schools some twenty years ago by Scardamalia and Bereiter for improving reading comprehension in elementary schools. It has since spread to other elementary level subjects, especially elementary science. While the aim of task-centered inquiry is to complete the job given regardless of deep learning, the goal of Knowledge Building work continually at the forefront of their knowledge as they advance the knowledge of their community (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 2003). Such idea-centered activities are said to resemble the theory building practice of scientists better (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 2003). However, since inquiry has been strongly promoted in the local science curriculum seven years ago, the adoption and successes of the inquiry approach and nature of science has Page 2275
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been uneven. Teachers are sometimes unsure or hesitant about the value of implementing some of these new pedagogies. This has been attributed to the prevalence of high stakes examinations. Unless teachers can be convinced that knowledge building helps in improving deep learning of science and development of science process skills, all of which are important conditions for excelling in the national science examination, teachers are not going to jump onto the bandwagon readily. In this study, our goal is, therefore, to find out the knowledge development of a group of students as they participated in a Knowledge Building activity in environmental science. The research question we seek to answer in this study was how and what advancement in the knowledge of science (content knowledge, process skills and nature of science) was made as a group of elementary students participated in a Knowledge Building activity in Singapore.
Method This study looks at the knowledge building process among a group of five Grade 4 students from a local primary school. They had earlier participated in the Nature Learning Camp (NLC) program, a project that was started by a group of nature enthusiasts to raise students‘ awareness and understanding about their environment. The program involves bringing students out for field trips to local nature reserves. Students would then identify and work on puzzling science problems about what they had experienced during the field trip. They could then decide and devise the relevant activities to conduct to help them solve their problem. In this study, the five students went for a fieldtrip to a local rainforest where they made many observations. Upon returning, they were curious about the wide variety of trees there and wondered how they could survive. This led them to generate hypotheses on an
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online forum about what trees needed to survive. They met once a week for five weeks to work on their environmental problem with each session lasting 90 minutes. In the process, they worked on different ideas they had about what plants needed to survive and planned investigations to test their hypotheses. As they conducted the investigations, they were faced with more puzzling phenomena which led them to probe further into the phenomenon. At the end of the knowledge building process, the students shared their findings with other NLC members in a students‘ symposium. Data sources for this study included video data of students‘ activities and artifacts created by the students (e.g. presentation slides). Using discourse analytic methods, the advancement of students‘ ideas in both disciplinary content knowledge and process skills were tracked. We found that there were some signs of advancement in scientific knowledge and process skills during the knowledge building process. Findings Advancement in process skills Due to a difference between viewpoints about whether plants needed oxygen either in the day or night, the students decided to test out their hypotheses. As they shared their ideas on how the investigation could be carried out, they were encouraged to critique one another‘s ideas and help to refine them. One important idea in mastering science process skills is the need to set up a control experiment. The idea of control cropped up several times in the students‘ discussion, though not necessarily using the correct terminology. In Excerpt 1, student NL initially suggested using one plant to find out if a plant needed oxygen at night. He then changed his mind in turn 198 when he realized that he had wanted one plant for the day (turn 208) and one plant for the night (turn 212).
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Excerpt 1: Use one … or two? Turn
Speaker
Content
188
Nai Liang
The day I think I only need one.
189
Miss Sim
You only need one?
190
Nai Liang
Yeah.
191
Miss Sim
Okay. How are you going to do with the one plant to plan this investigation?
192
Nai Liang
Uh I put the water and the fertiliser inside (.)
193
Miss Sim
For this plant?
194
Nai Liang
Yeah.
195
Miss Sim
Then?
196
Nai Liang
Then the: the second one I put it into a box first.
197
Miss Sim
But how many plants do you need?
198
Nai Liang
Two.
199
Miss Sim
Why do you need two?
200
Nai Liang
Just two
201
Miss Sim
Okay. Two plants
202
Nai Liang
Yeah
203
Miss Sim
One is
204
Nai Liang
At the:: put at the grass one.
205
Miss Sim
Okay. Grass?
206
Nai Liang
Um .The the
207
Teacher
208
Nai Liang
Open space ah? Yeah op open space.
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Turn
Speaker
209
Miss Sim
Content Okay open space where they get (.) carbon dioxide, they get (.) water
210
Nai Liang
Yeah
211
Miss Sim
They get sunlight, they get fertiliser.
212
Nai Liang
Yeah. Then when it is night hor then hor uh:: the: you take the: plant uh: to the: one the box then we take the the other plant put it at the night one (.) then put the other plant (later) at the day we put it into a box first. Then we take out at night.
However, student YS disagreed and counter-suggest that one plant would be sufficient (see excerpt 2, turn 249) but merely explained that ―if you have two plants … it‘s very hard to get an answer‖ (turn 253).
Excerpt 2: Need one plant Turn
Speaker
Content
247
Ying Seng
((I just tell him we need)) we need only we only need um: we (.)
248
Miss Sim
Um.
249
Ying Seng
Need one plant
250
Miss Sim
We need one plant only?
251
Ying Seng
Uh yeah
252
Miss Sim
Why why do you say he needs one plant?
253
Ying Seng
Because, because he want in the day or in the night. Then if you have if you have two plants you want you want to put it in the
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Turn
Speaker
Content day then you want to put it at night then you… (Looks up) But it‘s very hard to get an answer.
In excerpt 3, NL agreed with YS‘s suggestion that one plant was sufficient. He explained that ―if the plant die that means the plant uh: don‘t need oxygen‖. However, when prompted by the teacher repeatedly (see turns 730, 742 and 744) if using one set-up was a fair test, NL changed his mind back to two.
Excerpt 3: Need one plant also can Turn
Speaker
725
Nai Liang
Content I think we only need one. Plant.(Points index finger in the air) But…
726
Miss Sim
727
Mahmoodur
One what? One plant? Then? I think this is better. ((referring to the earlier plan using two plants))
728
Nai Liang
((Uh))
729
Nai Liang
Then uh:: uh I do my one so then we don‘t have to carry out the other experiment because when we put the we take out the already then we wait for a a day then if the plant die that means the plant uh: don‘t need the oxygen (.) So it means that uh: uh: (.2)
730
Miss Sim
Do you all agree with him? His only need one. So: you remove the remove the oxygen inside. So, the next day if you see the
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Turn
Speaker
Content plant dies that means the plant does not need oxygen. Would you all agree with him? (.5) Would you all agree with him? If you all disagree tell him. We see how we can make the the experiment better because we are going to carry it out you know. So we are going to plan a fair test. Right or not? So for Nai Liang‘s one do you have any question if he uses only one plant? . . .
742
Miss Sim
So one one set-ups will it be fair?
743
Nai Liang
(.3)Uh:::
744
Miss Sim
What do you think?
745
Nai Liang
I think another one.
Following this series of conversation about the number of plants needed to ensure ―fair‖ test, the other students also changed their plans to use two plants, with one acting as a control. Excerpt 4 shows student M externalizing the idea of control although the term was not explicitly used in the discourse. With the guidance from his teacher, he was able to articulate the design of the second set-up (control) (refer to turns 1009 – 1016).
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Excerpt 4. And another one. Turn
Speaker
996
Miss Sim
997
Mahmoodur
998
Miss Sim
999
Mahmoodur
1000
Miss Sim
Content So you need only one plant? And another one. Oh. Another one okay. ((Draws another diagram – a square for 7 seconds)) So the first one without oxygen. The oxygen removed already. The second one?
1001
Mahmoodur
Eh. ((Draws wrongly and erases the board))(.4) Inside have uh: other air.
1002
Miss Sim
Does it have oxygen also?
1003
Mahmoodur
1004
Miss Sim
1005
Mahmoodur
1006
Miss Sim
Oka:y. (.5)
1007
Nai Liang
Night one ah?
1008
Mahmoodur
1009
Miss Sim
Yeah.(( Continues to draw plant)) Okay. (.11) All right then? Uh:: This one uh: also need water
Day. (Yes) Okay. (.3) All right. (.2) So now look at this ah: Mahmoodur this one ((Writes on the initial diagram drawn by Mahmoodur)) no oxygen right? No oxy:gen. But (.) water?
1010
Mahmoodur
1011
Miss Sim
Water have. ((Continues writing on diagram)) Water ah:: There‘s water. But no oxygen. ((Goes to the second diagram drawn)) This one?
1012
Mahmoodur
Uh: this uh: have oxygen.
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Turn
Speaker
1013
Miss Sim
Content Oxygen. ((Writes ‗oxygen‘ on second diagram)) Okay. What else?
1014
Mahmoodur
1015
Miss Sim
1016
Mahmoodur
And other gas. All right. Any water? Yeah have.
In short, there was refinement in the students‘ process skills, particularly in the idea of control in science experimental designs. However, there was lots of facilitation by the teacher needed to direct their attention to salient features or issues related to designing an investigation.
Advancement in Content Knowledge As the students carried out their investigation, unexpected results puzzled them, hence triggering inquiry into the phenomena observed. In such instance, students were puzzled by an anomalous result they obtained when investigating whether plants needed oxygen to survive in the dark. They removed oxygen from a tank by burning a candle in it, thinking that all the oxygen in an enclosed tank would be used up when a burning candle was extinguished. With a plant placed in a tank ―without‖ oxygen and another in a tank ―with‖ oxygen, and placing them in the dark, they made observations of the plants every day for a week. After one week, they found that the plant in the tank ―without‖ oxygen was growing better than the plant ―with‖ oxygen. They were puzzled by their findings and went about trying to find out the reason. After some discussion, they proposed a number of hypotheses. Table 1 shows their hypotheses put forth. Page 2283
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Table 1. Hypotheses explaining why plant “without” oxygen grew better than plant “with” oxygen. Hypothesis
Students
I. ―too much water to … the plant in set up A‖ because ―water by YS and M vapour is more … at set up A‖ II. ―gaps might not have been sealed properly‖ so air ―can go by NL and HL through‖ III. ―In fact have we really got rid of oxygen?‖ by YS (revoiced by teacher)
They thus sought the help of Dr L, a biologist in the NLC program to help explain their observations. Dr L directed them to think about whether ―when we burn the candle, do you think the candle will use all the oxygen?‖ With some help from Dr L, they found hypothesis III to be the most plausible. Therefore they decided to repeat the experiment by removing air completely from the tank using a vacuum pump instead. With some help from Dr L in terms of getting the appropriate apparatus for the investigation, they repeated their investigation, but this time, all the air in the tank was removed using a vacuum pump. But a few days later, they found water droplets below the plant pots. This wondered where the water droplets came from. They hypothesized ―perhaps there was a leakage of air somewhere‖ (Hypothesis II in Table 1). Thus they redid the experiment on their own. However, water droplets were still found in the tank the next day. This time, their attention turned to the clips. They used the strongest clip they could find, but to no avail. They even sealed the base of the tank with Vaseline. They were dismayed to find water droplets in the tank still. NL reported to Dr L that ―you see we fail‖. However, with some authoritative information from Dr L, who explained that ―the plant opens its stomata Page 2284
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and some water vapor comes out‖. They thus came to realize that the water vapour could possibly be a result of transpiration of plants. In the final presentation of their knowledge building progress, they reported that one of the things ―we have learnt from carrying out the experiments‖ was ―water vapour can escape from the plant through the stomata‖. In short, we found modest advancement in students‘ understanding about the process of combustion and plant processes. First, they come to realize that although combustion needs oxygen, it will not use all the oxygen in the tank for combustion. Second, they learnt about the process of transpiration. Although these advancements might seem insignificant, they were made through sharing of ideas, negotiation with one another and consultation with experts. They represented the first steps of these students as they attempted to participate in building knowledge as a community.
Understanding of NOS At the end of the KB activity, the students were interviewed for their views about science. They were asked (1) what science means to them and (2) in what ways they had behaved like a scientist during the KB activity. Table 2 shows the answers from the students.
Table 2. Students’ responses to interview questions. Question 1
Question 2
Test out something to see is it true or They need to have confusion first not, … if not true, continue repeating before they have answer. We need to the experiment … because doing the predict before we test them out. (YS) experiment one time does not mean you‘ll get the thing correct (YS)
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Question 1
Question 2
Improve old idea to new idea so that we Think crazy (NL) need to keep testing it
… to get a
reliable data … science has no true or false … some science we still don‘t know the answer and we need to test them out. What we know can change if technology is better. (NL) -
Logical thinking … they think from illogical to logical … others help them and then they carry out ((experiments)) … find out themselves (HL)
-
Sometimes give suggestions which has no right or wrong answers but got to test them out one by one (MH)
The responses given by the students in Table 1 shows that some of their ideas were consistent with current understanding of the nature of science. For example, NL saw that in science, it is possible to ―improve old idea to new‖ but need ―reliable data‖ to support them. He also saw the role of technology in this knowledge creation enterprise. They also saw the creative side of science as NL thought of scientists as those who ―think crazy‖ or like the way HL put it, ―think from illogical to logical‖. HL‘s perception of science is both a social and individual activity as she described that in scientific practice, ―others help them and then they carryout (( experiments)) … find out themselves‖. However, there was also the perception that science experiments were meant to ―get the thing correct‖ as put forth by YS. Page 2286
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Discussion and Conclusion The findings of this study show that when the focus of inquiry activity is turned towards refinement of ideas, learning surpasses beyond the answers that the task set. In this case study, the five students set out to find out whether plants needed oxygen at night. However, the new ideas they had constructed went beyond the answer to the task. Besides finding out the answer to their question, their ideas about process skills were deepened, especially about the use of control in experiments. They had also come to understand plant processes (transpiration) better as they went about trying to explain for the presence of water vapour in the tank where all gases were supposedly pumped out. In participating in the process of knowledge building, they also develop some ideas about what science is about. However, we found that there were challenges in trying to get these students to do knowledge building. As can be observed from the excerpts above, there was a lot of reliance on the teacher to facilitate the students‘ discussion. We noticed that students often were sidetracked as they discussed. They also couldn‘t remember what they had discussed earlier. They had to be constantly reminded by their teacher what they had discussed or be directed back on track to their discussion topic. Such challenges pose difficulties to KB implementation in larger science classrooms due to insufficient number of teachers to facilitate group discussions. Another problem observed in this case study was that the students‘ talk was somewhat shallow. For example, they were often not able to provide a good justification to their claims (e.g., Excerpt 2 turn 253). A good collaborative inquiry requires students to be able to persuade, negotiate, deliberate and seek information (Walton, 2000). Scaffolding is therefore needed to assist students in putting forth a good argument. Scaffolds could be in the form of
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sentence openers (e.g., theory scaffolds in Knowledge Forum) or using argumentative scripts (Kolodner, 2007). In a nutshell, Knowledge Building approach puts ideas at the center. The learning outcome from a KB approach surpasses beyond merely knowledge acquisition. It develops the spirit and skills of knowledge creation in students. However, the process of knowledge creation is not an easy one. Scaffolding strategies are needed to support these students in the process of knowledge building. Technology can play an important role in the process. These findings are important to the study as they inform us of the types of intervention needed in our next cycle of design research.
References Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (2003). Learning to work creatively with knowledge. In E. De Corte, L. Verschaffel, N. Entwistle, & J. van Merrienboer (Eds.), Unravelling basic components and dimensions of powerful learning environments (pp. 5–68). EARLI Advances in Learning and Instruction series. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science. Gallagher, S., Stepien, W., Sher, B., & Workman, D. (1995). Implementing problembased learning in science classrooms. School Science and Mathematics, 95, 136–146. Greenwald, N. (2000). Learning from problems. The Science Teacher, 67, 28-32. Greenwald, N. (2000). Learning from problems. The Science Teacher, 67, 28-32. Kolodner, J. L. (2007). The roles of scripts in promoting collaborative discourse in learning by design. In F. Fischer, I. Kollar, H. Mandl & J. M. Haake (Eds.), Scripting Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning - cognitive, computational, and educational perspectives (pp. 237-262). New York, NY: Springer. Ministry of Education (2004). Science syllabus: Primary 2001. Singapore:Curriculum
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Planning and Development Division. Retrieved 31 August 2007 from http://www.moe.gov.sg/cpdd/doc/Science_Pri.pdf. Ministry of Education (2007). Science syllabus: Primary 2008. Curriculum Planning and Development Division. Retrieved 31 August 2007 from http://www.moe.gov.sg/cpdd/doc/Science%20Primary%20Syllabus%20Sep%202007. pdf National Research Council, (2000). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Retrieved 31 August 2007 from http://books.nap.edu/html/inquiry_addendum/index.html. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2003). Knowledge Building. In Encyclopedia of Education. (2nd ed., pp.1370-1373). New York: Macmillan Reference, USA. Tan, A. L. (2008). Tensions in the biology laboratory: What are they? International Journal of Science Education, 30, 1661–1676. Walton, D. (2000). The place of dialogue theory in logic, computer science and communication studies. Synthese, 123, 327—346.
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References Chin, C. (2007). Teacher questioning: Approaches that stimulate productive thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(6), 815-843. Chin, C. (2008). Teacher questioning in science classrooms: What approaches stimulate productive thinking? In: Lee, Y.-J., & Tan, A. L. (Eds.), Science education at the nexus of theory and practice (pp. 203-217). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Lee, Y.-J., & Tan, A. L. (Eds.). (2008). Science education at the nexus of theory and practice. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) (Last edited December 8th, 2008). APA Formatting and Style Guide. Retrieved December 16, 2008, from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ Tan, A. L., & Towndrow, P. A. (2006). Towards a SPA-infused pedagogy: Giving students a voice through digital video editing and critique. SingTeach, 3. Retrieved October 10, 2006 from http://singteach.nie.edu.sg/index.php/Singteach/ideas/towards_a_spa_ infused_pedagogy
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Development of Card Game for Meaningful Learning
DEVELOPMENT OF A CHEMISTRY EDUCATIONAL CARD GAME FOR MEANINGFUL LEARNING IN THE CLASSROOM
Shyh Yuan Don Yeo
Greendale Secondary School 51 Edgedale Plains Singapore 82886
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Abstract
Previous research has shown that Chemistry is a difficult subject to teach and to learn at the secondary and tertiary levels. This is because many of the concepts studied in chemistry are abstract. This resulted in frustration in their learning causing them to lose motivation and interest to learn. This study aims to explore the use of teaching tools (card game) to help secondary students (14 to 16 years old) to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry which would then discourage them to learn chemistry by rote memorization and acceptance of facts. The effect of the sequence of administering two teaching tools (card game and worksheet) is also studied. The analysis of the results showed that the card game resulted in significantly greater improvement in mean score from the number and quality of conceptual links formed. However, there is no significant difference on the sequence of administering the card game and worksheet. Several benefits such as increasing self-esteem and longer attention span, derived from using card games as a teaching and learning tool reported in literature had been identified in students‟ responses in the questionnaire.
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Development of a Chemistry Educational Card Game for Meaningful Learning in the Classroom
Introduction
Chemistry is a difficult subject to teach and to learn at both secondary and tertiary levels. Students felt depressed and frustrated when they find that they cannot understand the subject (Atake, 2003). To pass examinations, majority of the students then chose to learn chemistry by rote memorization and acceptance of facts. This surface approach towards learning as described by Chin & Brown (2000) resulted in students facing difficulty in applying their knowledge learnt to the other related topics. “The learner who uses a surface approach perceives the task as a demand to be met, tends to memorize discrete facts, reproduces terms and procedures through rote learning, and views a particular task in isolation from other tasks …” Chin & Brown (2000).
Factors such as teaching methods, which can influence students‟ learning, are within the teachers‟ control (Chin, 2003). Students‟ learning can be enhanced if teachers are able to explore new ways to refine teaching strategies and develop teaching tools.
In 2004, with the initiatives of Teach Less Learn More (TLLM), the focus is shifted towards quality of students‟ learning, which targets activities that can motivate students towards independent learning. There will be less dependence on rote learning but more on experiential discovery, engaged learning, differentiated teaching, the learning of life-long skills, and the building of character through innovative and effective teaching approaches and strategies.
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Therefore, if teachers are able to develop teaching tools that are able to capture students‟ interest and increase their motivation level, more learning could be achieved.
At this moment, there are very few Chemistry educational teaching resources available. Amongst them, there are even less that are targeted at the upper secondary level. Furthermore, these resources are mere alternatives to textbooks and there is very little emphasis on developing conceptual links to help students in constructing knowledge. Chemistry teachers have very limited choices of teaching tools to help students learn concepts, which are rather abstract for them to understand.
Amongst the limited available games, most of them are designed for subjects such as mathematics, physics and general science (primary and lower secondary). From a review of literature, there is a trend that computer games and simulations are used as a tool to train employees and pupils to learn concepts (Basnet, 1996; Kerr, 1977; Yau, 2004). However, very few researches are targeting at using card or board games in the classroom, which may, in my opinion, achieve more success in the current teaching context among teachers. The use of card games is more flexible to implement within the time constraints of an average 1-hour lesson. Teachers could bring these cards games to their classes anytime and use them easily to enrich the lesson without the need to install the computer software and booking of facilities. Purpose of the Study
The objectives of this study were to: 1. Identify the conceptual and propositional knowledge statements in the 5072 (Chemistry) GCE Cambridge „O‟ level syllabus for secondary school students to form Page 2294
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conceptual links across the five selected topics (The Periodic Table, Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding, Elements, Compounds and Mixtures, Acids, Bases and Salts). 2. Identify the effect of the card games on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across these five selected topics. 3. Identify the effect of the sequence of using card games and worksheets on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across these five selected topics.
Significance of the Study
The learning styles profile report for our Secondary 3 students in Greendale Secondary School shows that they are predominantly visual and tactile. To leverage on their preferences and strengths, it is suggested that teachers should put in more activities that involves matching games, drawing concept maps, etc. Their production styles also showed that most of them preferred verbal outputs. As such, students should be allowed to talk or debate to show what they know about a topic.
The “Periodic Link” is a matching card game which each player is to create a link to the faced-up card. Players are required to verbalise the reason for placing each card by explaining how the card are linked. There are numerous ways of linking the cards, such as by their physical and chemical properties, group number, period number, chemical reactions, etc. This card game enables students to evaluate the reasoning of others to create and form conceptual links to the various essential topics. In this way, students learn to construct meaningful knowledge which results in less dependence on rote learning.
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Research Question
The research explores how students use their existing knowledge, often fragmented, to make sense of the five fundamental topics in Chemistry namely, The Periodic Table, Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding, Elements, Compounds and Mixtures, Acids, Bases and Salts.
These three research questions provided the focus for the research in this study: 1. What are the conceptual and propositional knowledge statements necessary for secondary school students to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry? 2. What effect will card games have on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry? 3. What effect will the sequence of using card games and worksheets have on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry?
Identification of Concepts and Propositional Statements
A concept map and a list of conceptual and propositional statements were prepared at a level appropriate for the understanding required by secondary school students for the GCE „O‟ level examinations.
The assessment of the mastery of the content would then be administered in accordance to this framework and this would ensure the content validity of the assessment. The list of propositional statements help to make explicit the essential concepts of the topic and the concept map shows how these concepts are linked to each other.
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Identification of Subject Content
Three procedures were used to limit and specify the subject content related to the five selected topics, The Periodic Table, Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding, Elements, Compounds and Mixtures, Acids, Bases and Salts. The steps were: 1.
identify the propositional knowledge,
2.
develop a concept map,
3.
relate the propositional knowledge to the concept map.
The three steps were necessary to ensure that the content and hence the determination of students‟ understanding of the content knowledge was based on the concepts and propositional knowledge which were required for the GCE „O‟ Level chemistry examinations. The list of propositional knowledge statements (Figure 1) written and the concept map (Figure 2) drawn were reviewed by three experienced O-level chemistry teachers.
To ensure that the list of propositional knowledge statements and the concept map were internally consistent, a matching of the propositional knowledge statements to the concept map was carried out in Figure 3.
Figure 1 Propositional knowledge statements for the Group Properties in the Periodic Table 1.
Alkali metals are elements found in Group I of the Periodic Table.
2.
Alkali metal forms cation by losing one electron to achieve octet structure.
3.
Alkali metals undergo combustion to form basic oxides.
4.
Alkali metals have generally low melting points.
5.
Alkali metals have generally low density and they floats on water.
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6.
Alkali metals have good electrical conductivity due to the sea of mobile electrons around the positive metal ions.
7.
Density increases down the group of alkali metals
8.
Melting points decreases down the group of alkali metals.
9.
Halogens are elements found in Group VII of the Periodic Table.
10.
Halogen forms anion by gaining one electron to achieve octet structure.
11.
Halogens form diatomic molecules by sharing a pair of electrons forming simple covalent bond.
12.
Halogens undergo combustion to form acidic oxides.
13.
Halogens have generally low melting points due the weak van der waals forces.
14.
Halogens have poor electrical conductivity due to the absence of mobile ions or electrons.
15.
Density increases down the group of halogens.
16.
Melting point increases down the group of halogens.
17.
Noble gases are elements found in Group 0 of the Periodic Table.
18.
Noble gases are a group of unreactive elements.
19.
Noble gases have an octet structure, except Helium (duplet structure).
20.
Noble gases have poor electrical conductivity due the absence of mobile ions or electrons.
21.
Noble gases have low melting points.
22.
Noble gases have low density as they are gases under room conditions.
23.
Cations are positively charged ions and have an octet structure.
24.
Cations and anions form ionic bonds by electrostatic attraction.
25.
Anions are negatively charged ions and have an octet structure.
26.
Elements share electrons to form molecules.
27.
Elements share electrons to form covalent bonds.
28.
Molecules are covalent bonded.
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Figure 2
Concept Map for the Group Properties in the Periodic Table
Ionic bond
with
lose one
Covalent bond
Anion
has
has
form Cation
gain one electron
share electrons
has
Octet structure
Group VII
unreactive
Group I
form diatomic
Group 0
has
electron
Molecule
Element
Halogen
Noble gas
Alkali metal good
poor
poor
low
combustion
combustion
Electrical conductivity Basic oxide
Acidic oxide
low, /increase down the group
low, /decrease down the group Melting point low, /increase down the group
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low
Density
increase down the group
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gain one electron [10]
Figure 3 Matching of propositional knowledge statements with concept map
Ionic bond
with [24]
lose one
has [27]
has [25]
form [24] Cation
Covalent bond
Anion
has [2], [23]
share electrons [26] Octet structure
has [19]
electron [2]
Group VII [9]
unreactive
Group I [1]
Molecule
Element
Group 0 [17]
[18]
Halogen
Noble gas
Alkali metal good [6]
poor [14] poor [20]
low [21]
combustion [3]
combustion [12]
Electrical conductivity Basic oxide
form diatomic [11]
low, /decrease down the group [4], [8]
Acidic oxide
low, /increase down the group [13], [16]
Melting point low, /increase down the group [5],[7]
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low [22]
Density
increase down the group [15]
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Part One – Development and Analysis of “The Periodic Link” Card
Mechanics of “The Periodic Link” Card Game
The Periodic Link is a card game that incorporates the essential elements of cooperative learning (Johnson, Johnson and Holubec, 1994). This game aims at improving students‟ conceptual links across various essential topics in the GCE „O‟ Level Chemistry (Figure 4).
Figure 4 Map showing the topics learnt through the Periodic Link Card game.
The Periodic Table Acids, Bases and Salts
Atomic Structure Periodic Link Card Game
Elements, Compounds, Mixtures
Chemical Bonding
“The Periodic Link” card game is similar to the UNO card game. There are 108 cards, out of which 41 show the elements, 50 show the properties and the remaining 17 cards are the action cards (Reverse, Skip and Call-shots). The goal is for the first player to play all of the cards in his/her hand in each round to win the game. Alternatively, the player with the least number of cards in his/her hand when the pre-set time has elapsed is the winner. The game can be played with two to six players. The instruction manual containing the rules of this card game is found in Appendix A.
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Sample for this Study
40 students from the Secondary Three Express One class participated in this study. The subjects are matched in an attempt to make the subjects in Group A and B equivalent. The First Semester Assessment (SA1) result is used for this purpose. The members of each pair are then assigned to either Group A or B at random, with each group having 20 students.
Methodology
The project is in the form of a two-phase experiment, whose structure is illustrated in figure 5.
Figure 5 Experimental design Group A
Card Games Pre-Test
Group B
Worksheets Post-Test (1)
Worksheets
Card Games
Post-Test (2)
Phase Two
Phase One
The design is a pre-test/ treatment/ post-test type. The experiment will extend over a period of six weeks. Phase One will last three weeks (one hour per week), as will Phase Two.
On the first day of Phase One, all students will take the same pre-test in the form of a concept map. The pre-test is intended to reveal what each student knew about the subject matter at the beginning of the experiment. On the last day of each phase, all students will take the same
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post-test. The post-test is intended to show if each student is able to form more conceptual links about the subject matter.
The labels Group A and Group B refer to the group of students who will take part in the experiment. During Phase One, students in Group A will study by means of drill-and-practice worksheets method, while students in Group B will study by means of playing the card game – The Periodic Link. During Phase Two, the two groups will be switched, with Group A assigned to study by means of drill-and-practice worksheets sessions. This switching procedure should provide information about how well individual students succeed under the card game approach as compared to how they fare under the drill and practice worksheet approach. Concept Map Training
All the students were taught how to do a concept mapping in a one hour training session. The students were given nine concepts related to buoyancy adapted from Shavelson & Yin (2004). They are instructed to connect pairs of concepts with a one-way arrow to indicate a directional relationship. Students then labeled the arrows with a linking phrase that described the relationship; creating a proposition which could be read as a sentence (e.g. WATER has a property of DENSITY).
Concept Map Assessment and Scoring System
Students were given the fifteen concept terms to construct a concept map by linking the terms with a one-way arrow and a proposition. The students are given the same fifteen concept terms for the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 as shown in Table 1. Page 2303
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Table 1 The fifteen concept terms given for the tests Halogen
Alkali metal
Element
Noble gas
Cation
Anion
Molecule
Electrical conductivity
Ionic bonded
Covalent bonded
Melting point
Basic oxide
Acidic oxide
Octet structure
Density
The grading of the concept map is based on the existence of the important propositions or links on a map. Since a proposition is relatively easy to score and is interpreted as revealing depth of understanding, scoring of the propositions was used in this study. The scores would indicate whether the student knows that there are relationships among those concepts. A grading system adopted from Vanides, Yin, Tomita & Ruiz-Primo (2005), Yin, Vanides, Ruiz-Primo, Ayala & Shavelson (2004) used a four-level scoring system: 0 for wrong / scientifically irrelevant propositions or if the mandatory proposition was not constructed; 1 for partially incorrect propositions; 2 for correct but scientifically “thin” propositions; and 3 for scientifically correct and scientifically stated propositions. The individual propositions were scored and summed up to obtain a total score. For example, when connecting alkali metal and cation, actual student responses included:
0 – Alkali metal is a cation. 1 – Alkali metal becomes cation. 2 – Alkali metal forms cation. 3 – Alkali metal loses one electron to form cation.
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Results and Discussion
Concept Map Scores
The scores of the concept map pre-test were analysed for equal means of both Group A and B given in Table 2. Since the probability, p is 0.126 (greater than 0.05), it is assumed that the variances for both groups are equal.
Table 2 F-Test Two-Sample for Variances for concept map pre-test
Gp A pre-test Mean
Gp B pre-test
29.25
31.55
148.6184211
86.99736842
Observations
20
20
Df
19
19
Variance
F
1.708309386
P(F<=f) one-tail
0.126068573
F Critical one-tail
2.16824958
Comparison of the Concept Map Scores on Overall Improvement
A paired t-test was then performed for Group A as shown in Table 3, to determine if the card game was effective in improving conceptual links.
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Table 3 t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means for Group A using the Periodic Link card game
post-test 1 Mean Variance Observations Pearson Correlation Hypothesized Mean Difference Df
pre-test
41.2
29.25
93.01052632
148.6184211
20
20
0.596724922 0 19
t Stat
5.309455399
P(T<=t) one-tail
2.00081E-05
t Critical one-tail
1.729131327
P(T<=t) two-tail
4.00162E-05
t Critical two-tail
2.093024705
The mean improvement scores (M = 11.95, SD = 10.065, N = 20) was significantly greater than zero, t(19) = 5.31, two-tail p = 4.00162E-05, providing evidence that the card game is effective in improving conceptual links. A 95% confidence interval about mean improvement test score is (7.24, 16.66).
This was compared against the paired t-test performed for Group B as shown in Table 4, to determine if the worksheet was also effective in improving conceptual links.
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Table 4 t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means for Group B using worksheet
post-test 1 Mean Variance
36.75
31.55
136.6184211
86.99736842
20
20
Observations Pearson Correlation
0.612512231
Hypothesized Mean Difference
0
Df t Stat
pre-test
19 2.450443854
P(T<=t) one-tail
0.01206317
t Critical one-tail
1.729131327
P(T<=t) two-tail
0.02412634
t Critical two-tail
2.093024705
The mean improvement scores (M = 5.2, SD = 9.490, N = 20) was significantly greater than zero, t(19) = 2.45, two-tail p = 0.02412634, providing evidence that the worksheet is effective in improving conceptual links. A 95% confidence interval about mean improvement test score is (3.11, 7.29).
The results from Table 3 and 4 shows that both the card game and the worksheet are effective in improving students‟ conceptual links across the five selected Chemistry topics.
From Table 5, the two-tail p = 0.009888242 (less than 0.05), providing evidence that the card game showed a more significant improvement (M = 11.95) in students‟ conceptual links compared to the worksheet (M = 5.2).
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Table 5 t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means for Group A (using the Periodic Link card game) and Group B (using worksheets)
Mean Variance
Gp A Improvement
Gp B Improvement
(game)
(worksheet) 11.95
5.2
101.3131579
90.06315789
20
20
Observations Pearson Correlation
0.421062845
Hypothesized Mean Difference
0
df
19
t Stat
2.866064911
P(T<=t) one-tail
0.004944121
t Critical one-tail
1.729131327
P(T<=t) two-tail
0.009888242
t Critical two-tail
2.093024705
Questionnaire
A questionnaire was administered to determine students‟ perception of the Periodic Link card game. The questionnaire consists of five questions using a four point Likert-scale and two open-ended questions. Table 6 shows the overall responses from both Group A and B tagged with the specific target area. Common responses to open-ended questions 6 – 8 are shown.
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Table 6 Students‟ responses to the questionnaire No. Items in the questionnaire
% Agree
1
I enjoyed learning through this activity.
2
The rules of the game were easy to understand. After playing the game, (a) I am more aware of the properties of the elements in the Periodic Table. (b) I am more aware of the position of the elements in the Periodic Table (c) I have learned new conceptual links (d) I am more confident to create and identify conceptual links.
3
Group A 100 95
Target Area
Group Overall B 100 100 Motivation level; Attention Span 95 95 Self-esteem
100
100
100
Self-esteem
100
95
98
Self-esteem
95 90
100 95
98 93
Self-esteem Self-esteem
4
When we work in groups, we get to know each other better.
90
95
93
Feeling of community
5
I learn better when peers help each other.
100
95
98
6
List down at least two conceptual links that you have learned from playing the game?
Feeling of community Retention of knowledge
7
Group I metals are alkali metals, reacts vigorously in water, form basic oxide, have low density, have low melting point. Transition metals are coloured, used as catalyst, have high density, form cation with different oxidation states, form coloured compounds. Halogen is a coloured element, Group VII element, Noble gases are non-metal, have an octet structure, Group 0 element, Elements that lie near the zig-zag line are metalloids Zinc, lead and aluminium form amphoteric oxides All metals can combined with non-metals to form ionic compound Copper and bromine are reddish-brown in colour Would you recommend this game to your friends? Yes (97.5%), maybe (2.5%) Give at least two reasons to support your answer. Get to have fun through learning Get to learn and understand more conceptual links easily Get to learn the Periodic Table in an interactive way
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Motivation
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8
Helpful in learning conceptual links to get a better understanding of the topics It helps me clear my misconceptions Understand the properties more clearly with the help of friends More aware of the positions of the elements in the Periodic Table This game help me to remember Chemistry better and easier The game is fast and I can learn about my mistakes better Can teach each other while playing at the same time We can learn better It helps us to understand the chapters easily It is challenging I can gain more knowledge from the chapters It helps me to bond with my friends It is very good for revising for tests It makes me more aware of the properties of the elements in the Periodic Table Suggest any improvements that can be made to this game. Have the details of the elements printed on the cards For the element card, include the relative atomic mass and proton number for the element so that we can find the elements on the Periodic Table easily Give hints at the bottom of each card Give hints whether to link with which cards Increase the number of conceptual links Include more properties so that it is easier to link Have a board game instead Make the card easier to link Include pictures on the cards Include more action cards such as “add 2” It is perfect Include chemical equations
Motivation
From the results of the questionnaire shown in Table 6, at least 96.8% of the students implied that they had increased in their self-esteem, 95.5% implied that they had build a sense of feeling of community and 100% enjoyed playing the card game which implied a longer attention span. The responses given for Question 6 showed that students are able to recall at least two concepts that they have learnt through the card game. The responses for Question 7 and 8 implied that students are better motivated in the subject and would like to recommend
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and suggest improvements to the card game. These results are consistent with the literature cited.
Part 2 – Analysis on the Sequence for Administration of “The Periodic Link” Card Game
The aim of Part Two of the study was to address Research Question 3 (i.e. what effect will the sequence of using card games and worksheets have on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry). The data obtained in Part One, described earlier, concluded that both the card game and the worksheets are effective in improving students‟ conceptual links. Teachers use a variety of tools and methods in the classroom. Hence, the analysis of the effects on the sequence of using card games and worksheets are described in this section.
Results and Discussion
Group A students got Treatment A (games) first and Group B students got Treatment B (worksheet) first, in this counterbalanced within-subjects design. Improvement scores from the concept map pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 are analysed. The effect for the betweensubjects factor of counterbalanced sequence is shown in Table 7 and 8.
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Table 7 Table of Means for a Counterbalanced Conceptual Links Experiment
Group’s Sequence
Conceptual Links Strategy Improvement Overall Improvement Scores Improvement Scores (Games) (Worksheets) Scores
Group A (Games 1st, worksheets 2nd) Group B (Worksheet 1st, games 2nd) Improvement Score Mean
11.95*
3.9**
15.85
12.05**
5.2*
17.25
12.00
4.55
16.55
* These scores were obtained from mean improvement scores between post-test 1 and pre-test. ** These scores were obtained from mean improvement scores between post-test 2 and post-test 1.
Table 7 shows that students from Group A improved by a score of 15.85 and students from Group B improved by a score of 17.25. Hence, there is a sequence effect as Group B did better in the overall improvement of the conceptual links using this sequence.
The two-way ANOVA is used to determine if the effect of the card game is due to the treatment main effect and/or the order effects. The results are shown in Table 8.
Table 8 ANOVA Summary Table for a Counterbalanced Design Source of Variation Group A/B
SS
df
MS
F
P-value
F crit
9.8
1
9.8
0.112187
0.73859
3.966761
1110.05
1
1110.05
12.7075
0.000634
3.966761
7.2
1
7.2
0.082423
0.774821
3.966761
Within
6638.9
76
87.35394737
Total
7765.95
79
Games/worksheets Interaction
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The P-value for the main effect for both the two Groups (A and B) is 0.739 (greater than 0.05), so the means are the same. However, the P-value for the main effect for the two strategies (games and worksheets) is 0.000634 (smaller than 0.05), so there is a significant effect.
From Table 7, the improvement score means for the games is 12 while the means for the worksheets is 4.55. Therefore, the improvement score means for the games is significantly higher than the worksheets.
Since the F-value of the interaction is not significant (p > .05), hence there is no order (trials) effect on the strategies used. The improvement scores did not depend on whether the game is conducted first or last.
Conclusions
The aim of the Part One study was to study the effects of card games on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry. The results from the t-scores for the concept map showed that students benefited from both the drill-and-practice worksheet and the Periodic Link card game. However, there was significantly greater improvement in students‟ ability to form conceptual links after the card game sessions compared to using the drill-and-practice worksheet. Several benefits derived from using card games as a teaching and learning tool reported in literature had been identified in students‟ responses in the questionnaire.
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The aim of Part Two of the study was to study the effects of the sequence of using card games and worksheets have on students‟ ability to form conceptual links across topics in Chemistry. The result shows that there is no significant effect on the sequence of using card game and the worksheets.
Further research
The results from this study suggest that using games as a constructive learning tool has more benefits compared to using worksheets. For this constructivist way of learning to develop, a constructivist teacher is needed to provide help in this construction process. According to Tobin (1993), he describes the constructivist teacher as an interface between the curriculum and student to bring the two together in a way that is meaningful for the learner. As such, the role of a teacher for meaningful learning is significant.
However, the review of literature seems to show that teachers are generally traditional in their teaching methods although they show awareness of constructivism in learning (Unal & Akpinar, 2006). There seems to be a need to reduce the gap between science teachers‟ behaviours and thoughts. Teachers are not applying what they know about constructivism into the classroom. The reasons for such observations could be classified into 2 different categories, namely the external and internal influences. External influences involve the systemic level where it is beyond a teacher‟s ability to induce changes. Internal influences involve areas that the teacher has a greater influence over. These include factors such as uninterested students with low motivation to learn, difficulty to memorize facts and students as “passive learners”.
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Hence, an instructional package based on the findings of this study could be developed to teach students explicit, meaningful learning strategies to help them create meaningful links across various topics. The package would be used by the teacher as one possible way to promote constructivist learning and teaching in the classroom which targets at overcoming the internal influences. When students become deeply engaged in their own learning, the lessons will be a more pleasing experience both for the teacher and the students. This would encourage teachers to be more constructivists in their teaching approaches.
Limitations
One major limitation of the study was that the results and conclusions generated in this study refer specifically to the sample groups involved in the study. Generalisations of the study to all O-level Chemistry students in Singapore must be considered with caution due to the nature of learners and limited size of the sample. Potential effects of the students‟ learning styles, the attitudes of the students towards the learning of Chemistry and the classroom climate were not explored in this research.
Administration of the fixed term concept map assessment for several times may result in fatigue of the students‟ performance. Students may find it uninteresting to complete several concept maps using the same fixed terms repeatedly which affects the effort put in to complete the concept maps.
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Card Game
Appendix A Instruction Manual Contents:
108 cards as follows: o 41 elements o 50 properties o 6 “Reverse” card o 6 “Skip” cards o 5 “Call-shots” cards
Six pieces of “The Periodic Table” cards 1 set of information booklet on the elements 1 set of instruction manual
Objective: The first player to play all of the cards in his/her hand in each round wins the game. Alternatively, the player with the least number of cards in his/her hand when the pre-set time has elapsed is the winner.
Set Up: 1.
Each player draws a card. Player with the element with the highest atomic number is the dealer.
2.
Shuffle the deck.
3.
Each player is dealt 7 cards.
Place the remaining cards facedown to form a DRAW pile. Turn over the top card of the DRAW pile to begin a DISCARD pile. If the top card is a Skip or Reverse, return it to the deck and pick another card. For Call-Shot card, dealer name an element from the highlighted ones shown in the Periodic Table provided.
Action Cards: Call-shot Card When you play this card, you have to name an element from the highlighted ones shown in the Periodic Table provided. Reverse Card This card reverses the play. Play to the left now passes to the right, and vice versa.
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Card Game
Skip Card The next person in line to play after this card is played loses his/her turn and is “skipped”.
How to play the game: 1.
Two to six players.
2.
Player to the left of the dealer plays first. Play passes to the left to start.
3.
Match the top card on the DISCARD pile by placing a card that could form a link with the card shown. Alternatively, he/she may place a “call shot” card to continue. He/she would have to name an element that this “call shot” card represent.
4.
Player must verbalise the reason for placing each card.
5.
If you do not have any linking cards, you must pick a card from the DRAW pile. If you draw a card you can play, play it. Otherwise, play moves to the next person.
6.
Before playing your next to last card, you must say “Last Link”. If you don‟t say Last Link and another player catches you with just one card before the next player begin his/her turn, you must pick two more cards from the DRAW pile. If you not caught before the next player plays his/her card, you do not have to draw the extra cards.
7.
Play continues until one of the players has used up all his/her cards or until the agreed upon pre-set time has elapsed.
8.
Once the player has won the round, the other players are to display all their cards faced up and help one another to link up all these cards.
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Card Game
Sample Cards Template
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
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Card Game
A metal that does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid
Exists as a monatomic atom
Forms a covalent compound with hydrogen
A colourless gas
A coloured gas
A good conductor of electricity
A metalloid
Reacts explosively in acids
All of its salts are soluble
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Card Game
References
Atake Kazuko (2003). Using games to teach English in Japanese junior high school. Educational Resources Information Centre. 1-29. Basnet C. (1996). Simulation games in production management education - A review. (ERIC document reproduction service no. Ed 457 367) Chin C. & Brown D.E. (2000) Learning in Science: A comparison of deep and surface approaches. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 37(2),109-138 Chin C. (2003). Students‟ approaches to learning science: responding to learners‟ needs. School Science Review. 85(310), 97-105 Johnson D.W., Johnson R.T & Holubec E.J. (1994). Cooperative learning in the classroom. Association for supervision and curriculum development. Kerr J.Y.K (1977). Games and simulations in English language teaching. (ERIC document reproduction service no. Ed 148176) Tobin K. (1993). The practice of constructivism in scienc education. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Unal G. & Akpinar E. (2006). To what extent science teachers are constructivist in their classrooms. Journal of Baltic Science Education. 2(10), 40-50. Vanides J., Yin Y., Tomita M. and Ruiz-Primo M.A. (2005). Using concept maps in the Science classroom. Science Scope. 27-31. Yau Y.Y. (2004). A learner-centered approach for training science teachers through virtual reality and 3D visualization technologies: Practical experience for sharing. Fourth international forum on education reform. 1-8. Yin Y., Vanides J., Ruiz-Primo M.A., Ayala C.C. and Shavelson R. (2004) National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST), Stanford University.
Page 2320
Attitudes Towards Internet
ATTITUDES TOWARDS INTERNET
A Study on Prospective Teachers’ Attitudes towards Internet
Yusuf YILMAZ*
Abdülkadir KARADENİZ**
Ercan AKPINAR**
*Adnan Menderes University, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Turkey, [email protected] **Dokuz Eylul University, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Turkey
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Attitudes Towards Internet
Abstract Nowadays, information technologies such as internet, computer and others have become an indispensable part of education. Using computer and internet provides student reach information easily, and creates an active engagement in the classroom, and helps to reach the aims of a given subject. The teachers’ attitudes towards computer and internet play a crucial role for using computer and internet as a teaching tool. The present study aims to identify Turkish prospective teachers’ (n=379) (science, mathematics, foreign languages,, etc.) attitudes towards internet. As a data collection tools, Scale of Attitude towards Internet” (Cronbach α coefficient of the scale is 0.92) with five subscales was used. Besides, personal variables such as; prospective teachers’ gender, grade levels, having computer and internet connection at home and the frequency of internet use were asked to gather the data. In the research, within the analysis of the data, the variation is tested in terms of various variables by using some statistical techniques such as independent group t-test and variance analysis along with the descriptive statistical analysis. According to the result of the analysis done, the attitudes of the prospective teacher towards internet diversify meaningfully according to some independent variables or subscales (having computer at home, having internet connection at home, frequencies of using internet, departments and grade levels). Results also showed that there is no significant difference between female and male. Key Words: prospective teacher, attitude towards internet, technology
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Attitudes Towards Internet
A Study on Prospective Teachers’ Attitudes towards Internet Introduction Rapid and widespread development of new technologies has contributed many educational environments by enabling them benefit from information and communication technologies especially from the Internet. Correspondingly, rapid and comprehensive developments in science and technology affect education as well as other fields (Oral, 2004). With the help of technology, education and teaching concepts are gaining new features (Teo, 2007). Internet has an important place in human life; because it provides the share of knowledge and access to worldwide web, it is used as a source of knowledge like a portable library, and allows people to communicate each other. In this context, it simplifies our education and business life by providing comprehensive facilities (Mertoglu & Öztuna, 2004; Oral, 2004; Birisci, Metin & Karataş, 2009). The use of Internet in the areas of education and teaching may help improving education and teaching conditions. Students can access to information faster by using Internet and can conduct their research easily with the help of Internet (Yaman, 2007). They can share their information with their friends and teachers, reach multi-media materials and can get feedback quickly. In this case, the role of teachers and school administration is to provide not only establishing an efficient infrastructure of the Internet, but also they should provide Internet as learning tool to be used in education and teaching which will improve children's knowledge, skills and attitudes. Taking into all these aspects of the Internet consideration, in contemporary and future societies, it is clear that the Internet literacy plays and will play a crucial role in the production of information literacy and lifelong learners (Oral, 2008). When the necessity of Internet use in education and teaching is recognized, the attitudes of teachers who undertake the task of training individuals -who will use the Internet Page 2323
Attitudes Towards Internet
technology in the areas listed above- play an important role (Mertoglu & Öztuna, 2004). Teachers should have positive attitudes towards the use of Internet in order to develop positive attitudes towards the use of Internet of their students (Tavşancıl & Keser, 2001). To reach this, the determination of the attitudes of prospective teachers towards the Internet is needed. When the definitions of attitudes are considered, the following features can be put forward: Attitudes are acquired through experience, and they are not temporary, they are permanent; they help human to understand its environment as they are shaped in the learning process; and they are inclined to reaction so they can cause positive or negative behaviors (Tavşancıl, 2002). Regarding this feature of attitudes, prospective teachers are required to have positive attitudes towards the Internet and to benefit from the Internet and the facilities of the Internet; as well encouraging their students to benefit from the Internet during their education and also in their professional life when they become a teacher in the future. When the literature research is conducted, it is realized that there are where as studies over the attitudes of teachers and prospective teachers towards the use of computer with different variables (Liaw, 2002; Bindak & Çelik, 2005; Smith & Oosthuizen, 2006; Kay, 2006); however, there is a lack of studies conducted over their attitudes towards the Internet in our country. In this study, the determination of prospective teachers’ attitudes towards the Internet was aimed. 379 prospective teachers studying in different departments were participated in this study. Method In this study, survey method was used. The study was conducted with 379 volunteer prospective teacher students attending various programs in Faculty of Education at Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey. 294 prospective teachers have personal computer and 241
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Attitudes Towards Internet
prospective teachers have internet connection at their home. Female participants constituted about 42% (158), and males constituted about 58% (221). Table 1 shows that the prospective teachers are grade levels. Table 1 The Demographic Characteristics for the prospective teachers Grade Level N
%
1st
79
20,8
2nd
72
19,0
3rd
82
21,6
4th
133
35,1
5th
13
3,4
Total
379
100,0
According to the scores in Table 1, grade level variable consist of 79 (20,8 %) first grade, 72 (19%) second grade, 82 (21,6%) third grade, 133 (35%) fourth grade and 13 (3,4 %) fifth grade students (Four year they are studies in pure science and then take course related to teaching profession about one or more years). Table 2 The distribution of prospective teachers according to their departments Departments N % Turkish Language
60
15,8
Social Sciences
39
10,3
Foreign Languages
9
2,4
Science Education
136
35,9
Mathematics
77
20,3
Primary Education
41
10,8
Computer Sciences
17
4,5
Total
379
100,0
Table 2 shows that the departments of the prospective teachers consist of natural sciences (36%) (including Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Science and Technology),
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Attitudes Towards Internet
Mathematics (20%), Turkish Language (16%), Primary Education 11% (including Preschool Education), Social Sciences (10%), Computer and Instructional Technology Education (4,5%), and Foreign Languages (2.4%). Data Collection Tool “Attitude Scale toward the Internet” was utilized as a data collection tool. The Scale consists of two parts. The first part of the scale questions contains personal information of students (grade level, gender, having personal computer and Internet connection, weekly Internet usage time and what purpose they use the Internet); the second part of “Attitudes Scale toward the Internet” consists of 25 items which are Likert-type response format was provided with response options ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. This scale was developed by Keser and Tavşancıl (2001) and includes 5 factors. These factors are labeled as Adoption of the Internet (10 items, Cronbach alfa=.87), Trusting in Internet (4 items, Cronbach alfa=.71), Believing in the Benefits of Internet (4 items, Cronbach alfa=.72), Enjoyment of Internet (4 items, Cronbach alfa=.71), and Enjoyment of the Facilities provided by the Internet (3 items, Cronbach alfa=.77). The reliability of the entire scale is .92. The factor of Adoption of the Internet (Due to the meaning of this factor is negative; the items related with this factor were coded reversed) was expressed as “Abnegation of the Internet” in the original scale. Data Analysis Prospective teachers’ responses to the scale were statistically analyzed according to gender, grade level, department type, having personal computer at home etc. via SPSS 11.00 software. The mean (x), standart division (sd) were computed for each attribution. Also some parametric tests such as the independent-samples t test, one-way analysis of variance
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Attitudes Towards Internet
(ANOVA), and Scheffe tests based on p= 0.05 significance level were used to clarify the significance of the differences on means. Findings Regarding personal information of prospective teachers; their numbers (N), mean (X), standard deviation (sd), t-value, one way analysis of variance (F), and significance value (p) are displayed in the tables. Table 3 Comparison of the attitudes of prospective teachers towards internet in accordance with their gender (t-test scores) Factors (Dimension) Gender N Sd t p
X
Adoption of the Internet Trusting in Internet Believe in the Benefits of the Internet Enjoyment of the Internet Enjoyment of the Facilities provided by the Internet Total
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
221 158 221 158 221 158 221 158 221 158
40.64 40.28 15.48 15.35 16.26 15.77 15.42 14.87 11.14 11.44
6.98 5.91 3.35 3.30 3.25 2.85 3.20 2.15 2.65 2.26
Male Female
221 158
98.96 97.73
14.86 13.56
.523
.601
.374
.709
1.533
.126
1.658
.098
1.162
.246
.823
.411
As is seen in Table 3, considering the gender average values obtain from the scale under all factor, male’s mean value is about the same with female’ value and also t-test’ score showed that there was no significant difference between the mean values obtained from female and male prospective teachers in terms of all factors.
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Attitudes Towards Internet
Table 4 Comparison of the attitudes of prospective teachers towards internet in accordance with their having personal computer (t-test scores) Factors Having N Sd t p X computer Adoption of the Internet Yes 294 41.35 5.98 4.893 .000** No 85 37.51 7.53 Trusting in Internet Yes 294 15.91 3.11 5.512 .000** No 85 13.74 3.2 Believe in the Benefits Yes 294 16.35 2.98 3.509 .001* of the Internet No 85 15.03 3.30 Enjoyment of the Yes 294 15.53 3.08 3.891 .000** Internet No 85 14.03 3.29 Enjoyment of the Yes 294 11.39 2.54 Facilities provided by 2.003 .047* No 85 10.81 2.32 the Internet Yes 294 100.56 13.35 Total 5.544 .000** No 85 91.14 15.25 Significant at level p<0.05 * p<0.001**
Table 4 is examined, it is seen that there is a significant difference between prospective teachers' attitudes towards Internet in terms of having personal computer. This difference is in favor of prospective teachers who have personal computer. The prospective teachers who have computers have more positive attitudes towards the Internet (p<.05, p<.001). Table 5 The Comparison of the attitudes of prospective teachers towards internet in accordance with their having Internet access at their homes (t-test scores) Factors Internet N Sd t p X access Adoption of the Internet Yes 241 41.64 5.93 4.632 .000** No 138 38.48 7.10 Trusting in Internet Yes 241 16.20 3.00 6.270 .000** No 138 14.07 3.44 Believe in the Benefits Yes 241 16.38 2.82 2.717 .007 of the Internet No 138 15.49 3.48 Enjoyment of the Yes 241 15.74 3.04 4.478 .000** Internet No 138 14.25 3.24 Enjoyment of the Yes 241 11.39 2.53 Facilities provided by 1.271 .205 No 138 11.05 2.44 the Internet Yes 241 101.36 13.36 Total 5.423 .000** No 138 93.36 14.58
Significant at level
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*p<0.05
**p<0.001
Attitudes Towards Internet
When Table 5 was examined, it is seen that there was a significant difference between prospective teachers’ attitudes towards Internet related to three factors except from the factors of “Enjoyment of the facilities provided by the Internet” and “Believe in the Benefits of the Internet” in terms of having internet connection at home. This significant difference is in favor of prospective teachers who have internet connection access at home. The attitudes of prospective teachers toward the Internet were also compared according to their grade level. The results related to only factors which have significant difference were given below. In other words, there was no significant difference related to the factors of the scale except “Trusting in Internet” according to the grade levels of prospective teachers. Therefore, data related to only “Trusting in Internet” factor was represented below. Table 6 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Trusting in Internet” according to grade level of prospective teachers Grade 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Total
N 79 72 82 133 13 379
X 16,55 15,63 15,18 14,84 14,92 15,43
Sd 2,84 3,61 3,36 3,20 4,11 3,32
According to Table 6, there are differences among arithmetic means. When arithmetic means which belong to all grade levels considered, it is seen that in the scores of “Trusting in Internet” factor the fourth grade prospective teachers got the lowest scores while the first grade students got the highest scores, and the second and the third grade students got nearly the same points. In addition, with the help of ANOVA test analysis, it is investigated that if there is a significant difference between the arithmetic means according to the grade levels and also it is investigated the resource of the differences between the groups by Scheffe tests . The results are given in the Table 7.
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Attitudes Towards Internet
Table 7 ANOVA results of prospective teachers’ attitudes towards internet in accordance with their grade levels Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
156,621 4034,276 4190,897
4 374 378
39,155 10,787
F
Sig. 3,630
Significant at level
,006*
*p<0.05
As is seen in Table 7, the F value (F=3.630, p<0.05) is found significant difference between prospective teachers’ attitudes towards Internet grade levels according to the scores of “Trusting in Internet” (p<.05). Considering Scheffe test on the source of the difference, there is a significant difference between first and fourth grade students in favor of first grade students. The attitudes of prospective teachers toward the Internet were compared according to their departments. The results related to only factors which have significant difference were given below. There was no significant difference related to the factors of the scale except “Trusting in Internet” according to the departments of prospective teachers. Table 8 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Trusting in Internet” according to departments of prospective teachers Departments Turkish Language Social Sciences Foreign Languages Science Education Mathematics Primary Education Computer Sciences Total
N 60 39 9 136 77 41 17 379
X 14,40 14,61 17,33 15,49 15,19 16,80 17,17 15,43
Sd 3,38 3,84 2,44 3,34 3,23 2,43 2,57 3,32
According to Table 8, there are differences among arithmetic means. When average of the all departments is considered, it is seen that the least score belongs to department of Turkish Language; the highest score belongs to Foreign Languages. After all, it was observed
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Attitudes Towards Internet
that the scores of the students of Department of Computer and Instructional Technology were considerably high. With the help of ANOVA test analysis it was investigated that whether there was a significant difference between the arithmetic means according to the departments and also it was investigated to find the resource of the differences between the departments with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results were given in the Table 9. Table 9 The results of ANOVA Test Analysis related to the factor of “Trusting in Internet” according to the departments (programs) of prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
256,286 3934,611 4190,897
6 372 378
42,714 10,577
F
Sig.
4,038
Significant at level
,000*
*p<0.001
According to Table 9, it was found that there was a significant difference between prospective teachers’ departments according to the scores of “Trusting in Internet” (p<.001). Scheffe test analysis was used to investigate which departments were the resources of the significant difference. According to the results of Scheffe test analysis; there was a significant difference between the department of Turkish Language’s students, and department of Primary Education and department of Computer and Instructional Technology’s students, in favor of department of Primary Education and department of Computer and Instructional Technology’s students.
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Attitudes Towards Internet
Table 10 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Adoption of the Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers Weekly Internet Use (Hours) 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total
N
X
135 74 34 45 91 379
37,65 39,75 42,17 42,28 43,79 40,49
Sd 6,98 5,87 6,04 5,40 5,10 6,55
Table 10 showed that there were differences among arithmetic means. When arithmetic means considered, it was seen that prospective teachers who use the internet for 15 hours got the lowest scores while those who use the Internet for 21 hours and over got the highest scores in terms of the scores of “Adoption of the Internet” factor. As long as the Internet usage time increased, it was observed that the scores of prospective teachers in terms of “Adoption of the Internet” factor rise. With the help of ANOVA test analysis, whether there was a significant difference between the arithmetic means in terms of the usage time was analyzed. Differences among groups were searched with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results are given in the Table 11. Table 11 The results of ANOVA Test Analysis related to the factor of “Adoption of the Internet” according to weekly Internet Use by prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
2361,256 13889,477 16250,734
4 374 378
590,314 37,138 Significant at level
F
Sig.
15,895
,000*
*p<0.001
According to Table 11, it was realized that there was a significant difference between the scores of “Adoption of the Internet” in terms of prospective teachers’ weekly usage of the Internet (p<.001). According to the results of Scheffe test analysis; there was a significant difference between those who used Internet for 1-5 hours; and 11-15, 16-20, and 21 over in
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Attitudes Towards Internet
favor of 11-15, 16-20, and 21 over hours. In the research related to differences between 6-10 hours and 21 over hours, the results are in favor of 21 over hours. Table 12 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Trusting in Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers Weekly Internet Use (Hours) 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total
N
X
135 74 34 45 91 379
13,94 15,32 15,88 16,00 17,26 15,43
Sd 3,36 2,78 3,46 2,79 2,87 3,32
When Table 12 was analyzed it was seen that there were differences among arithmetic means. When arithmetic means were considered in terms of “Trusting in Internet” factor scores students who used the internet for 1-5 hours got the lowest scores while students who used the internet for over 21 hours got the highest scores. In general, when the usage of the internet increases, “Trusting in Internet” scores rise too. Whether there was a significant difference among arithmetic means of internet usage time was analyzed by ANOVA test while differences among groups were searched with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results were given in the Table 13. Table 13 The results of ANOVA Test Analysis related to the factor of “Trusting in Internet” according to weekly Internet Use by prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
624,844 3566,053 4190,897
4 374 378
156,211 9,535
F
Sig. 16,383
Significant at level
,000* *p<0.001
According to Table 13, there is a significant difference in the “Trusting in Internet” scores of prospective teachers in terms of weekly internet usage.(p<.001). As Scheffe test showed there was a significant difference between those who used Internet for 1-5 hours; and 11-15, 16-20, and 21 over in favor of 11-15, 16-20, and 21 over hours. In the research related Page 2333
Attitudes Towards Internet
to differences between 6-10 hours and 21 over hours, the results were in favor of 21 over hours. Table 14 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Believe in the Benefits of the Internet” according to weekly Internet Use by prospective teachers Weekly Internet Use (Hours) 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total
N
X
135 74 34 45 91 379
15,43 15,89 15,50 16,44 17,14 16,06
Sd 3,54 2,62 2,65 2,50 2,92 3,10
When Table 14 was analyzed it was seen that there were differences among arithmetic means. When arithmetic means were considered in terms of “Believe in the Benefits of the Internet” factor scores students who used the internet for 1-5 hours got the lowest scores while students who use the internet for over 21 hours got the highest scores. In general, when the usage of the internet increases, it was seen that “Believe in the Benefits of Internet” scores rised too. Whether there was a significant difference among arithmetic means of internet usage time was analyzed by ANOVA test while differences among groups were searched with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results are given in the Table 15. Table 15 The results of ANOVA Analysis related to the factor of “Believe in the Benefits of the Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
178,500 3465,104 3643,604
4 374 378
44,625 9,265
F
Sig.
4,817
Significant at level
,000* *p<0.001
According to Table 15, there was a significant difference in the “Believe in the Benefits of Internet” scores of prospective teachers in terms of weekly internet
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Attitudes Towards Internet
usage.(p<.001). As Scheffe test showed there is a significant difference between those who use Internet for 1-5 hours and 21 over in favor of 21 over hours. Table 16 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Enjoyment of the Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers Weekly Internet Use (hours) 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total
N
X
135 74 34 45 91 379
13,83 14,98 15,02 16,06 17,03 15,20
Sd 3,23 2,52 3,93 2,12 2,75 3,19
When Table 16 is analyzed it is seen that there were differences among arithmetic means. When arithmetic means were considered in terms of “Enjoyment of the Internet” factor scores, students who use the internet for 1-5 hours got the lowest scores while students who use the internet for over 21 hours got the highest scores. In general, when the usage of the internet increases, “Enjoyment of the Internet” scores rise too. Whether there is a significant difference among arithmetic means of internet usage time is analyzed by ANOVA test while differences among groups were searched with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results are represented in the Table 17. Table 17 The results of ANOVA Analysis related to the factor of “Enjoyment of the Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
594,687 3258,073 3852,760
4 374 378
148,672 8,711
F
Sig.
17,066
Significant at level
,000* *p<0.001
According to Table 17 there is a significant difference in the “Enjoyment of the Internet” scores of prospective teachers in terms of weekly internet usage.(p<.001). As Scheffe test shows there is a significant difference between those who use Internet for 1-5
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Attitudes Towards Internet
hours and 21 over in favor of 21 over hours. As Scheffe test shows there is a significant difference between those who use Internet for 1-5 hours; and 16-20 and 21 over in favor of 16-20 and 21 over hours. In the research related to differences between 6-10 hours and 21 over hours, the results are in favor of 21 over hours. When the research was conducted over differences between 11-15 and 21 over, the result was in favor of 21 over hours. Table 18 The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the factor of “Enjoyment of the facilities provided by the Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers Weekly Internet Use (Hours) 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total
N
X
135 74 34 45 91 379
11,02 11,17 10,97 11,44 11,72 11,26
Sd 2,38 2,55 3,00 2,37 2,47 2,50
When Table 18 was examined it was seen that arithmetic means were close numbers. Whether there was a significant difference among arithmetic means of internet usage time was analyzed by ANOVA test while differences among groups were searched with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results are represented in the Table 19. Table 19 The results of ANOVA Analysis related to the factor of “Enjoyment of the facilities provided by the Internet” according to weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
32,221 2335,863 2368,084
4 374 378
8,055 6,246
F
Sig.
1,290
,273
According to Table 19, weekly internet usage of prospective teachers there was no significant difference among “Enjoyment of the facilities provided by the Internet” scores of prospective teachers (p>.05). Table 20
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Attitudes Towards Internet
The arithmetic means and standard deviations related to the general attitudes towards weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers Weekly Internet Use (Hours) 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total
N 135 74 34 45 91 379
Sd
X 91,89 97,13 99,55 102,24 106,95 98,45
14,29 12,25 14,78 11,25 12,17 14,33
According to mean value in Table 20, there are differences among these means. When arithmetic means were considered in terms of “the general attitudes towards weekly usage of the Internet” factor scores students who use the internet for 1-5 hours got the lowest scores while students who use the internet for over 21 hours got the highest scores. In general, when the usage of the internet increases, it was seen that “the general attitudes towards weekly usage of the Internet” scores rise too. Whether there was a significant difference among arithmetic means of internet usage time was analyzed by ANOVA test while differences among groups were searched with the help of the Scheffe tests and the results are given in the Table 21. Table 21 The results of ANOVA Analysis related to the general attitudes towards weekly usage of the Internet by prospective teachers
Between Groups Within groups Total
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
13200,133 64469,714 77669,847
4 374 378
3300,033 172,379
F
Sig.
19,144
,000*
According to Table 21 there is a significant difference in the “the general attitudes towards weekly Internet use” scores of prospective teachers in terms of weekly internet usage (p<.001). As Scheffe test shows there is a significant difference between those who use Internet for 1-5 hours, and 16-20 and 21 over in favor of 16-20 and 21 over hours. As Scheffe test showed there was a significant difference between those who use Internet for 6-10 hours;
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and 21 over in favor of 21 over hours. In the research related to differences between 11-15 hours and 21 over hours, the results are in favor of 21 over hours. In addition to data which is given above, when the survey conducted, in the section of personal information, “the aims of internet usage” were also asked prospective teachers. The answers included “study” (90%), “mail” (80%), “video” (74%), “chat” (64%), “newspaper” (58%), and “game” (38%) as the reasons of internet usage. According to these results, the most common aim was “search” while “game” was the least common aim. Conclusion In this study, prospective teachers' attitudes toward the Internet were investigated. Analysis of survey data reveal that Internet attitudes did not change with gender in both all factors and in general scale. The same result was revealed in the study by Duggan, Hess, Morgan, Kim and Wilson (1999). However, in their study, Gürgan and Er (2008) found that there is a significant difference between Internet attitudes and gender variables. The same results were founded in the study by Birisci, Metin and Karakaş (2009). Li and Kirkup (2007) reported that all students aged between 18 and 25 enjoyed the Internet, however, male students showed stronger positive attitudes than female students. The differences between the findings of this study and the above mentioned studies call for further investigation in gender and internet attitudes. When it is focused on whether the students have computers or not, it is observed that there is a significant difference between their attitudes towards Internet in term of all factors in favor of the ones who have got personal computers. These results can result from that the prospective teacher who have computer has more opportunity to use the Internet. But, the findings of the study by Gürgan and Er (2008) are different from the results of current study.
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According to the conditions of possession of internet, there is a significant difference between the prospective teachers’ attitude towards the Internet in terms of “Adoption of Internet”, ”Trusting in Internet”, “Enjoyment of Internet” factors and the overall scale in favor of prospective teachers who have internet connection at home. This result showed that having the Internet connection at home increase their attitudes towards the Internet. In contrast these results, in the study by Gürgan and Er (2008), it is observed that there is a meaningful variance between their attitudes towards the Internet in favor of the ones who haven’t got any Internet connection at home. According to grade level, no significant difference was revealed by the research apart from the factor of “Trusting in Internet” of prospective teachers. Regarding “Trusting in Internet” factor there is a significant difference between first grade students and forth grade students in favor of first grade students. This situation shows that first grade students have more confidence in internet. However, as students’ knowledge about internet develops, they realize negative features of internet, so their confidence weakens as well as their “Trusting in Internet” scores. A significant difference in terms of the scores of “Trusting in Internet” was found according to the departments of prospective teachers (p<.001). This significant difference is in favor of department of Primary Education and department of Computer and Instructional Technology’s students when it was compared with Turkish Language department students. These results can be explained by differences in the computer education of the departments. Regarding the scores of “Adoption of Internet”, ”Trusting in Internet”, “Believing in the Benefits of Internet”, “Enjoyment of Internet”, “Enjoyment of the Facilities provided by the Internet” factors, there are significant differences according to weekly internet usage of prospective teachers. This might be explained by the findings of Luan, Fung, Nawawi and
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Hong (2005) who found that the more positive attitudes pre-service teachers toward the Internet had, the longer they stayed online. In current study, the aims of internet usage were also asked prospective teachers. The prospective teachers reported that they used the Internet mainly for the study purposes and at least they were used for the game. This situation may reveal that the Internet is a useful tool to conduct search.
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References Bindak, R., & Çelik, H.C. (2005). İlköğretim okullarında görev yapan öğretmenlerin bilgisayara yönelik tutumlarının çeşitli değişkenlere göre incelenmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 6 (10), 27-38. Birisci, S., Metin, M., & Karataş, M. (2009). Prospective elementary teachers’ attitudes toward computer and internet use: a sample from Turkey. World Applied Sciences Journal, 6 (10), 1433-1440. Duggan,A., Hess, B., Morgan, D., Kim, S., & Wilson, K. (1999). Measuring students’ attitude toward educational use of the Internet. (ERIC Reporduction Service No. ED 429117). Gürgan, U. & Er, O. K. (2008). Öğretmen adaylarının internet kullanımına ve araştırmaya yönelik tutumları arasındaki ilişkilerin çeşitli değişkenler açısından belirlenmesi. XVII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi. Retrieved September 21, 2009 from http://www.pegem.net/akademi/kongrebildiri_detay.aspx?id=37450
Kay, R. (2006). Addressing gender differences in computer ability, attitudes and use:the laptop effect. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34 (2), 187-211, Liaw, S. S. (2002). An Internet survey for perceptions of computers and the World Wide Web: relationship,prediction, and difference. Computers in Human Behavior, 18,17– 35. Li, N., & Kirkup, G. (2007). Gender and cultural differences in Internet use: A study of China and the UK. Computer & Education, 48, 301-307. Luan, W. S., Fung, N.S., Nawawi, M., & Hong, T.S. (2005). Experienced and inexperienced Internet users among pre-service teachers: Their use and attitudes toward the Internet. Educational Technology & Society, 8 (1), 90-103.
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Mertoğlu, H. & Öztuna, A. (2004). Bireylerin teknoloji kullanimi problem çözme yetenekleri ile ilişkili midir?. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 3 (1), 1303-652. Oral, B. (2004). Öğretmen adaylarının internet kullanma durumları. XIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kurultayı bildiri kitabı. Oral, B. (2008). The evaluation of the student teachers’ attitudes toward Internet and democracy. Computers & Education, 50, 437–445 Smith, E., & Oosthuizen, H.J. (2006). Attitudes of entry-level University students towards computers: a comparative study. Computers & Education 47,352–37 Tavşancıl, E. (2002). Tutumların ölçülmesi ve SPSS ile veri analizi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Tavşancıl, E., & Keser, H. (2001). Internete yönelik likert tipi bir tutum ölçeğinin geliştirilmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(1-2), 45-60. Teo, T. (2007). Assessing the computer attitudes of students: an asian perspective, Computers in Human Behavior, 24 1634–1642. Yaman, M. (2007). The attitudes of the physical education students towards internet. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 6 (3), 1303-6521.
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Running head: Concept mapping in Biology
Use of Concept Mapping to Facilitate Deep Learning in Biology
Yip Cheng Wai
Hwa Chong Institution
Singapore
Email: [email protected]
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Abstract Students tend to adopt a surface approach when they learn biological concepts by rote memorization, thus they are less able to integrate concepts and apply them in real-life situation. A proposed solution involves the use of a concept mapping software, CmapTools, as a tool to promote the construction of links between concepts and ideas. The design-based research approach is used in the development of a deep approach to the learning of Biology with the aid of technology. Design-based research starts with an analysis of a practical problem; followed by the development of a solution to the problem, guided by existing design principles in the literature. Implementation of proposed solutions occurs in iterative cycles of continual refinement before ultimately deriving the design principles that serve to inform further implementation. This paper describes the first cycle of design-based research. Year 9 students were administered the modified Approaches to Studying Inventory, which determines the tendency for deep or surface learning. During the period of intervention, they constructed a series of concept maps that link concepts and topics. The maps were assessed with a specific rubric. Students were then administered the same inventory after the period of intervention to determine any significant differences between the pre-test and post-test scores. Concept map scores and interviews were analyzed for data triangulation. The data showed evidence of the role of concept mapping in facilitating the students‟ awareness and ability to relate different concepts and topics, which represent their extent of learning Biology in a meaningful way.
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Use of Concept Mapping to Facilitate Deep Learning in Biology Introduction In the study of Biology, the ability to build interrelationships among various concepts and related topics will allow students to discover how biological systems work together to bring about a coordinated response in an organism. This is indeed crucial for the survival of the organism. However, a study done by Stewart and Dale in 1989 showed that some high school students were able to correctly solve Punnett-square genetic diagrams or the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis, but had difficulty relating both topics (Stewart & Dale, 1989).
A deep approach to learning involves being engaged in meaningful learning in which the learner searches for understanding and meaning in a task, attempts to relate parts into a whole; new ideas to previous knowledge; and concepts learned to real-life experiences. The deep approach to learning also involves a high level of metacognition, including comprehension monitoring and evaluation of one‟s learning. In contrast, a learner who adopts a surface approach to learning perceives the task as a demand to be met, relies on memorization of discrete facts in isolation with each other and from real life, and attempts to recall details through rote learning (Chin & Brown, 2000a,b).
In this paper, a research study to investigate a solution to the problem of surface learning is described. Concept mapping is used to determine whether it serves to increase students‟ ability to integrate concepts and topics.
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A design-based research approach is used to guide the enquiry. The four phases of design-based research involve (1) analyzing a practical problem in collaboration with other practitioners; (2) proposing solutions based on existing design principles and technological innovations; (3) implementing the solutions in iterative cycles; and (4) evaluating and defining a set of design principles that can inform future decisions (Reeves, 2006). The first three phases of the approach are described in detail in this paper.
Phase 1 of Design-based Research: Identification and Analysis of a Practical Problem Literature Review In order to appreciate Biology as an interconnected body of knowledge, Kinchin (2000) emphasized that links between associated concepts should be made explicit to students. Novak and Gowin (1984) quoted from Ausubel that the most important factor that influences learning is what the learner already knows. Learning outcomes are the result of new information obtained and how the learner integrates it based on perceived notions and existing knowledge (Yager, 1991). Thus, the relationships between concepts are important in achieving meaningful learning.
Concept mapping is a functional tool that can represent meaningful relationships between concepts in the form of propositions. A proposition is formed when two concepts are connected by a linking word. Concept maps should be hierarchical, with the more specific, less inclusive concepts arranged below the more general, more inclusive concepts, because meaningful learning proceeds more easily when new concepts are categorized under broader, more general concepts. Meaningful connections between one segment of the concept map to another segment can be shown via valid cross-links between them (Novak and Gowin, 1984).
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The use of concept mapping in the development of deep learning has been welldocumented. Schmid and Telaro (1990) commented that rote learning fails to address complex interactions in Biology and that concept mapping can be used to facilitate meaningful learning. As cited by Chin and Brown (2000b), concept mapping tasks give information about how students relate major concepts, that is, their propositional knowledge. Royer and Royer (2004) stated that the process of creating concept maps allows students to relate new information to prior knowledge and recognize relationships between concepts. The authors also suggested that students should share the meaning of their concept maps in small groups. Pearsall, Skipper and Mintzes (1997) used concept mapping in exploring knowledge restructuring and conceptual change. Their findings suggested that students who processed information in a deep and active way constructed more well-differentiated knowledge structures. Restructuring of knowledge is evident when students construct complex frameworks of interrelated concepts with many levels of hierarchy, branching and crosslinking (Quinn, Mintzes & Laws, 2003/04). The practice of reviewing previous concept maps encourages reflection on prior knowledge and possible inconsistencies with current knowledge and, hence, encourages monitoring of learning. Such metacognitive awareness is thought to lead to deeper learning (Chin, 2004). Thus, a concept map is also a metacognitive tool that helps students to realize the process of achieving effective, meaningful learning (Edmonson, 2000).
Wiggins and McTighe (2005) defined a big idea as one that provides meaning by connecting and organizing discrete facts, thus providing a focus for concepts learned. In order to gain insight into the big idea, students must make connections and see the “big picture”. The construction of a concept map driven by an essential question that focuses on the big idea will facilitate the uncovering of the big idea. Having clear assessment goals that give Page 2347
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evidence of student understanding serve to guide the planning of learning experiences towards the desired results. A good measure of understanding is its transferability, or ability to apply knowledge to new, real-life situations. Herrington (2006) identified some characteristics of authentic activities that show how knowledge can be applied in real life, which include being ill-defined, complex, and able to provide opportunities for students to collaborate and reflect. Concept mapping can be used as a tool for building connections among concepts in the process of solving a complex task. The process-oriented approach which emphasizes problem-solving steps rather than the outcome promotes self-monitoring of learning (Borkowski, Weaver, Smith & Akai, 2004).
Concept maps have been explored as alternative assessment tools. They may be used to document progressive changes in student knowledge and understanding, thus, are effective tools in improving the process of learning and in providing formative feedback (Edmonson, 2000). Concept maps are effectively used in identifying areas of understanding and as well as misconceptions. The construction of concept maps in cooperative learning groups has been described by Lord (1998) and Brown (2003). Group concept mapping allows those who do not have full understanding of the topic to receive explanations from their peers, who in turn develop a greater depth of understanding of the topic. In this way, students are actively involved in learning when they share their knowledge with their peers (Brown, 2003).
CmapTools is a concept mapping software developed at the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC). It enables the construction of a simple concept map or a knowledge model consisting of a set of concept maps with associated resources about a particular topic. CmapTools facilitates the linking of a concept in a map to another concept map, or to related images, videos, websites and text documents. Knowledge models can be Page 2348
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shared and synchronous collaboration in constructing concept maps can be established through shared Public Places. In addition, users can browse and comment on others‟ knowledge models (Cañas, Hill, Carff, Suri, Lott, Gỏmez, Eskridge, Arroyo & Carvajal, 2004).
Analysis of the problem of surface learning in collaboration with practitioners A preliminary investigation was carried out to determine if the problem of surface learning was significant among Secondary Three and Four students in Hwa Chong Institution. Five Biology teachers in the school responded to a survey which sought their opinions on the extent in which students were able to relate new knowledge to prior knowledge; link related topics in Biology together into an overall big picture; and apply what they have learned in new situations or in solving complex problems. The teachers commented that students needed to be constantly reminded about the big picture, for example, structure related to function, and that links between ideas were not obvious to most students; they had to be made explicit before they could link information from various topics. Four teachers had the opinion that students faced difficulty in applying their knowledge in novel situations. To enhance deep learning, the teachers suggested concept mapping; authentic, problem-solving tasks and higher order questions that require evaluation of information and synthesis skills.
Research Question The question to guide the research was: “In what ways does Deep Learning in Biology online concept mapping help students develop a deep approach to learning and their ability to learn independently?” It was hypothesized that the pedagogical approaches in the Deep Learning in Biology lessons and online concept mapping would help to increase students‟
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understanding of biological concepts, integration of concepts, application to real-life situations and self-monitoring of understanding.
Phase 2 of Design-based Research: Development of Solutions The instructional design strategies to overcome the problem of surface learning were guided by three draft principles derived from the literature. The development of a deep approach to learning was done primarily through concept mapping tasks. In the process of constructing concept maps, students achieved understanding of big ideas when they related ideas together into a whole. Concept maps were scored with a specific rubric based on number of concepts, correct propositions, arrangement of concepts from more general to more specific, and number of cross-links (Novak & Gowin, 1984).
The first draft principle involves the use of concept mapping to support meaningful learning (Novak & Gowin, 1984). An essential question can be provided to give a focus to the concept map. Maps are constructed with CmapTools (Caňas et al., 2004) (available at http://cmap.ihmc.us/). The maps are then reviewed, and concepts of a related topic can be added as a new branch of the original map. Alternatively two concept maps can be linked together, thus facilitating meaningful learning.
The second draft principle involves authentic tasks that have real-world relevance, are ill-structured, and often comprise complex, integrated and multidisciplinary activities investigated over a period of time. They often provide an opportunity for students to collaborate and apply their knowledge in new situations (Herrington, Oliver & Reeves, 2003; Herrington, 2006). Students working in collaborative groups can be presented with scenario or case studies of real-life problems related to concepts learned. Concept maps can then be Page 2350
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constructed collaboratively with CmapTools to show links among concepts related to the problem in the process of problem-solving. The cause of the problem could be deduced and possible solutions found.
The third draft principle is to promote metacognitive awareness with prompts that enable students to be aware of their planning, monitoring and evaluating processes. Collaboration among students allows them to be aware of their own and their peers‟ cognitive strategies. Process-oriented instruction that emphasizes students‟ thinking process, for example, problem-solving steps, should be encouraged (Borkowski et al., 2004; Chin, 2004). Concept mapping could be used to explore knowledge restructuring and conceptual change when maps constructed based on prior knowledge are reviewed and changed based on current understanding (Pearsall et al., 1997). Prior knowledge in the K-W-L chart could be identified through the construction of a pre-concept map. This is important as according to the constructivist model of learning; students process new information based on their existing knowledge (Yager, 1991). Students can then be engaged with thought-provoking questions, experiences, problems, videoclips or newspaper articles to stimulate their curiosity and increase their motivation. Students can be prompted to raise questions on what they want to learn in the K-W-L chart. Finally, students construct a post-concept map after learning the topic. Students then rethink big ideas, monitor and reflect on their learning and conceptual change in the K-W-L chart by reviewing the pre- and post-concept maps created, thus promoting metacognitive awareness.
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Phase 3 of Design-based Research: Implementation and Evaluation of the Proposed Solution The first iteration of the research involved 21 Secondary 3 (Year 9 equivalent) Biology students from the Science and Mathematics Talent Programme in the first semester of 2009. The period of intervention lasted for 12 weeks. It focused on the development of a deep approach to learning through concept mapping tasks, based on the first draft principle.
As a pre-test, the students were given a questionnaire, adapted from the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (RASI) (Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983; Entwistle & Tait, 1995; Duff, 1997), containing 20 items in four subscales that measure tendency for a deep approach or surface approach to learning. For each statement, respondents indicated the frequency on a four-point Likert-type scale (1 = most of the time, 2 = sometimes, 3 = rarely, 4 = almost never). 10 items were categorized as surface approach items, and 10 items were deep approach items. The inventory is shown in Appendix 1. Each approach is further categorized into different subscales, modified from Duff (1997), as shown in Table 1.
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Approach and subscales
Item
Deep approach
Understanding concepts
1, 12, 19, 20
Relating different concepts together
3, 7, 14, 16, 17
Applying concepts in real-life situations
9
Surface approach
Relying on memorization
10, 15
Difficulty in making sense
4, 11
Unrelatedness
6, 13
Difficulty in applying concepts
18
Concern about studying
2, 5, 8
Table 1: Different subscales of the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory (Duff, 1997)
During the period of intervention, students were first taught how to use CmapTools, and a sample concept map that emphasized the correct propositions, hierarchy and cross-links were given to the students. Students then constructed three successive concept maps.
Students were guided in the construction of a concept map on the first topic (cells) by the teacher, with reference to the theme, “the cell as a factory” and guided by the essential question, “how do different parts of a cell work together like in a factory?” They then proceeded to construct their first concept map on the second topic (transport across membranes). After learning the third topic (enzymes), students constructed the second concept map on enzymes. They were then asked to link the two maps together by first
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reviewing the concept map on transport across membranes, adding in the concept of enzymes as a valid proposition in the map, and linking it to the concept map on enzymes.
The third concept map constructed by the students was based on the theme of plant physiology, guided by the essential question, “how are different parts of a plant adapted for photosynthesis and survival?” They constructed one concept map that linked two related topics, plant nutrition and plant transport, together. A sample of a concept map constructed by a student is shown in Appendix 2.
Concept maps were scored with a rubric; the scores were monitored to determine any progressive improvement, which could be correlated to the extent of deep understanding and ability to link concepts to form big ideas. The rubrics are shown in Appendix 3.
After the period of intervention lasting 12 weeks, the RASI inventory was administered again as a post-test. The paired, two-tail t-test analysis was carried out to determine if there was any significant difference in the pre- and post-test scores. Five students were selected for interviews based on their responses in the RASI inventory and progressive scores of the three concept maps constructed. Interviews were audiotaped, transcribed and coded under categories (listed in Results) to organize the data.
Results Pre-test and post-test results of the Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory Items 3 (Sometimes I find myself thinking about ideas from this subject when I‟m doing other things) and 7 (I try to relate ideas I come across to other topics or courses whenever possible) in the deep approach subscale of „relating different concepts together‟ Page 2354
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showed a lower mean post-test score compared to the pre-test (or an increased frequency), suggesting that the students were more aware and could better relate concepts together. This observation was supported by item 6 (Although I can remember the facts and details, I often can‟t see the overall picture) in the surface approach subscale of „unrelatedness‟, where there was a significantly higher mean post-test score compared to the pre-test with p value of 0.017 (or a decreased frequency), suggesting that students were more able to link concepts into a whole. It was also noteworthy that items 10 (I spend a lot of my time repeating or copying out things to help me remember them) and 15 (I find I have to concentrate on memorizing a good deal of what I have to learn) in the surface approach subscale of „relying on memorization‟ showed a higher mean post-test score compared to the pre-test (or a decreased frequency), implying that the students depended less on rote memorization to learn the Biology content, instead had greater awareness of linking concepts together. Item 11 (Often I find myself reading things without really trying to understand them) of the surface approach subscale of „difficulty in making sense‟ showed an increase in the mean post-test score, suggesting that the students were more actively engaged in learning and understanding the content. The results are summarized in Figure 1. There were no significant changes between the pre-test and post-test scores for the remaining items, especially in the subscale of „understanding concepts‟, probably due to the higher ability group of students in the class who already had pre-test scores rather indicative of a deep approach to learning.
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Pre-test and post-test scores of the modified RASI
Score on Likert-type scale
3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00
Pre-test
1.50
Post-test
1.00 0.50 0.00 Item3
Item7
Item5
Item6
Item8
Item10
Item11
Item15
Figure 1: Mean class pre-test and post-test scores of deep approach items (3 and 7) and surface approach items (5, 6, 8, 10, 11 and 15) that suggest the transition from surface to deep learning.
When the mean pre-test and post-test scores of individual students were considered, there were seven who showed improvement in their post-test scores for each of the deep approach subscales of „understanding concepts‟ and „relating different concepts together‟. For the surface approach items, nine students showed improvement in their post-test scores. The results are summarized in Figure 2. Some students‟ pre-test and post-test scores showed no significant difference as they probably belonged to a higher ability group and their pre-test scores had already indicated a deep approach to learning.
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Score on Likert scale
Pre-test and post-test scores of the deep approach (understanding concepts) items of the RASI 3.00 2.50 2.00
Pre-test
1.50
Post-test
1.00 0.50 0.00 6
7
12
14
15
20
28
Index numbers of 3S1 students
Figure 2(a)(i)
Score on Likert scale
Pre-test and post-test scores of the deep approach (relating concepts) items of the RASI 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00
Pre-test Post-test
3
12
14
16
21
Index numbers of 3S1 students
Figure 2(a)(ii)
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Score on Likert scale
Pre-test and post-test scores of the surface approach items of the RASI 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Pre-test Post-test
3
12
13
15
19
21
22
29
34
Index numbers of 3S1 students
Figure 2(b) Figure 2: Mean pre-test and post-test scores of individual students who suggested a transition from surface to deep learning for (a) deep approach items in the subscale of (i) understanding concepts, (ii) relating concepts, and (b) surface approach items of the RASI.
Scores of concept maps There was progressive improvement in the mean scores of the three successive concept maps constructed by the students (Figure 3). The scores of the maps were awarded out of 15 based on four criteria: number of concepts, correct propositions shown, arrangement of concepts from more general to more specific, and number of cross-links shown. It was evident that there was a significant increase in the number of cross-links in the final concept map that consisted of two related topics, plant nutrition and plant transport, linked in one map.
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Class mean scores of three successive concept maps constructed 10.70
12.00
Mean score
10.00 8.00
8.14
9.00
6.00 4.00 2.00 0.00 Map 1
Map 2
Map 3
Figure 3: Progressive improvement in the mean scores of the three concept maps constructed
Interviews with students Five students were selected for interviews for data triangulation, based on their responses in the inventory (either a decrease in the post-test scores for the deep approach items, indicating an increase in frequency; or an increase in the post-test scores for the surface approach items, indicating a decrease in frequency) and progressive improvement in their concept map scores. The coding categories of the interview transcripts are listed as subheadings.
Usefulness of concept mapping Relating concepts One of the characteristics of deep learning is the ability to build interrelationships among concepts. Some students who were interviewed stated that concept mapping has helped them in identifying and sieving out keywords and salient points from their readings,
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thus reducing rote memorization of entire chunks of information. The concept mapping tasks have also brought about increased awareness of linking concepts and topics and their ability to do so.
Student A: Everything is interlinked, you think of one, the next one crops up, so if we are able to link everything together, it would effectively help our memory, like in CmapTools, (it) also helps in doing this because we are able to import past maps into the new map so that we can link two major topics together. So firstly it‟s good, helps us in our memory, then it also can make us see clearer as in how these two are related.
Student B: Originally it‟s just taking all the chunks of information together at once, then now it‟s just using concept map to link all the main points together so that when look(ing) at the main points you can elaborate more on the main points, not just one whole sentence about one point. Instead of a lot of sentences which only talk about one point, now it‟s more points linked together, so when I elaborate on one point, I can make use of other points to back it up.
Student E: Last time I would just memorize the whole paragraph….. Now it‟s just try(ing) to look at the keywords and I try to link it.
Student F used to type his notes out in point form when he revised, without actually linking the sections up. He realized that he was engaging in rote memorization (“I memorize the phrase sometimes without even understanding what the phrase means”) and through cross-linking different concepts in the recent concept mapping tasks, it has helped him in linking concepts and better retainment of concepts. Page 2360
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Student F: Because when you type everything out in 30 pages, it‟s like, section by section, so it‟s very difficult to link a section in page 1 to a section in page 30. That means with the 30-page notes, I type everything out, all in point form but sometimes, it‟s like, as I read the point form, then it‟s like, I may get more and more confused and then… I will also not have the capacity to memorize so many point forms at one go without linking them like what a concept map does. It means, because in the past, sometimes some of the concepts, like when I revise them, then it‟s like, I memorize the phrase sometimes without even understanding what the phrase means. Just memorize it for the sake of memorizing… … but now with the concept map you have to cross-link between different things so you can find out how these abstract concepts can apply to other different concepts, so you understand it better.
Relating new and prior knowledge The constructivist theory of learning states that learning outcomes arise from the integration of new and prior knowledge. Concept mapping has been used to assess quality of learning, that is, deep or surface learning, by assessing the linkage of new to prior knowledge and subsequent change in knowledge structure (Hay, 2007).
From the interview transcript, Student B explained how concept mapping has helped him in integrating new and existing information when he tried to link the new and old concepts together in the same map. It has helped develop his metacognitive skills of monitoring his comprehension as he decided on where to fit the new concepts together with the existing ones.
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Student B: …. because if the concepts you know are inside the brain, so when you do the concept mapping, you know that I know this, so you can put them inside (the map). For those you do not know, you found them in the notes, then you realize that these are the concepts which I do not know, and you also put them in the concept maps, so after the whole concept map is made, there are a lot of keypoints, both of which you originally know and originally do not know, but now know.
Relating concepts comes after understanding Student D revised by rewriting the notes in the same order of presentation in point form. He realized that rote memorization failed when he had to apply the concepts he learned in real-life situations.
Student D: Now it‟s more of application, so, because if they were to test what is to know, like ask(ing for) the definitions of things, it‟ll be simpler and it will not really test us, so now memorizing whole-sale is not a good idea.
However, student D had the opinion that relating concepts through concept mapping tasks are useful only after he has understood the concepts and processes, and that the concept maps are tools for revision.
Student D: I think that the best point to use concept maps is that when you believe you have fully understood it already, a concept, because by then you should be able to draw the links, so I think that it‟ll be more of supplementary work to do, so it‟s more a revision practice, and (you‟ll) be able to find out what you know and able to improve on it.
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Limitations of concept mapping One of the important characteristics of deep learning is the ability to apply concepts and knowledge gained in novel situations to solve a real-life, complex problem. The use of concept mapping in the process of solving an authentic problem has rarely been explored. Student A had the following opinion:
I don‟t really think concept mapping relates to real life, because like our first topic (which) was on cells, I related better to real life because we were given a worksheet on factory working compared to cells. But in concept maps there‟s not much chance of using analogies so I just get the facts down first instead of relating to other real life (situations).
Despite this, it would be noteworthy to explore the use of concept mapping in linking different concepts and topics that are needed to solve an authentic problem which is often complex and multidisciplinary in a real-life situation.
Discussion and Conclusion Analysis of the inventory data, interview transcripts and concept map scores provided evidence of greater awareness and ability to relate concepts during the three successive concept maps constructed. In other words, rote memorization was reduced and students were better able to extract salient points, link them together and improve on the retainment of concepts. According to Pearsall et al. (1997), meaningful learning must be learned, as most students are predominantly rote learners. Thus, as mentioned by Kinchin (2000), the responsibility lies on the teachers to highlight such links so that students can appreciate Biology as being interconnected.
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Concept mapping has been described by Hay (2007) as a tool to measure the quality of learning, that is, deep or surface learning. Ability to link many related concepts together is presented in the form of many cross-links found in the concept map, thus concept maps constructed by students who processed information in a deep and active way are expected to show more elaborate, well-differentiated knowledge structures (Pearsall et al., 1997). Concept mapping has also been used as a tool to reveal misconceptions (Kinchin, 2000) based on the validity of the propositions, each formed by two concepts joined by a linking word or phrase.
Further iterative cycles will involve the exploration of the use of concept mapping as a metacognitive tool to assess conceptual change and also as a tool in the process of solving an authentic task. In summary, through linking concepts and topics in concept maps, students will be able to better appreciate Biology as a subject consisting of interconnected topics and thus adopt the deep approach in learning it.
References Borkowski, J.G., Weaver, C.M., Smith, L.E. & Akai, C.E. (2004). Metacognitive theory and classroom practices. In J. Ee, A. Chang & Tan, O.-S. (Eds.). Thinking about thinking (pp. 88 – 107). Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Brown, D.S. (2003). High school biology: a group approach to concept mapping. American Biology Teacher, 65(3), 192 – 197. Caňas, A.J., Hill, G., Carff, R., Suri, N., Lott, J., Gómez, G., Eskridge, T.C., Arroyo, M. & Carvajal, R. (2004). CmapTools: a knowledge modeling and sharing environment. In A.J. Caňas, J.D. Novak & F.M. González (Eds.), Concept maps: Theory, methodology, technology. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Page 2364
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Concept Mapping (Vol.1, pp. 125 – 133). Pamplona, Spain: Universidad Pública de Navarra. Chin, C. (2004). Self-regulated learning in Science. In J. Ee, A. Chang & Tan, O.-S. (Eds.). Thinking about thinking (pp. 222 – 260). Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Chin, C. & Brown, D.E. (2000a). Learning in Science: a comparison of deep and surface approaches. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(2), 109 – 138. Chin, C. & Brown, D.E. (2000b). Learning deeply in Science: an analysis and reintegration of deep approaches in two case studies of Grade 8 students. Research in Science Education, 30(2), 173 – 197. Duff, A. (1997). A note on the reliability and validity of a 30-item version of Entwistle & Tait‟s revised approaches to studying inventory. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 529 – 539. Edmonson, K.M. (2000). Assessing science understanding through concept maps. In J.J. Mintzes, J.H. Wandersee & J.D. Novak (Eds.). Assessing science understanding: a human constructivist view (pp. 15 – 40). San Diego, USA: Academic Press. Entwistle, N.J. & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding student learning. London: Croom Helm. Entwistle, N.J. & Tait, H. (1995). The revised approaches to studying inventory. Edinburgh: Centre for Research on Learning and Instruction, University of Edinburgh. Hay, D.B. (2007). Using concept maps to measure deep, surface and non-learning outcomes. Studies in Higher Education, 32(1), 39 – 57. Herrington, J. (2006). Authentic e-learning in higher education: Design principles for authentic learning environments and tasks. In T.C. Reeves & S. Yamashita (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2006 (pp. 3164 - 3173). Chesapeake, VA: AACE Page 2365
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Herrington, J., Oliver, R. & Reeves, T. C. (2003). Patterns of engagement in authentic online learning environments. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 19(1), 59 – 71. Retrieved August 30, 2008 from http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/res/herrington.html. Kinchin, I.M. (2000). Concept mapping in biology. Journal of Biological Education, 34(2), 61 – 68. Lord, T. (1998). Cooperative learning that really works in biology teaching: using constructivist-based activities to challenge student teams. American Biology Teacher, 60(8), 580 – 588. Novak, J.D. & Gowin, D.B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pearsall, N.R., Skipper, J.E.J. & Mintzes, J.J. (1997). Knowledge restructuring in the life sciences: a longitudinal study of conceptual change in Biology. Science Education, 81(2), 193 – 215. Quinn, H.J., Mintzes, J.J. & Laws, R.A. (2003/04). Successive concept mapping: assessing understanding in college science classes. Journal of College Science Teaching, 33(3), 12 – 16. Reeves, T.C. (2006). Design research from a technology perspective. In J. van den Akker, K. Graveneijer, S. McKenny & N. Nieveen (Eds.). Educational Design Research (pp. 52 66). London: Routledge. Royer. R. & Royer, J. (2004). What a concept! Using concept mapping on handheld computers. Learning & Leading with Technology, 31(5), 12 – 16. Schmid, R.F. & Telaro, G. (1990). Concept mapping as an instructional strategy for high school biology. Journal of Educational Research, 84(2), 78 – 85.
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Stewart, J.H. & Dale, M. (1989). High school students‟ understanding of chromosome / gene behaviour during meiosis. Science Education, 73(4), 501 – 521. Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. 2nd edition. Alexandria, Virginia, USA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Yager, R.E. (1991). The constructivist learning model. The Science Teacher, 60(1), 52 – 57.
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Appendix 1: Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory. Students indicated frequency on a four-point Likert-type scale (1: most of the time, 2: sometimes, 3: rarely, 4: almost never). No
Statement
Deep or surface approach item
1
I‟m not prepared just to accept things I‟m told; I have to think them out for myself.
2
Deep (understanding)
Often I feel I‟m drowning under a sheer amount of material we
Surface
have to cope with on this course. 3
Sometimes I find myself thinking about ideas from this subject
Deep (relating)
when I‟m doing other things. 4
I often have trouble making sense of the things I have to remember.
Surface
5
Often I worry about the amount of work I think I won‟t be able to
Surface
do. 6
Although I can remember the facts and details, I often can‟t see the
Surface
overall picture. 7
I try to relate ideas I come across to other topics or courses
Deep (relating)
whenever possible. 8
Sometimes I worry about whether I‟ll ever be able to cope with my
Surface
work properly. 9
In trying to understand new ideas, I often try to relate them to real life situations to which they might apply.
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Deep (applying)
Concept mapping in Biology
10
I spend a lot of my time repeating or copying out things to help me
Surface
remember them. 11
Often I find myself reading things without really trying to
Surface
understand them. 12
I usually set out to understand for myself the meaning of what we have to learn.
13
Deep (understanding)
I‟m not sure what‟s really important, so I try to get down as much
Surface
as possible during lessons. 14
When I‟m working on a new topic, I try to see in my own mind
Deep (relating)
how all the ideas fit together. 15
I find I have to concentrate on memorising a good deal of what I
Surface
have to learn. 16
Ideas in course books or articles often set me off on long chains of
Deep (relating)
thought about what I‟m reading. 17
When I‟m reading, I examine the details carefully to see how they
Deep (relating)
fit in with what‟s being said. 18
Often I don‟t see the relevance of what I learn to my daily life.
Surface
19
It‟s important to me to be able to follow the argument or see the
Deep
reasoning behind something. 20
(understanding)
I look at the evidence carefully and then try to reach my own conclusion about things I‟m studying.
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Deep (understanding)
Concept mapping in Biology
Appendix 2: Sample concept map on Nutrition and Transport in Plants
Appendix 3: Rubric for assessing concept maps Page 2370
Concept mapping in Biology
No 1
2
Criteria Number of concepts
Average
Good
Excellent
Includes a minimal
Includes most
Includes all
number of concepts
but not concepts concepts in
in the list [1]
in the list [2]
the list [3]
Linkage of valid
Minimal valid
Most but not all
All
relationships between two
relationships shown,
relationships
relationships
concepts with connecting
connecting lines are
between
between
lines and linking words
not labelled [1]
concepts are
concepts are
valid, some but
valid, all
not all
connecting
connecting lines lines are are labelled [2] 3
4
labelled [3]
Arrangement of more
No general to
Some but not all All concepts
general, inclusive concepts,
specific arrangement
concepts are
are arranged
to more specific, less
of concepts exists
arranged from
top-down
inclusive concepts
[1]
general to
from general
specific [2]
to specific [3]
Cross-links that show valid
Less than 2 cross-
2-4 cross-links
More than 4
relationships between
links shown [2]
shown [4]
cross-links
concepts on one branch of
shown [6]
the hierarchy with those on another branch
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Writing to Become a Member of the Science Education Discourse Community: Bridging the Gap between Authors and Readers 1
Larry D. Yore University of Victoria Distinguished Professor Faculty of Education University of Victoria [email protected] Sharyl A. Yore Certified Professional Secretary® Microsoft Office User Specialist (Word) SAY Professional Services [email protected] Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
Effective research reporting requires that writers present worthwhile and valid research results in a clear, compelling fashion that considers an awareness of the audience, patterns of argument, and explicit and implicit language rules of the discourse community. Journal manuscript reviewers—the gatekeepers of the community—judge the quality of the research by considering the match amongst the research questions, design, and results and the impact of the argument from their perspectives (Shelley, Yore, & Hand, 2009). They make separate judgments about the quality of the writing, but the issues of writing are difficult to disentangle from the judgments about research since the message and medium are intertwined. Writing issues are compounded when journals are trying to induct international, multicultural researchers
Do not cite or quote without permission from the co-authors. Adapted for 2009 International Science Education Conference Writing Workshop in Singapore, November 24–26, from manuscripts of similar titles. 1
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and English-as-second-language writers into the English-language research community. Many authors, regardless of their experience as published researchers, will be novice writers in this situation because of language, culture, ethnicity, and disciplinary differences with the targeted community (Lin, Yore, & Yore, 2007). This paper attempts to illustrate and mediate the observed difficulties for such writers involving cultural and ethnic differences, manuscript organization, unwritten discourse rules, and common academic English problems. The African proverb states, ―It takes a village to raise a child‖ (Clinton, 1996, p. 12). This wisdom can be extended to the global community when talking about achieving contemporary literacy. The research foci and findings of the education communities are of worldwide interest, importance, and value. The multicultural nature of elementary, middle, and secondary school classrooms internationally requires a much more diverse perspective than was the case at the start of the last century when most schools contained a monocultural student population with a common language. The importance of an international perspective is apparent in Canada, an officially bilingual country of English and French. Recently, the Vancouver, British Columbia, school district announced that English was a minority language in many of its schools. Most people would speculate that French language students were increasing in Vancouver. They would be wrong; the majority language in these schools was Cantonese or Mandarin, followed by English, French, Punjabi, Spanish, and then six or seven other languages. In Australia, the state of Victoria recognizes approximately 30 different languages in its educational system. The multicultural context of classrooms dictates that researchers and educators collaboratively search for solutions to curriculum, instruction, learning, and teacher education problems and to share these culturally diverse perspectives. Achieving this goal requires attention to sharing and communicating research findings and problem solutions. This paper attempts to illustrate and mediate the observed difficulties encountered by English-as-second-language writers involving cultural and ethnic differences regarding respect and controversy, manuscript organization and purposes, unwritten discourse rules, and common academic English problems.
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Background Quality research is not an issue of methodology choice but rather one of research quality and communication effectiveness (Shelley et al., 2009; L. D. Yore, 2003). Worthwhile research identifies important problems, articulates researchable questions, utilizes compatible research designs that match the research question and the development of the research area within the discipline, and applies disciplined inquiry and rigorous research procedures. Journal reviewers judge research quality by considering the research focus, the design of the inquiry, the collection and interpretation of the data, the results, and the discussion and implication of those results. Effective communications artfully report the results from these inquiries to specific audiences in clear, concise, compelling styles addressing problem formation, design and logic, sources of evidence, measurements and classification, analysis and interpretation, generalization, ethics of reporting, and title, abstract and headings (American Education Research Association [AERA], 2006; Yore, Shelley, & Hand, 2009). Collectively, the research, writing, and manuscript organization must present a clear description of the inquiry and logic with appropriate epistemological and ontological terms and a persuasive argument about the claims made (Lawson, in press; Yore, 2003). Inappropriate use of metalanguage (epistemological and ontological terms) research can mask (a) the actual level of the inquiry and belie the authors‘ awareness of their view of knowledge and (b) its assumptions regarding the knowledge construction process. Argumentation may be a discrepant linguistic approach for some cultures, societies, and genders. The ‗in-your-face‘ approach of presenting a knowledge claim over alternative claims with supportive evidence augmented with warrants based on established, canonical backings may not be a comfortable or common custom to some people. The traditional scientific pattern of argument—perceived by some to be confrontational and disempowering—is a fundamental, traditional convention for reporting research in the Anglo-European education research discourse communities. Furthermore, each research approach within these communities has associated patterns of argumentation and variations in the evidence used to construct or justify claims. Manuscript organization and academic English for the behavioral and social sciences,
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which includes education, communities involve both written (American Psychological Association [APA], 2010) and unwritten discourse traditions and conventions.
Argument Discourse communities, research disciplines, and cultures influence how research reports are developed and structured. Discourse within contemporary research communities ―critically examines and evaluates the numerous and at times iterative transformations of evidence into explanations‖ to produce an argument about descriptive or causal claims (Duschl & Ellenbogen, 1999, p. 1). International Englishlanguage education research journals utilize a hybrid research report genre (function–form) in which the authors (a) make claims or assertions, (b) try to persuade the audience/readers that their claims or assertions are justified by the support of the evidence presented in the data collected and the warrants and backings established in the theoretic background, and (c) justify that these claims or assertions are more plausible than alternative claims or assertions. The specific structure, conventions, and logic of the argument may vary; but effective research reports allow readers to identify the reasoning used and the components of the argument. Toulmin‘s (2003) layout, not intended as a model, of the evidence and the transformation process illustrates an argument‘s logic, components, and discourse pattern (Figure 1). The extended pattern of argument outlines the basic components and structure involving evidence, claims, warrants, and backings and adds explicit consideration of the qualifiers, counterclaims, limitations, and rebuttals. Most experimental (e.g., empirical), nonexperimental (e.g., literature reviews, theoretical), methodological and interpretative (e.g., case studies, ethnography, phenomology, etc.) research reports require qualification because of violations of underlying assumptions, modifications to procedures, and the reality of classroom research. Outlying data and alternative interpretations require explicit attention. These alternative interpretations need to be considered by the researcher and discounted in the research report. Furthermore, many types of qualitative evidence lead to multiple interpretations that need to be addressed
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and given fair consideration. Developing an argument requires a limited introduction to set the problem, the logic used, and the basic grounding of the argument.
Evidence
Claims
Qualifiers
Warrants Rebuttal
Backings
Figure 1. Extended pattern of argumentation (adapted from Toulmin, 2003)
Reasoning Logic is dictated by the research approach, and logic dictates the reasoning to be used. Three types of reasoning are considered in this paper: abduction, induction, and hypothetico-deduction. However, theory-driven and model-driven deduction can be used in more advanced inquiry designed to verify as theory (an umbrella idea that integrates established constructs, predicts outcomes, and explains cause-effect mechanisms) and models (provides productive and exploratory power). Abduction Abduction involves extracting a pattern from observations, measurements, or events in a holistic manner in which perception of the whole occurs in the form of a gestalt or a metaphor. Reporting gestalts and using metaphors requires special attention when writing for a multicultural audience to ensure that
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these creative insights are noted, the metaphor connects with the readers, and the limitations of metaphor are considered. Abduction is most often used to generate insightful hypotheses and to construct creative assertions and claims from the data. Induction Induction involves a systematic identification and synthesis of common regularities across several events to produce conjectures, umbrella categories, generalizable patterns, rules, or concepts. JohnsonLaird (1988) noted, ―the more possible states of affairs that a proposition eliminates from consideration, the more semantic information it contains‖ (pp. 218-219). Inductions relate to the writer‘s prior knowledge of the specific event, case, and situation; and they always involve uncertainty. Writers need to discuss these uncertainties with their readers and note the limitations of inductive reasoning. Induction is a central part of grounded research and many other interpretive approaches. Hypothetico-deduction Hypothetico-deduction involves hypothesis-driven deductive reason in which the hypothesis is used to predict outcomes that are tested against actual observations or measurements. The hypothesis serves as a blueprint for the experimental design. The methodology guides the collection of measurements and observations from random samples of the population randomly assigned to treatment and control groups that serve as evidence. These data are then analyzed using statistical treatments associated with the selection process and the experimental design, and claims are based on the results. The warrants and backings come from two general sources: (a) the literature summarized in the background section and (b) the assumptions and principles associated with the experimental design, sampling techniques, statistics, and probability.
Evidence The nature of evidence, the verification of evidence, and the collection of evidence are three considerations central to addressing issues of quality research. Lester and Wiliam (2000) believed the first
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consideration of the nature of evidence is the logical relation of the information to claims about the research problem and questions. Furthermore, the central considerations about logic involve (a) the potential relationship between the evidence and the question; (b) the relationship of the data to competing, alternative interpretations and counterclaims; and (c) the statistical relationship between the data and claim based on chance. Lester and Wiliam‘s second consideration is the assumptions, beliefs, and theories summarized in the background for the research problem, question, and design. The review of existing research and theoretical literature must establish clearly the warrants for judging the adequacy of evidence and for augmenting the evidence to make a compelling argument for the claim. Third, the justification of data collection and selection and data interpretation using explicit interpretive frameworks should be developed on propositional linkages, principles, and themes established by the review of related literature. Lester and Wiliam (2000) encouraged researchers to set the context for the research clearly and to delimit the data collection. Writers must be careful that their cultural values of respecting their teachers and their elders do not lead to citing a series of honourable and highly respected researchers in their field without weaving these contributions into a supportive network of related backings to warrant the argument that will follow. Quality research starts with selecting important problems and formulating researchable questions that reflect the current understandings related to the problem area. Next, researchers must utilize designs that are compatible with the problem, questions, and development; they must also recognize the design‘s inherent logic, associated pattern of argumentation, and limitations. No compelling argument or legitimate knowledge claim is independent of quality evidence used to derive or support the claim. Interpretation of data should consider alternative interpretations (counterclaims and rebuttals), deviant cases, verification of the claims with informants or trusted experts, and internal constraints by checking the procedures against criteria or standards. Lester and Wiliam (2000) stated: How researchers go about convincing others of the claims they make and how they defend their claims on ethical and practical grounds are, only in part, matters of marshalling adequate contextualized evidence embedded in sets of beliefs and theories. Indeed, convincing others is
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also a matter of persuading them to accept the values the researcher holds about the objects and phenomena being studied as well as about the very purpose of research itself. (p. 136) It is apparent that no single set of standards, criteria, or guidelines will be applicable to all research situations and designs. Eybe and Schmidt (2001) provided quality criteria (theoretical foundation, research question, methods, presentation and interpretation of results, implications for practice, and domain competence) and examples specific to chemistry education research. Collectively, the current literature supports the following guidelines for quality research (Shelley et al., 2009): 1. The research question must drive the design as qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods inquiry. 2. Awareness and rigorous application of procedures for data collections and interpretation. 3. Awareness and coherence of background assumptions used to clarify the problem formation, justify design decisions, and clarify the warranting process to illustrate the reasoning amongst data, evidence, and claims. 4. The results and discussion should consider the potential for informing theory and improved practice. 5. Research ethics regarding human subjects and reporting influence the inquiry design, the researchers‘ conduct, and the research report.
Manuscript Organization, Purposes, and Problems Style manuals and journals describe and demonstrate the explicit and implicit rules of acceptable academic English. Clearly, style and purpose of specific sections of an article are outlined in the approved style manual, but variation within the broad expectations can be found in any research journal. Check the journal‘s website for author instructions regarding manuscript preparation.
Title Writers need to capture the important dimensions of their research in the title, preferably in 12 words or less. It will generally involve the key ideas and words to facilitate the retrieval of your article for abstracting and indexing in databases. Do not be too creative here as readers may not be able to interpret
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your metaphors or cute sayings. Keep the title as concise as possible and still communicate the essential information.
Abstract The abstract must provide an accurate, nonevaluative, coherent and readable, and concise overview of the problem, study, results, and implications (see APA, 2010, pp. 26-27, for specific details on abstracts for each type of research study). The style needs to convince the readers of the importance of the study and to retrieve it from databases. The abstract is normally written last and should contain limited or no references, unless there is some copyright involved or a person‘s name is involved in the problem or measurement instrument used. Avoid using verbatim textual passages from elsewhere in the manuscript. Check journal word limits.
Keywords An alphabetical list of 5 to 10 words or short phrases that clearly connect to the problem space, research questions, theoretical frameworks, procedures, results, and potential implications need to be provided to facilitate the classification of the research and to aid other researchers in locating the research report. There should be a close relation between the title and keywords.
Introduction (Background) The introduction must set the general context of the problem, its importance, and the essential dimensions of the background that follows (APA, 2010). Writers need to be concise and clear in the introduction and to provide the readers with advance organizers to help them anticipate what will follow. Much of the wisdom for writers comes from explicit recognition of their responsibilities to their readers. As part of the introduction section, the background subsection must weave an integrated, theoretical framework of relevant scholarship that justifies the research focus (hypothesis) and research approach, outlines the data interpretation framework, and provides the backings to warrant the resulting claims and to rebut counterclaims. The fundamental dimensions underlying the research frequently reappear as
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subsections. It is important that writers clearly establish the fundamental warrants here that will augment and support the evidence in making knowledge claims later in the results section. There should be no surprises to the readers in the later parts of a manuscript, even if there were surprises for the researchers as they constructed their arguments. Remember that a research report is not an absolute chronological report of the inquiry as conducted; rather, it is a written argument meant to inform and persuade your readers about the validity, importance, and implications of your claims. The writing is both a means of doing research and constructing claims and an end in reporting the claims constructed. Be careful not to just mention the recognized researchers and published studies as a list to show that you have read the literature. Method (Design) This section ―describes in detail how the study was conducted, including conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in the study. Different types of studies will rely on different methodologies; however, a complete description of the methods used enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your methods and the reliability and the validity of your results. It also permits experienced investigators to replicate the study.‖ (APA, 2010, p. 29). This section contains subsections with subheadings, for example, descriptions of participants/subjects, procedures, measures and covariates, research design, interventions or experimental manipulations. Writers need to provide an overview of the research approach used and of the critical assumptions and characteristics of this approach. Many researchers are using variations of the common experimental and nonexperimental methods outlined in research courses. An electronic survey distributed via a website with follow-up telephone interviews provides different kinds and amounts of information than does a mail-out questionnaire. Writers should not expect the readers to be as expert and familiar as they are about the design and procedures. Reviewers and readers need to be informed about the general research approach before considering the details about subjects or informants, data sources and collection techniques, instruments, treatments, and interpretative frameworks for analyzing the data.
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Results Claims and assertions should be clearly identified and stated, followed by the supportive evidence, theoretical backings, and warrants used to justify the claim or assertion. Claims and assertions should be apparent to the readers and the appropriate degree of hedging should be used to convey clearly the writers‘ certainty about their results. Writers need to be parsimonious while being convincing; it is difficult to determine when enough evidence is sufficient and not redundant. Statistical studies should contain the descriptive statistics fundamental to the more complex statistical tests, treatments, and modeling; but space requirements must be considered in terms of the number of tables and data displays provided. Graphic data displays in most journals will be in black and white layout; therefore, authors must be cautious about using color displays or graphics with hard-to-read shadings. The space demands on qualitative research reports are equally or more difficult. Few journals can devote unlimited pages to report all the evidence collected in most qualitative research studies. Authors need to provide quotes from their informants to justify their assertion, but more is not always better. Be strategic about selecting your informants‘ quotes to save space and to ensure that they provide the readers with the breadth and depth of the data and convincing evidence for the claim.
Discussion The discussion must evaluate and interpret the results with respect to your hypotheses and consider causality, not just restate the results. It should clarify and elaborate the justification for the claims and assertions by sharing your thinking or ‗head notes‘ about the interpretation and decision-making processes. It may be necessary to explicitly state the alternative interpretation and rebut those counterclaims not promoted in the article. Authors need to connect their results to the central research focus of the study and to the work of other researchers. The discussion should not just restate ideas made earlier but should enrich the readers‘ understanding of the research reported and provide explanations of the results where possible. ―Your interpretation of the results should take into account (a) sources of potential bias and other threats to internal validity, (b) the imprecision of measures, (c) the overall number
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of tests or overlap among tests, (d) the effect sizes observed, and (e) other limitations or weaknesses of the study. If an intervention is involved, discuss whether it was successful and the mechanism by which it was intended to work (causal pathways) and/or alternative mechanisms. Also, discuss barriers to implementing the intervention or manipulation as well as the fidelity with which the intervention or manipulation was implemented in the study, that is, any differences between the manipulation as planned and as implemented. Acknowledge the limitations of your research, and address alternative explanations of the results.‖ (APA 2010, pp. 35-36). The contemporary importance of the study can be achieved by considering the applications of the findings and the future research possibilities that this study revealed.
References ―References acknowledge the work of previous scholars and provide a reliable way to locate it. References are used to document statements made about the literature, just as data in the manuscript support interpretations and conclusions.‖ (APA, 2010, p. 37). The listing of references provided at the end of a manuscript must contain all the references used in the article; it does not contain tangential readings that the researchers used in making decisions about the study. Many journals use the APA style manual (2010) for content, style, and formatting entries in the reference list. Above all other rules: be accurate, consistent, complete, check for critical information, verify that all references cited in the text are listed and that all references listed were used in the text and were required, and delete all unnecessary references. The EndNote© software program (http://www.endnote.com) is a combination online search tool, reference and figure database, and bibliography and manuscript maker that has preset journal styles, which are customizable by each user. The program is available in both PC and MAC platforms, is often available from educational institutions at a discount, and is an excellent tool. Free online services include tutorials and webinars; no purchase required. RefWorks, an online personal database and bibliography creator (http://www.refworks.com), is available by an individual or educational institution-wide subscription. Libraries may have RefWorks Page 2383
linked to their databases and search engines. The newer version of this software allows the use to customize referencing and reference lists to specific journals. Users can continue using RefWorks at no cost after leaving school as long as their school maintains a subscription. Tutorials are offered online. Written and Unwritten Rules A number of simple guidelines for preparing manuscripts based on the 2010 APA manual and the 2006 AERA standards for reporting empirical research are emphasized in the style guidelines prepared for English as a second language and early-career academic writers (Yore, S. A., 2009). Common style problems encountered relate to ignoring fundamental principles of outlining a report, trying to produce a ‗commercial‘ manuscript, not using the spelling and grammar checks in the English language of word processing software, and not having someone more expert read and react to the draft manuscript before submitting it to journal editors.
Reviews and Reactions Novice and expert writers report benefits to the content and writing style of having a colleague or friend read and react to their writing. An extra set of eyes helps identify conceptual ideas needing change, alternative interpretations and explanations not originally considered, and editorial problems involving spelling, grammar, word use, and style overlooked by the authors. It helps if the trusted other is somewhat more expert or experienced with the content or with writing for the specific academic journal. Some of the conceptual feedback can be obtained by first presenting the manuscript as a conference paper. The discussion that follows the presentation frequently contains additional articles or theoretical perspectives to consider, alternative interpretations of the data, and more convincing arguments and explanations to use. These ideas can be an excellent source of input on which to base your revisions.
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Spell Check and Grammar Check Always use the appropriate English spelling and grammar checks after composing the manuscript. If you are using a translation program from a language into English, use the English language (British, Canadian, United States, etc.) spell and grammar check on the resulting translated text to correct the difficulties encountered by such programs. Be careful about adding words to your spell check dictionary since misspellings are retained for future use.
Headings Major sections require concise, descriptive headings, which can be subdivided into two or more sections with associated subheadings. Just as in outlining, do not break a major section into one subsection; use two or more subheadings for any major heading that is subdivided. Headings and subheadings help readers follow your manuscript organization and your argument, but they should not become lists without intervening text. Headings should be followed by two or more sentences that provide advance organizers and overview the pending breakdown of the section before going to a subheading. Layout Current word processing software allows authors to desktop-publish very attractive manuscripts. However, journal manuscripts for peer review are not camera-ready proofs of the ultimate article. Most journals and publishers employ copy editors and layout specialists to produce the journal pages. Using fancy layouts with both margins justified into straight patterns of word starts and word endings makes it difficult for reviewers and editors to judge the appropriateness of spacing and hyphenations. The following layout guidelines apply to manuscripts prepared to APA (2010) standards: Format
Times New Roman (a serif typeface) for text, 12-point font size
Arial (a sans serif typeface) for tables and figures, font size may be reduced
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Double-space between all text lines; tables and figures may be single-spaced or 1.5-spaced
Margins of 1 in. (2.54 cm) all 4 sides
Line length of 6.5 in. (16.51 cm)
―ragged‖ or uneven right margin, not justified
Do not use word processing hyphenation feature
1 space after periods and colons, not 2 spaces
Indent first line of every paragraph and footnote .5 in. (12.5 mm); EXCEPTIONS: abstract, block quotations, titles and headings, table titles and notes, figure captions
Header set .5 in. (12.5 mm) from page edge:
Running head: shortened title (>50 characters), flush left, uppercase letters
Consecutive page numbers, set tab at .5 in. (12.5 mm) from right margin
Insert ―hard or section‖ page breaks after Title Page, Abstract/Keywords; before References, each Table, each Figure, and each Appendix
Two or more subheadings (levels 2, 3, 4, and 5) for the four major sections to follow organization and argument
Order of Pages
Title page: title, author‘s name (byline), institutional affiliation, author note (includes acknowledgements), and running head with page numbered 1
Abstract and keywords: page numbered 2
Text: Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion; page numbered 3
References
Tables
Figures
Appendices
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If you use Microsoft Word software, the following ideas are useful in setting up the format of your manuscript regarding heading locations and levels, size and kind of type, and text requirements. The following example illustrates the rules for a style template (Yore, S. A., 2009) with the position and type shown.
APA Standards & Paragraph Style Template (All paragraphs are double-spaced and 12-point font.)
Normal: Times New Roman, flush left margin, ragged right margin; also used for Abstract, Keywords, text following a long quotation that is part of the same paragraph and after Lists, Tables, and Figures. Title: Centered, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading [title case] Heading 1: Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading [title case] Heading 2: Flush Left Margin, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading [title case] Heading 3: Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Heading 4: Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Heading 5: Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Body Text: First line indented .5 in. (12.5 mm); style for paragraph immediately following each heading (1–5).
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Body Text (quotations <40 words): Indented .5 in. (12.5 mm). Check word-length limits; extremely long quotes require the permission of the copyright holder, which is normally the publisher. Body Text (references): Hanging indent of .5 in. (12.5 mm). Contains information about the author(s), year published, title, journal or publisher, city, state, country, volume (issue), and page numbers. 1. List Numbers and List Bullets: Indented .25 in. and hanging indent of .25 in. (6 mm).
Use a numbered list when order is important; use bullets when emphasis, not order, is important.
Table Caption: Placed above the table, flush left margin, uppercase (e.g., TABLE 2). Sentence case italicized text for table name that follows on next line, no period at end. Figure Caption: Placed below the figure, flush left margin, italicized (e.g., Figure 4.). Sentence case text for figure name that follows immediately ending with a period.
Closing Comments Language is a powerful tool, a technology like the computer or electron microscope, to solve problems—cognitive problems not physical problems. Constructivist-oriented researchers have recognized the essential role language, especially written language, plays in the construction of knowledge and understanding in the research laboratory, the science and mathematics classroom, and informal everyday situations. In his book Fumblerules (originally published in The New York Times in 1979), William Safire (1990) gave a light-hearted look at language, grammar, and good usage. The following are his fumblerules—mistakes that call attention to the rule.
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Avoid run-on sentences they are hard to
Write all adverbial forms correct.
read.
Don‟t use contractions in formal writing.
Don‟t use no double negatives.
Writing carefully, dangling participles
Use the semicolon properly, always use
it where it is appropriate; and never
must be avoided.
archaisms.
where it isn‟t.
Reserve the apostrophe for it‟s proper
use and omit it when its not needed.
It is incumbent on us to avoid
If any word is improper at the end of a sentence, a linking verb is.
Do not put statements in the negative
form.
Steer clear of incorrect forms of verbs that have snuck in the language.
Verbs has to agree with their subjects.
No sentence fragments.
Proofread carefully to see if you any
Avoid trendy locutions that sound flaky.
words out.
Never, ever use repetitive redundancies.
Avoid commas, that are not necessary.
Everyone should be careful to use a
If you reread your work, you will find on
singular pronoun with singular nouns in
rereading that a great deal of repetition
their writing.
mixed metaphors.
can be avoided by rereading and
editing.
If I‟ve told you once, I‟ve told you a thousand times, resist hyperbole.
A writer must not shift your point of view.
Eschew dialect, irregardless.
And don‟t start a sentence with a
Take the bull by the hand and avoid
Also, avoid awkward or affected alliteration.
Don‟t string too many prepositional
conjunction.
phrases together unless you are walking
Don‟t overuse exclamation marks!!!
through the valley of the shadow of
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death.
Place pronouns as close as possible, especially in long sentences, as of 10 or
Always pick on the correct idiom.
more words, to their antecedents.
“Avoid overuse of „quotation “marks.”‟”
Hyphenate between sy-
The adverb always follows the verb.
llables and avoid un-necessary
Last but not least, avoid clichés like the
hyphens.
plague; seek viable alternatives.
Reporting research results is a difficult task at the best of times, and it is even more difficult when authors are to report the findings in a language that is different from the language that they used to construct the claims, assertions, and explanations. Literacy and science education researchers have outlined international perspectives and considerations of many research and reporting issues in the post ‗Gold Standard‘ era regarding science-based inquiry, evidence-based practice, curriculum and pedagogy, new statistics and methods, and influencing public policy and education decisions (Yore et al., 2009).
References American Educational Research Association. (2006). Standards for reporting on empirical social science research in AERA publications. Educational Researcher, 35(6), 33-40. doi:10.3102/0013189x035006033 American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Clinton, H. R. (1996). It takes a village. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. Duschl, R. A., & Ellenbogen, K. (1999, August). Middle school science students‘ dialogic argumentation. Proceedings of the Second International Conference of the European Science Education
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Research Association “Research in science education: Past, present, and future”, Kiel, Germany. Retrieved from http://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/projekte/esera/book/regf.htm Eybe, H., & Schmidt, H.-J. (2001). Quality criteria and exemplary papers in chemistry education research. International Journal of Science Education, 23(2), 209-225. doi:10.1080/09500690118920 Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1988). The computer and the mind: An introduction to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lawson, A. E. (in press). How ‗scientific‘ is science education research? Journal of Research in Science Teaching. Lester, F. K., Jr., & Wiliam, D. (2000). The evidential basis for knowledge claims in mathematics education research. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 31(2), 132-137. Lin, F.-L., Yore, L. D., & Yore, S. A. (2007). Mentoring makes a difference. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5(2), 187-191. doi:10.1007/s10763-007-9068-9 Safire, W. (1990). Fumblerules: A lighthearted guide to grammar and good usage. New York, NY: Doubleday. Shelley, M. C., II, Yore, L. D., & Hand, B. (Eds.). (2009). Quality research in literacy and science education: International perspectives and gold standards. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument (updated ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Yore, L. D. (2003). Quality science and mathematics education research: Considerations of argument, evidence and generalizability [Guest editorial]. School Science and Mathematics, 103(1), 1-7. Yore, L. D., Shelley, M. C., II, & Hand, B. (2009). Reflections on beyond the Gold Standards era and ways of promoting compelling arguments about science literacy for all. In M. C. Shelley II, L. D. Yore, & B. Hand (Eds.), Quality research in literacy and science education: International perspectives and gold standards (pp. 623-649). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
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Yore, S. A. (2009). APA standards and paragraph style template. Unpublished document available from SAY Professional Services, Sharyl A. Yore CPS, Victoria, BC, Canada ([email protected]).
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Science Literacy for All—More than a logo or rally flag!1 Larry D. Yore Distinguished Professor Department of Curriculum and Instruction Faculty of Education University of Victoria Victoria, British Columbia, Canada [email protected]
Abstract A contemporary definition of Science Literacy for All can provide a framework for science education in which an integrated view of the nature of science, how people learn, language as a cognitive tool, and fuller and informed participation in the public debate about science, technology, society, and environment can lead to justified decisions and sustainable solutions. This paper outlines a revitalized interpretation of the science education reform— Science Literacy for All— and promising classroom practices, research agendas, and development opportunities.
1
Do not quote without author‘s permission.
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Introduction Forty years ago when I noticed an interesting similarity between the processes in science and reading, I did not know that the research journey, actually an odyssey, would last a lifetime. The language-in-science journey has not been a straight trip between point A in 1969 and point B in 2009; rather, it is one that has enjoyed promising outcomes that revitalized my interest and commitment and also blind alleys that required reconceptualizing the fundamental assumptions and procedures anchoring the investigation. Historical analyses of this journey and the independent, but parallel, journeys of others have revealed the influential changes in the understanding and dominant theories of learning (behavoralism, cognitive development, psycholinguistics, constructivism, etc.), models of literacy, reading and writing (text-driven bottom-up, learner-driven top-down, interactive-constructive models), and the general lack of interest by the science education communities until the 1994 publication of the special issue of the Journal of Research in Science Teaching (Yore, Holliday, & Alvermann, Eds.). During the early years, educational research and instruction was dominated by B. F. Skinner and his stimulus-response conditioning and behavioralist interpretation of learning, the distillation of complex events into simple sequential tasks, and skill-and-drill approaches to teaching. Science education and language arts programs of this time reflected these influences with controlled vocabulary, direct instruction, and programmed learning. Later, Jean Piaget and his model of cognitive development, logico-mathematical operations, and developmentally appropriate, hands-on, learner-centered instruction dominated the educational research and practice. Science education and language instruction became experiential activity-oriented (discovery learning, whole language, etc.) leading to ‗activitymania‘ where researchers and teachers believed that when one activity does not result in understanding you should provide
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additional activities. Direct teaching and explicit instruction in all contexts were bad words! This paper will concentrate on the post-1994 period and especial the post-reform era of the late 1990s that has emphasized Science Literacy for All and contemporary psycholinguistic, cognitive psychological, and constructivist views of learning and language instruction. The current science education reforms in many countries, unlike the 1960s reforms based on a ‗Cold War‘ political agenda, promote Science Literacy for All, constructivist teaching, and authentic assessment (Ford, Yore, & Anthony, 1997; Hand, Prain, & Yore, 2001). Constructivist teaching and authentic assessment will be considered by other keynote presentations during the 2009 International Science Education Conference; therefore, I will not spend a great deal of time or space on these important ideas other than to paraphrase the two most important ideas from cognitive psychology: First, find out what students know, challenge or use these ideas to facilitate their meaningful understandings and, second, assessment must reflect and be aligned with instruction and the target learning outcomes to empower learning and inform instruction (assessment for learning) as well as to evaluate understanding (assessment of learning). Various science educators have advocated science literacy over the last five decades (Arons, 1983; Bauer, 1992; Bybee, 1997; DeBoer, 2000; Fensham, 1985; Hurd, 1958; Miller, 1983; Roberts, 2007), which involved some form of economic, democratic, or social action rationale, but they all emphasized scientific knowledge and applications. Unfortunately, the current reforms may be taken or interpreted as ‗old wine in a new bottle‘ by many people because of this long and unproductive history (See historical overview by Roberts, 2007). People can be convinced that oak barrel aged wine transferred to new bottles, even a screw-capped bottle‘, can be a good thing. However, there is a real danger that the lack of a shared definition and understanding of Science Literacy for All across the international science education
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communities, curriculum developers, science teachers, and professional associations will allow popularity of this logo or rally flag to dissipate without realizing its full potential and worldwide cachet. McEneaney (2003) stated it has ―embraced worldwide as a worthy educational goal even though there is no consensus about what counts as scientific literacy‖ (p. 218), but she cautioned to avoid defining literacy as a ―litany of facts known by literate individuals‖ (p. 230). The lack of agreement has allowed diverse groups to agree about science literacy at the surface level without really grasping the critical attributes and fine structure of this central and essential goal since very few people would support science illiteracy! There are numerous avant-garde interpretations attempting to redefine and rethink science literacy and to move it towards a postmodern position focused on social justice and other sociopolitical agendas (Linder, Osman, & Wickman, 2007). The diffusion of these views and their goals will likely reduce the creditability within the academic science and school-based education communities, inaccurately reflect the nature of contemporary scientific enterprises, and not provide a defensible foundation for school curricula and achievable goals for instruction. The definition proposed in this paper is based on a sociocognitive framework and anchored in schools that integrates the nature of science, learning, and teaching. Background There is an emerging consensus within parts of the international science education research community about the need to focus on the literacy aspects of science literacy (Carlsen, 2007; Kelly, 2007; Norris & Phillips, 2003; Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003). The ‗Island Group‘ (Hand et al., 2003; Yore et al., 2004 of the language and science learning communities takes a distinct view of science literacy as being composed of two interacting clusters of cognitive, affective, communicative, and technological abilities related to science—fundamental sense of
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being a literature person in science—and conceptual knowledge of science and the scientific enterprise—derived sense of understandings flowing from human endeavours related to nature and naturally occurring events. Here, science literacy is taken as a specific illustration of disciplinary literacy in which the literacy component is recognized and valued for its functional roles in constructing understanding and reporting knowledge claims (Moje, 2007, 2008; Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) considers literacy to involve people‘s cross-disciplinary capacities to apply knowledge and discipline-specific abilities to analyse, reason, and communicate as they pose, solve, and interpret diversity real-life problems (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2003). This definition illustrates both the derived (knowledge-based aspects) and fundamental (cognitive, affective and technological abilities) senses of disciplinary literacy in reading, mathematics, and science; furthermore, the PISA definitions and instruments are not curriculum-based but rather based on predictions about adult life and citizenship that are dynamic and ever changing. The literate person needs to have content knowledge and also must be able to apply it to ill-structured, daily-life problem solving. Reading literacy [Emphasis of PISA 2000] - An individual‘s capacity to understand, use, and reflect on written texts, in order to achieve one‘s goals, to develop one‘s knowledge and potential, and to participate in society. Mathematical literacy [Emphasis of PISA 2003] - An individual‘s capacity to identify and understand the role that mathematics plays in the world, to make well-founded judgments, and to use and engage with mathematics in ways that meet the needs of that individual‘s life as a constructive, concerned, and reflective citizen.
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Scientific literacy [Emphasis of PISA 2006] - The capacity to use scientific knowledge, to identify questions, and to draw evidence-based conclusions in order to understand and help make decisions about the natural world and the changes made to it through human activity. (OECD, 2003, p. 15) Results from PISA 2003 (Anderson, Lin, Treagust, Ross, & Yore, 2007) and PISA 2006 (Milford, 2009) based on these definitions revealed supportive associations for the interactive clusters of disciplinary literacies with very significant correlations amongst science literacy, reading literacy, and mathematics literacy (coefficients at the student level were found in the 0.78–0.82 range for the 2003 dataset and the 0.79–0.89 range for the 2006 dataset). When these very high associations (61–79% shared variance between the difference literacies, realizing that correlation does not imply causality) are compared to other large-scale assessment results based on definitions of traditional literacy that emphasize narrative language abilities and content knowledge that emphasizes lower-level recall (correlation coefficients in the 0.33–0.45 range), it suggests potential relations more than chance occurrences within data. Disciplinary Literacy in Education Reforms Analysis of current reform documents standards, benchmarks and learning outcomes from the USA (Ford et al., 1997), English-speaking countries (Hand et al., 2001), and Canada (Yore, Pimm, & Tuan, 2007) started to elaborate the fundamental literacy cluster and the scientific understanding cluster anchored to the expectations of schools (Table 1). Furthermore, the achievement of science literacy has a citizenship focus that leads to fuller participation in the public debate about science, technology, society, and environment (STSE) or socioscientific (SSI) issues leading to informed solutions and sustainable actions. Therefore, much like the science curricula in Singapore that do not explicitly mention science literacy, most state,
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provincial, or national curricula do emphasize common features to the curricula analyzed above (Singapore Ministry of Education [MoE], 2008). The Singapore curricula reveal the greatest alignment with the derived sense of science literacy, such as science in daily life, society, and environment, the spirit of inquiry, and knowledge (including vocabulary and language conventions), understanding, and applications but has some alignment with the fundamental sense, such as vocabulary, language conventions, processes, skills, attitudes, and ethics.
TABLE I Interacting Senses of Scientific Literacy Fundamental Sense
Derived Sense
Cognitive and Metacognitive Abilities
Understanding the Big Ideas and Unifying Concepts of Science
Critical Thinking/Plausible Reasoning
Nature of Science
Habits of Mind
Scientific Inquiry
Scientific Language Arts (reading, writing,
Technological Design
speaking, listening, viewing and representing in science) Information Communication Technologies
Relationships among Science, Technology, Society, and Environment (STSE)
Note. From Yore, Pimm, & Tuan, 2007, p. 568.
The clusters and components in Table 1 vary in degrees of specificity, consistency, and clarity across the curriculum documents in English-speaking countries; but this framework
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captures the material and social practices of scientists and disciplinary conventions and traditions embedded in the contemporary scientific enterprise (Ford, 2008; Ford & Forman, 2006). The extant literatures in literacy education and science education are steadily increasing the clarity and evidential support for these clusters and in refining the characteristic of the entries in each cluster. The science understanding cluster is reasonably well defined by the curricular documents in each nation with some degree of agreement across jurisdictions; however, the specificity of the fundamental literacy cluster is somewhat more vague in these documents. This concern is being addressed by the rich and diverse research agenda related to science literacy, language arts in science, argumentation, reading-science-writing connections, writing-to-learn science, multiple representations, explicit instruction, etc. reported in a number of special issues and stand-alone articles, books, chapters, and reviews. Furthermore, the professional literature related to science teaching in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States recommends numerous language and literacy classroom practices with various degrees of theoretical and empirical evidence (Hand, Yore, Jagger, & Prain, in press). These literatures are not only increasing the clarity, evidential support and refined characteristics of science literacy; they are clarifying the mechanisms involved in the cognitive symbiosis within and between these clusters. The underlying backings for this model are in the nature of science and the ontological and epistemological assumptions of science and language, especially print, as a cognitive tool of scientists and students doing and learning science. Language is not only used to report understandings; it and the communication process shape what is known. While there has been some recognition given to the value of using discussion, argumentation, reading, and writing to help students construct understandings of science, only recently has a limited literature focused on how the nature of science and the scientific enterprise influence the characteristics and
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content of oral and written discourse, what language and metacognitive processes scientists use to construct science and to inform different audiences of their work, and how these processes can be applied in science classrooms to promote science learning (Florence & Yore, 2004; Yore, 2004; Yore, Florence, Pearson, & Weaver, 2006; Yore, Hand, & Florence, 2004; Yore, Hand, & Prain, 2002). Derived Sense of Scientific Literacy The derived sense of scientific literacy is reasonably well understood and accepted in the science education community and international science education reform documents as understanding the critical principles and foundations of science (Hand et al., 2001). There is some disagreement on the specific ideas that would be considered critical and foundational as illustrated by the specifics identified in various reform documents, curriculum standards, and benchmarks. The entries in Table 1, taken at the general level, illustrate a reasonable degree of consensus. Big Ideas and Unifying Concepts The big ideas and unifying concepts consider the major content for biological, earth and space, and physical sciences that apply across domains and topics or provide a foundational basis for work in a specific domain. The lower secondary science curriculum (Singapore MoE, 2008) identified understanding and application within science and technology, life processes, matter, forces, electricity, and heat while other national reform documents identify more or less big ideas that the curriculum developers believe to be essential and foundational. Nature of Science Science is frequently promoted in the science education reforms as inquiry, but it could equally well be defined as argument. Scientists use unique patterns of exploration to investigate
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defined problems and hypotheses and argumentation that attempt to establish clear connections among claims, data, backings, warrants, evidence, counterclaims, and rebuttals regarding these problems or hypotheses. Science is people‘s attempt to systematically search out, describe, and explain generalized patterns of events in the natural world and, also, that the explanations stress natural physical causalities and cause-effect mechanisms, not supernatural, mystical, magical, or spiritual causes (Good, Shymansky, & Yore, 1999). ―Explanations about the natural world based on myths, personal beliefs, religious values, mystical inspiration, superstition, or authority may be personally useful and socially relevant, but they are not science‖ (United States National Research Council [NRC], 1996, p. 201). Science distinguishes itself from other epistemologies (ways of knowing) and from other bodies of knowledge through its metaphysics (ontology), the use of empirical standards, logical arguments, plausible reasoning (abduction, induction, deduction, hypothetico-deduction), and scepticism to generate the best temporal explanations possible about reality. Scientific Inquiry and Technological Design Scientific inquiry is a creative, dynamic, and recursive process. There is no universal, lock-step scientific method. Authentic inquiry involves a cycle of false starts, unproductive moves, repeated trials, and revised procedures leading to a knowledge claim and explanation. Technological design differs from scientific inquiry in its goal and procedures. Technology adapts the environment to people‘s needs or to alleviate problems. Therefore, technology is not just an applied use of known scientific ideas, since sometimes designs occur before the science is understood. Technological design values both tinkering and the trial-and-error approaches of the inventor. It involves identifying needs/opportunities, material and production limitations, generating designs, planning, making, testing, evaluating, and communicating.
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Relationships among Science, Technology, Society, and Environment (STSE) Clearly, some of the most pressing and relevant issues facing people today involve various combinations of scientific, technological, and societal demands and influences on the environment. STSE issues such as climate change, population, clear-cut forestry, pollution, genetic modifications and many other science discoveries and technical innovations are major concerns. Fundamental Sense of Scientific Literacy The fundamental sense of being literate in a discipline involves the abilities to understand and communicate specific discourses associated with the discipline and then to construct understanding from the disciplinary discourses for the purpose of fuller participation in the public debate. Furthermore, fundamental literacy in a discipline is contextualised and plays an interactive role with the derived sense of literacy dealing with the knowledge of the domain. When these ideas are applied to scientific literacy, there is a cognitive symbiosis within and between the fundamental and derived senses with each stimulating and enabling growth in the other. Users of science discourse (oral or written) cannot fully comprehend the discourse without appropriate knowledge of the nature of science, scientific inquiry, and the content of science. A contemporary evaluativist, naïve realist view of science will influence and limit your language and metalanguage associated with an absolutist, realist view of science (evidence supports not proves, tentative claims not truths, etc.). Utilization of information communication technologies (ICT) will require development of a critical stance as a habit of mind and likely change how learners make sense of multimodal electronic text compared to reading and writing with more traditional forms of text.
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Scientists working on authentic inquiries and engineers working on authentic design problems and innovations demonstrate and use both well-developed fundamental and derived senses of scientific or technological literacy to create their insights and innovations (Florence & Yore, 2004; Yore, Hand, & Florence, 2004; Yore et al., 2006). The fundamental sense of scientific literacy involves more than the ability to read and write discourse in the science domains and communities (Norris & Phillips, 2003); it embellishes a variety of cognitive, thinking/reasoning, linguistic, and technical abilities and strategies (clusters of complementary skills directed at achieving the same outcome) dealing with human learning and construction of understanding focused on doing, epistemological practices, and knowledge about and executive control of inquiry, design, problem solving, trouble shooting, and argumentation (Ford, 2008; NRC, 2007; Yore et al., 2006). Cognitive and Metacognitive Abilities The construction of scientific understanding involves a variety of ontological assumptions and epistemological principles that define the nature of science and how scientists go about doing science. The actions—verbs—applied correctly and effectively produce knowledge claims and explanations—nouns. These cognitive and metacognitive abilities and strategies include but are not limited to (Yore, Pimm & Tuan, 2007):
Building and monitoring knowledge claims and making sense of the world.
Critical analysis of claims, procedures, measurement errors, data, etc.
Justifying data as evidence for/against a claim based on the theoretical backings/warrants.
Analytical reasoning, problem solving, and troubleshooting.
Planning, conducting, evaluating, and regulating inquiries and designs.
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Critical Thinking/Plausible Reasoning Deciding what to believe or do about a challenge is central to most descriptions of critical thinking (Ford, 1998). Scientific-literate people faced with a worthwhile challenge, issue, or problem deserving consideration will conduct appropriate deliberations of evidence, criteria, and opinions to make a judgment about what to do/believe and will justify the claim/judgment. Critical thinking from a metacognitive perspective can be viewed as thinking about your thinking as you are thinking to improve the quality of your thinking. Plausible reasoning (induction, deduction, abduction, hypothetico-deduction) has regained a central emphasis in science learning, curricula, and teaching (NRC, 2007). Habits of Mind Emotional dispositions (habits of mind) toward science inquiry and technological design reflect the nature of science and technology (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1993). The skills and process, and attitudes and ethics outcomes of the lower secondary science curriculum (Singapore MoE, 2008) contribute to the fundamental aspects under habits of mind and, to a lesser degree, to language and ICT components. These habits of mind involve beliefs, values, attitudes, critical stance, processes, and skills regarding science and technology. Scientific Language Scientific-literate people orally present, write, read, and represent using natural and mathematical languages; follow directions; state a purpose for stepwise procedures; produce a compelling argument, sound explanation, clear description, or mathematical expression; and use the metalanguage of science in a proper and appropriate manner that reflects an accepted view of science. They construct and use multiple representations (including sketches, diagrams, models,
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tables, charts, maps, pictures, and graphs); use visual and textual displays to reveal relationships; locate and evaluate information from various textual and digital sources; and choose and use appropriate vocabulary, spatial displays, numerical operations, and statistics. Information Communication Technologies (ICT) Scientists do science with technologies and are limited by the available technologies. ICT allow scientists to cooperate and share databases at a distance, construct new knowledge, and coauthor research reports without being in the same room. Scientific-literate students use and read calculators, analog/digital meters, digital records, cameras, and videos; troubleshoot common problems; and determine potential causes of malfunctions (AAAS, 1993). They use 21st-century tools—not to be confused with instructional technologies—for accessing, processing, managing, interpreting and communicating information, understanding, managing and creating effective oral, written, and multimedia communications, exercising sound reasoning, making complex choices, and understanding connections among systems, and are able to frame, analyze, and solve problems. ICT literacy maps for science, mathematics, English, and geography (social studies is under development) in grades 4, 8, and 12 can be located under the frameworks heading at the bottom on the following homepage: http://www.21stcenturyskills.org. Relations between Language Ability in Science and Understanding Science However, several pressing and practical questions arise when you suggest that Science Literacy for All or being literate in science involves a serous consideration of literacy and components of language and not just knowing your science! Parents, students, science professors, and science teachers have concerns about the validity of the language-science claim; they want to know the mechanics between language and knowing, and how acceptance of the language-science claim would influence their instructional time and classroom practice.
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Recent articles in Nature or Science, announcements of the Nobel Prizes, journalistic reported versions (JRV) of recent research findings in Popular Science, and opinion editorials in your newspaper are clear tests of out-of-school science literacy and can provide most parents insights into what is involved in being literate in science. Yarden (2009) provided a summary of the characteristics (authors, audience, genre, content, structure, and presentation) for primary scientific literature, adapted primary literature, JRV, and textbooks. Phillips and Norris (2009) outlined the gaps between these authentic forms of scientific text and textbooks and the potential of adapted primary sources to enhance science reading and science literacy. Few of us would understand all the intricacies of the physics in charge-coupled devices (CCD) that was the basis for Willard Boyle‘s and George Smith‘s share of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics (Charles Kao also shared in this prize for his development of high-efficiency optical fiber). But, with some degree of insights into how language is used in science and the nature of science, we can appreciate this electronic light detector discovery and its related impact on electronics and digital cameras. Clearly, the time between discovery (1969) and application of the CCD in digital cameras (1986) is far longer than many JRVs make it seem. Furthermore, we realize that much evidence, explicit reasoning, and uncertainty have been stripped from television clips and JRVs. However, do your students realize these differences or do they over-generalize and ascribe greater certainty than intended or justified? The importance of language to doing science was a critical barrier to convincing scientists and science teachers of the value of Science Literacy for All. Many scientists and science teachers view the functionality of language simply as a reporting device for what is known. It is a much harder task to convince them that language, especially written language, has a function in constructing understanding and that the choice of language can shape what we
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know. Halliday and Martin (1993) and Norris and Phillips (2003) provided a reasonably convincing argument about the constitutive role of language based on philosophy and linguistics foundations and imply that without language there would be no science. The history of science is rich with examples of how word choice or metaphor selection influence the understanding of science ideas (Explore Frozen Stars and Black Holes). Furthermore, others posit that in cultures without written forms of language the knowledge about nature and naturally occurring events is drastically different than those cultures that have written language (Yore, 2008). Several language-science researchers have speculated that there is an interactiveconstructive relationship between components in each cluster and between the clusters that forms a ‗cognitive symbiosis‘ where improvement in one component or cluster promotes and facilitates learning progress and improvements in another component or cluster. Carlson (2007) provided a framework for language in science, science learning, and science teaching that parallels this functional interpretation. This framework takes the systemic features of language as a communicative system to transmit information, an interpretive system to construct knowledge from experience, and a participatory tool in communities of practice and then applied them to functional roles of what speakers/writers are doing, what listeners/readers are doing, how language is involved in learning, and how language is involved in science. His framework clearly illustrates the functional relationships among oral and written language and reporting, constructing and engaging with science in a similar way as systemic functional linguistics (Fang, 2005, 2006; Unsworth, 2001), but it does not fully outline the theoretical foundation and utility of multimodal representations and the transformation between or amongst these representations (Yore & Hand, in press).
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Language, Metacognition, Inquir,y and Learning Science The United States NRC Committee on Science Learning (2007) suggested that much science education research has been based on outmoded views of learning that do not recognize fully learners‘ prior knowledge, value of language, and reasoning abilities about target ideas. The NRC Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning (2000) stated, ―Students often have limited opportunities to understand or make sense of topics because many curricula have emphasized memory rather than understanding‖ (pp. 8-9). This report suggested that: (a) people come to learning with prior conceptions about the world (natural and human-built) that must be engaged or challenged if new or refined conceptions are to be developed; (b) enhanced competence requires prior foundational knowledge, conceptual frameworks, and storage, retrieval, and application strategies; and (c) learning requires metacognition to be aware of, monitor, and control knowledge construction and application. Many commonly held views of learning underemphasized language as a cognitive tool and discounted social negotiations, transmission, and scaffolding amongst learners and more expert peers, adults, and mentors. Students‘ informal reasoning and intuition provide starting points for developing more sophisticated plausible reasoning, critical thinking, and reflections in science (NRC, 2005, 2007). Many of these earlier views of learning stressed content learning and learners‘ deficits rather than their diverse assets and were unaware of the need for metacognition to question, evaluate, store, retrieve, orchestrate, and integrate knowledge construction and self-regulated learning. Constructivist approaches recognize the expanded boundaries of learning to more fully consider the nature of science (ontological assumptions and epistemological beliefs), cognitive sciences, the importance of these considerations, and the utilization of these resources.
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Effective learning experiences must stimulate and scaffold learners‘ negotiations with other learners and more expert individuals, allowing learners to make sense of their experience and prior knowledge, to formulate tentative ideas and construct representations, and to move amongst the oral, print, symbolic, visual, and physical representations resulting from these negotiations. The NRC (2000, 2007) differentiated between the negotiations that lead to conceptual growth and conceptual changes and suggested that the progression of learning (descriptions of increasingly complex and advanced ways of thinking about and understanding of conceptual ideas) does not occur smoothly. The struggle for conceptual change may involve a reconceptualization of the nature of the discipline and its underlying ontological and epistemological perspectives. This has lead to an interactive-constructivist model that has posited learners‘ constructed understanding of science based on their ontological assumptions, epistemological beliefs, prior conceptual and discourse knowledge, concurrent sensory experiences, available information sources, and interpersonal interactions within a sociocultural context (Alexander, 2006, 2007; Hofer, 2005; Mason, 2007; Vosniadou, 2007). The role of metacognition has long been supported in problem solving and reading and more recently in teaching and learning of science. Metacognition consisting of metacognitive awareness of the task and executive control of task performance has been established for science reading (Yore, Craig & McGuire, 1997) and for science learning (Thomas, 2006). If metacognition is considered in the context of scientific worldview, ontological assumptions, and epistemological beliefs about what to believe and do (critical thinking) and reflecting on what evidence we have for knowledge claims, beliefs, and action, then the integrative potential of metacognition, critical thinking, and reflection becomes transparent.
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Many science reforms, like the science curricula in Singapore, identify inquiry as a critical attribute of the nature of science, a big idea of science, and as a priority teaching approach for science. Inquiry teaching approaches can be located along a structured to open continuum: full, partial, or inquiry-like forms (NRC, 1996). Henriques (1997) conceptualized inquiry teaching within constructivist learning perspectives as information processing, interactive-constructivist, social constructivist, or radical constructivist. She considered the underlying factors (nature of science, ontological, epistemological, cognitive, pedagogical, and discourse influences and the realities of classrooms) in this interpretation and provides support for a modified learning cycle (engage, explore, consolidate, assess). However, Johnson (2007) stated, ―Inquiry is a luxury, rather than a necessity; many teachers who use it periodically consider it to be in addition to the regular teaching of science, and oftentimes it is used as a reward for students after covering the required material.‖ (p. 133) The avoidance of teaching science as inquiry is based on real and imagined barriers, contextual factors, teacher beliefs, and assumptions about teaching and learning (Yore et al., 2007). They stated: In summary, teachers are often overwhelmed with the difficult task of implementing the more interactive and unpredictable teaching methods associated with inquiry and constructivism. Implementing this type of learning involves sophisticated integration of pedagogical skills and deep content. Learning and understanding do not come to students simply by the doing of activities. (p. 64) However, they identified the lack of and limited access to compelling evidence about the effectiveness of inquiry approaches when compared to traditional and alternative approaches as an important factor in the teachers‘ unwillingness to implement inquiry approaches. ―It is clear
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that teachers require a great amount of support in order to teach science effectively, including the use of inquiry, cooperative groups, and classroom discourse.‖ (Johnson, 2007, p. 133). Promising Integration of Language and Science Programs Over the last 20 years many science educators have realized that hands-on activities are necessary but, when used alone, are insufficient in supporting student learning and meaningful science understanding. Activitymania, the uncritical belief that additional hands-on sensory experiences automatically leads to understanding, has been replaced with the realization that minds-on experiences including argumentation, deliberations, and negotiations need to scaffold these hands-on activities. Many second-generation science inquiry programs have adopted a learning cycle or 5E approach that engages, explores, explains, extends, and evaluates students‘ learning. Romance and Vitale (1992) conducted one of the first programs to explore a systematic integration of language arts and science instruction by replacing the separate basal reading and science programs with a textbook-based, science-content reading program that emphasized onhands inquiry activities, science processes, and comprehension of informational text. They found that combining instructional times for reading and science using a science textbook program led to improved reading and science and improved affective measures toward these subjects. Their current research has taken the earlier work and expanded its focus to include science writing and scaled the efforts to include most elementary and middle schools in two very large school districts with similar promising effects on student performance (Romance & Vitale, 2006, 2008). Others have demonstrated the value of explicit reading instruction embedded in science programs to enhance reading comprehension and metacognitive awareness (Holden & Yore, 1997, Spence, Yore, & Williams, 1999).
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Several programs have explored embedded literacy activities in science inquiry programs at elementary and middle schools with strong evidence of desired changes in classroom practice and growing evidential links to student learning. Science—Parents, Activities, and Literature (Science PALs) addressed the use of children‘s literature and informational trade books as springboards into and elaborative resources for inquiry (Shymansky, Yore, & Hand, 2000). A case study of Science PALs revealed that K-6 students, parents, and district administrators believed the program was successful in implementing interactive-constructivist teaching ideas, science inquiry, school-home connections, and improved attitudes toward science. Analyses of students‘ science achievement and perceptions of classroom climate working with highly rated teachers (supervisor‘s ratings) compared to similar students working with less highly rated teachers revealed nonsignificant differences in science achievement (multiple choice and constructed response items) but significant differences in perceptions of classroom climate. Klentschy and Molina-De La Torre (2004) integrated inquiry science and literacy activities involving low socioeconomic elementary schools with a high percentage of English language learners (ELL >50% of students). Science notebooks were used by students to record their inquiry experiences; collect and interpret data; process and reprocess experiences, mental images, and representations; and document construction of ideas in writing. They found significant differences between participating students and nonparticipating students and significant improvements with increased participation for grades 4 and 6 science achievement and grade 6 writing; the performance gaps in reading, writing, and science between native English language students and ELL students narrowed and became nonsignificant after 5 years of participation (Klentschy, Garrison, & Amaral, n.d.).
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Revak and Kuerbis (2008) explored integrating literacy and mathematics strategies (graphing, writing, reading) with second-generation inquiry modules across five school districts. They also used science notebooks as the central focus of reporting and processing experiences to construct understanding with writing and representing within a modified learning cycle. Analyses revealed that teacher beliefs and self-reported classroom practices had significant effects (large effect sizes = 1.1–1.8) on grade 5 students‘ performance in science, mathematics, reading and writing on a statewide test. Furthermore, significant differences (small to medium effect sizes = 0.15–0.56) were found for students of teachers with different experiences with science notebooks, integrations of literacy and science, graphing in science, and integration of mathematics and science favoring students of the more proficient teachers. The Science Writing Heuristic (SWH) approach, a theoretical orientation that emerged from writing-to-learn research, is a practical shift from laboratory work as replication and production of typical reports to the construct knowledge that integrated the nature of science, inquiry, and argumentation (Hand, 2007; Hand & Keys, 1999). This approach requires learners to pose questions, make claims supported by evidence, consult with experts, and reflect on changes to their original thinking. The SWH emphasizes student‘s learning (student template) and the teacher‘s service roles to support and scaffold these negotiations (teacher template). Hand (2007) summarized the benefits gained in terms of student performance on a standardized test and the need for high levels of implementation. Furthermore, a meta-analysis of 6 quantitative studies (Gunel, Hand, & Prain, 2007) and a metasynthesis of 10 qualitative studies (McDermott & Hand, 2008) have demonstrated consistently positive evidence for the SWH approach across science topics and educational levels (primary school to university).
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Recent research on the role of representational competence in learning science has focused on two broad areas: Designing and interpreting effective texts for students and studentgenerated representations as a basis for science learning (See Research in Science Education special issue, in press). Research on the first area has been structured around dual-coding models for print and visual information but is now exploring new issues regarding changes in representational options with ICT, multimedia resources, and out-of-school experiences on student learning. Research in the second area has identified the increased demands on teachers’ knowledge base and their teaching, assessment, and identification of representational challenges and opportunities posed by different sequences, combinations, and integrations of representational modes in topics. Furthermore, it has become apparent that existing theories and models of multimodal representations do not fully predict or explain the semiotics, systemic functions, cognition and metacognition observed or involved in learner-constructed representations (Tippett & Yore, 2009; Yore & Hand, in press). Evidence-based Classroom Practices In summary, the extant literature in language arts in science have led to enhanced learning (Yore, Bisanz, & Hand, 2003). Analyses of the research literature and our own inquiries suggest that critical features for effective language–science approaches involve experience with the target science idea, negotiations that include both interpersonal deliberations and intrapersonal reflections, multimodal representations of the ideas, transformation between representations, and metacognitive consideration and traces of thinking. Explicit literacy instruction needs to be embedded in authentic learning opportunities using just-in-time delivery as needed by the learners, needs to reflect real science, and needs to involve both construction of knowledge and reporting of understanding.
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Our current efforts in research, development, and implementation are focused on implementing evidence-based strategies and literacy activities into on-going science programs, evaluating generic and science-specific strategies and activities, and building theoretical frameworks or models that more accurately predict and explain the constructive phase of language in science like existing dual-track models do for the interpretive phase of language in science (Yore & Hand, in press). The central context for the ongoing work is middle schools (grades 6-8) in a local school district. This work is part of the Pacific CRYSTAL (Centres for Research in Youth, Science Teaching and Learning), a pilot project funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for 5 years (2005-2010). It has a unique focus concentrating on science and technology literacy, particularly in the context of underserved and underrepresented populations (e.g., First Nations people, new Canadians, female students) with topics including environmental issues, weather, water, and computer engineering. The research and development plan is to trial authentic learning experiences in non-traditional contexts, utilize those experiences to develop innovative classroom approaches as well as schoolwide applications, and proceed to develop leadership within the educational system to advocate for science and technology literacy and to influence education policy and practice. The Pacific CRYSTAL middle schools project is a community-based research and development effort. It used focus group results, which are an essential component of communitybased approaches, to identify successes, areas of further attention, and additional needs and problems related to middle school science literacy of all students. Early focus group results identified content knowledge and pedagogy for the new curriculum and textbooks, integration opportunities for embedded literacy tasks, and concern about full inquiry‘s demands on preparation, instructional time, and available resources. These discussions and explorations
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analyzed the new science curricula and textbook programs in use to identify specific literacy demands as well as opportunities to embed explicit literacy instruction. It was apparent that teachers wanted and needed supplemental textual resources for their science programs as well as experience with an instructional framework and support for many of the new inquiry activities. Some of the topics in the National Geographic Theme Sets (NGSP, 2008) corresponded with the content in frades 6–8, and the aligned materials were purchased for each school. These materials provided a working framework around which to build and embed explicit literacy activities into the existing science programs: Concept and vocabulary development, reading comprehension strategies, visual literacy and representations, and genre writing activities. This opportunistic approach was used to identify the literacy targets and opportunities in the science programs, topics, and resources and to determine specific opportunities and tasks to be addressed in the curriculum. Early informational sessions and workshops developed trust and examined specific textbooks and topics that were scheduled by the teachers to be studied. The fall term was devoted to three textbook series that related to the science cirriculum. Once topics were identified, specific learning outcomes, science concepts, and vocabulary were identified from the grade-level and textbooks. The National Geographic Science Theme Sets that were used as models to establish the instructional framework were also used, where appropriate, as supplemental resources. Over the next 2 years teachers explored different literacy activities and strategies in workshops and in demonstration lessons conducted by the university faculty (flow charts, crosssectional diagrams, graphs, posters, brochures, concept maps, modified learning cycle, science fair project, scoring rubrics, etc.). Teachers selected for the portfolio of literacy activities and teaching and assessment strategies those they wanted to fully develop and incorporate into
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sample science units for the topics in each grade level. Teachers also developed other strategies (modified posters as PowerPoint presentations) and imported others (prereading strategies, multimodal organizers call Foldables®, etc.). The completed science units and six categories of literacy activities: Vocabulary development (Latin and Greek combining forms, ABC Darium and Frayer model), concept development (concept mapping), prereading approach (THIEVES), multi-modal texts (brochures, posters), graphic organizers (Foldables®), and discourse patterns (argumentation) were developed and delivered by the teacher advocates to all teachers in schoolwide workshops during the fall of 2009. A series of activities and case studies are ongoing to develop a theoretical framework, to document the overall effectiveness of literacy-enriched science instruction, and to evaluate the 5year project. Tippett (See Tippett & Yore, 2009) has started by conducting a metasynthesis of the case studies already completed, developing a framework to guide the interpretation of learnergenerated multiple representation by integrating semiotics, SFL (text and visuals), cognition, and metacognition with the existing dual-code models, and conducting verificational case studies. The project-wide case study will utilize a comparison of school-wide assessments of reading, writing, and metacognition from 2005 and 2010 and also interviews of administrators, teachers, and students to document changes in science literacy. References Alexander, P. A. (2006). Evolution of a learning theory: A case study. Educational Psychologist, 41, 57-264. Alexander, P. A. (2007). Bridging cognition and socioculturalism within conceptual change research: Unnecessary foray or unachievable feat? Educational Psychologist, 42, 67-73.
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Anderson, J. O., Lin, H-S., Treagust, D. F., Ross, S. P., & Yore, L. D. (2007). Using large-scale assessment datasets for research in science and mathematics education: Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5, 591-614. Arons, A. B. (1983). Achieving wider scientific literacy. Daedalus, 112(2), 91-122. Bauer, H. H. (1992). Scientific literacy and the myth of the scientific method. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press. Bybee, R. (1997). Achieving scientific literacy: From purposes to practices. Portsmouth, NH: Heinmann. Carlsen, W. S. (2007). Language and science learning. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.). Handbook of research in science education (pp. 57-74). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. DeBoer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at historical and contemporary meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(6), 582–601. Fang, Z. (2005). Scientific literacy: A systemic functional linguistics perspective. Science Education, 89, 335-347. Fang, Z. (2006). The language demands of science reading in middle school. International Journal of Science Education. 28, 491-520. Fensham, P. (1985). Science for all. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 17, 415-435. Florence, M. K., & Yore, L. D. (2004). Learning to write like a scientist: Coauthoring as an enculturation task. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(6), 637-668.
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Ford, C. L. (1998). Educating preservice teachers to teach for an evaluative view of knowledge and critical thinking in elementary social studies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Ford, C. L., Yore, L. D., & Anthony, R. J. (1997). Reforms, visions and standards: A crosscurricular view from an elementary school perspective. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 406 168) Ford, M. J. (2008). Disciplinary authority and accountability in scientific practice and learning. Science Education, 92, 404-423. Ford, M. J., & Forman, E. A. (2006). Redefining literacy learning in classroom contexts. Review of Research in Education, 30, 1-32. Good, R. G., Shymansky, J. A., & Yore, L. D. (1999). Censorship in science and science education. In E. H. Brinkley (Ed.), Caught off guard: Teachers rethinking censorship and controversy (pp. 101-121). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Gunel, M., Hand, B., & Prain, V. (2007). Writing for learning science: A secondary analysis of six studies. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5(4), 615-637. Halliday, M. A. K., & Martin, J. R. (1993). Writing science: Literacy and discursive power. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Hand, B. (Ed.) (2007). Science inquiry, argument and language: A case for the Science Writing Heuristic. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Hand, B. M., Prain, V., & Yore, L. D. (2001). Sequential writing tasks. In P. Tynjala, L. Mason, & K. Lonka (Eds.), Writing as a learning tool: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 105129). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
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Hand, B. M., Alvermann, D. E., Gee, J., Guzzetti, B. J., Norris, S. P., Phillips, L. M., Prain, V., & Yore, L. D. (2003). Message from the ―Island Group‖: What is literacy in science literacy? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40, 607-615. Hand, B., & Keys, C. (1999). Inquiry investigation. The Science Teacher, 66(4), 27-29. Hand, B., Yore, L. D., Jagger, S., & Prain, V. (in press). Connecting research in science literacy and classroom practice: A review of science teaching journals in Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, 1998-2008. Studies in Science Education. Henriques, L. (1997). A study to define and verify a model of interactive-constructive elementary school science teaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA. Hofer, B. K. (2005). The legacy and the challenges: Paul Pintrich‘s contributions to personal epistemology research. Educational Psychologist, 40, 95-105. Holden, T. G., & Yore, L. D. (1996, March-April). Relationships among prior conceptual knowledge, metacognitive awareness, metacognitive self-management, cognitive style, perception-judgment style, attitude toward school science, self-regulation, and science achievement in grades 6-7 students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, St. Louis, MO. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 395 823). Hurd, P. D. (1958). Science literacy: Its meaning for American schools. Educational Leadership, 16, 13-16 & 52. Johnson, C. C. (2007). Effective science teaching, professional development and No Child Left Behind: Barriers, dilemmas, and reality. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 18, 133136.
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Kelly, G. (2007). Scientific literacy, discourse and knowledge. In C. Linder, L. Osman, & P-O. Wickmann (Eds.), Promoting scientific literacy: Science education research in transaction. Proceedings of the Linnaeus Tercentenary Symposium. Uppsala, Sweden: Geotryckeriet. Klentschy, M. P., & Molina-Da La Torre, E. (2004). Students‘ science notebooks and the inquiry process. In E. W. Saul (Ed.). Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives on theory and practice (pp. 340-354). Newark, DE: International Reading Association/National Science Teachers Association Press. Klentschy, M. P., Garrison, L., & Amaral, O. M. (n.d.). Valle Imperial Project in Science (VIPS) Four-year comparison of student achievement data 1995-1999. Unpublished project report. Available at www.aea10.k12.ia.us/vastscience/ElCentroResearch.pdf Linder, C., Osman, L., & Wickmann, P-O. (Eds.). (2007). Promoting scientific literacy: Science education research in transaction. Proceedings of the Linnaeus Tercentenary Symposium. Uppsala, Sweden: Geotryckeriet. Mason, L. (2007). Introduction: Bringing the cognitive and sociocultural approaches in research on conceptual changes: Is it feasible? Educational Psychologist, 42, 1-7. McDermott, M. A., & Hand. B. (2008, January). A secondary analysis of writing-to-learn studies in science: Focus on the student voice. Paper presented at the International Meeting of the Association for Science Teacher Education. St. Louis, MO. McEneaney, E. H. (2003). The worldwide cachet of scientific literacy. Comparative Education Review, 47, 217-237.
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Milford, T. (2009). An investigation of international science achievement using the OECD’s PISA 2006 dataset. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Miller, J. D. (1983). Scientific literacy: A conceptual and empirical review. Daedalus, 112(2), 2948. Moje, E. B. (2007). Chapter 1: Developing socially just subject-matter instruction: A review of the literature on disciplinary literacy teaching. Review of Research in Education, 31(1), 144. Moje, E. B. (2008). Foregrounding the disciplines in secondary literacy teaching and learning: A call for change. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 52, 96-107. National Geographic School Publishing. (2008). Science theme sets: Differentiated instruction at its best. Available from http://www.ngsp.com/Products/Science/nbspnbspThemeSets/tabid/577/Default.aspx Norris, S. P., & Phillips, L. M. (2003). How literacy in its fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Science Education, 87, 224-240. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2003). The PISA 2003 assessment framework - mathematics, reading, science and problem solving: Knowledge and skills. Paris: Author. Phillips, L. M., & Norris, S. P. (2009). Bridging the gap between the language of science and the language of school science through the use of adapted primary literature. Research in Science Education, 39, 313-319.
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Revak, M. & Kuerbis, P. (2008). The link from professional development to K-6 student achievement in science, math, and literacy. Paper presented at the International Meeting of the Association for Science Teacher Education, St. Louis, MO, January 10-12. Roberts, D. A. (2007). Scientific literacy/science literacy. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of research in science education (pp. 729-780). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Romance, N.R. & Vitale, M.R. (1992). A curriculum strategy that expands time for in-depth elementary science instruction by using science-based reading strategies: Effects of a year-long study in grade four. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 545-554. Romance, N. R., & Vitale, M. R. (2006). Science IDEAS: Making the case for integrating reading and writing in elementary science as a key element in school reform. In R. Douglas, M. P. Klentschy, K. Worth & W. Binder (Eds.), Linking science and literacy in the K-8 classroom (pp. 391-405). Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Romance, N. R., & Vitale, M. R. (2008, June). NSF/IERI Science IDEAS Project. Boca Raton, FL: Florida Atlantic University. Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40-61. Shymansky, J.A., Yore, L.D., & Hand, B. (2000). Empowering families in hands-on science programs. School Science and Mathematics, 100, 48-56. Singapore Ministry of Education. (2008). Subject syllabuses – Sciences. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/syllabuses/sciences
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Spence, D. J., Yore, L. D., & Williams, R. L. (1999). The effects of explicit science reading instruction on selected grade 7 students‘ metacognition and comprehension of specific science text. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 11(2), 15-30. Tippett, C. D., & Yore, L. D. (2009, August-September). A theoretical framework: Middle school students constructing and interpreting visual elements in science text. Paper presented at the European Science Education Research Association, Istanbul, Turkey. Thomas, G. P. (2006). Metacognition and science education: Pushing forward from a solid foundation (A changing world: A changing educational focus?) [Editorial] Research in Science Education, 36, 1-6. United States National Research Council. (1996). The national science education standards. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. United States National Research Council. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school--Expanded Edition. Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, J. D. Bransford, A. L. Brown, & R. R. Cocking (Eds.). Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. United States National Research Council. (2005). How students learn: Science in the classroom. Committee on How People Learn, A Targeted Report for Teachers, M. S. Donovan & J. D. Bransford (Eds.). Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. United States National Research Council. (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K–8. Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten Through Eighth Grade. R. A. Duschl, H. A. Schweingruber, & A. W. Shouse (Eds.). Board on
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Science Education, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Unsworth, L. (2001). Teaching multiliteracies across the curriculum: Changing contexts of text and image in classroom practice. Buckingham, United Kingdom: Open University Press. Vosniadou, S. (2007). The cognitive-situative divide and the problem of conceptual change. Educational Psychologist, 42, 55-66. Yarden, A. (2009). Reading scientific texts: Adapting primary literature for promoting scientific literacy. Research in Science Education, 39, 307-311. Yore, L. D. (2004). Why do future scientists need to study the language arts? In E. W. Saul (Ed.), Crossing borders in literacy and science instruction: Perspectives in theory and practice (pp. 71-94). Newark, DE: International Reading Association/National Science Teachers Association. Yore, L. D. (2008). Science literacy for all students: Language, culture, and knowledge about nature and naturally occurring events. L1—Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 8(1), 5-21. Yore, L. D., Bisanz, G. L., & Hand, B. M. (2003). Examining the literacy component of science literacy: 25 years of language arts and science research. International Journal of Science Education, 25, 689–725. Yore, L. D., Craig, M. T., & Maguire, T. O. (1998). Index of science reading awareness: An interactive-constructive model, test verification, and grades 4-8 results. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(1), 27-51. Yore, L. D., Florence, M. K., Pearson, T. W., & Weaver, A. J. (2006). Written discourse in scientific communities: A conversation with two scientists about their views of science,
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use of language, role of writing in doing science, and compatibility between their epistemic views and language. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 109-141. Yore, L. D., & Hand, B. (in press). Epilogue: Plotting a research agenda for multiple representations, multiple modality, and multimodal representational competency. Research in Science Education. Yore, L. D., Hand, B. M., & Florence, M. L. (2004). Scientists‘ views of science, models of writing, and science writing practice. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(4), 338-369. Yore, L.D., Hand, B.M., Goldman, S.R., Hildebrand, G.M., Osborne, J.F., Treagust, D.F., & Wallace, C.S. (2004). New directions in language and science education research. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, 347-352. Yore, L. D., Hand, B. M., & Prain, V. (2002). Scientists as writers. Science Education, 86(5), 672-692. Yore, L.D., Henriques, L., Crawford, B., Smith, L., Gomez-Zwiep, S., & Tillotson, J. (2007). Selecting and using inquiry approaches to teach science: The influence of context in elementary, middle, and secondary schools. In E. Abrams, S. Sutherland, & P. Silva (Eds.) Inquiry in the classroom: Realities and opportunities (pp. 41-90), Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing Inc. Yore, L. D., Holliday, W. G., & Alvermann, D. E. (Eds.). (1994). Reading-science-writing connection [Special issue]. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(9), 873-1073. Yore, L. D., Pimm, D., & Tuan, H-S. (2007). The literacy component of mathematical and scientific literacy. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 5, 559589.
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Fairness and Professionalism: What Counts in School-based Assessment?
Benny Hin Wai Yung University of Hong Kong
Abstract Assessment, in whatever form it takes, is widely recognized as one of the main determinants of educational practice. Over the past few years, new approaches to assessment have emerged in a number of countries. These have come primarily from a variety of overlapping debates concerning the purposes and methods of assessment, as well as their impact on the process of teaching and learning. This paper addresses the issues for teaching and learning that emerge when school-based assessment is mandated, its contribution to teaching and learning and, in particular, how teachers‟ beliefs and teacher professionalism become involved. I shall illustrate my arguments by drawing on classroom experiences of teachers in Hong Kong and Singapore, as they tried to change their practice following a reform of assessment system for school science. Through illustrations of the teachers‟ professional actions, their struggles, worries, concerns, as well as their visions and inspirations, the paper brings into light the crucial role of teachers in mediation and in bringing about changes envisaged in the new assessment reform. Implications for teacher professional development are also discussed.
Introduction The forms that examinations and assessment take are widely recognised as determinants of educational practice. Over the past few years, new approaches to assessment have emerged in a number of countries. These have come primarily from a variety of overlapping debates
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concerning the purposes and methods of assessment and their impact on teaching and learning (Shepard, 2000). Like other educational systems, Hong Kong and Singapore have been concerned with how the changes in assessment practices and procedures can improve teaching and learning. It was against such a background that the former Hong Kong A-level Biology Practical Examination was replaced by a school-based assessment scheme – the Teacher Assessment Scheme (TAS). Similarly, Science Practical Assessment (SPA) was implemented in Singapore to replace the one-time practical test administered at the end of GCE O- and A-level science courses. Advocates claimed that implementation of these school-based assessment (SBA) schemes would have a liberating influence on the curriculum and would bring about a host of desirable curricular and pedagogical changes (Pang, 1992). Nevertheless, issues of teachers‟ readiness to the change quickly arose, such as their lack of knowledge in implementing inquirybased practices and, in particular, their difficulties in balancing the dual role as an assessor and a teacher.
According to Carless (2005), the relationship between assessment, teaching and learning is complicated because of the underlying interplay and intertwining variables within the specific context where the assessment takes place. Among these variables, I would argue that teacher professionalism is a more fundamental determinant of their educational practices (Yung, 2002). I shall illustrate my arguments by drawing on the classroom experiences of teachers in Hong Kong and Singapore, as they tried to change their practice following the assessment reform in their own education system. Before looking at the individual cases, a brief introduction to the education systems in Hong and Singapore is necessary so as to enable readers to understand the perspectives of teachers later.
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The examination-led education systems in Hong Kong and Singapore Both Hong Kong and Singapore have an examination-led education system. In the course of receiving education, Hong Kong students could go through as many as eight selection examinations: from interviews for gaining admission to prestigious kindergartens, to the A-level examinations at the end of the Secondary 7 (Year 13) for gaining a place at a tertiary institution. Each of these examination hurdles influences the options available to the child at the next level of schooling. As a consequence, examinations determine the quality of the educational experiences of teachers and students. What transpires in the classroom is largely dictated by what happens in the public examination halls. The obsession with testing and examinations is vividly illustrated in the following quotation from a review of the Hong Kong education system, written by the former Secretary of the Hong Kong Examinations Authority, in an international refereed journal (Choi, 1999): In fact, students sometimes stop their teachers teaching certain topics or materials which are not in the [examination] syllabus. (p.412) This comment echoes the sentiments expressed in the experiential accounts of Hong Kong teachers and students concerning their experiences in examinations (Pong and Chow, 2002). Expressions like „I breathe deeply‟; „trying my best to keep calm‟; „my heart sinks‟; „panic comes over me‟; „I try to hold back my tears‟; „tears pour down my face‟; „I am so nervous about it‟; „I heave a sigh of relief‟; and the like, are pervasive throughout the accounts. In sum, an examination-oriented culture is firmly embedded in Hong Kong, and that examinations are stressful both for students and teachers. Everyone knows that there is much at stake.
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A similar, if not worse, situation occurs in Singapore as reflected in the following quote from Towndrow and his colleagues (2008), “Teachers are crucial elements in students‟ successes in these high-stakes tests. They are expected to implement and monitor compliance with standard operating procedures and deviance from published and unpublished approaches and norms is unexpected, unrewarded and risky.”
Teachers’ concerns about the issue of fairness Set against the background of the high-stakes tests described above, it is easy to understand why teachers in these two places are so preoccupied with the issue of fairness when they undertake school-based assessment of their students‟ practical work. Indeed, this remains as one of the top ten concerns among the Hong Kong teachers even though the TAS has been in operation for more than 10 years (Yip and Cheung, 2005). Not surprisingly, the issue of fairness is also a cause of concern for Singaporean teachers whose experiences with SPA are more recent. The following case extracted from Tan and Towndrow‟s study (2009) tells the problem.
Sophia – no talking Sophia was preparing her Secondary 1 (13-year-old) class for a forthcoming summative SPA task which aimed at assessing students‟ individual skills. She had prepared a (formative) practice experiment to be completed under mock exam conditions. Before the students began work, Sophia issued the following guidance to the class.
All right, now this is an exam question so when you are going to do your experiment there will be no talking. Okay, quiet. Since this is individual work, you have to be resourceful when collecting your own apparatus. So you only
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share your water bath, the Bunsen burner and tripod stand. You take you own boiling tubes. Any questions? You can share your water bath. And Bunsen burner and lighter. That‟s all. Alright. No more talking. You only share water bath, lighter and Bunsen burner. Cannot share wire gauze. So anything that requires a water bath you share. But anything else, boiling tubes, you have your own. White tile your own. Forceps also have your own. Any more question? … Alright? So you will have one period, which is about 45 minutes to do this experiment. You may begin now. Read your experiment. Class, glass rods are in front. Forceps are in front. You don‟t share any of them. [After 3 minutes] You don‟t seem to understand this is an assessment. Nobody should be talking. Not even to your partner.
As rightly pointed out by Tan and Towndrow‟s interpretation of the above episode, Sophia stressed the importance of: „no talking‟; „individual work‟; „quiet‟; no sharing of certain items of apparatus and no discussion or consultation with others. These restrictions closed down the opportunities for discussion, peer learning and collaboration to occur. It also restricted Sophia‟s scope to provide feedback that could help her students improve their learning by reflecting on their own experiences. Sadly, similar episodes are found in Hong Kong classrooms as shown below [details can be found in Yung (2006)].
John – I must be fair John started the TAS practical by distributing the laboratory manual to the class and gave them some time to read. He then invited questions:
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Any questions before we start? Any questions, please? [There was no question from the students. John then said again.] Come on, any question? Free of charge! Marks will not be deducted. Come on. Any question? [Again, there was no question from the students. So John signalled the class to begin their work.]
The real meaning of this episode lies in the shared meaning it has for the participants and not in the particular words uttered. As suggested by Bell and Cowie (2001), assessment takes place in the social space of the classroom. It is a social practice, constructed within the social and cultural norms of the classroom. It is shared. It is not just a mental thought object residing inside the head of the teacher. Why was there no question from the students? The amount of help provided to students might have constituted one of John‟s criteria for assessing his students‟ practical competence. Such an assessment criterion had been reiterated again and again by John during his prior lessons. Thus, John‟s stating that “marks will not be deducted” at the beginning of the lesson might just have reinforced students‟ perception that “marks will be deducted” in other situations if the teacher does not invite questions from them. As will be evident in subsequent episodes, students in general did not like this idea. Often they preferred to proceed without assistance even though they realized that they might not be able to generate an effective response to the practical task assigned. In fact, it was very rare for John to invite questions from the class during the TAS practicals. This occurred only at the beginning of the practicals, where the intent was mainly to sort out problems related to provision of apparatus and materials. In the actual course of the TAS practicals, John was reluctant to answer students‟ questions, as illustrated by the following episode.
Student: I have a question but will marks be deducted? Page 2433
John:
You ask it first.
Student: Chee! I don‟t want to ask then. John:
If I am going to deduct marks, I will tell you first.
Student: If I ask you the question, but then you tell me afterwards that marks have been deducted, I will be very depressed. John:
Just go ahead and ask me. And you will know what the outcome would be.
[The student then asked the question.] John:
I have to deduct marks from you if I answer you this question. Therefore, I am not going to answer this question. You think about it yourself.
Student: Are you really not going to deduct any marks from me at all? John:
Go back and do you work quickly.
The reason behind John‟s decision not to answer the student‟s question was that, “I must be fair. I can‟t answer some students‟ questions but not the others. If I answer her question, I am sure that I will have to tell the rest of the class using the microphone… What bothers me is that, suppose I am going to answer students‟ question, how many questions should I entertain, and to what extent? This is the most difficult part. If there was no TAS, I would then have given her a definite answer …”
Clearly, John was caught in a dilemma of trying to be fair to all students on one hand, and trying to solve their problems on the other. Obviously, teaching and assessment had become polarized; teaching had given way to assessment, and the formative function of assessment was lost. The requirement to submit the TAS marks to the public examination body for certification purposes had framed the way in which John interpreted the assessment reform. He had drawn on Page 2434
his previous experience and understanding of what assessment was about in order to make sense of the changes and to make decisions about how he should implement the TAS, as he put it.
TAS is certainly an assessment. I have been criticized by my chemistry colleague that the TAS is a training and not an assessment. But, the hard fact is that I have to submit the marks to Hong Kong Examinations Authority (HKEA). It is no good placing too much emphasis on learning … If you tell students that marks are not important, just to relax and try, students just would not believe in what you say, especially for students in this school. They know what is going on. You just can‟t fool them.
Hence, it is not surprising if the introduction of TAS is regarded as purely for the purpose of improving the validity and reliability of the assessment. In fact, this was not an unreasonable assumption for teachers to make when the reform was initiated by the HKEA – the public examining body. No wonder that, based on such a mindset, the classroom situation in which practical work occurred was that of a formal assessment. Though this did not mean that the teacher could not help the students, any assistance given would be an integral part of the assessment process, and would result in the deduction of marks. In other words, the teacher was explicitly acting under the authority of HKEA, as an extension of the examination procedures. This aspect of TAS work was a source of tension for many science teachers (Yip and Cheung, 2005) such as John. For these teachers, the intentions that the innovation would broaden the curriculum and improve the quality of teaching and learning had drifted quietly into the background.
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In summary, the cases of John and Sophia show that genuine improvements in the effectiveness of learning actually require a major rethink about the way that assessment is used. This rethink needs to be based on a careful analysis of how assessment can promote individual learning. In particular, teacher development activities aimed at re-constructing their ideas about the role of assessment in the educational reform and helping them to develop strategies for utilizing the outcomes of assessment in formative, evaluative and educative respects are imperative (Buck and Trauth-Nare, 2009; Tomanek, Talanquer and Novodvorsky, 2008). To this end, the following two cases are illustrative.
Bob – they are learning while I am assessing them Compared with John, Bob was able to cope with the requirements of the TAS quite well. He was able to come to grips with the formative function of the assessment. He often initiated discussions with individual students during the course of the practical. In fact, he was mindful of the importance of interacting with students even at the lesson planning stage:
One of my major considerations in selecting practicals for the TAS assessment is whether I can make use of the practical to induce some kind of discussion with my students and that they can learn through it, something that they have not thought about before. This is a very crucial part in their learning. That‟s why I always ask them questions continually throughout the practical. So, they are in fact learning while I am assessing them.
Sadler (1989) believes that assessment is truly formative only when it involves the student. As such, the judgments about the quality of students‟ responses can be used to shape and improve their competence by short-circuiting the randomness and inefficiency of trial-andPage 2436
error learning. This is exactly what Bob was trying to achieve when he engaged in active discussions with his students. One common feature in the discussion of Bob with his students was that he always responded to his students‟ queries with remarks and questions like, „What do you think?‟ „What better procedure can you think of?‟ or „You think over yourself first. I will come back to you later.‟ In a post-lesson interview, Bob mentioned the positive effect of the TAS on his teaching and the learning of his students.
In the past, I would point out their mistakes directly to them. Now, I have to remind myself to be conscious of this. Telling them directly is the fastest and simplest way, but it does not make them think. This is a good influence on both teaching and learning.
This indicates that Bob was beginning to realise the importance of not only providing feedback to students, but also attending to the quality of the feedback, as Sadler (1998, p.84) has pointed out, “Formative assessment does not make a difference, and it is quality, not just quantity, of feedback that merits our closest attention. By quality of feedback, we now realise we have to understand not just the technical structure (such as its accuracy, comprehensiveness and appropriateness), but also its accessibility to the learner (as a communication), its catalytic and coaching value, and its ability to inspire confidence and hope.”
Thus, Bob was able to find a handle or frame of reference outside the concrete situation of assessing his students by being “conscious of not telling students the answers directly so as to make them think”. He saw this as a good influence on both his teaching and his students‟ learning. Marton (1994) describes such a transcendence of one‟s taken-for-granted experiential world as the ascent to a kind of analytic awareness: a capability of abstracting aspects of Page 2437
concrete situations and seeing these aspects of concrete situations in relation to each other. It seemed it was the lack of this analytic awareness in John that made him unable to step outside his accustomed frame of understanding assessment for the TAS as a testing paradigm (Gipps, 1994).
Bob felt at ease in discussing issues with his students on an individual basis because he felt that he was in control of the agenda and he was able to know what was going on during the discussion. He also allowed students to discuss amongst themselves, although he was a little hesitant, as he put it in the following way:
I won‟t intervene (students‟ discussion) unless they have been discussing for a long time. I think this is okay. This may create a more relaxed atmosphere … In fact, this is a difficult problem for me. Suppose, if there is no assessment, they will learn more from each other through the discussions.
As implied from the above interview excerpt, Bob was assuming that he might be being unfair to his students when cutting short their discussion. This would deprive them of the chances to learn more from each other.
Even though Bob did not restrain himself from discussing with students as John did, he was still conscious of the issue of fairness, as revealed in a classroom episode where he seemed reluctant to provide further hints upon a student‟s request. He told the student, “I guided your classmates in the same way as I have done it for you. All of them can do it. What has happened to you?”
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In this particular instance, Bob was judging the student‟s performance on normreferenced basis, comparing the students‟ performance with that of his classmates. According to Harlen and James (1997), formative assessment should always be made in relation to where students are in their learning. This means that assessment of a student‟s work should take into account the particular context of the student‟s work and the progress he/she has made over time. In consequence, the judgement of a piece of work, and what is fed back to the student, will depend on the student and not just on the relevant criteria. The justification for this is that the individual circumstances must be taken into account if the assessment is to help learning and to encourage the learner. Thus, in the situation described above, Bob‟s priority of trying to be fair to all students had made him lose sight of his obligation to construct a theory of effective learning which takes contextual variables into account, including students‟ personal variables. This is unlike the case reported below where the teacher, Carl, was highly conscious of the effect of such contextual variables on students‟ learning.
Carl – Is it really fair? In the lessons observed, there were a lot of discussions both between the teacher, Carl, and his students as well as amongst students themselves. When asked why he often encouraged students to discuss amongst themselves and whether this would create a dilemma for him in coping with the requirements of the TAS, Carl replied:
This is a compromise to students‟ cultural habits of not wanting to be vocal. They are passive. They are unable to respond promptly. I have to give them time to think, to process and to discuss their ideas so as to build up their confidence ... I am aware of the conflict between teaching and assessment but there is no such formal statement about the Do‟s and Don‟ts in the TAS
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Handbook. I think limited discussion won‟t affect their overall performance too much. Too much emphasis on assessment will hinder a lot of ideas flowing out. They have undergone the educational process. Is that really going to affect the fairness of the assessment? ... The interaction amongst themselves and between us is an unexplored treasure. I have been encouraging them to speak up. But this has to be built up slowly step by step ... I have faith in my students …
Many classroom episodes of how Carl tried to tap into the „unexplored treasure‟ of interacting with his students can be found in Yung (2006). In addition to encouraging students to participate in the class discussion, Carl also encouraged students to ask him questions, if deemed necessary, while they were writing their reports. This was very different from John who had no interaction with his students in the report writing stage. When asked if frequent interaction with students would affect the fairness of the assessment, Carl‟s view was:
This is what science education is about. TAS never prohibits teachers from responding to questions raised by students. Students‟ overall performance will not be affected by just one or two points which they might have discussed with the teacher or their classmates. Differentiation [in their capabilities] will be reflected in their overall performance in the reports ... The idea of the TAS is to integrate assessment with teaching and learning.
Very clearly, Carl‟s way of implementing the TAS was very much related to his „scaffolding‟ view of learning (Sherpard, 2005), in which the teacher should try to provide a stimulating environment and guide his students towards learning “step by step”. In all, Carl
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seemed to be fairly good at integrating assessment with teaching and learning. Nonetheless, he also raised a point related to the notion of fairness in one of his interviews. He was concerned about the common practice among teachers of extending their practicals beyond the normal school hours. Often, the extension could be more than one hour. Carl felt that this was unfair to the students:
I fear that students may feel bored when I ask them to stay after school every biology practical. This is impossible when we are emphasizing all-round education. Students are encouraged to participate in more extracurricular activities. It is unfair to them if they are denied these options?
Asking students to stay after school until they had finished writing up their reports was in keeping with the TAS regulation that the teacher has to exercise control and supervision over all work assessed. The public examining body thinks that this will ensure that the work assessed is the students‟ own and thus plagiarism will be prevented. No one will deny the importance of fairness in a public assessment system. But the key is how to achieve optimum fairness for the purpose of assessment, while at the same time still facilitating teaching and learning. We should look at the problem not only at the level of teaching and learning in individual subjects but also in the larger context of all-round education, as Carl has put it. There is no simple answer to this problem. This is yet another area where professional judgement would be utilized during the decision making process. This would in turn be influenced by the teacher‟s belief system, as revealed in the explanation put forward by Carl for allowing his students, at times, to finish writing up their reports at home.
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There are two main factors that differentiate the students. First is his own background knowledge and the language ability. Second, whether he put effort into it or not. These are the two overriding factors ... If he is not good in language ability or poor in background knowledge, it is impossible for him to improve very rapidly overnight. You can tell immediately if you ask him a few questions. You may say that I have prejudice against some students.
It is understandable that both the examining body and teachers are concerned with improving the credibility of the assessment by making it as fair as possible for everyone. However, the tension between assessing under standardised conditions and providing flexibility to cope with contextual differences in different classrooms is always there. An important point to emphasize here is that the educational benefits derived from the TAS are at a cost to reliability. This cost is paid once we have decided to opt for TAS. This concurs with Harlen‟s (1994, p.12) view that “assessment in education is inherently inexact and it should be treated as such.” Nevertheless, this is not to deny the importance of reliability (and hence fairness) because an unreliable assessment is not only of little use but can be unjust as well. The endeavour to increase reliability is common to all methods of assessment, but the context and purpose of assessment will affect the degree of priority given to reliability. The key is how to achieve optimum reliability for assessment purposes while maintaining high validity. That is, assessments that are arising as a natural consequence of teaching and learning, not simply something added onto it. To this end, differences in individual classrooms must be taken into account.
In fact, there are many methods of moderation to address the issue of fairness in schoolbased assessment arising from variations in the marking standard of teachers in different schools
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and the conditions under which the assessments are carried out, etc. Detailed discussion of this is outside the scope of this paper; but certainly, any form of assessment leading to certification cannot be so low in reliability that its validity is seriously called into question. Another important thing is that we have then to find ways to maximize the educational benefits that can possibly be derived from implementing school-based assessment (as Bob and Carl did), instead of feeling bound by it (as John and Sophia did). Otherwise, we will be unfair to our students – depriving them of the opportunity to learn the subject matter and to receive all-round education.
Three views of fairness Of the four cases reported above, there were important differences among the classes taught by the teachers. Of interest to me, however, is the phenomenon that while the teachers‟ discourses were dominated by, and their classroom actions pre-eminently influenced by, the notion of fairness, they did so in three qualitatively different ways:
As an extension of the public examination procedure (Sophia and John)
Providing chances for students to learn the subject matter (Bob)
Providing students with an all-round education (Carl)
As I have argued (Yung, 2001), when the teachers were carrying out assessments, they did so in terms of goals of assessment, in terms of goals of learning and teaching and in terms of abilities that the students were supposed to develop. These specific goals were not considered in isolation but were seen in relation to more general goals such as those listed above (i.e. as an extension of the public examination procedure, providing chances for students to learn the subject matter, or providing students with an all-round education). These specific goals were also seen in relation to the ways or means which, the teachers felt, could possibly contribute to bringing about those more general goals. For example: Page 2443
Restraining from giving clues to students to help them solve their problems, answering students‟ questions and not allowing students to discuss among themselves, etc. were the ways considered by John and Sophia to fulfil their goal of acting as an extension of the public examination procedure.
Asking students a lot of questions so as to make them think was a way considered by Bob to be effective in providing chances for students to learn the subject matter while he was assessing them.
Allowing students to complete the laboratory reports at home so that they would not be deprived of the opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities after school was seen by Carl as contributing to his goal of providing students with an all-round education.
Accordingly, dealing with goals of teaching and learning implied – explicitly or implicitly – the action of dealing with relations: relations between specific goals and general goals, as well as relations between goals and means. All these depended on the teacher‟s intentionality: his directedness, what he was oriented towards and in which way (Marton, 1994). In other words, we teach “who we are” and “what we know”.
John and Sophia‟s consciousness were directed towards maintaining fairness in differentiating students‟ abilities. Bob, for most of the time, was conscious of making the assessment as truly formative as possible by intentionally involving students in discussions with him. He wanted students to learn while he was assessing them. On the other hand, though Carl was able to integrate assessment with teaching and learning of the subject matter very well, he still found the present assessment practice unfair to the students when he looked at it from the perspective of providing students with an all-round education. This latter consideration brings out a salient point, which is often overlooked by public examining bodies in the process of Page 2444
striving for a credible SBA. That is, the assessment should not make demands on teachers and students that are incompatible with the context in which learning is exhibited. In short, the assessment should not be too time consuming, artificial or divorced from the normal range of contexts in which their educational achievements can be observed. Clearly the extension of practical sessions beyond normal school hours in Hong Kong classrooms is a case in point, and has put the validity and the educational desirability of the TAS seriously in doubt.
Teachers’ concerns about their competencies in meeting the policy change Analysing the cases presented so far has enabled me to gain a deeper understanding of the intertwining relationships among the teachers‟ beliefs, their aspired educational visions, their understanding / perceptions of the TAS/SPA, their classroom actions and their different views of fairness. All these have bearings on the kind of professional development activities that teachers need to prepare them for the assessment reforms. I begin with a Singaporean example, followed by two examples from Hong Kong.
Singapore – professional dialogue for laboratory task design As part of a research and teacher development study in the design, implementation and evaluation of practical assessments in a science department in a Singapore secondary school (Towndrow, Tan, Yung and Cohen, 2008), three researchers and four upper secondary biology teachers had a series of conversations over a period of two school terms about how to incorporate inquiry into commercially published workbook investigations. They began with an experiment on the action of diastase on starch. After reviewing the procedures given in the student workbook, the researchers suggested asking planning questions about the laboratory skills to be practiced in the task, rather than concentrating primarily on the steps involved in
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arriving at the results, could provide a sharper learning focus for the students. The teachers found this reorientation useful in pinpointing specific laboratory competencies to assess and, once the laboratory task was conducted, in helping students understand the purposes of procedures and the possible sources of experimental error.
Discussion then turned to planning the next practical which investigates the effect of pH on catalase (an enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen perioxide into water and oxygen). The recommended procedure involved the use of a data logger to determine the rate of reaction at different pH values. As the teachers were relatively new to this equipment, they suggested going through the investigation themselves to get a feel for what was involved and what needed to be taught. The researchers supported this initiative and agreed to sit in on the trial run.
In the trial run session, the materials and equipment for the data logger experiment were prepared and set up following the workbook but some items of glassware and stoppers were not exactly the same. Although the workbook instructions appeared simple enough, the teachers and researchers had difficulty conducting the experiment. Due to the vigorous enzymatic reaction, it was not possible to create an air-tight condition in the experimental set-up (with a plasticine improvisation) for collecting the oxygen released and then passing it into another beaker of water, where a dissolved oxygen sensor was installed to measure the changes in dissolved oxygen content. Sensing trouble if the same thing were to happen in class, the researchers tried half the volume of reactants, hoping that the rate of reaction would be less vigorous. However, the data logger sensor that was available failed to detect the smaller changes in the dissolved oxygen content though it was obvious some oxygen gas bubbles was being emitted.
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Troubleshooting rapidly, everyone‟s attention turned to the equipment and, in particular, to whether the dissolved oxygen sensor was being used correctly and how accurately it was detecting the oxygen that was evolved. After several attempts, much discussion and an impromptu search of the World Wide Web by one of the teachers, who happened to be near a computer that was online, the idea was tabled to measure the oxygen evolved directly instead of waiting for it to dissolve. Eventually, it was realised that more needed to be known about the mechanics of the dissolved oxygen sensor.
On the next day, one of the researchers discussed with a supplier of the data logger and discovered (contrary to the instructions in the students‟ workbook) that the dissolved oxygen sensor was only for point sampling (as it consumes oxygen when used continuously). Armed with this knowledge, a simpler experimental set-up was devised using an oxygen gas sensor from a different manufacturer. This work-around was successful and had the potential to allow students to reach a point that they could determine the optimal pH for catalase more efficiently than that proposed in the student workbook.
In subsequent work, the researchers demonstrated the simplified experimental set-up and everyone agreed that measuring gaseous exchange was easier and better than dissolved oxygen. It was also concluded that the inaccuracies in measuring dissolved oxygen were compounded by the fact that the solubility of oxygen in water is not high. One of the teachers commented how enlightened she was after having gone through the cooperative process of trouble-shooting and thinking about the experiment.
The discussion, experimentation and learning that took place in the planning of the Effect of pH on Catalase task were the beginning of a curriculum development community of Page 2447
practitioners in the school‟s science department. The researchers and teachers went on to conclude their work by jointly correcting and modifying the students‟ laboratory sheet. Towndrow et al. (2008) characterized this case as one where teacher-leadership was promoted via leverage of the teachers‟ willingness to innovate in the laboratory and through their collaborative action for mutual benefit.
Hong Kong – adopting a critical stance towards policy change Although TAS has been implemented for more than 10 years in Hong Kong, there has been little official support to help teachers in conducting TAS, such as sample assessment tasks and workshops for developing assessment skills. A lot of teachers express their deep concerns about the support, in terms of resources and information that they need in conducting TAS (Yip and Cheung, 2005). The types of support they appeal for include training for skills in implementing TAS practicals and designing checklists for assessing students. Given this situation, it is not surprising to note the diversity of responses amongst the Hong Kong teachers in coping with the TAS requirements imposed on them. Below are two telling cases [More cases can be found in Yung, (2006)].
In the first case the teacher, Ivor, did not only refrain from offering help to individual students like John, he also did not allow students to discuss during TAS practical. Additionally, he adopted a „picky and fault-finding‟ attitude when assessing his students as per his description of himself:
I fear that the exam board would say that my marking is too lenient. I‟d rather deduct marks from my students without any special reason … I have to keep their marks low. I had to be very picky and fault finding with students. Page 2448
Otherwise they might get a very high mark, so high that the exam board would not believe in it. I had to behave like a policeman who had to grasp every chance to give out the assigned quota of illegal parking tickets in order not to be scolded by the superior … It is really unfair to them [the students].
Embedded in this metaphor – a police officer afraid of being scolded by the superior – is that TAS is a part of the high stake public examination, and that the teacher is held accountable by the examination board for carrying out the assessment properly. The metaphor also illustrates his strong feeling of insecurity. That is, fear of being scolded by the superior for not being able to accomplish the job assigned. This shows vividly how Ivor had submitted passively to the TAS regulations, even though he judged them to be misguided; as reflected in his tone and expression such as „it is really unfair to them‟. There is clearly a sense of powerless and resignation as further revealed in the following interview excerpt:
I worry a lot about how much I should discuss their experimental proposals with them [the students]. If I tell them too much, I may be violating the TAS regulations. So, the best thing is that I tell them nothing, I am sort of trying to protect myself as far as possible. I just don‟t care whether students understand or not.
In sum, Ivor perceived the introduction of TAS as imposing severe constraints upon his professional autonomy to such an extent that he would rather “protect himself” than look after students‟ learning. Apparently, teacher professionalism is severely compromised as Ivor struggled to make sense of his changing roles as both an assessor and a teacher. This is in contrast to the second teacher, Dawn, who is now able to come to grips with the dual role Page 2449
required of her to be a teacher and an assessor, though only after going through a rather painful learning process:
I don't want those terrible things in the first year of the TAS to happen again. At that time, I was not familiar with the scheme. Students and I were putting pressure on each other. They were neurotic and so was I. That is not a good way to learn… I don‟t want to use marks to threaten them ... I think it is something to do with your attitude. Whether you really want to help the students …
Unlike Ivor, Dawn did not avoid giving assistance to students if she deemed it necessary. She upheld her belief that the teacher‟s role is to assist students‟ learning and that the assessment requirements should only be of secondary consideration in the process, as she put it:
If I don't do this, how are they going to learn? You know. I can deduct marks from them depending on the amount of help offered… Or, if I find all of them don‟t know how to proceed, I can just delete that particular assessment criterion from the assessment checklist… In the past, I emphasized asking all students to follow a standard method so that I could grade them more easily (using a common checklist). Now, I allow them to work with their own methods. Gradually, I have come to realize that there are bound to be variations in their methods. It‟s okay as long as I can make adjustments in assessing it. There can be different kinds of possible adjustment there.
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Clearly, Dawn could control the teaching-learning situation inside her classroom while Ivor was very much „controlled‟ by the TAS regulations. In other words, Dawn was adept at finding spaces in which she could manipulate the TAS requirements with her own professional judgement. Nevertheless, this realization of the flexibility provided by the TAS did not come with the introduction of the TAS, but resulted from the experiences she had gained over the years:
In the past, I felt very much constrained by the TAS. Now, I feel that I am set free again. This is an evolution really. I have evolved… In the first year of the TAS, … I thought that it was something like an examination. I adopted a very strict attitude on every single item. ... I had to work very carefully because this is an examination. In those days, most teachers had a very bad feeling towards TAS. I am much more liberated now… I don‟t feel so constrained now…
Dawn attributed her evolution into taking on “a more liberated view” of interpreting the TAS regulations in subsequent years to her becoming a TAS coordinator herself. According to her, conversations with like-minded colleagues provided opportunities for her to find out what practising the reform ideas may involve, and afford her an opportunity to gain the insights of others on the practical problems of putting the ideas into actual practice. This lends support to the important role played by smaller collegial groupings in teachers‟ professional development and teachers‟ enactment of the reform as illustrated by the Singaporean case described above.
More importantly, Dawn‟s case also suggests that teachers are able to exercise control of their own teaching by adopting a critical stance to policy change. However, as pointed out by Harlen (2005, p.210), “It takes a good deal of support – and courage – for teachers to turn round
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their practices from being test-oriented to being learning-oriented.” Indeed, it points to the need for greater teacher support and more professional development in this respect than is currently available. This presupposes skilled and confident teachers who need time and space to reflect and to question values. Short courses which focus on survival strategies and „tips for teachers‟ are unlikely to stimulate the quality of thinking and reflection which are seen as necessary conditions for change and development. If teachers are to regain their professional confidence and play a significant role in curriculum reform, there are implications for teacher education. In particular, they need to engage with changes, rather than be taken over by them. In order to do that, they need to understand the origins and nature of the changes, and their own responses to them.
An amalgamated approach to teacher professional development Both professional development activities in Singapore and Hong Kong described above are related to preparing teachers for school-based assessment of practical work in science, however, they are enacted very differently in the two contexts. In Singapore, teachers work together, discuss, clarify and refine their practices as they make decisions about what to teach and assess; whereas in Hong Kong, teachers take a critical stance toward the new policy and learn from their own experiences in order to build their confidence. With the same policy initiative, one group of teachers seems to focus more on the technicalities of complying with the requirements imposed on them while the other group of teachers has their professional consciousness of what they think are best for their students provoked so that their practices will be transformed. There may be important lessons here for other countries attempting to support the implementation of assessment policy reforms through teacher professional development programs.
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Based on the examples cited above, I am in favour of adopting an amalgamated approach that takes into consideration of the different developmental stages of the teachers involved. Certainly, teachers who are inexperienced in inquiry approach will require help like those received by the Singaporean teachers described above. On the other hand, all teachers, regardless of their experience, need to be provided with opportunities to reflect on their own practices in relation to the demands imposed on them by the policy change. As pointed out by Brown (2004), introducing assessment innovation through professional development alone will not achieve policy objectives unless the differing, interlocked conceptions of teachers are exposed and addressed. This latter approach is in accord with the call for developing teachers as reflective practitioners (Schon, 1983). In my own experience, I have found case sharing and reflection particularly useful for this purpose. For instance, the Hong Kong cases reported in this paper collectively point to the need to alert teachers to, or make them aware of, the professional consciousness behind their actions. This is not an easy task. Indeed, as Sanger (1990) has stated, and which is echoed by data from the larger study (Yung, 2006) on which this paper is based, teachers‟ belief systems form deep layers of “calcified experience” (p.175). Changes rarely take place without destabilizing this deeper level of calcified experience. For this reason, challenges posed to teachers must be vigorous and explicit if change is to occur. For many teachers, it could be an awakening into consciousness where the familiar daily routines of professional practice suddenly become discordant symbols of conflicts that have existed between articulated and unarticulated levels of knowing. But the crucial question remains: What is it that enables such insight or sudden awakening to occur?
The reports of the case teachers in this paper contain information about concrete examples of their educational practices, their concerns and some of the methods used to solve practical problems. It also delves into their personal beliefs behind their practices, views which Page 2453
were built over an extended period of day-to-day teaching. These can serve as good illustrations and models in which other teachers can compare their own practice and learn. These cases, though in a sense idiosyncratic to the individual teachers with their own contextual variables, do contain many teaching characteristics which are generic, just as there were some common threads in the beliefs and thinking of the teachers. In considering these cases, and then comparing, reflecting and evaluating their own practices, teachers may come to see beyond the specificity and idiosyncrasy of the practices and use them to uncover their own professional consciousness. This can help the teachers to re-organise their own belief systems and to re-direct their professional consciousness in relation to their own teaching context.
I believe that the case studies reported in this paper [and those from the larger study (Yung, 2006)] constitute a useful source of curriculum materials for teacher professional development courses in the areas of school-based assessment of practical work. These case reports could be helpful to all teachers, whether experienced, newly qualified or in training, in the following ways as suggested by Black and Aktin (1996):
as a source of models of practice to apply and test in the classroom;
as examples of practice that can be compared to the teachers‟ existing practice; and particularly,
as a set of ideas to be debated upon and to act as a springboard to reflection on teachers‟ existing practice.
These concur with Putnam and Borko‟s (1997) suggestion that case teaching is particularly appropriate in preparing teachers for reform-based teaching. This is because it increases the opportunities for teachers to experience workable alternatives to conventional practice in actual classroom settings, which otherwise is likely to be quite limited.
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A Final Word on What counts in SBA Apparently, the cases reported above show that fairness counts in SBA, especially in examination-led education systems like Hong Kong and Singapore. Yet, what constitutes fairness would depend on teachers‟ perception and understanding of the rationale underpinning the assessment reform, as well as their personal philosophy of what education is about, as I have argued in my analysis of the three views of fairness held by the teachers. Through comparing Dawn and Ivor‟s cases, I have explicitly pointed out the necessity for teachers to take a critical stance to policy change if their teaching is to be transformed. Here, teacher professionalism counts. Hence, a major investment in teacher professional development in this aspect is vital. Otherwise, this would be grossly unfair to all parties concerned – teachers and students alike!
References Bell, B. and Cowie, B. (2001) Formative Assessment and Science Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Black, P. and Atkin, J.A. (1996) Changing the Subject: Innovations in Science, Mathematics and Technology Education. Routledge: London. Brown, G. (2004) Teachers‟ conceptions of assessment: Implications for policy and professional development. Assessment in Education, 11, 301-318. Buck, G.A. and Trauth-Nare, A.E. (2009) Preparing teachers to make the formative assessment process integral to science teaching and learning. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20, 475-494. Careless, D. (2005) Prospects for the implementation of assessment for learning. Assessment in Education, 12(1), 39-54.
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Choi, C.C. (1999) Public examinations in Hong Kong, Assessment in Education, 6(3), pp.405417. Gipps, C.V. (1994) Beyond Testing: Towards a Theory of Educational Assessment. London: Falmer. Harlen, W. (1994) Issues and approaches to quality assurance and quality control in assessment. In W. Harlen (Ed) Enhancing Quality in Assessment, pp.11-25. London: BERA. Harlen, W. and James, M. (1997) Assessment and learning: differences and relationships between formative and summative assessment. Assessment in Education, 4(3), 365-379. Harlen, W. (2005) Teachers‟ summative practices and assessment for learning – tensions and synergies. The Curriculum Journal, 16(2), 207-223. Marton, F. (1994) On the structure of teachers‟ awareness. In I. Carlgren, G. Handal, and S. Vaage (eds), Teachers‟ Minds and Actions, pp.29-42. London: Falmer Press. Pang, K.C. (1992) The biology teacher assessment scheme (TAS), Curriculum Forum, 2 (2), pp.81-90. Pong, W. Y. and Chow, J. C. S. (2002) On the pedagogy of examinations in Hong Kong. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 139-149. Putnam, R.T. and Borko, H. (1997) Teacher Learning: Implications of New Views of Cognition, in B. Biddle, T. L. Good and I. F. Goodson (Eds) International Handbook of Teachers and Teaching, Vol. II (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers), pp.1223-1296. Sadler, R. (1989) Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18, 119-144. Sanger, J. (1990) Awakening a scream of consciousness: the critical group in action research. Theory into Practice, 29, 174-178.
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Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books. Sherpard, L.A. (2000) The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher, 29(7), 4-14. Sherpard, L.A. (2005) Linking formative assessment to scaffolding. Educational Leadership, 63, 66-70. Tan, A.K. and Towndrow, P.A. (2009) Catalyzing student-teacher interactions and teacher learning in science practical formative assessment with digital video technology. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 61-67. Tomanek, D., Talanquer, V. and Novodvorsky, I. (2008) What do science teachers consider when selecting formative assessment tasks? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(10), 1113-1130. Towndrow, P.A., Tan, A-K., Yung, B.H.W. and Cohen, L. (2008) Science teachers‟ professional development and changes in science practical assessment practices: What are the issues? Research in Science Education. Published Online First: 25 October 2008. doi: 10.1007/s11165-008-9103-z Yip, D.Y. and Cheung, D. (2005) Teachers‟ concerns on school-based assessment of practical work. Journal of Biological Education, 39(4), 156-162. Yung, B.H.W. (2001) Three views of fairness in a school-based assessment scheme of practical work. International Journal of Science Education, 23(10), 985-1005. Yung, B.H.W. (2002) Same assessment, different practice: Professional consciousness as a determinant of teachers‟ practice in a school-based assessment scheme. Assessment in Education, 9(1), 101-121. Yung, B.H.W. (2006) Assessment Reform in Science: Fairness and Fear. Dordrecht: Springer.
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Teaching plant-based science
SCEIENCE IN INFORMAL SETTINGS
Engaging Children in Learning Plant-Based Science: Two Botanic Garden Educators’ Pedagogical Practices
Junqing Zhai
Department of Education & Professional Studies
King's College London
[email protected]
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Teaching plant-based science Abstract As important educational resources, botanic gardens enable learners to get access to authentic and exotic plants so that they can build an understanding and appreciation of the nature. Most of botanic gardens in England provide garden educator-assisted learning activities to visiting school groups. These educators contribute greatly to the visitors' learning, as they are the education programme designer, organiser, and instructor. However for the present there is little research on these educators' pedagogical practices especially with respect to how they support children in learning plant-based science. The study presented in this paper is the pilot study of a PhD research project to investigate botanic garden educators’ practices to understand and improve botanic education in informal settings. This paper explores the nature of teaching in botanic garden settings through analysing the interaction between the garden educators and children. Two educators from two different botanic gardens in England, UK participated in this study. The data collected include class observations and educator interviews. The pilot study lasted six months, with 10 hours of video/audio recordings. The data were analysed under the guidance of sociocultural theory. The initial findings are: (a) the structure of botanic garden educators-guided lessons is largely exploratory and experientially-based; (b) different strategies were adopted by botanic garden educators to motivate, interest, and engage children in learning plant-based science. The initial findings imply that learning in these two botanic garden contexts was mainly experiential rather than knowledge focused and botanic garden educators need ongoing professional development.
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Teaching plant-based science Engaging Children in Learning Plant-Based Science: Two Botanic Garden Educators’ Pedagogical Practices
In recent years, researchers and policy makers around the world have increasingly called for greater attention to be paid to the educational potential of out-of-school settings, citing the many benefits, and indeed, the necessity, of learning in contexts other than the classroom. For example, the Manifesto of Learning Outside the Classroom (LOtC) introduced by the British government encourages schools to provide children with learning opportunities beyond the classroom (2006, p. 41). Moreover, the QCA’s ―Big Picture‖ accounts learning outside the classroom as one of the components that constructs the whole curriculum (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2008). The school visits to informal learning settings such as science museums, botanic gardens, and zoos are valuable to develop students’ understanding of science and interest (Malone, 2008; Ofsted, 2008; Rickinson, et al., 2004; Slingsby, 2006). Botanic garden is one of the most popular settings for schools to organise educational excursions to visit. In England, botanic garden educators guided school trips have already became one of the most important components of botanic garden education (Botanic Garden Education Network, 2009). Different from classroom teachers who are lack of confidence in teaching beyond the classroom (Nundy, Dillon, & Dowd, 2009; O'Donnell, Morris, & Wilson, 2006), botanic garden educators have more teaching experience in informal context with different age groups of children. Although the botanic garden educators-guided lessons are one-off and may last only a short period of time, the students still can learn something more than their classroom teacher self-guided visit (Bowker, 2002; Bowker & Jasper, 2007).
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Teaching plant-based science The botanic garden educators have the responsibility to provide students with the environment that support inspirational learning about plants and their importance. The botanic garden educators are the communicators of botanical science and promoter of plant biodiversity conservation to visitors. For school visiting groups, these educators help students to connect their daily life experience and prior knowledge to the plants in exhibition in the botanic gardens (Bowker & Jasper, 2007; Sanders, 2004). Previous research about education in botanic gardens finds that the roles of the botanic garden educators are ―professional educator, tour guide, and a source of information‖ (Stewart, 2003, p. 354). Since botanic garden educators have multiple responsibilities for their visitors there is an emergent need to understand their pedagogical practices. The purpose of teaching is to support and improve learning, thus to explore how botanic garden educators support and improve children’s learning is necessary. To explore these issues, two research questions guide this study. First, how do botanic garden educators structure the guided lessons to visiting school groups? Second, what strategies do the botanic garden educators adopt to facilitate and support visiting schoolchildren’s learning? The study reported in this paper is the pilot study of a doctoral research project and in the hope of offering a brief picture about the botanic garden education. Botanic Gardens as Teaching and Learning Environment Much research has been done in museum context and research findings has confirmed that young people’s experience in museums can have positive impacts on their cognitive, affective, physical, and social development (Anderson, Lucas, & Ginns, 2003 for a review; Falk & Dierking, 2000; Hein, 1998). The limited literature on learning in botanic gardens has highlighted the importance of early learning experience in forming children’s attitudes and
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Teaching plant-based science active concern for the environment (e.g., Bowker, 2004, 2007; Sanders, 2004; Stewart, 2003; Tunnicliffe, 2000; Vergou, 2007). Botanical gardens offer an ideal location for educating the public. Firstly many gardens implement educational programmes based on the guidelines of the National Curriculum. Botanical gardens also harbor intimate links with the rest of the world. They house plants from every corner of the world which in itself provides a global network of ecological interdependence, for instance, people and places being linked through the institution. School trips to botanic gardens for many reasons (Jones, 2000). The most important one, however, is dominated by the guidelines of the science and geography curricula. Often the learning activities organised by either schoolteacher or garden education officer are focused on investigating plant adaptation, measuring different temperatures and humidity, and observing the plants from all over the world. Learning in botanic gardens however can be more than that. Environmental education elements are usually integrated within the excursion, for example, ecological literacy, environmental awareness, and environmental sensitivity (Emmons, 1997; Hargreaves, 2005; Tal, 2004). According to the National Curriculum, young people should develop their sense of social justice and moral responsibility and begin to understand that their own choices and behaviour can affect local, national, and global issues (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 2000). Moreover, the visit should include not only knowledge and understanding of animals or plants groups, but also the process of science and general aspects such as care for the environment and communication (Tunnicliffe, 2001, p. 33).
Jones (2002) comments on Tunnicliffe’s argument: a school visit to a botanical garden can encourage young people to think through their identity and place within society, both at the local and global level (pp. 279-280).
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Teaching plant-based science The botanic garden is the source that can engage with these links and open the door to implement environmental education, global education, and developmental education, a point illustrated by Jones (2002): Certainly the children that went to the garden were eager to think about where lots of products were from when they got back to school. They linked material products with plants and places, and considered how these places were linked to both their schools and their homes. The other side of the world was seen as intimately linked with their everyday world, and the botanical garden offered an exciting, interesting, and colourful resource through which these experiences could be engaged with. (p. 29)
Most of school trips to botanic gardens are one-day trip or even just for a few hours. Since students stay in the garden for a short period of time, how could this short experience impact students’ learning, both cognitively and affectively? In order to discover whether students’ attitudes towards plants can be changed by visiting a botanic garden as a school trip, South (1999) asked primary students to draw a leaf at the beginning of the garden workshop and again after it. She finds that ―there was an increase in the percentage of atypical leaves in the second set of drawings in all the classes‖ (South, 1999, p. 72), however the impact on the age group 5-7 years was not as significant as the age group 7-9 years. The botanic garden experience is to produce any significant impact on schoolchildren’s environmental awareness, as South (1999) suggests, botanic garden educators need to stimulate their interest by challenging pupils and providing more new environmental experiences. Bowker and Jasper (2007) tested the effects of the botanic garden educators guidedlessons at Eden Project. They adopted a personal meaning mapping (PMM) to measure how ―a specified learning experience uniquely affects each individual’s meaning-making process‖ (Bowker & Jasper, 2007, p. 139). Researchers asked 30 primary school pupils around 10 to 11 years old to describe a tropical rainforest by writing and drawing on the worksheet administrated both before and after the lesson. The instrument used in the research—PMM
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Teaching plant-based science was based on the child-centred principle which highlights the knowledge, feelings and perceptions that the children consider important to them. Adams et al. (2003) suggest that PMM plays an important role in measuring the children’s understanding along four semi-independent dimensions–extent, breadth, depth and mastery. The analysis of the concept maps shows that a child’s understanding of a tropical rainforest increased comprehensively as they participated in the botanic garden educators guided lessons. These findings prove that children learn even in the short amount of time available on the visit which challenges Brooke and Solomon’s (1996) conclusion—it is not reasonable for children to gain much from a short amount of time spent on an educational visit. Jones (2003) attempted to identify the processes involved in young people’s environmental understandings during their visit to a natural setting. In order to investigate these processes, she followed more than 150 young people (5-16 years old) who visited the Birmingham Botanical Gardens and Glasshouses with schools, with families, and with out-of-school leisure groups. Qualitative research methods such as participant observation, focus group, and text analysis were adapted in this research. The findings of the study suggest that children do not acquire knowledge through a simple pathway from expert to public, but learned through mediation via teachers, garden education officers, peers, and chaperones. It also suggests that young people can use their previous knowledge to decide where to focus their attention to gain new knowledge and to decide what they find more or less interesting. The experience in botanic garden, as Jones (2003) argues, has positive influence on young people’s environmental understandings. The personal experience is significant for developing a better understanding of the environment, as a child who participated in the research reflected:
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Teaching plant-based science I think to learn you’ve got to have hands on experience. If you just learn from textbooks about the environment, say about how plants are grow, you don’t actually look at them, and you don’t experience them. (Jones, 2003, p. 2)
Stewart (2003) investigated the experience of seven groups of primary and secondary children aged from 5 to 18 during their school excursion to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Both pre- and post-visit interviews (N=50) with students were conducted and a survey (N=284) about their visit experience was also carried out. Research findings illustrate that school trips to botanic gardens usually involve two types of learning: learning for cognitive gains and ―scheme-building‖. Learning for cognitive gains refers to the measurable cognitive outcomes that students can achieve during tightly structured activities such as visits to specific displays to conduct specific tasks. The scheme-building learning is achieved when students demonstrate long term recall of plants, plant displays and specific locations at a botanic garden. These recollections are linked to specific outcomes sought by the classroom teacher and contribute to students’ deeper understandings of plants especially plant structure and biodiversity. Stewart (2003) suggests that practical activities, especially sensory experiences form part of students’ long term recall of their botanic garden experience. Bowker (2004) investigated primary aged children’s (7-11 years old) learning during a visit led by a schoolteacher to the Eden Project with the purpose to find out the most effective methods of utilizing a teacher-led school trip to enhance children’s perceptions of plants and their understanding of people’s relationship with them. In total, 72 participating children were interviewed within one month after the initial visit. The researcher discovered that these children were affected by the sensory experience of being immersed in the garden where has such a profusion of plants from around the world. Most of the children showed an interest in the plants that were relevant to their lives but were often unsure of the relationship between plants, people and resources. For example, just over 50% of the children were able
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Teaching plant-based science to articulate the link between plants and food, but only 1/3 could make a link to plants and clothes without prompting (Bowker, 2004). In order to facilitate children’s understanding of plants and the relationship that human society has with them, it is essential for the educator who guide the students during the visit to challenge students’ previous concept, such as asking quality questions that will focus children’s attention on important aspects of plants such as plant adaptations to their climate or how people have used and cultivated certain plants‖ (Bowker, 2004, p. 240).
The research also implicated that both pre-visit preparation and follow-up activity that integrates the visit with teaching programme are significant for the flow experience of children during their visit in the botanic garden. Tunnicliffe (2001) explored the experiences of primary children (aged 7-11) looking at plants as exhibits at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew by collecting and analysing their conversations during the visit. Research data showed that ―children talk spontaneously about the easily observed features of plants such as colour, shape and smell, and offer past experience with garden plants‖; however, ―the functions of plants were hardly talked about although as few conversations mention about seed production and obtaining food‖ (p. 32). For most of time, children interpreted the name and features of plants from their own experiences and memories rather than ―talking science‖ by ―predicting, hypothesising design observational protocols, gathering data and evaluating it‖ (Tunnicliffe, 2001, p. 33). In order to channel children’s interest and engage them into effective learning rather than causal comments, Tunnicliffe (2001) suggests that teachers and garden educators should encourage a comparative, interpretive and adaptive approach to plant observations by helping the children to focus on a particular set of anatomical features, such as body covering, number of legs, number of petals, leaf shape, and their functions in structural terms. Therefore the study
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Teaching plant-based science reported in this paper was designed to investigate whether and how the botanic garden educators’ teaching practices meet the requirements set by Tunnicliffe. Previous studies reveal that learning in informal contexts such as botanical gardens is authentic, informal, and discursive so that researchers may find it more challenging than study the classroom education (Ofsted, 2008; Real World Learning Partnership, 2006). There is an emergent need to investigate teaching and learning in garden settings since the limited research has shown the power of garden experience for young people. Research Methodology This study is a naturalistic enquiry into the pedagogical practice of botanic garden educators. In the following section research methodology was presented. Research context Two botanic gardens, SW Botanic Garden and BH Botanic Garden, from two big cities in England were selected for this study based on their accessibility to the author, their representation of outdoor classroom in botanic garden settings, and their reputation of the education service to the public. Both botanic gardens are well known informal education institutions in their community and offer a variety of educational programmes to schools and resources for classroom teachers. The two gardens have a variety of plant collections, including plants live in arid, tropical, and Mediterranean environments. Although the occupied area of two gardens is different, both of them have a learning centre where botanic garden educators usually start off their teaching to visiting school groups. The education team in SW and BH Gardens are small in size. BH Garden has two full-time employed educators while SW Garden only has one. The education programmes in SW and BH Gardens share some similarities and the topics they provide to schools are comparable and consistent with those offered by most botanic gardens in England (Bowker, Page 2467
Teaching plant-based science 2002; Jones, 2000; Sanders, 2004; South, 1999). Besides the education service to school children, both gardens offer teacher professional development training programmes for the teachers from local schools. For SW Garden, it also provides off-site programmes, that is, the botanic garden educator travels to schools and teaches pupils on campuses. The botanic garden educator-directed programmes investigated in this study are pre-planned, one-off lessons to school visiting groups. This is similar to the education programmes provided by science and natural history museums in England (Dewitt & Osborne, 2007; King, 2009) and elsewhere (Cox-Petersen, Marsh, Kisiel, & Melber, 2003; Tal & Morag, 2007; Tran, 2006). Classroom teachers were required to book and prepare the visit in advance. Most classroom teachers choose the topics that gardens advertised, however, sometimes they may have special request such as integrating different subjects into one visit. As botanic garden educators explained, each lesson topic was designed in order to suit the basic principle of National Curriculum and the need of visiting school children. Research Participants Two botanic garden educators, David from SW Garden and Chris from BH Garden, were recruited to participate in this study according to their willingness and interest. The criteria for selecting research participants are based on whether the educator’s primary job responsibility is teaching school visiting groups and the age groups they are working with. According to the job statement, Chris is responsible to teach primary groups from inner city schools. Although David has to teach all the age groups because he is the only full-time educator, the majority of school visiting groups in SW Garden are primary children. Accordingly, the target teaching groups of both participants are in the similar age group. Until data collection, David had been working as an outdoor educator in botanic gardens for 15 years. David said his inspiration of working as a botanic garden educator is to
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Teaching plant-based science pass on his enthusiasm on nature to other people and help them to make sense of the natural world. David holds a BSc degree in ecology but not a teaching qualification. He started his teaching career in botanic gardens after three years observing other outdoor educators’ teaching practices in two different informal learning institutes. Chris had worked in several local urban primary schools for 20 years and he started his botanic garden educator job in BH Garden 6 years ago. Chris has a BSc degree in physics and Primary PGCE. Different from David who is employed by the garden, Chris is responsible to the local education council. All the inner city state-run primary schools have to book visit from Chris, while his colleague, the other educator in BH Garden is in charge of the visit by independent schools and schools outside the city. Data Collection Before data collection, the researcher spent at least one week with participating botanic garden educators on site to get familiar with them and their education programmes. Through the communication with David and Chris during that period of time basic information about their background and teaching/training experiences were obtained. Around three teaching sessions given by each educator were observed which enabled researcher to get a whole picture of their teaching procedures and approaches. The data of this study include class observations and botanic garden educators’ interview. All these data were collected between May and October 2009. The lessons taught by each participating educator were observed when pupils were visiting the botanic garden during a school trip (see Table1). The lessons observed in SW Garden were recorded by filming. The researcher held the camcorder at the back of the classroom or at the back of the group outside in order to minimise the intrusiveness of research. The camcorder always focused on the educator to record discourse and behaviour
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Teaching plant-based science when he was interacting with pupils. The camcorder does not work well all the time especially when the educator and pupils were outdoor because the noise and movement may reduce the video quality. Therefore, the researcher gave the educator an audio recorder with a clipped microphone to back up the discourse data. The BH Garden did not give the permission to film the lessons. Thus the researcher only used audio recorder to capture the interaction discourse between the educator and pupils. Meanwhile field notes were taken during the course of observation to record the educator’s teaching behaviours. Table 1 Lesson code Topic Year group No. of children No. of adults Data type Length of lesson
Lesson Observed in SW and BH Gardens
SW Garden (David) SW-D-26/6 SW-D-29/6 plant and habitat plant and habitat Y5 Y5 40 19 6 3 audio & video audio & video 95 min 94 min
BH Garden (Chris) BH-S-07/5 BH-S-15/6 plant adaptation plant adaptation Y3 Y3 20 19 3 3 audio & note audio & note 97 min 95 min
The participating educators were interviewed a couple of weeks after the lesson observation when the researcher finished data transcription. During the interview, researcher showed the educators the transcribed data and audio/video clips to help them to reflect their teaching practice. The interviews lasted 20-40 minutes depending on the educators’ eagerness to reflect and talk. Data Analysis The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed by open coding procedures (Strass & Corbin, 1990). The educator interviews were designed to support the interpretation of botanic garden educators’ talk. The combination of educator-pupil interaction and educator interviews offers athe triangulation which enriches the understanding of the teaching and learning in botanic gardens.
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Teaching plant-based science The discourse data collected from lesson observations were transcribed verbatim and analyzed by applying Mortimer and Scott’s (2003) analytical framework which combines two dimensions of classroom discourse and constructs a matrix that classified the classroom communication into four classes (see Table 2). Table 2
The Communicative Approach (source from Mortimer & Scott, 2003)
The four classes of communicative approaches were defined as follows: Interactive/dialogic: Teacher and students consider a range of ideas. Non-interactive/dialogic: Teacher revisits and summarizes different points of view, either simply listening them or exploring similarities and differences. Interactive/authoritative: Teacher focuses on one specific point of view and leads students through a question and answer routine with the aim of establishing and consolidating that point of view. Non-interactive/authoritative: Teacher presents a specific point of view.
(Scott,
Mortimer, & Aguiar, 2006, pp. 612-613)
All the discourse data were analyzed line by line to find out the nature of the interaction between botanic garden educator and visiting schoolchildren. Research Findings The research findings reported attempt to answer the research questions: 1) how botanic garden educators guided lessons are structured? 2) what strategies do botanic garden educators adaopt to support visiting schoolchildren in learning plant-based science?
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Teaching plant-based science How Botanic Garden Educators Guided Lessons are Structured? A typical botanic garden educator guided lesson was a structured, narrative, and educator-directed experience in which pupils and classroom teachers moved together as a whole group. This finding is consistent with museum docent guided tour to school visiting groups (Cox-Petersen, et al., 2003). The two vignettes in the appendix described how botanic garden educators organised their lessons. Both David and Steve’s guided lessons were relevantly high effective. David spent only 9.5% of lesson time in delivering health and safety issues, managing the discipline, or walking the pupils from classroom to glasshouse. The class managing time in Chris’s classes is a bit longer which reaches 11.6% of the whole guided lesson, perhaps due to the fact that the pupils in Chris’s groups are much younger and it is easier for them to lose their concentration. The observational data reveals that there is a kind of balance between whole class teaching and pupils’ exploratory work within the effective lesson phase when educators focused on teaching instead of managing the group. Pupils spent 48% of their time in doing exploratory activities such as observational drawings or identifying plants in David’s lessons and 52.4% in Chris’s lessons. It seems that pupils do not have sufficient time to discover the plant kingdom by themselves. In this sense, the botanic garden educators’ guided lessons, to a large extent are formally instructed. The structure of the interaction between educator and pupils is different between those two observed educators. In David’s observed lessons, the communicative approach in whole class teaching sessions is non-interactive/authoritative dominated. For example, when David was introducing carnivorous plants and medical plants to pupils, only his voice could be heard. During the educator interviews the researcher showed David the video clips that recorded his lessons. David acknowledged that he explained too much and the pupils looked Page 2472
Teaching plant-based science bored. However, in another video clip recorded from another class instructed by David, pupils were highly engaged in listening. David explained that ―the classroom teacher is standing next to me and that attracts students’ attention because students usually are scared of their teachers.‖ Research into school trips to museums find that students are more engaged in the activity if the classroom teachers are more involved in the tour (e.g., Dewitt, 2007; Griffin, 1998). The communicative approach in Chris’s whole class teaching sessions is more interactive/dialogic oriented if compared to David’s lessons. The salient evidence is Chris proposed more questions to elaborate pupils to construct their understandings about plant-based science. The utterance in Chris and pupils’ interaction is ―I-R-F-R-F-‖ pattern (Mortimer & Scott, 2003) rather than triadic ―I-R-F‖ (Mehan, 1979) or ―I-R-E‖ interaction (Sinclair & Coulthard, 1975). Chris believed that dialogue is important through which can draw pupils’ attention, but he also commented that it is difficult for him to adopt dialogic teaching to the pupils who have never been trained to do that. The structure of four observed guided lessons cannot be generalized to whole botanic garden education programmes to school visiting groups. However, the two participating botanic garden educators have some similarities in organising their lessons. For instance, both of them can use their constrained time effectively to guarantee the pupils’ experience during the visit is learning oriented. Secondly, both educators to a large extent used the facilities in the botanic gardens to support their teaching. Another similarity of their teaching is the whole class instruction and student independent exploratory activities split the lesson time equally. The stricture of the interaction between educator and pupils in observed lessons varied. Different factors may impact the nature of class discourse: educator’s teaching experience and the way of their pedagogical thinking, the academic level of visiting schoolchildren and their behaviours in the garden, the expectation of classroom teachers and their involvement. This issue will be explored in the future study of author’s doctoral thesis. Page 2473
Teaching plant-based science How do Botanic Garden Educators Support Pupil’s Learning? Four prominent teaching strategies that motivate, interest, and support visiting schoolchildren’s learning were found in David and Chris’s pedagogical practice. These strategies are: 1) using questions to support intellectual engagement; 2) using wild facts to support emotive focus; 3) focusing on learning the language of plants; and 4) learning plants through sensory engagement. Using questions to support intellectual engagement Questioning is an effective way to engage students in thinking for understanding (Chin, 2007). By analysing the classroom talk and interaction, the researcher found that both botanic garden educators would like to use questions to start their teaching though the amount of questions that the educators asked various. In four observed lessons, David proposed questions 25 times and Chris 102 times. In David’s class he started his lesson ―Plants‖ by asking ―Did anyone have breakfast?‖ and then ―Who had plants for breakfast?‖ The purpose for David to ask these questions is to check pupils’ understanding about plants. By asking ―Who had plants for breakfast‖ scaffolds pupils to connect plants with food. This question engaged pupils in thinking which plants are edible for food. As David explained in the interview, the guiding principle for his lesson design is to help children to learn useful plants, such as plants for food, for cloths, and for medicine. Therefore, connecting teaching and curriculum with experiences of learners’ home and daily life facilitates the process of meaning making. Compared to David’s classes, Chris asked more open-ended questions. Questions such as ―what do the roots do for the plants‖, ―what bit of the plant grows up from the roots and reach to the sky‖, why do you think flowers have petals‖ challenge pupils’ prior knowledge about plants and elicit them to speculate. These questions provide pupils with the
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Teaching plant-based science opportunity to predict, to describe, and to explain. The following excerpt is a good example to demonstrate how Chris uses questions to support learners’ higher-order thinking when teaching plant growth to a group of Year 3 pupils. Excerpt 1 (BH-S-15/6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Chris: S4: Chris: S1: Chris: S6: Chris:
S7:
What do the roots do for the plants? What’s their job? What do they do? To make the plants growing bigger. They do. I think at the end of Year 3 we need should know exactly what they do to make it grow bigger. What do the roots actually do? They grow. What are they doing when they are growing? They must be doing something. Every part has a job. When there’s the wind it keeps the flower in. When the wind blows it keeps the flower in. Good girl. It’s quite like that because it anchors its down to the ground. If it grows in the soil then the roots anchor that plant down to the ground. So it’s very important. This afternoon you may see some roots that do not grow under the ground: some grow in the water maybe and some grow climb up the walls. So that’s one of their important jobs. To hold that plant, to anchor it. What else do the roots do? They suck the water.
Chris proposed three questions consecutively to challenge pupils’ understanding about the root’s function. The first answer ―to make the plants growing bigger‖ (line 2) to some extent is acceptable but Chris has higher expectation from this Year 3 group pupils even he acknowledged that pupil’s contribution was correct. Chris prompted pupils’ idea again by asking ―what do the roots actually do‖ (line 4) to seek the proper answer to his question. ―They grow‖ (line 5) answered by S1, but this is an unclear statement about the function of roots because it could be interpreted as ―the roots help plant grow‖ or ―the roots are growing‖. Probably that is the reason why Chris did not comment on S1’s answer. Instead he reformulated the question into ―What are they doing when they are growing‖ (line 6) which makes it easier to be understood by Year 3 pupils. ―When there’s the wind it keeps the flower in‖ (line 8), the answer from S6 met Chris’s expectation as he repeated that pupil’s
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Teaching plant-based science answer to confirm her contribution. After explaining how roots anchor the plant, Chris cued pupils to think about the function of the roots. During the interview Chris explained why he was interested in prompting children by asking questions constantly: It’s very interesting to listen into the kids talking. It’s always very interesting to me. I try to get the chance to listen to the kids because it’s obviously they construct information, they have to think. So, one of the big things about visit botanic gardens like this is to give them some spaces to think. (Interview BH-C/I-07/5)
Using questions to engage pupils in knowledge construction is a popular pedagogical approach adapted by classroom teachers. The botanic garden educator like Chris used this method as well could to some extent illustrate the similarity of formal and informal educators during their teaching practice. In short, questions are a key component in teaching-learning discourse so that educators from different learning contexts can use them as a psychological tool to mediate students’ knowledge construction and support them to move towards their ―zone of proximal development‖ (Vygotsky, 1978). Using wild facts to support emotive focus Museum research finds that affective talk is a common behaviour of visitors to express their pleasure, displeasure, or surprise feeling about the exhibition (Allen, 2002; Osborne, 2005). The plant kingdom is a world full of exotic things for people to discovery. On school excursion to a botanic garden pupils can get access to the exotic part of the natural world and experience different living environments which may affect their emotions and feelings. As Carson (1998) suggests the feelings toward the natural world as antecedent to intellectual growth: Once the emotions have been aroused—a sense of the beautiful, the excitement of the new and the unknown, a feeling of sympathy, pity, admiration or love—then we wish for
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Teaching plant-based science knowledge about the object of our emotional response. Once found, it has lasting meaning. (p. 56)
Young people are normally interested in watching, hearing and talking about wild facts. David, the educator from SW Garden considered talking wild facts to pupils as one part of his ideal lesson. The following two excerpts illustrate how David supports pupils’ emotional engagement. When David was teaching living habitat to a group of Year 5 pupils he showed them the living creatures in the pond water through microscope (see Excerpt 2). When he magnified the microscope pupils were surprised by the cell shape moving creatures. It turned out that those pupils had never thought pond water harbours so many tiny animals. During lunch time a pupil reminded his partners to wash their hands by referring the scenario of moving cells. Excerpt 2 (SW-D-26/6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
David:
David: David: Ss:
What I’ve done is put four drops of it underneath the microscope here and that’s what you can see through the screen. These are tiny creatures they are living there. This is their home.
[David adjusted the microscope to enlarge the image on the screen] What you see now is magnified by 650 times.
[Many living creatures showed up on the screen] If I zoom it in, it is magnified by 1,500 times.
[There are some cell live things are moving around on the screen] Whoa.
In another Year 5 class David presented the biggest and smallest seed in the world (see Excerpt 3). Pupils were amazed by seeing the real object and were surprised by getting the information that the smallest seed can be only one thousand of a gram. Two weeks after the school trip, the leading teacher of that Year 5 group told the researcher that pupils talked a lot about seeds dispersal when they went back school.
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Teaching plant-based science Excerpt 3 (SW-D-29/6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
David: Ss: S7: David:
David:
S3: David:
[David put a Coco de Mer on the table]
It is a double coconut. It’s the heaviest seed in the world. Whoa. It’s so big. The heaviest one in the world, bear in mind it’s a seed, I heard is 22 kilo grams.
[David showed pupils a petri dish with orchid seeds in]
These are the seeds from a type of plant called orchid, its actual name is Vanda. These are so small they might even be floating in the air around us right now. They weight one thousand of a gram. Seriously? Yes.
Another example is when David explained how venus flytraps capture insects to get minerals for living to a group of Year 5 pupils the pupils were highly engaged in listening. Some pupils used their hands to model how venus flytraps trap insects. This scenario shows pupils were engaged in learning how carnivorous plants are adapted to a wet and poor soil environment. Figure 1
Children were modeling how venus flytrap traps insects (SW-D-20/06)
The wild facts are powerful motivations and stimuli for learning and development. They are more than factual information. They could provide pupils with a long term memory and facilitate their situational interest to be developed into personal interest which may engage them in learning plant-based science constantly (Hidi & Renninger, 2006).
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Teaching plant-based science Focusing on learning the language of plant-based science Science is rich in words and terms in use. Wellington and Osborne (2001) suggest that learning the language of science is a major part of science education. In the National Curriculum for England there is a section on Use of language across the curriculum which requires teachers to teach pupils to ―use language precisely and cogently‖ when talking science (Department for Education and Employment, 1999, p. 69). The school trip to botanic gardens enjoys a good opportunity for pupils to develop their language of plant-based science. The pupils taught by Chris were from inner city schools where a large proportion of children’s home language is not English. To help inner school pupils to develop their communication skills is an important task for Chris to complete. What Chris focused on during his teaching was facilitating pupils to use proper words to describe plants and he stated this educational goal to the pupils at the very beginning of his lesson. During the course of instruction, Chris reminded pupils several times to use the scientific words to describe plants. For instance, when a Year 3 boy referred ―roots‖ and ―leaves‖ as ―the bottom bit‖ and ―the green bit‖, Chris asked the whole class to repeat the correct words to describe those specific parts of a plant. The next excerpt shows how the language of science was taught to the pupil in detail. Before getting into the acid glasshouse Chris demonstrated to the pupils how to read the mark on thermometer by using the science word ―Celsius‖. Excerpt 4 was adapted from the teaching session in the acid glasshouse where pupils were requested to find the temperature of the room by themselves. Chris checked a pupil’s fieldwork and asked her about the reading on the thermometer. The girl spoke out the answer immediately but she only reported the number showed on the equipment. Because her answer ―18‖ did not make any sense, Chris told her the answer should be ―18 Celsius‖. Chris made a daily life example to help that pupil to understand a Page 2479
Teaching plant-based science unit can make sense of the number (line 5-6). This case highlights the importance of addressing children the meaning of science words rather than the words themselves. Children’s understanding of words can be developed in their minds through appropriate teaching and authentic real world experiences (Wellington & Ireson, 2008).
Excerpt 4 (BH-S-07/5) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Chris: S9: Chris: S9: Chris:
What temperature is it? 18 18 Celsius Celsius Remember to put a unit. Ok? If you go to a shop somebody doesn’t say 18 but they say 18 pence or 18 pounds, so we have to say 18 Celsius.
Teaching children the language of science is a big challenge for botanic garden educators. Chris complained during the interview that the classroom teachers seldom focus their teaching goals on the development of children’s language. So there is no doubt it is difficult for botanic garden educators to teach proper science words to those young children especially those first language is not English. Learning plants through sensory engagement According to Vygotsky, ―children solve practical tasks with the help of their speech as well as their eyes and hands‖ (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 26). Prompting children to develop their language of plant-based science is a pivotal part of botanic garden education, but at the same time when children were on the trip they also got direct experience about botanic garden through their senses. It is important for pupils if they are able to see, hear, touch, smell and live the experience during the visit (Ballantyne & Packer, 2009), however, the health and safety concerns and courtesy policy are the barriers for pupils to be encouraged to interact with plants through all their five senses. Botanic garden educators usually have expertise
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Teaching plant-based science knowledge about botany so they have a clear idea about which plants are harmful for touching, smelling, or tasting. They can guide their visiting school children in a safe and proper way to interact with plants from their sensory organs. Collecting specimen is an important method for Darwin to develop his famous theory of species evolution (Kohn, 2008). Botanic garden educators have designed various hands-on activities to support their young visitors’ interaction with plant artifacts. In SW Garden, pupils were encouraged to collect leaves, flowers, and feathers from the ground in the garden and then they can stick their collections onto a sticky card to make different pictures as they wish (see the left picture of Figure 2). In activity ―sketching‖, David suggested pupils to do an observational drawing of the plant artifacts that displayed on their table. When David led the pupils into the Tropical Glasshouse, he recommended them to record what they found interesting in to their book (see the right picture of Figure 2). The observational drawing and specimen collecting activities increased the pupils’ interest in exploring the botanic garden and also developed their observation skills.
Figure 2
Pupils’ art products (SW-D-26/6 )
When David walked pupils cross the lawn he suggested them to pick up a eucalyptus leaf from the ground and smashed it up to smell. David found pupils like that smell he explained that the leaf is the most favourite food of Koala and the leaf can be used to make flavor for toothpaste and chewing gum. Pupils were allowed to touch and smell the leaves
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Teaching plant-based science when they were looking at the perfume plants. Most of pupils can identify mint and lemon from other plants according to their fragrant smell. The sense organs enabled pupils to link their daily life experience to the botanic garden visit meanwhile enhanced their direct experience about plants. Conclusions and Implications The findings of the pilot study reported in this paper offer a brief picture about two botanic garden educators’ teaching practice to school visiting groups. Although this study adopted a case study approach the research findings have some representative themes. Learning in botanic garden is experiential based Learning outside the classroom provides students with authentic experience of their real-life world (Ofsted, 2008). School trips to botanic gardens enable children to interact with displaying plants, get firsthand information about different living environments, and increase their understandings about the natural world (Ballantyne & Packer, 2002; Brody, 2005; Sanders, 2007). The research finding of this study shows how botanic garden educators support visiting schoolchildren’s experience based learning through adapting different teaching strategies. Kolb (1984) argues that ―the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience‖(p. 41), thus knowledge is constructed from the combination of grasping and transforming that experience. The education in botanic garden context should focus on providing visiting children’s concrete experience about plants. The educators have the responsibility to guide students to observe the things that students are interested in. During and after observations educator should elicit students’ thinking and facilitate them to conceptualize the abstract science concepts or processes.
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Teaching plant-based science Supporting botanic garden educators’ professional development Compared with their counterparts in schools botanic garden educators have to work with different students each single day. There is a very short time for them to understand visiting children’s prior knowledge and the academic level they are working for. Because the education programmes are designed based on the National Curriculum, the botanic garden educators have to update their knowledge about governmental documents. .. As a result, the botanic garden educators should get more support from their institutes to develop their professional knowledge and skills. The Botanic Garden Conservation International did an online survey recently and found that half botanic gardens or plant-based education sites require their education staff to have ongoing professional development. The data of this study suggested botanic gardens should be given sufficient opportunities to further develop their subject knowledge and pedagogical skills constantly. Moreover, their training ought to be connected with the latest research findings and follow the education reformation trend. This study, therefore, highlight the importance of botanic garden educators’ responsibility in supporting visiting schoolchildren’s learning when they visit the botanic garden on a school trip. In the next step of this study the following questions will be explored: 1) why botanic garden educators teach differently and 2) what factors may affect the effectiveness of a botanic garden educator guided lesson‖.
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Teaching plant-based science References Adams, M., Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (2003). Things change: Museums, learning, and research. In M. Xanthoudaki, L. Tickle & V. Sekules (Eds.), Researching Visual Arts in Education in Museums and Galleries (pp. 15-32). Dordrecht: Kluwer. Allen, S. (2002). Looking for learning in visitor talk: A methodological exploration. In G. Leinhardt, K. Crowley & K. Knutson (Eds.), Learning conversations in museums (pp. 259-303). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Anderson, D., Lucas, K. B., & Ginns, I. S. (2003). Theoretical perspectives on learning in an informal setting. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(2), 177-199. Ballantyne, R., & Packer, J. (2002). Nature-based excursions: School students' perceptions of learning in natural environments. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 11(3), 218-236. Ballantyne, R., & Packer, J. (2009). Introducing a fifth pedagogy: Experience-based strategies for facilitating learning in natural environments Environmental Education Research, 15(2), 243-262. Botanic Garden Education Network (2009). What is plant-based education? Retrieved 9th October, 2009, from http://bgen.org.uk/index.php/who/22-plant-based-ed/5-planteducation Bowker, R. (2002). Evaluating teaching and learning strategies at the Eden Project. Evaluation and Research in Education, 16(3), 123-136. Bowker, R. (2004). Children's perceptions of plants following their visit to the Eden Project. Research in Science and Technological Education, 22(2), 227-243. Bowker, R. (2007). Children's perceptions and learning about tropical rainforests: An analysis of their drawings. Environmental Education Research, 13(1), 75-96.
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Teaching plant-based science Bowker, R., & Jasper, A. (2007). Don't forget your leech socks! Children's learning at the Eden Project. Research in Science and Technological Education, 25(1), 135-150. Brody, M. (2005). Learning in nature. Environmental Education Research, 11(5), 603-621. Brooke, H., & Solomon, J. (1996). Hands-on, brains-on: Playing and learning in an Interactive Science Centre. Primary Science Review, 44(14-16). Carson, R. (1998). The sense of wonder. New York: HarperCollins. Chin, C. (2007). Teacher questioning in science classrooms: Approaches that stimulate productive thinking. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(6), 815-843. Cox-Petersen, A. M., Marsh, D. D., Kisiel, J., & Melber, L. M. (2003). Investigation of guided school tours, student learning, and science reform recommendations at a museum of natural history. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(2), 200-218. Department for Education and Employment (1999). Science: Key stages 1-4. London: QCA. Department for Education and Skills (2006). Learning Outside the Classroom Manifesto. Nottingham: DfES Publications. Dewitt, J. E. (2007). Supporting teachers on science-focused school trips: Towards an integrated framework of theory and practice. Unpublished doctoral thesis, King's College London, London. Dewitt, J. E., & Osborne, J. (2007). Supporting teachers on science-focused school trips: Towards an integrated framework of theory and practices. International Journal of Science Education, 29(6), 685-710. Emmons, K. M. (1997). Perceptions of the environment while exploring the outdoors: a case study in Belize. Environmental Education Research, 3(3), 327-344. Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (2000). Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
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Teaching plant-based science Griffin, J. M. (1998). School-museum integrated learning experiences in science: A learning journey. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. Hargreaves, L. J. (2005). Attributes of meaningful field trip experiences. Unpublished MA dissertation, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada. Hein, G. E. (1998). Learning in the museum. New York: Routledge. Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111-127. Jones, V. (2000). More than just plants: Engaging with the politics of identity at botanical gardens. Paper presented at the Making sense of teaching and learning through environmental education research, Chelsea Physic Garden, London. Jones, V. (2002). Identity and the environment. The Curriculum Journal, 13(3), 279-288. Jones, V. (2003). Young people and the circulation of environmental knowledge. Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Wales. King, H. (2009). Supporting natural history enquiry in an informal setting: A study of museum Explainer practice. Unpublished PhD thesis, King's College London, London. Kohn, D. (2008). Darwin the botanist. Roots, 5(2), 5-8. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Malone, K. (2008). Every experience matters: Learning outside the classroom. London: Farming and Countryside Education (FACE) & Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF). Mehan, H. (1979). Learning lessons: Social organisation in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Teaching plant-based science Mortimer, E. F., & Scott, P. H. (2003). Meaning making in secondary science classroom. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Nundy, S., Dillon, J., & Dowd, P. (2009). Improving and encouraging teacher confidence in out-of-classroom learning: The impact of the Hampshire Trailblazer project on 3–13 curriculum practitioners. Education 3-13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 37(1), 61-73. O'Donnell, L., Morris, M., & Wilson, R. (2006). Education outside the classroom: An assessment of activity and practice in schools and local authorities. London: Department for Education and Skills (DfES). Ofsted (2008). Learning outside the classroom: How far should we go? (No. NR-2008-30 ). London: Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted). Osborne, R. (2005). The challenge of materials gallery: A discourse based cognitive analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (NARST). Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2000). National Curriculum: Citizenship key stage 2 Retrieved 28th October, 2008, from http://curriculum.qca.org.uk/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/citizenship/keystage2/index. aspx?return=/key-stages-1-and-2/subjects/citizenship/index.aspx Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2008). A big picture of the curriculum. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA). Real World Learning Partnership (2006). Out-of-classroom learning: Practical information and guidance for schools and teachers Retrieved 21st October, 2008, from www.ase.org.uk/htm/teacher_zone/outdoor_science/outdoor_science.php
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Teaching plant-based science Rickinson, M., Dillon, J., Teamey, K., Morris, M., Choi, M. Y., Sanders, D., et al. (2004). A review of research on outdoor learning. London: National Foundation for Educational Research & King's College London. Sanders, D. (2004). Botanic gardens: 'Walled, stranded arks' or environments for learning? Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Sussex, Brighton, England. Sanders, D. (2007). Making public the private life of plants: The contribution of informal learning environments. International Journal of Science Education, 29(10), 1209-1228. Scott, P. H., Mortimer, E. F., & Aguiar, O. G. (2006). The tension between authoritative and dialogic discourse: A fundamental characteristic of meaning making interactions in high school science lessons. Science Education, 90(4), 605-631. Sinclair, J., & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse. London: Oxford University Press. Slingsby, D. R. (2006). The future of school science lies outdoors. Journal of Biological Education, 40(2), 51-52. South, M. (1999). Can a botanic garden education visit increase children’s environmental awareness? Paper presented at the 4th International Congress on Education in Botanic Gardens, Kerala, India. Stewart, K. M. (2003). Learning in a botanic garden : The excursion experiences of school students and their teachers. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. Strass, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: SAGE.
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Teaching plant-based science Tal, R. T. (2004). Using a field trip to a wetland as a guide for conceptual understanding in environmental education: A case study of a pre-service teacher's research. Chemistry Education: Research and Practice, 5(2), 127-142. Tal, R. T., & Morag, O. (2007). School visits to natural history museums: Teaching or enriching? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(5), 747-769. Tran, L. U. (2006). Teaching science in museums: The pedagogy and goals of museum educators. Science Education, 91(2), 278-297. Tunnicliffe, S. D. (2000). Talking about plants: Comments of primary school groups looking at plants as exhibit in a botanical garden. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, Cardiff University. Tunnicliffe, S. D. (2001). Talking about plants: Comments of primary school groups looking at plant exhibits in a botanical garden. Journal of Biological Education, 36(1), 27-34. Vergou, A. (2007). Flourishing collaborations: The story of Wakehurst Place, RBG Kew and a local school. Paper presented at the 3rd Global Botanic Gardens Congress, Wuhan, China. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wellington, J., & Ireson, G. (2008). Science learning, science teaching. London: Routledge. Wellington, J., & Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education. Buckingham: Open University Press.
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Teaching plant-based science Appendix Vignette 1
The lesson instructed by David
Forty Y5 pupils from St George Primary School (a pseudonym) arrive at the Learning Centre of SW Garden at 10.05 am. David leads the group to the lawn and asks pupils to sit around him in a semi-circle. At 10.10 am David introduces himself and the plan of the visit to the pupils and chaperones. David asks the teacher in charge of the trip to divide the whole class into two groups and informs the self-leading group what they should do in the garden. Pupils are allowed to collect leaves from the ground and use their collections to make art craft. David also suggests that group of pupils to observe the flowers and record the frequency of the colour they see when walking around the garden. About 6 minutes later David organises the whole class to have a quick walk around the garden. David gets the group back to the Learning Centre at 10.25 am and starts his teaching. He examines pupils’ prior knowledge about plants and habitats by asking them questions such as ―what plants did you eat for breakfast‖ and ―what is the science word for something’s home‖. There is a girl notices the moving creatures on the screen and asks David ―what is that?‖ curiously. David demonstrates the pond life through zooming in the microscope which is connected with the overhead projector. Five minutes later David comes back to his discussion about habitat with pupils and asks them to give some examples for the places that human beings live in. House, flat, chalet, palace, hotel, … more than ten examples are given out by pupils. Around 10.42 am David shows pupils a variety of bird nests, vegetable plants, and plant artifacts [dried sugarcane, bean pot, seeds, etc.]. Meanwhile he is explaining what those objects are but pupils are distracted by the objects and start talking. David suggests the pupils to make at least one observational drawing of the objects but the pupils are engaging in passing around the objects and discussing with each other. When a classroom teacher gets involved the pupils start their sketching.
At 11.00 am David sends the pupils to the garden and starts his guided tour. The pupils are asked to think about ―why they are not wearing coat‖ and then David anecdotally evoking the metaphor how plants adapt to the local environments. Five minutes later David takes the pupils into the glasshouse and talks about how carnivorous plants capture insects and get minerals for their living. David cuts out a dried pitcher plant and shows pupils the skeletons
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Teaching plant-based science of insects captured by the plant. The pupils pass the specimen around and one boy shouts out ―It smells like rotten fish‖. Ten minutes later David walks the pupils to the medical plant garden. On their way they stop at a eucalyptus tree and David encourages pupils to pick up a eucalyptus leaf from the ground and smell it. When arrive at the medical plant garden, David gives the pupils a talk about how poisonous plants work as medicine. When he is talking about the Atropa belladonna, known as deadly nightshade or belladonna, David tells pupils the story how Italian women used that plant to make them look beautiful centuries ago. Then the pupils are taken in to the tropical glasshouse to look at some rainforest plants. The glasshouse is so crowded that only one or two persons can pass through at the same time. It is very difficult for the pupils at the back of the group to hear David’s talking. The tour in the tropical glasshouse only lasts three minutes. David finishes his teaching to the first group of pupils at 11.30 am.
All the pupils are given half an hour as lunch time. In the afternoon David swaps the groups and teaches the same thing to the second group. At 1.15 pm David thanks the teacher and pupils for coming to the garden and leads them to their coach and sees them off.
Vignette 2
The lesson instructed by Chris
Nineteen Y3 pupils from Bridge Road Primary school (a pseudonym) walk into the Learning Centre in BH Garden at 1.00pm when they finish their lunch in the garden. Chris welcomes the pupils to come to the garden and introduces himself to them. Chris reviews what these children had seen this morning when they were visiting the garden with their classroom teachers. Then Chris informs the pupils what they should learn from the lesson this afternoon, that is, to use proper science words to describe plants. The pupils are asked to put a Velcro plant at the front of the room whilst reinforcing what plants need to grow. Chris then introduces children to the worksheets they will work on in the glasshouses later on and shows them how to read a thermometer.
At 1.30 pm children are taken to the acid glasshouse to explore the desert plants. The pupils are attracted by different types of succulent plants and Chris has to remind them to focus on the task and guides them to find out the thermometer and waterfall gauge. Five minutes later all the children are assembled and Chris checks pupils’ findings about the environment in this
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Teaching plant-based science glasshouse. Children are reminded to use Celsius to quantify the temperature than only a number. Then Chris shows pupils how desert plants store water and sends them to sketch the plants that use thick leaves and stems to store water. When children are doing observational drawings, Chris is chatting with classroom teachers and exchanges their perceptions of how to support children’s learning. Ten minutes later Chris gets pupils together and reviews their drawings. Then they walk to the tropical glasshouse to investigate the habitat in rainforest environment. As what Chris did in the acid glasshouse, he informs pupils to find the thermometer and waterfall cup first and then do the drawings according to the requirements listed on the worksheet.
Chris finishes his teaching at 2.35 pm and walks those pupils back
to the Learning Center where they get their bags and head off back to school.
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP: A case study of selected topic in organic chemistry
Karntarat Wuttisela
Department of chemistry, Faculty of science, Ubon Ratchathani University, Thailand [email protected]
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
Abstract To present content with enhance opportunity for students interaction and feedback, a student centered learning course design environment based on the T5 model by using the Designing for Learning Process (D4LP) as a tool is performed. The main objective is to study the attitude toward 5T in T5 model for 12 senior-year chemistry students who registered the subject of selected topic in organic chemistry in second semester, 2008 academic year at Ubon Ratchathani University. 5T in T5 design course consists of tasks, tutorials, topics, teamwork, and tools. A set of 5 tasks in chemical concepts of natural product is periodically assigned.
Natural
product
covered
includes:
introduction,
purification,
structure
determination, chemical synthesis, and testing application. The procedure starts with instructor designing task with the highest four levels of Bloom‟s taxonomy: applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. Students then do each task by individual submission for task1, feedback to peers in task2, feedback from peers in task3, and team task for task4. Students completed the questionnaire in 5-point Likert scale concerning their opinion after learning process; they expressed positive opinions toward 5T. They are “fairly satisfied”; 77 percent with task, 70 percent with tutoring, and 73 percent with tool. In addition, they present neutrality; 64 percent with team, and 65 percent with topic resource. The results also showed that task can increase critical thinking and problem solving skill.
Keywords: T5 Model, D4LP, Attitude, task-based learning, Web-based learning
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
Attitude toward 5T in ‘T5’ Design Model via D4LP: A case study of selected topic in organic chemistry Introduction The T5 model is developed as an approach to instructional design that emphasizes on 5T. 5T consists of Tasks (learning tasks with deliverables and feedback), Tools (for students to produce the deliverables associated with the tasks), Tutorials (online support/feedback for the tasks, integrated with the tasks), Topics (content resources to support the activities) and Teamwork (role definitions and online supports for collaborative work). Learning tasks require students to engage with the course content to produce a deliverable artifact. The deliverables and feedback to these deliverables are the primary vehicles for learning (Salter, Richards & Carey, 2003). The online tool D4L+P is developed solely to support T5 method of teaching and learning. D4L+P is an online course development, delivery, monitoring, learning authenticating and portfolio tool (Salter, Richards & Carey, 2004). To reform classroom to be student-centre course, T5 design model is implicated. For the first course of T5, students are required to show the feeling on 5T of T5 for used as teacher tips for the next T5 course.
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
T5-online design process Teacher steps There are four steps that a teacher will go through in T5 design model. The course design process sequential follow as figure 1.
1 Programme competencies
2
3
4
Course competencies
Tasks
Feedback & scoring
Figure 1. Teacher steps of the T5-online design process A teacher firstly defines overall programme competencies as an applying, analyzing, evaluating, or creating. Course competencies (CC) are chosen by linking with assessment, program competencies, and learning environment (LE). The example of CC is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The example of CC of LE 1: Introduction of natural product Each LE is divided into 4 tasks for students to complete. After students complete task 1, teacher can give specific feedback or the entire class. At this stage teacher can also mark depend on the effort of student (Table 1).
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
Table 1. The default guidelines Quality No
Score 0-1
Details Peer made no attempt or didn‟t put much effort into doing their task.
Good
2-3
Peer made a good attempt on their task
Excellent
4-5
Peer did excellent work in completing their task.
Note: Instructor can be modified guidelines and include their own criteria.
Student steps Students are required to complete four tasks (Figure 3) after login to http://d4lp.sci.ubu.ac.th (Richards & Sophakan, 2006).
Task 1
Task 2
Task 3
Task 4
complete
Evaluate
Evaluate
complete
Individual task
Feedback to peers
Feedback from peers
Team task
Figure 3. student steps of the T5-online design process According to teacher‟s task, students need to firstly complete their own task in tasks 1. Task 2, student would review a peer‟s submitted task 1 and give constructive feedback to that peer. Each student could be given three peers to provide feedback on. Task 3, student would review a peer‟s feedback to them on their submitted task 1. Each student could have received feedback from three of their peers. At the last task, students do a team task. Each student is assessed by peer in task 2, 3, and 4. For example in task 2, students were awarded by 3 peer a zero to five point (Table 1) depend on their effort. From task 1 to 3, student would
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
not know the identity of the peer they are giving feedback too, but the instructor does (in monitoring). Aim 1. To test students attitude toward 5T in T5 using questionnaire assessment 2. To provide trainers with practical T5 tips
Method Participants 12 students (male=3, female=9) who enrolled the course for selected topic in organic chemistry in second semester, 2008 academic year at Ubon Ratchathani University are participated. The topic was natural product. The average age was 22.0 years (S.D. = 0.54). They have got average GPA about 3. Questionnaires The questionnaire has 15 items. Participants are asked to respond „strongly satisfied‟, „fairly satisfied‟, „neutrality‟, „fairly dissatisfied‟ or „strongly dissatisfied‟ to each item and three of items are reverse scored to avoid response bias. Tasks The questions in Tasks 1 and 4 were designed as high-order cognitive skills in which students were required to integrate both information from topic resources and information technology to answer the questions (Figure 4). Task 1: Compare the advantage and disadvantage of 2 extraction methods of your natural product. Create your novel extraction method. Task 4: Compare the advantage and disadvantage of 2 extraction methods of your local natural product. Create your novel extraction method. Figure 4. Examples of questions in Task 1 and task 4 of LE2: purification
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
Results and Discussion The use of questionnaires with Likert-type items to investigate student‟s attitude resulted in an reliability for the instrument of 0.53, slightly lower than related instruments development of Chemistry Attitudes and Experiences Questionnaire; CAEQ (Dalgety, Coll & Jones, 2003). The percent of each 5T in T5 model as shown in Table 2. Table 2. Item for student evaluation 5T of The T5 model (n=12) where 5 is strongly satisfied and 1 is strongly dissatisfied Percent T5 Item 5
4
3
2
1
- Tasks can effectively help you gain in content knowledge.
8
75
17
0
0
- Tasks can effectively improve your problem-solving skills.
17
75
8
0
0
- Tasks can stimulate you to have critical thinking.
17
83
0
0
0
14
78
8
0
0
- You like to receive feedback from peers.
17
67
17
0
0
- You like to give feedback to peer.
8
67
25
0
0
- You like to receive feedback from instructor.
25
75
0
0
0
17
69
14
0
0
17
67
17
0
0
- D4lp program can easily access.
0
67
33
0
0
- D4lp program has not low speed.
17
83
0
0
0
11
72
17
0
0
- Group working is essential for student-centered learning.
17
33
50
0
0
- You prefer task 4 to task 1.
17
17
67
0
0
- You prefer to do task 4.
17
8
75
0
0
T1. Tasks
Average T2. Tutoring
Average T3. Tool - D4lp program is more effective than paper-based homework.
Average T4. Team
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
Average
17
19
64
0
0
8
25
67
0
0
- Teacher guide you to find information from internet.
25
0
75
0
0
- Topic resource is sufficient.
17
25
58
0
0
17
17
67
0
0
T5. Topic resource - You can complete task because the sufficient of topic resource.
Average
From table 2, students are “fairly satisfied”; 78 percent with task, 69 percent with tutoring, and 72 percent with tool. In addition, they present neutrality; 64 percent with team, and 67 percent with topic resource. It was found that the respondents preferred to task, tutoring, and tool. In addition, they thought that the task can enhance problem-solving skill and critical thinking. Team had the lowest mean percent, suggesting that the development of task 4 (team task). This may be explained by assuming that the teacher in T5 model should set up task 4 (team task) with increasing a group‟s depth of analysis. The question should guide them to brainstorm in group rather than find new information such as compare the extraction of your natural product in Task 1 with peer. Moreover, system does assign students in to each team that might cause the barrier of social interaction in team member. The similar finding was reported by Peterson & Thompson (1997). They found that teams of friends greater share cognitive system than did the teams of strangers. The topic resource scored 67% on neutrality, which suggests that, the students were neutral about the sufficient of the information from textbook, internet, and academic paper. This indicated that student can not access specific academic paper of natural product. From informal interview, we also found topic resource is mostly in English language, which implies that students with limited English abilities. It is normally in Thailand that even English-major students have a problem with
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Attitude toward 5T in „T5‟ Design Model via D4LP
reading English (Yimwilai, 2008). Therefore, a teacher should increase the material assigned in Thai language. Conclusion Students have a positively attitude toward task, tutoring, and tool rather than team and topic resource. In order to make students more positive attitude to teamwork should be assigned group by considering harmonious relationship. Using more Thai paper materials in learning environments positively increases student‟s attitude toward topic resource. When students are satisfied with the 5T in T5, learning would be more meaningful. In addition, the online-based T5 model enhances problem-solving skill and critical thinking. This effective learning tool can help teacher to set up a facile student-centre classroom with studenttechnology-teacher interaction triangle.
References Dalgety, J., Coll, R. K., & Jones, A. (2003). Development of Chemistry Attitudes and Experiences Questionnaire (CAEQ). Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(7), 649-668. Peterson, E., & Thompson, L. (1997). Negotiation Teamwork: The Impact of Information Distribution and Accountability on Performance Depends on the Relationship among Team Members. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 72(3), 364383. Richards, L., & Sophakan, P. (2006). DesignforLearning+Portfolio (D4LP), Faculty of Science, Ubon Ratchathani University. Retrieved October 16, 2008, from http://d4lp.sci.ubu.ac.th
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Salter, D., Richards, L., & Carey, T. (2003). A Task-based Approach to Integrate Faculty Development in Pedagogy and Technology. In G. Richards (Ed.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (pp. 1156-1159). Salter, D., Richards, L., & Carey, T. (2004). The 'T5' design model: An instructional model and learning environment to support the integration of online and campus-based courses. Educational Media International, 41(3), 207-218. Yimwilai, S. (2008). English Reading Abilities and Problems of English-major Students in Srinakharinwirot University. Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, 4(2), 130-148.
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