FINAL_INTRO
19/12/07
5:28 PM
Page 1
SUBANTARCTIC
WILDERNESS M A C Q U A R I E
I S L A N D
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:36 PM
Page 2
This page intentionally left blank
FINAL_INTRO
19/12/07
5:29 PM
Page 3
SUBANTARCTIC
WILDERNESS M A C Q U A R I E
I S L A N D
ALEKS TERAUD S A N D
F I O N A
S T E WA R T
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:36 PM
Page 4
First published in 2008 Copyright © Aleks Terauds in text and photographs 2008 Copyright © Fiona Stewart in design and illustration 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 per cent of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. Jacana Books, an imprint of Allen & Unwin 83 Alexander Street Crows Nest NSW 2065 Australia Phone: Fax: Email: Web:
(61 2) 8425 0100 (61 2) 9906 2218
[email protected] www.allenandunwin.com
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Terauds, Aleks, 1971- . Subantarctic wilderness : Macquarie Island. Includes index. ISBN 9781741753028 (hbk.). 1. Natural History - Tasmania - Macquarie Island. 2. Macquarie Island (Tas.) - Pictorial works. 3. Macquarie Island (Tas.) - History. 4. Macquarie Island (Tas.). I. Stewart, Fiona, 1976- . II. Title. 508.948 Edited by Stephanie Goodwin Reproduction by Fiona Stewart & Aleks Terauds Index by Fay Donlevy Printed in China through Colorcraft Ltd, Hong Kong 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:37 PM
Page 5
“This little island is one of the wonder spots of the world. It is the great focus of the seal and bird life in the Australasian sub-Antarctic regions, and is consequently of far greater significance and importance in the economy of that great area than its small dimensions suggest.” Sir Douglas Mawson, 1919
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:37 PM
Page 6
CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
9
INTRODUCTION
11
THE ISLAND
17
The Southern Ocean Geography Climate
19 22 26
HISTORY
29
Discovery: The Search for Seals The Demise of the Fur Seals: 1810–1820 The Elephant Seal Industry The Penguin Oil Industry Shipwrecks Early Scientific Expeditions A New Era: 1911 Onwards The End of Exploitation The Twentieth Century
30 33 34 39 41 43 46 52 55
GEOLOGY
63
The Origins of the Island Geomorphology Geology Lakes and Rivers
64 68 72 76
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:38 PM
Page 7
FLORA
79
Vascular Plants Mosses, Liverworts and Lichens Fungi Marine Plants
80 90 94 98
FAUNA Penguins Albatrosses Petrels Other Birds Seals Introduced Animals Terrestrial Invertebrates Marine Fauna
THE ISLAND TODAY
101 102 110 121 126 130 136 141 142
147
Life on the Island Research and Management
149 156
BIBLIOGRAPHY
161
ARTISTS & PHOTOGRAPHERS
168
INDEX
171
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:42 PM
Page 8
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:44 PM
Page 9
Acknowledgements Researchers and naturalists have been describing and documenting various aspects of Macquarie Island since it was first discovered in 1810. This book is dedicated to their interest, efforts and passion. Several texts have been consulted extensively; specific thanks and an extensive list are provided in the bibliography. Thanks to Ingrid McGaughey for allowing use of the images taken by Stefan Csordas. Roger Morgan also generously provided us with images. Ryan Portner answered many queries about the geology and assisted with many of the captions. Nathan Daczko and the Australian Antarctic Division and Mineral Resources Tasmania kindly allowed us to use their maps. Andy Smithies and Graeme Watt of the Australian Antarctic Division library were extremely helpful. Thanks also to Gary Laursen for generously sharing his knowledge on the fungi. Rowan Trebilco provided unqualified support whilst on Macquarie Island and his assistance during this project has been much appreciated. Thanks also to Nigel Brothers for the many extremely enlightening discussions about the island and answering questions that only he could answer. Special thanks to Justine Shaw for sharing her extensive botanical knowledge, proofreading many earlier drafts and providing support throughout the entire process. We could not have asked for a better editor than Stephanie Goodwin, and the support of Clare Emery and Louise Egerton from Allen & Unwin were instrumental in the completion of this project.
MEGAHERBS The large leafy green Macquarie Island cabbage (Stilbocarpa polaris) and the grey-green daisy Pleurophyllum hookeri grow together on coastal slopes in the north-west. These plants dominate much of the island, particularly in coastal areas.
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:44 PM
Page 10
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:45 PM
Page 11
Introduction Macquarie Island is one of the most remote landmasses on earth. Formed by the collision between two major sections of the Earth’s crust, this wildlife haven lies in the Southern Ocean, a vast body of water that encircles Antarctica.
The waters around Antarctica are home to one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth and the circulation of these waters drives currents that influence the oceans and climate of the entire planet. Due to its location and proximity to Antarctica, Macquarie Island is known as subantarctic. There is very little human habitation throughout the subantarctic region and the harsh climate, combined with the incredible abundance and diversity of wildlife, creates a raw and elemental environment. There are only a handful of islands present in the subantarctic zone and, as they represent the only land in an ocean literally teeming with wildlife, they all play an extremely important role in the Southern Ocean ecosystem.
MACQUARIE ISLAND RELIEF This image of the southern end of the island was taken from a satellite some 450 kilometres above the surface of the Earth. It clearly shows the undulating hills and valleys of the plateau region, together with the steep coastal slopes. (Copyright © DigitalGlobe, Inc 2005. All rights reserved. Courtesy of Arko Lucieer, University of Tasmania.)
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:48 PM
Page 12
“The truth was Captain H. in his route to Campbell Island had discovered another island which he named Macquarie Island about 20 miles long by 5 broad on which he found the fur seals … so very abundant … ” Charles Hook, 1810
T
he location of Macquarie Island creates an environment
the west coast has suffered, the bays are more sandy and generally
that is more reminiscent of the ocean than other, larger
longer and flatter. However, no trees or shrubs can withstand the
landmasses. Its closest neighbours are the Auckland and Campbell
island’s harsh environment; vegetation is dominated by grasses
Islands to the south of New Zealand and they are hundreds of
and megaherbs, with mosses and lichens also abundant.
kilometres away. At only 34 kilometres long and 5 kilometres wide at its widest point, Macquarie Island really is a speck
The Animals
in the immense Southern Ocean. Its climate is also consistent
There is no doubt that the island itself is an awe-inspiring place,
with its oceanic position. It is wet, it is windy and it is usually
a place where the full elements of nature can be felt in an
cold. The average annual temperature is generally around 4ºC
environment that has not yet been tamed by people. However,
and if it makes it to 12ºC (usually the maximum reached on
it is the marine wildlife of the island that truly makes it one of
one or two days each year) it is considered a heatwave by the
the most remarkable places on Earth. Many of the vertebrates
human inhabitants.
that inhabit Macquarie Island spend much of their time in the productive waters of the Southern Ocean. While they are a
Geology, Climate and Botany
diverse group of animals, they all have one thing in common—
Geologically speaking, Macquarie Island is very young. It was
they need to return to land to breed. Thus, Macquarie Island
first forced up above the ocean waves around 600 000–700 000
comes alive in the spring and summer, when literally millions of
years ago and since that time it has been shaped by geological
animals leave the marine environment and come ashore to mate,
processes and the erosive forces of the wind and ocean, moulding
lay, pup and moult.
the valleys and gulches of the steep coastal slopes and carving out the convoluted bays and headlands. The coastal slopes surround
to congregate around the coastal regions, in colonies of up to
much of the island before terminating in the windswept and
several hundred thousand birds. To stand at the edge of one of
barren plateau region, which is dotted with small lakes and tarns.
these massive colonies engages the senses to their maximum with
The wind is one of the defining characteristics of Macquarie
the smell, noise and sight of so many animals in a small space
Island. There are many cold and wet places in the world, but few
almost defying comprehension. There are also four species of
other locations have the ever-present wind buffeting the coastlines
albatross and several burrowing seabird species—prions, petrels
and howling across the plateau on an almost daily basis. The wind
and shearwaters—that breed all around the island in burrows.
and the ocean that pound the coastline from the west have shaped
12
Four species of penguin breed on the island and they tend
There are no terrestrial native mammals on the island, with
this side of the island into a jagged and convoluted series of large
Southern Elephant Seals (Mirounga leonina) and fur seals being
bays filled with jumbled, house-sized boulders and rock stacks that
the only mammalian representatives. There are tens of thousands
tower above the tumultuous ocean crashing against the coast. In
of elephant seals in the Macquarie Island population and they
contrast, the east coast appears to be much more benign and in
form harems around the black sand beaches of the island. The fur
the absence of the pounding erosion from the surf and wind that
seals prefer the more rocky coastlines.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:49 PM
Page 13
ROYAL PENGUINS With the impressive rock stacks of the Nuggets forming a backdrop, Royal Penguins take a break on the beach before making their ascent to the breeding colony on the plateau. Here they congregate in their thousands to breed over the summer months.
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:51 PM
Page 14
FINAL_INTRO
2/11/07
8:51 PM
Page 15
History Unfortunately it was not the richness of the biodiversity that inspired the first visitors, but the abundance of fur seals and the economic gain that could be had from harvesting their skins. The first recorded ship arrived on Macquarie Island in 1810 and in the first 11 years following settlement the fur seal population was effectively wiped out. Elephant seals and penguins were targeted next and by the end of the nineteenth century thousands of these animals had been killed and rendered down for their oil. The early visitors also brought a variety of non-native animals that undoubtedly contributed to the extinction of some of the native birds. The introduced animals included rabbits and rodents, which are still causing devastation on the island.
Current Status Today, Macquarie Island is listed as a World Heritage Area and managed as a Nature Reserve by the government of Tasmania, Australia. It is an important meteorological monitoring site and is home to a permanently occupied station run by the Australian Government, where a variety of research is carried out. Managers and researchers today try to focus on aspects that will benefit the island and also address some of the historical human impacts like the introduction of feral animals. Macquarie Island is not only geologically unique, it is not only a refuge for millions of animals each year, it is also one of the few places left on Earth where nature can be felt, seen and heard without the tempering influences that normally accompany human civilisation. This is what makes Macquarie Island a true subantarctic wilderness.
ELEPHANT SEAL WEANERS With their mothers having recently left the island, these young elephant seals are just starting to learn how to fend for themselves.
FINAL_THE ISLAND
2/11/07
9:34 PM
Page 16
FINAL_THE ISLAND
6/11/07
5:35 PM
Page 17
THE ISLAND Macquarie Island rises out of the Southern Ocean at a latitude and longitude of 54°30' south, 158°55' east. It is completely surrounded by water and has never been attached to another landmass.
As such, it is one of the few places on Earth where the oceanic crust is exposed above the ocean in its original form. One of several subantarctic islands (or island groups) that encircle the globe at similar latitudes, it lies just north of the Antarctic Convergence, where waters of the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current meet warmer waters from more temperate latitudes. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current has an isolating effect on the Antarctic continent as it prevents the warmer waters from reaching it and over time has been the main factor responsible for the permanent ice cover of Antarctica. The Southern Ocean and the fronts and currents that comprise the Antarctic Circumpolar Current have been described as the global powerhouse of the Earth. While Macquarie Island is only a speck in this vast oceanic basin, it is an integral part of this ecosystem as a breeding ground for a multitude of wildlife.
SOUTH-WEST COAST This is a particularly rugged part of the island. Waterfall Lake lies in the foreground with Petrel Peak, home to most of the albatrosses in this part of the world, rising up into the sky at the island’s very western tip.
FINAL_THE ISLAND
6/11/07
5:53 PM
Page 18
WEST-COAST SURF Rock stacks off the west coast stand defiantly against the might of the Southern Ocean. The waves that crash against these rocks have eroded and sculpted them into the jagged and convoluted shapes that we see today.
FINAL_THE ISLAND
2/11/07
9:58 PM
Page 19
The Southern Ocean
T
he Southern Ocean is a vast body of water that encircles the globe. At its centre is the Antarctic ice cap—thousands
say precisely where the boundaries of the Southern Ocean are.
IA AL
Auckland Islands
AU ST
engine room of the Southern Ocean in motion. It is difficult to
R
of cubic kilometres of ice that cools the waters and sets the global
Macquarie Island
boundary of the Southern Ocean. The southern boundary is defined by the Antarctic continent. Throughout most of its range
Polar F ro
Circumpolar Current, is also often used to define the northern
nt
The Polar Front, which marks the edge of the Antarctic
ANTARCTICA
the ocean is deep and featureless. However, there are ridges and seamounts, undersea trenches and vast abyssal plains, and these are often even more impressive in size than their terrestrial
Iles Kerguelen South Georgia
AM E RI
Prince Edward Islands
H UT
Iles Crozet
by the presence of subantarctic islands, which are often the
SO
counterparts. Many of the larger undersea features can be located
Heard Island
CA
exposed tip of an undersea mountain or, in the case of Macquarie Island, an exposed part of a vast ridgeline that stretches for thousands of kilometres and rises thousands of metres from the bottom of the ocean.
LOCATION OF MACQUARIE ISLAND A speck in the vast Southern Ocean, Macquarie Island lies 1500 kilometres to the south-east of
Other Islands There are six main subantarctic island groups in the Southern
Australia and a similar distance from the coast of Antarctica. It is very remote, the nearest landmass being the Auckland Islands some 600 kilometres to the east.
Ocean. The islands to the south of New Zealand (like the Auckland Islands) are also often classified as subantarctic due to their similarities with the Southern Ocean islands. South Georgia,
Unlike South Georgia and Heard Island, they are just to the north
a British territory, lies to the east of South America and is in the
of the Polar Front and do not have glaciers or regular icebergs.
path of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. It is one of the larger
The Prince Edward Island group (including Marion Island) lies
subantarctic islands, with glaciers and mountain ranges rising to
to the east of South Africa. These islands are volcanic in origin,
3000 metres.
and renowned for their lava tunnels. Although the New Zealand
Heard Island, to the west of Australia, also south of the Polar
islands (including Campbell, Auckland and Antipodes) are
Front, is heavily glaciated and is dominated by Big Ben, an active
classified by some as subantarctic and others as cold temperate,
volcano that rises to 2800 metres. Iles Kerguelen and Iles Crozet
they support many similar species to the subantarctic islands and
are French territories that lie between Australia and South Africa.
often have similar climates.
THE ISLAND
19
FINAL_THE ISLAND
2/11/07
9:55 PM
Page 20
ANTARCTIC PRION An Antarctic Prion dwarfed by tumultuous waves plies the Southern Ocean hundreds of kilometres to the south of Macquarie Island. Although weighing less than 200 grams, these tiny birds are superbly adapted for life in the oceanic environment.
FINAL_THE ISLAND
2/11/07
9:55 PM
Page 21
Marine Life The waters of the Southern Ocean are rich in marine life. At the base of this ecosystem is phytoplankton—tiny plant-like organisms that form the building blocks of all oceanic food chains. Zooplankton feed off phytoplankton, making them the second link in the marine food chain. Microscopic animals that rival insects in abundance and diversity, zooplankton include small shrimp-like creatures called krill that provide food for a multitude of animals including whales, albatrosses, seals and penguins. Squid is another fundamental part of the Southern Ocean food chain and is one of the main food sources for a whole variety of animals, particularly the albatrosses that range vast distances over the ocean in search of this prey. The distribution of plankton, krill and squid, and therefore the animals that eat them, is strongly associated with the currents and frontal system of the Southern Ocean. Often, where water
OUT FOR LUNCH These King Penguins are heading out for a foraging trip in the Southern Ocean.
bodies of different properties meet, there is a congregation of food and it is these congregations that the birds, seals and whales of the Southern Ocean seek out. The congregations are patchily
around Antarctica saltier; they are also colder. The combination
distributed and this is why many of the animals that inhabit the
of these two properties increases the density of the water and it
Southern Ocean have developed the ability to travel large
tends to sink beneath the slightly warmer, less salty water. This
distances. Congregation of food resources commonly occurs
dynamic combination of water bodies of different properties is
around the margins of islands, where deeper and shallower waters
strongly influenced by the freezing and melting of the Antarctic
meet and mix.
sea ice throughout the year and also by the prevailing winds. As such, the northern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar
Composition The partitioning of water around Antarctica is complex and
Current, or the Polar Front, often moves from year to year. The mood of Macquarie Island is set by the ocean and it can
fundamentally related to different temperatures and salinity.
vary from bright tropical blue to oily menacing black in the space
When salt water freezes, most of the salt is extruded and the
of days, or even hours. The prevailing Furious Fifties often cover
waters directly surrounding Antarctica therefore are much saltier
the island with sea spray and it is impossible not to feel the
than those of more northerly latitudes. Not only are the waters
dominating force of the ocean while on the island.
THE ISLAND
21
FINAL_THE ISLAND
3/11/07
12:24 AM
Page 22
Geography
M
acquarie Island is an elongated narrow island, with its long
levels, the most obvious of which is the Isthmus, at the northern
axis lying approximately north to south. Its shape belies
end of the island. Here, the Isthmus almost separates the main
the nature of its formation with steep coastal slopes rising from
island from the small chunk of land known as North Head. The
the ocean to an undulating plateau. This plateau is effectively the
main settlement on Macquarie Island has been on the Isthmus
top of the vast Macquarie Ridge Complex that stretches from
since 1911, when Douglas Mawson first dropped off a party of five
New Zealand far into the Southern Ocean.
to set up a communications antenna and meteorological station.
Most of the area of Macquarie Island consists of this plateau, a windswept region that ranges from around 200 metres to 400
The Isthmus is only several metres above sea level and in severe storms waves have been known to breach it.
metres above sea level. In some areas the plateau dips to lower
Landforms The plateau undulates throughout its extent in numerous peaks and valleys, with lakes of varying shapes and sizes and
EASTERN AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND
-40º
Tasmania
a multitude of streams and rivers. There are three main areas where the plateau drops into valleys that approach sea level: the first from Bauer Bay to Sandy Bay, the next from Flat Creek to Brothers Point, and the third in the Green Gorge basin. The largest lake is Major Lake on the west coast of the island, but there are several lakes that cover hundreds of square metres.
Auckland Islands
-50º
Campbell Island
Mount Hamilton, the highest point of Macquarie Island, rises to a height of 433 metres, and marks the start of an impressive string of mountains down the south-western edge of the
Macquarie Island
escarpment that culminate in Petrel Peak, home to most of the albatrosses on the island. The escarpment falls away sharply from much of the plateau,
-60º
particularly on the west and south coasts. The south coast is the steepest part of the island, with cliffs and slopes that are largely inaccessible to most land-based inhabitants of the island. The east
ANTARCTICA 150º
160º
170º
coast is not as steep as the west coast and in some places the plateau slopes gently down to the coastal fringe. In many places
THE MACQUARIE RIDGE The island is the only exposed portion of
22
the coastal slopes are made up of rocky scree slopes—sections that
a vast oceanic ridgeline that runs thousands of kilometres from New
are composed entirely of loose gravel or rocks ranging in size from
Zealand into the Southern Ocean.
sand-size grains to small boulders.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_THE ISLAND
3/11/07
12:26 AM
Page 23
ANARE Station
North Head
Handspike Point
Wireless Hill
The coastal fringe varies in extent but is greatest on the North-western ‘featherbed’
north-western half of the island where a coastal terrace, formed by
Buckles Bay
a wave-cut platform, is now above sea level. The platform starts at Handspike Point, where it is at its widest, and continues some 11
The Nuggets
kilometres down the coast, cut by the occasional headland. Further Bauer Bay
south along the west coast, the coastal fringe changes, with small rocky bays and rock stacks dominating the landscape. Beaches,
Finch Creek
Stony Creek
present on both coasts but more common on the east, are often
Sandy Bay Flat Creek
composed of black-grey sand, formed from decomposition of the
Brothers Point
dark basaltic rocks that make up much of the island. Rock beaches Prion Lake
are also relatively common and are composed of shingle or Aurora Point
rounded cobbles. The origin and underlying structure of these features are discussed in more detail in the Geology chapter.
Green Gorge
The Islets There is a pair of small islets at both the northern and southern
Double Point
ends of Macquarie Island. In the south there are Bishop and Clerk Islets, some 33 kilometres from the southern-most extremity of the
Saddle Point
Sandell Bay
island. The larger of this pair of islets only covers a few hectares and supports a Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys) colony, nesting Macquarie Island Shags (Leucocarbo atriceps purpurascens), Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus), burrowing petrels,
Major Lake Waterfall Bay Mount Hamilton
skuas, two species of lichen and the cushion plant Colobanthus Lusitania Bay
muscoides. Judge and Clerk Islets are smaller still and lie 14 kilometres from the northern end of the island. Due to their wave-
Precarious Point Waterfall Lake
washed nature, no flora or fauna lives or breeds on these islets. Caroline Cove
MACQUARIE ISLAND Only 34 kilometres long and 5
1
Petrel Peak
kilometres wide at its widest point, the island covers an area of around 12 800 hectares and rises to a high point of just over
5km
Hurd Point Windsor Bay
400 metres. (Map drawn with data provided by the Australian
Antarctic Data Centre.)
THE ISLAND
23
FINAL_THE ISLAND
3/11/07
12:27 AM
Page 24
FINAL_THE ISLAND
3/11/07
12:31 AM
Page 25
PLATEAU FELDMARK The plateau stretches out in a broad expanse between jagged pillow basalt rock stacks in the foreground and the mist-covered Mount Aurora in the background. The gravel areas, with only a little vegetation, cover much of the plateau at higher altitudes.
FINAL_THE ISLAND
3/11/07
12:32 AM
Page 26
Climate
T
he surrounding Southern Ocean has a major cooling effect on all the subantarctic islands, including Macquarie Island.
Due to the maritime climate, the differences between the seasons are not striking but are noticeable. The temperature is
When compared to areas at similar latitudes in the northern
remarkably consistent throughout the year, with little variation
hemisphere (Glasgow or Moscow, for example) the differences in
between winter and summer temperatures. The mean temperature
climate are striking and can be wholly attributed to the influence
in January is 7°C, only slightly higher than the average
of the surrounding ocean, with the accompanying moisture-laden
temperature in July of 3.5°C. The climate of Macquarie Island
air, in the southerly latitudes.
is more like that of New Zealand than Australia, which is not surprising considering that it is part of the undersea ridgeline that
A Harsh Existence
extends from the south coast of New Zealand. It can snow
Wind and rain dominate the climatic landscape. It is not an
throughout the year on Macquarie Island and while it is not
environment that humans generally find pleasing to be in for long
uncommon to see snow in January, it really only settles for any
periods of time, as K.C. Hines described in his account of the first
time during the winter months, and even then rarely for longer
Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE)
than a week. Temperatures can drop as low as –10°C in winter
expedition in 1948:
and may rise as high as 12°C in summer, which is considered a heatwave by the occupying expeditioners and, if it occurs in
… for days on end the upper plateau would be shrouded in
conjunction with calm weather, shorts and t-shirts are often the
mist and a great wall of fog could block out the sea on all sides.
clothing of the day. The temperature is generally colder on the
A fine misty rain would be falling continually and the inevitable
plateau than at sea level, with a drop of around 1°C in
wind sweeping in past the apparently impenetrable fog barrier.
temperature for every 100 metres gained.
However, those members of that first expedition had it relatively
Rainfall, Sun and Wind
easy compared to the first settlers over 100 years before them.
Even though it is considered a wet environment due to the
With huts covered with sealskin and tussock for shelter, and lamps
drizzle-like nature of much of the rain, it has comparatively low
and stoves fuelled with blubber for warmth, the first settlers would
levels of rainfall, lower in fact than any other subantarctic island.
have found it hard to bear the omnipresent wind, rain and low
Consistent with the moisture-laden air that funnels over the
temperatures. After visiting the island in the early 1800s, Captain
island from the Southern Ocean, there is little sunshine and the
Douglass of the sealing ship Mariner penned the following opinion:
island is often blanketed in fog, mist or low cloud. The sun may not appear for days on end and when averaged out over the whole
26
As to the island, it is the most wretched place of involuntary
year there are only 2.3 hours of sunshine each day. This means
and slavish exilium that can possibly be conceived: nothing
that in 365 days, there are around 35 equivalent days of sunshine.
could warrant any civilised creature living in such a spot, were
So it is of little wonder that the rare occurrence of a sunny day is
it not the certainty of industry being handsomely rewarded.
cause for celebration for those inhabiting the island.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_THE ISLAND
3/11/07
12:32 AM
Page 27
WINTER ON THE ISLAND Although snow does not often settle for extended periods of time, scenes like this are not uncommon during winter. This section of the plateau, to the south of Mount Hamilton, is one of the harshest places on the island.
The island’s strong winds are predominantly from the west
perfect candidates for these types of observations as it is much easier
and commonly reach 40 knots or more. The mean monthly wind
to detect major changes. Combine this with the fact that Macquarie
speed throughout the year is around 20 knots and gusts have been
Island has had a meteorological station since the early 1900s and
recorded above 80 knots, a speed that would not be considered
it becomes a near-perfect climate-change study site. Research
abnormal in cyclones around more inhabited areas. Due to its
programs investigating the phenomenon of climate change have
exposed nature, wind on the plateau is stronger than on the
found that the mean temperature on Macquarie Island has risen
coastal areas.
between 1949 and 1999. These and other studies have also shown
There is little doubt that the climate is changing on Macquarie
that other climatic patterns have varied and are likely to vary
Island in line with the effects of global warming that are starting
more in the future. Already, rainfall patterns seem different over
to influence other parts of the world. Isolated islands such as
the last five years, with less drizzle and more heavy rain events
Macquarie Island, with relatively stable maritime climates, are
consistent with more temperate seasonal regions.
THE ISLAND
27
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
10:28 PM
Page 28
Image rights unavailable
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
10:28 PM
Page 29
HISTORY Discovered quite by accident during a sealing voyage out of Sydney, Macquarie Island is young, not only in geological time but also in human terms. It was 1810, a time when much of the world had been explored and the immense Southern Ocean was one of the last frontiers, representing a vast body of largely uncharted waters. Numerous voyages were emanating out of Europe, the hub of the western world, in a seemingly unstoppable search of unexplored regions and resources. Countries were hungry for new lands that they could claim as their own, and were looking for resources to serve rapidly expanding populations and to fuel economic growth. The sealing industry was already well developed and lucrative in the northern hemisphere and it was partly the competition for such resources in more northern waters that provided the impetus for expansion into southern latitudes. To these early explorers and entrepreneurs, the productive waters of the Southern Ocean, with its vast array of abundant and diverse wildlife, presented opportunities for exploitation that were impossible to ignore.
GOING ASHORE? Crew and expeditioners on the Aurora look with anticipation at the somewhat foreboding fog-blanketed coastal slopes of western Macquarie Island. Some of these men would spend more than two years living and working there.
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
11:05 AM
Page 30
Discovery: The Search for Seals
W
hile it is likely that early indigenous people living in
After Australia
coastal areas of southern Australia used seals for food
Barely a decade after sealing in Bass Strait waters began, many
and other resources, the large-scale slaughter really got underway
of the larger merchants ceased sealing due to a drop in skin prices
in the late 1700s with the arrival of the white settlers. The first
and a reduction in the numbers of seals. This widespread
industrial-scale sealing trip occurred in Australian waters in 1798,
decimation eventually led to the cessation of commercial sealing
when Captain Charles Bishop, in the vessel Nautilus, started
in Bass Strait waters in the 1830s. Following the demise of the
hunting in Bass Strait, a region that had the highest densities of
industry in Australia, the entrepreneurs of the sealing world
fur seals and elephant seals in Australian waters. These seal
turned their thoughts to New Zealand, where seals were known to
colonies had the added advantage of being relatively close to the
abound. It took only a few years for these stocks to also begin to
larger islands, enabling easy travel and resupply.
diminish and the hunt for more fertile sealing grounds intensified. There was an air of secrecy surrounding any potential new finds,
The Demand
but with the relatively small number of companies involved in the
Fur seals and elephant seals were exploited for different reasons.
industry it was difficult for new grounds to remain secret for very
The thick, hairy coats of fur seal species were in high demand for
long. In 1809, Campbell and Co., one of the larger sealing firms
use in the clothing industry, particularly in China, while elephant
in Sydney, despatched the vessel Perseverance from Sydney on an
seals were killed for the oil that could be obtained by rendering or
exploratory voyage to look for exploitable stocks of seals in the
boiling down their blubber. There was a steady demand for animal
Southern Ocean. The 21-man crew, led by Captain Frederick
oil throughout the 1800s, initially for house and street lighting
Hasselburg (also known as Hasselburgh and Hasselbourgh), formed
and also in the manufacture of ropes and twine, and the oil from
one of the most experienced sealing gangs to ever leave Sydney.
the elephant seals was considered very good quality, only just
On 4 January 1810, the Perseverance discovered Campbell Island.
inferior to that of the Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus).
Discovering Macquarie Island
30
The Sealers
Following the discovery, the Perseverance returned to Sydney
Sealers stayed on the breeding colonies for weeks, or even
where it took on supplies and two extra crew before heading off
months, at a time while they undertook the mass cullings.
again on 25 June 1810. Hasselburg had strict instructions from his
Sealing gangs would move from island to island, decimating the
company to proceed with great haste to Campbell Island and to
population of seals as they went. These gangs also had an impact
use ‘every endeavour in landing such casks, provisions and stores
on other wildlife living on the islands as they took limited
for the gang you leave there…’. However, the Perseverance did not
provisions with them and utilised much of the native wildlife for
make it to Campbell Island on this trip. There are few accounts of
food. In addition, they brought with them animals that were not
the details of this voyage and it appears that the vessel was blown
native to the islands, which not only had an impact at the time
off course en route to Campbell Island, a misadventure which
but, in most places, for many years to come.
resulted in the discovery of Macquarie Island on 11 July 1810.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
11:06 AM
Page 31
THE FIRST FLEET After killing most of the fur seals in Australian and New Zealand waters, fur-seal hunters travelled further afield in search of unexploited lands. The first visitors to Macquarie Island were greeted by an abundance of wildlife beyond their wildest imagination.
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
11:06 AM
Page 32
SUBANTARCTIC FUR SEAL A female seal yawns on a coastal rock stack in the south-east of the island. Adult females of this species are still very rare after their indiscriminate slaughter in the early 1800s. Today fewer than 100 pups are born each year.
FINAL_HISTORY_1
5/11/07
11:28 PM
Page 33
The Demise of the Fur Seals: 1810–1820
T
he sights that greeted the crew of the Perseverance when
The Extinction of a Species
they reached Macquarie Island would have been beyond
It is unlikely that we will ever really know the species
their wildest imagination. Hasselburg immediately landed eight
composition or number of the original fur seal populations on
men and sufficient provisions for nine months. The island must
Macquarie Island. In a manner similar to the Tasmanian industry,
have been teeming with fur seals and elephant seals and the
the exploitation was quick and comprehensive. Fur seal numbers
Perseverance immediately set sail for Sydney in order to get fresh
were severely depleted by 1815 and completely eliminated
supplies and men. On his return to Sydney, Captain Hasselburg
approximately 11 years after their discovery. Reports of the time
(and Campbell and Co.) went to great lengths to keep this find a
suggest that fur seals of all ages and sex were indiscriminately
secret, and for a short time they were successful. The Perseverance
killed and in addition to the carnage exacted by people, a heavy
left Sydney Harbour on 7 September, fully restocked with men
toll was exacted on the younger seals by the wild dogs that were
and 35 tonnes of salt, once more bound for Macquarie Island.
on the island in large numbers, a legacy of the early sealing gangs. Fur seal breeding was not recorded again on Macquarie
The First Fleet
Island until the mid-1950s. Cargo records indicated that just
However, within a month other companies had found out and by
under 200 000 skins were taken from the island. While the
the end of October six ships had left Sydney, bound for the island.
identity of the main species of fur seals on the island prior to sealing
These ships, that comprised the so-called ‘first fleet’ of Macquarie
is not known, it is likely that they were Subantarctic Fur Seals.
Island, included the American brig Aurora, the brig Star, the schooner Unity, the Elizabeth and Mary and the Sydney Cove. Although the Perseverance was the first recorded vessel to reach the shores of the island, Captain Hasselburg reported seeing wreckage of another vessel present on the shores when he made his first landing. Captain Smith of the Aurora also saw this wreckage, and although details of it are scarce he described it as ‘… several pieces of a large vessel … apparently very old and high up in the grass, probably the remains of the ship of the unfortunate de la Perouse’. It is not known how Smith arrived at this assumption, but the people aboard this vessel could well have been the first humans to set foot on the island. The arrival of the Macquarie Island ‘first fleet’ heralded the beginning of the sealing industry there and the large-scale decimation of the seals.
ANTARCTIC FUR SEALS As well as the Subantarctic Fur Seals, it is likely that Antarctic Fur Seals were also killed by the early sealers.
H I S T O RY
33
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
11:07 AM
Page 34
The Elephant Seal Industry
I
n 1821, a Russian Antarctic Expedition under the command
hearth, fed by the elephant seal blubber, and the walls—indeed
of Admiral Bellingshausen arrived on Macquarie Island and
most of the interior—were soot black from the constant smoke.
stayed there for two days, collecting bird and animal specimens.
The sealers ate mostly penguins and the flippers of the young
Admiral Bellingshausen went ashore at one stage with some crew
elephant seals, the latter being considered quite a delicacy at
to look for fresh water and noted that the ‘sea-bear’ (fur seals) had
the time. Their diets were supplemented with Macquarie Island
been wiped out and that the rendering down of elephant seal
Parakeets (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis), penguin and
blubber for oil was the main industry on the island.
petrel eggs and, when available, albatrosses and petrels. The stems of the Macquarie Island cabbage (Stilbocarpa polaris) made a
The Elephant Sealers Bellingshausen described two groups of sealers on the island
palatable soup and probably saved many of the men from scurvy. The men allowed the animals to form their harems, then after
at the time, one consisting of 13 men and the other of 27 men.
a bull had fallen asleep they would kill it, cut the blubber off with
One of the men had already been there for six years without
a knife, put it in a boiler on rocks and make a fire underneath
leaving. They lived a squalid existence in huts covered on the
with lumps of the same blubber. The oil was then poured into
inside with elephant seal skins and on the outside with tussock
barrels and eventually shipped off the island and sold in New
grass. The general custom was for the headman of the gang to
South Wales or Britain. Up to 1000 kilograms of oil could be
have a separate hut. A fire was kept continually burning in the
obtained from a single bull elephant seal, although the average yield was probably closer to half of that amount.
The Movement of Oil For the next 30 years the trade in elephant seal oil continued on Macquarie Island, with many ships now leaving and returning to the port of Hobart instead of Sydney. Sealing gangs expanded their range, moving south down the island to establish bases at Lusitania Bay on the east coast, Caroline Cove in the south-west corner and smaller outposts along the more rugged west coast. The larger size of the elephant seal and the difficulties in transporting the blubber to the trypots—large cast-iron vessels in which the blubber could be boiled down—probably slowed the slaughter of this species. As a result, the industry continued for many years. The difference in size between the male (up to 4 tonnes) and
34
A SOURCE OF OIL Male elephant seals were killed and rendered
female elephant seals (up to 800 kilograms) meant the larger males
down for the good-quality oil that was contained in their blubber.
were the preferred target and this also helped slow the decline.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
11:08 AM
Page 35
SEA ELEPHANT HARNESS OIL LABEL The oil obtained from elephant seals on Macquarie Island was marketed by Hatch as ‘The best unadulterated oil for dressing leather in the world’.
The Mid-Nineteenth Century There are very few records of any ships visiting Macquarie Island
In an attempt to assist in the control of vessels in the region,
between 1850 and 1870, and the island and its native inhabitants
particularly those targeting the offshore islands, on 2 June 1890
seemed to enjoy a reprieve from human exploitation for this
the New Zealand Government sent a request to the Tasmanian
period of time. Several sealing gangs, including those from the
Government, asking if there would be any objection to the
Bencleugh and Jessie Niccol, visited the island, dropping off gangs
transfer of Macquarie Island to the jurisdiction of New Zealand.
for elephant seal oil during the late 1870s and early 1880s. The
Although it had some support, the motion was not carried
Jessie Niccol made one trip a year between 1878 and 1884 and it
through the Tasmanian Parliament and on 7 October 1890
was during 1879 or 1880 that its owner, William Elder, procured
a telegram was sent by the Premier of Tasmania to the effect,
and sent down some French rabbits to supplement the men’s diet
‘Sorry for seals and sea birds but cannot be helped. Can anything
on the island. At the same time, Stewart Island Wekas (Gallirallus
be done for the protection of these animals and birds? We shall be
australis scotti) were also introduced, but it is thought they were
glad to render any assistance we can’.
probably first brought to the island a decade or more earlier. Following the last visit of the Jessie Niccol in 1884, the island
Subsequently, following negotiations and advice from the New Zealand Government, the Tasmanian Parliament passed
experienced another break from human visitation until 1887.
regulations under the Tasmanian Fisheries Act 1889 that prohibited
By that time, sealing (specifically the taking of fur seal skins) had
the taking of ‘seals, sea elephants or sea lions’ on Macquarie
been prohibited by the New Zealand Government and attention
Island. The effectiveness of these regulations is dubious at best as
again started to focus on the potential for obtaining elephant seal
less than a year later they were amended to exclude elephant seals
oil from Macquarie Island. New Zealand businessman and
and therefore paved the way for the exploitation of this species to
entrepreneur Joseph Hatch sent his first vessel down to Macquarie
continue. Nevertheless, as numbers declined, the diminishing
Island in 1887 and this was to be the beginning of his long
returns provided further impetus to continue the search for other
involvement in the animal oil industry on the island.
lucrative sources of oil.
H I S T O RY
35
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
10:29 PM
Page 36
BULL ELEPHANT SEALS Adult males of this species can grow to over 4 metres in length and weigh up to 4 tonnes. Their thick coats of blubber yielded vast quantities of oil when rendered down and they were heavily exploited during the nineteenth century.
FINAL_HISTORY_1
4/11/07
10:30 PM
Page 37
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:19 AM
Page 38
Image rights unavailable
PENGUIN OIL Barrels of oil outside this shanty at the Nuggets are testament to the thousands of penguins that were killed and rendered down for their oil. The King Penguin, hardest hit of all the penguins, was nearly wiped out by this industry during the late 1800s.
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:19 AM
Page 39
The Penguin Oil Industry
T
he harvesting of penguins for their oil probably started soon
large colonies were present on the west coast, the rugged coastline
after the demise of the fur seals in the 1820s. Following the
proved too inhospitable for landing and loading oil and this was
killing of all the King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) at a
probably instrumental in saving the Royal Penguins of Macquarie
colony close to the Isthmus, the penguin industry experienced
Island from a similar fate to the King Penguins.
something of a lull until Joseph Hatch started it up again in the late 1800s. Hatch was one of the first to experiment with obtaining
Hatch Maintains Monopoly
oil from sources other than elephant seals on a large scale.
Although representations were made to the New Zealand
Penguins were the obvious choice as they had a blubber layer, and
Government by naturalists and bird lovers, Hatch was a skilled
while it is significantly thinner than that of the elephant seals, the
orator and successfully defended the practice. In 1897, in another
sheer numbers that could be processed made it a viable industry.
attempt to control poachers on its own islands, the New Zealand Government again petitioned the Tasmanian Government
Methods and Consequences
(unsuccessfully) to transfer control, this time in the form of a lease.
Penguins form extremely large colonies on Macquarie Island
Hatch maintained an effective monopoly on the oil procurement
and they were easy prey for the sealers. The first to be targeted
industry on Macquarie Island throughout the early 1900s, and
were the King Penguins as they formed the largest colonies closest
although conditions of the men who worked for him seemed less
to the settlements. They were routinely rounded up, struck with
than generous, often to the point of mutiny, he successfully
clubs or killed with a quick stroke of the knife, and thrown into
oversaw the removal of hundreds of tonnes of oil during this time.
the large, purpose-made steam boilers, or digesters as they are also known. Hundreds of thousands of King Penguins were slaughtered. They were nearly wiped out by this industry. By the early 1900s there was only one colony left on the island. After the demise of the King Penguins, the Royal Penguins (Eudyptes schlegeli) were targeted. As many as 2000 Royal Penguins were put through the boilers in a day, yielding approximately 150 litres of oil. Many of the remains of these digesters can still be seen in the penguin colonies today, a lasting legacy to the slaughter that once occurred there. The main bases for the penguin slaughter were at Lusitania Bay and at the Nuggets, both on the east coast with easy access for ships and for loading oil. Other camps were present at the southern and northern end of the island, wherever penguins were
RUSTING DIGESTERS Royal Penguins congregate around some
found in decent numbers and landing was possible. Although
digesters, the large boiling vats that were used to render down their oil.
H I S T O RY
39
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:20 AM
Page 40
Image rights unavailable
SHIPWRECK AT THE NUGGETS The semi-intact remains of the Gratitude stand high above the penguins on the shores of Nuggets Beach on the east coast. This ship was forced ashore after its anchor chain was broken in an easterly gale. It is one of several shipwrecks on the island.
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:20 AM
Page 41
Shipwrecks t seems likely that the first visitors to Macquarie Island were
The Eagle
actually shipwrecked there and shipwrecks continued to be a
Around the same time as the Bencleugh, a schooner called the
I
common theme throughout the human history of the island. Early
Eagle was caught in a gale and wrecked on the west coast of
casualties include the Campbell Macquarie in 1813 and the Betsey,
Macquarie Island. The surviving party of nine men and one
which was abandoned soon after leaving the island in 1815. Another
woman lived in a cave on the north-west coast, subsequently
early and notable shipwreck was the sealing vessel Caroline, for
named Eagle Cave, and subsisted there for almost two years.
which Caroline Cove in the south of the island is named. This
George Ainsworth, the leader of the first Government expedition
sealing vessel made several trips to Macquarie Island in the 1820s,
party to the island in 1911, described finding the cave floor
until in the late summer of 1825 she was struck by a tremendous
covered in decaying tussock grass, up to a foot thick in places, and
gale that drove the ship ashore. The shipwrecked men were
bones indicating that gulls, penguins and cormorants were likely
eventually rescued by the brig Wellington nearly six months later.
to have made up a good portion of their diet. Wandering Albatrosses were also breeding in this area and it is very likely
Coastal Casualties
that this species and its eggs also supplemented the diet of this
Following the Caroline, the next ship to come to grief on the
marooned party. The group was rescued nearly two years after the
island was the Lord Nelson, which floundered on a reef off
initial shipwreck, but tragically the single woman of the party died
Handspike Point in 1830. No wrecks were recorded for nearly
the day before the ship arrived. It has not been possible to
20 years after this incident, probably due to the fact that fewer
ascertain the cause of her death.
ships were visiting the island over this time. In 1849 the Countess Cimento was wrecked near the Nuggets in the north-east of the
The Gratitude
island. Nearly 30 years later, the sealing vessel Bencleugh arrived
In November 1898, the Gratitude, one of the most frequent
on Macquarie Island, in the winter of 1877. While at anchor it
oiling ships to visit Macquarie Island in the 1890s, moored at
was hit by a terrific storm that parted its anchor lines and drove it
the Nuggets in fine weather. However, over the next few days
ashore. Several men were injured during the wreck but all of the
the weather worsened until finally, with the tempestuous seas
crew made it to shore, although one eventually died. The party
breaking on the decks, the anchor cable slipped and the ship was
lived on scones cooked on a broken shovel, damper and pancakes
allowed to beach itself. The men worked hard to save as much of
supplemented with parakeets, penguin and albatross eggs,
the ship and stores as possible, but the strong easterly wind and
elephant seal tongues and penguin livers. Penguin eggs were eaten
heavy seas continued for another two weeks, at the end of which
by the thousands and a wide variety of birds contributed to the
the Gratitude was high above the ordinary high-tide mark and
meals. During their four-month stay they killed and rendered
with substantial damage (see picture opposite page). At the
down many elephant seals for their oil. The shipwrecked men
request of Joseph Hatch, the New Zealand Government sent
were eventually able to obtain berths home on the Friendship in
down the Tutanekai, which rescued the shipwrecked sailors some
November 1877.
three months after the event.
H I S T O RY
41
FINAL_HISTORY_2
19/12/07
5:48 PM
Page 42
Image rights unavailable
WRECK OF THE CLYDE The shattered hulk of this sealing supply vessel was all that remained after it was caught in a three-day east-coast gale and driven onto the beach. Luckily all the crew were able to make it ashore safely and there were no casualties.
The Jessie Niccol The Jessie Niccol, which frequently visited Macquarie Island
three days and on the third day the Clyde broke its last anchor
through the 1890s and early 1900s, also came to an unfortunate
chain and washed ashore. Luckily, with the aid of the experienced
end on the east coast of the island. The ship was blown ashore
shore party, everybody made it to land safely.
by strong winds just south of the Nuggets. The captain, cook and chief mate refused to abandon ship and they lost their lives as the
The Twentieth Century
seas continued to rise and broke continuously over the vessel. The
Although more common in the days of sailing ships, shipwrecks
Jessie Niccol was completely destroyed by the storm and wreckage
were not restricted to this early era. The Endeavour was sent to
continued to wash up for several months.
resupply an Australian Government expedition to Macquarie Island in late 1914 and after a successful but difficult resupply
42
The Clyde
was lost with all hands after departing the island. More recently,
The last ship involved with the sealing industry to come to grief
in 1987, the supply ship the Nella Dan was unloading fuel in
on the island was the supply ship the Clyde. After successfully
Buckles Bay on the north-east coast when a strong easterly wind
unloading some much-needed supplies for the men ashore, the
came up, forcing the ship onto nearby rocks. As the horrified
ship anchored for the night. The following day saw a heavy
shore party watched on, the Nella Dan got caught between two
easterly swell build and the men ashore knew there was a storm
rocks and was crashing in the waves from one to the other, the
brewing. It was the first time that the captain of the Clyde had
sound of screeching metal loud enough to be heard over the
been to Macquarie Island and he left his departure too late out
howling wind. Salvage efforts proved unsuccessful and the ship
of what is now Buckles Bay. He had no choice but to let go his
was eventually towed out into deeper water and scuttled, the last
second anchor and hope for the best. The easterly gale lasted for
in a long line of ships to rest on the bottom of the east coast waters.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:21 AM
Page 43
Early Scientific Expeditions
A
lthough exploitation of the natural resources was the main aim of most voyages to Macquarie Island in the first 100 years
The next to visit the island for scientific purposes was the United States Exploring Expedition under the leadership of
of settlement, there were several visitors that contributed to the
Lieutenant Charles Wilkes. This expedition comprised several
general and scientific knowledge of the island. The Bellingshausen
ships and left in 1838 with the instructions to visit Rio de Janeiro,
expedition, sent out from Russia by the Russian Czar Alexander I,
Tierra del Fuego, the Weddell Sea and then to enter the far
was probably the first to visit the island in this context and the
southern Pacific Ocean. In January 1840, their vessel the Peacock
observations he made in 1821 formed the basis for many later
arrived at Macquarie Island. Unfortunately, the crew had
scientific discoveries. Amongst detailed observations of the elephant
considerable trouble landing, with a couple of aborted attempts,
seals (or sea-elephants as they were then known), Bellingshausen
but eventually some crew members made their way ashore at the
also observed numerous parakeets, a multitude of dogs and cats,
southern end. One of them, Henry Eld, provided this description
many of them wild, and a variety of bird life, including penguins,
of the Hurd Point penguin colony in his journal:
gulls and albatrosses. On returning to the ship Bellingshausen took with him two albatrosses, 20 dead parakeets and one live
Although I had heard so often of the great quantity of birds on
parakeet that was sold to him by a sealer for three bottles of rum.
the uninhabited islands, I was not prepared to see them in such myriads here. The whole sides of the rugged hills were literally
Sealers Turned Scientists
covered in them … Such a din of squeaking, squalling and
Others also made significant contributions to the early general
gabbling, I never before heard or dreamed could be made by
knowledge of the island. In particular, Thomas Raine, captain of
any of the feathered tribe … they snapped at me in all directions,
the sealing vessel Surry—which made several trips to Macquarie
catching hold of my trousers, shaking and pinching my flesh so
Island in the 1820s. Together with the assistance of the ship’s
violently as to make me flinch and stand upon the defensive …
surgeon, David Ramsay, Raine compiled a detailed report on the island that was published in Sydney in 1822. The authors
Although a couple of attempts were made, no samples could
described in detail the general layout of the island, the tides, likely
be returned to the main boat due to the rough weather and the
origins, geology, vegetation, marine invertebrates, seals and birds.
difficulty of disembarkation, prompting Wilkes’s parting comment
Interestingly, even at this early stage of the island’s settlement,
that, ‘Macquarie Island affords no inducement for a visit’.
Raine commented on the deleterious impact of wild dogs on the parakeets and the Macquarie Island subspecies of the Pacific
Scientists Arrive
Banded Rail (Rallus philippensis macquariensis), now extinct on the
In October 1880, Professor J.H. Scott of Otago University
island. It was likely that samples collected by these men were the
travelled to Macquarie Island on the Jessie Niccol. In papers that
ones that eventually found their way to the Royal Botanic
he presented in the following years he described the flora and
Gardens in Kew, England, where some of the first scientific
fauna in great detail, in particular noting differences between
identifications were made by the renowned botanist W.J. Hooker.
Macquarie Island and the Campbell and Auckland Islands of
H I S T O RY
43
FINAL_HISTORY_2
5/11/07
9:13 PM
Page 44
New Zealand. This visit was followed by Professor Hamilton of the University of Otago and a taxidermist, who visited the island with the intention of obtaining a female elephant seal skeleton The Nimrod
Captain Davis
and the skin of an adult bull male. While on the island, Hamilton made some detailed observations of the animals and plants there, which he presented in a paper in 1894. Joseph R. Burton, a taxidermist with the Colonial Museum in Wellington, New Zealand, travelled to Macquarie Island in 1896 on the Gratitude. Although he was under the employ of Hatch during the three-and-a-half years of his stay, Burton’s keen interest in natural history led to him making many observations of the
William McKibbin
flora and fauna. In addition to his detailed (and often new) observations on the penguins, he was one of the first to describe
Admiral Bellingshausen
the ecology of many of the smaller petrels in the region. As part of his naturalistic studies he collected eggs, several of which were found to be new to the Australian region, including those of the Blue Petrel (Halobaena caerulea).
Image rights unavailable
His observations of ‘exceedingly numerous’ Blue Petrel burrows on the island’s mainland differ greatly from today, a situation which can be largely attributed to the presence of feral The Peacock driven into the ice Lieutenant Charles Wilkes
animals and the subsequent changes they have wrought on the island. Burton’s observations also indicate that the parakeet and the endemic banded rail had become extinct on Macquarie Island by the late 1800s. He suggested that the wild cats, which were by then quite common, were the cause of the extinctions.
SHIPS AND LEGENDS Some of the ships and participants of the early scientific expeditions to Macquarie Island. These voyages and studies were made in the face of much hardship and the knowledge that they gained was an important step in Captain Scott
44
The Discovery
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
understanding the ecology of the island.
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:23 AM
Page 45
RED-CROWNED PARAKEET This parakeet (photographed on Enderby Island) is closely related to the extinct Macquarie Island Parakeet described by some of the early visitors to the island. It is shown here feeding on Aceana flowers, which also grow on Macquarie Island.
Antarctic Expeditions
Captain Davis called in at Macquarie Island in the Nimrod in
Captain Scott in the Discovery visited the island in November
May 1909 during his search for uncharted subantarctic islands at
1901. There were no others staying on the island at the time
the close of Ernest Shackleton’s Antarctic expedition. He landed
and he landed with a small party that promptly shot and killed
a party of men who secured several ‘sea elephants’ and penguins.
an elephant seal bull on arrival. The naturalist T.V. Hodgson was
This party also met with William McKibbin, a man who had been
amongst this party and he spent much of his time ashore searching
living alone on the island since the Jessie Niccol departed on 17
(unsuccessfully) for the endemic banded rail. Scott’s party also
March 1909. He had elected to stay on alone over the winter with
came across a collection of skins, sexed and labelled, in one of the
his two dogs, Fido and Nell, and spent his time collecting oil and
sealing huts, probably prepared and left there by Joseph Burton.
preparing the boilers for the following season. He was described by
Scott seemed less than effusive about the island and described
Davis as in perfect health and when asked if he wanted to return
penguins, kelp weed and tussock grass—undoubtedly three
on the Nimrod replied, ‘Why should I? ... I’m happy enough here,
defining characteristics in the mind of anybody who has spent
and have all I want’. It is a sentiment that is still shared by some
any length of time on Macquarie Island.
of the habitual human inhabitants of Macquarie Island today.
H I S T O RY
45
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:25 AM
Page 46
A New Era: 1911 Onwards n 1910 Sir Douglas Mawson, undoubtedly inspired by his first
I
Macquarie Island at six o’clock on the morning of 11 December.
trip to Antarctica in 1907 on an expedition under the command
The ship was captained by the expedition’s second-in-command,
of Ernest Shackleton, organised and led an Australasian Antarctic
John King Davis. While visiting the island two years previously,
Expedition to investigate the little-known east Antarctic coast.
he had heard of a small bay known as Caroline Cove in the
Part of the program of this expedition included the scientific
south-west of the island that had been used as an anchorage in
investigation of Macquarie Island and the construction of a
the right conditions, and as the wind was south-easterly on arrival
wireless station to facilitate wireless communication between
he proposed a visit to this bay to conduct an assessment of its
Australia and Antarctica. This voyage was not undertaken lightly,
suitability as a land station.
taking several months of preparation and involving the purchase of the Aurora, a ship from the Newfoundland sealing fleet.
The Arrival Once the Aurora was abreast of the cove, a landing party rowed
The Home of the Blizzard
ashore, making soundings on the way. Rowing in through the
The preparation and subsequent voyage made by Mawson and
porpoising penguins, with giant petrels wheeling above and a
the men under his command is extremely well documented in
multitude of wildlife on the beaches and cliffs, Mawson described
his book The Home of the Blizzard: The story of the Australasian
the arrival of the party as ‘… an invasion by man of an exquisite
Antarctic Expedition, 1911–1914. Much of the following
scene of primitive nature’. On landing, the men explored the
information described here was obtained from this text,
nearby environment, took some meteorological readings and
particularly the excerpts from the diary of George Ainsworth,
made their way into the Caroline Cove amphitheatre, home to
the expedition leader of the first party. This diary provides
a large Royal Penguin colony and one of the main breeding areas
invaluable insights into this historic journey and the lives of the
of the Wandering Albatross. After a day of explorations that
men undertaking it.
‘made the men feel like a band of schoolboys on holiday’, and after leaving a depot of supplies, the landing party returned to
The Voyage South
the Aurora to learn that the ship had suffered a near miss in their
The voyage departed on 2 December 1911 and the Aurora
absence and had struck a large underwater rock while drifting
sailed down the River Derwent from the port of Hobart, laden
and waiting for the party to return. No damage was sustained but
with equipment and provisions to supply the several parties the
the incident reminded the group of the dangerous nature of the
expedition planned to land, both on Macquarie Island and on
waters around the coast of the island, particularly on the south
the Antarctic continent. Although seen by some as an overly
and west coasts.
ambitious project, this expedition proved to be one of the ground-breaking voyages of the south polar exploratory era. After a relatively typical voyage south, with rough seas and strong winds, the Aurora eventually reached the shores of
46
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
The ship made its way back up to Buckles Bay, but as the south-easterly was still blowing they were not able to put ashore, so Captain Davis weighed anchor in order to wait for conditions to abate.
FINAL_HISTORY_2
5/11/07
9:14 PM
Page 47
Sir Douglas Mawson
Image rights unavailable
Leslie Blake The Macquarie Island Party
Charles Sandell
Harold Hamilton
Arthur Sawyer
THE MACQUARIE ISLAND EXPEDITION OF 1911–1914 The heroic exploits of many men made the expedition of 1911–1914 a great success. On his way to Antarctica, Mawson dropped five men off in 1911 and most of them did not leave again until 1914.
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:28 AM
Page 48
The First Week Ashore
relatively good time. On the morning of 24 December 1911 the
Following further assessment of the shore, the decision was made
Aurora left Macquarie Island, leaving behind a party of five men
to construct the wireless station on the hill at the northern end
that would undertake one of the most significant expeditions in
of the Isthmus and it was therefore promptly named Wireless Hill.
the history of Macquarie Island.
At this time, Frank Hurley, the expedition photographer, realised that he had left one of his camera lenses at Caroline Cove and, as
The Party of Five
it was irreplaceable, an overland trip was planned back to the site
The party of five was a mixed bunch. In his account of the voyage
of the misplaced lens. The dogs that Mawson had with him were
south, Mawson refers to the value of ‘tempered youth’ in the harsh
also brought ashore for the time that the landing party were
environment of the southerly latitudes. The average age of this
present on the island and there is no doubt these canine visitors
group was 26 years, with their leader, George Ainsworth, older
to the island appreciated the feel of dry land after several rough
than the rest at 33 years of age. The rest of the party was made up
days of bobbing around in the Southern Ocean.
of Harold Hamilton, a 26-year-old biologist from New Zealand;
Hurley and the rest of his party arrived back from Caroline
Leslie Blake, an English-born Queenslander on leave from the
Cove after successfully retrieving his lens. It was an arduous trip,
geological department of Queensland, acting as the party surveyor
with Hurley especially suffering from inadequate footwear in the
and geologist and the youngest of the party at 21 years of age;
rough and wet terrain. On leaving the cove on the third day out,
Charles Sandell, a 25-year-old mechanic and one of two wireless
the party came across a Wandering Albatross, and from the
operators on the island; and Arthur Sawyer, aged 26, originally
description provided in Mawson’s account it sounded like it was
from New Zealand and undertaking the role of the second wireless
in the Caroline Cove amphitheatre. When he chanced upon this
operator on Macquarie Island.
magnificent bird, Hurley could not resist the impulse to obtain it for their specimen collection. As they were not carrying firearms
Living Conditions
and there were no rocks in the vicinity, Hurley took a small tin of
At first the men stayed in one of the sealers’ huts, with the
meat from his pack and with a throw described as ‘fortunate’ hit
permission of their headman at the time, Otto Bauer. However,
the bird on the head and killed it instantly. Though at the time
without delay they embarked on a hectic building program and
his intentions to obtain such a fine specimen for the collection
within a week of the departure of the Aurora, they had completed
were understandable, this species had suffered much at the hands
their hut, known by the men for the duration of their stay as ‘the
of sealers and shipwrecked seamen and as a result it was probably
Shack’. The hut was around 7 metres by 4 metres, with a small
a member of one of the few breeding pairs that remained on
separate room for Ainsworth, a darkroom and laboratory and a
the island.
basic shower and bunk beds for the other four staff.
Despite being hampered by strong winds in the latter part of
48
Cooking was shared equally by the men and in Ainsworth’s
their stay on the island, the men managed to finish loading the
account it seemed important in maintaining the morale of the
supplies and complete the erection of the wireless masts in
party. The cooking stint also allowed each man some time to
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:28 AM
Page 49
“So she steamed around North Head. In the meantime we dragged our dingy across the narrow neck to the west side and pulled out to meet them. We got quite a shock when we found it was the Aurora.” D. Livingstone, 1911
mend clothes and write diaries or letters. Even though a large
Ainsworth describes how the men slowly fell into a routine
supply of coal was sent down, the cook limited himself to three
and began carrying out the work that they had been assigned to
briquettes each week and supplemented it with elephant seal
do. Blake started to survey and map the island, Hamilton studied
blubber or driftwood.
the plant and marine life and collected as many specimens of
The group had three hens (the rooster had unfortunately died
birdlife as possible, while the two wireless operators worked
en route) and eventually these provided a regular supply of eggs,
tirelessly at getting the wireless communications up and running.
while the sheep, which were ‘put to pasture’ on North Head,
The two wireless operators were so dedicated to the task that they
provided an occasional welcome supply of fresh meat. The group
set up bunks in the wireless hut to avoid travelling up and down
also made use of the local wildlife, eating the wekas, fish, ducks
the hill in the inclement weather. Ainsworth set up his
and penguin or petrel eggs in large quantities. The men had little
meteorological screens and started to record the weather
success with growing potatoes and onions, probably due to the low
observations early in the New Year of 1912.
temperatures, continual strong winds and associated salt spray. Rats were already a major problem on the island and the dog that
Hard on the Feet
was left with the group, appropriately named Mac, took great
While their clothing seems to have been sufficient for most
pleasure in trying to alleviate the rat problem.
of the time they were on the island, their boots were not, and it
A 900-litre water tank was retrieved from the wreck of the
appears that lack of appropriate footwear and blistered feet were
Clyde on the nearby beach and ensured a ready supply of fresh
one of the more trying aspects of the expedition. Indeed even
water for the men. The Clyde actually furnished much in the way
today, with advances in technology and materials, footwear is still
of materials for the group and most of the timber used in the
one of the most difficult things to get right on the island. The
construction of the wireless engine room hut was obtained from
constant wet and often harsh terrain makes the lifespan of even
the remains of this vessel.
the most modern and best-quality boots comparatively short.
Their Working Life
Their Discoveries
After the group had completed the wireless engine room hut
During their explorations the men made many valuable
and unpacked their belongings, their minds turned to further
discoveries and spent considerable time documenting the wildlife
exploration. Using a motor launch and some overland travel
they saw. They described the penguins in detail and made notes
by foot, some of the party dropped food depots at Sandy Bay,
about the life histories of the seabirds. In addition to the birds,
Lusitania Bay and what is now known as Hurd Point in the south
they also collected skins from the elephant and Leopard Seals
of the island. The men spent considerable time exploring the
(Hydrurga leptonyx), and recorded their observations of these
island, heading up onto the plateau and down the north-western
species. No fur seals were observed by the men—a testament to
margin where they encountered the waterlogged coastal terrace
the ruthless effectiveness of the early sealers. It was the first time
and coined the term ‘featherbed’ for its springy nature underfoot.
that observations of many of these species had been made.
H I S T O RY
49
FINAL_HISTORY_2
5/11/07
9:16 PM
Page 50
The wireless engine hut on the aptly-named Wireless Hill
The result of three hours fishing at Lusitania Bay
Image rights unavailable
Leslie Blake takes a sun observation on the Isthmus
The group lands at Caroline Cove in the south of the island A sealers’ hut used by the men
The treatment of Rockhopper Penguins has changed a lot from these early days
Antarctic huskies tethered out on the featherbed while supplies are unloaded
LIFE IN THE EARLY DAYS During the ground-breaking 1911–1914 expedition, the men utilised many of the island’s resources, including the flora and fauna. They also explored the entire island and collected many valuable samples for scientific purposes.
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:41 AM
Page 51
“[The island] ... is the most wretched place of involuntary and slavish exilium that can possibly be conceived; nothing could warrant any civilised creature living on such a spot, were it not for the certainty of industry being handsomely rewarded ... ” Captain Douglass, 1822
Winter Approaches By the end of the first summer the men were quite settled and as
this time was delayed, and slowly but surely the men started to
autumn progressed they began to make preparations for the winter.
live under conditions that resembled their sealing counterparts
The shack was repaired and loads of driftwood stockpiled for
at the other end of the Isthmus. Elephant seal blubber was used
burning. On 7 June the Aurora arrived back on Macquarie Island
instead of the kerosene that ran out, and elephant seal meat and
as part of a subantarctic voyage. The mail was received with much
sago became the staple diet. Finally, extra supplies were dropped
anticipation and a couple of men came ashore. More stores were
off by the New Zealand steamer Tutanekai in mid-August. Sawyer,
also deposited on the island and during the visit the crew of the
who had become ill, took a berth home on that ship and so the
Aurora made soundings along the east coast. After almost two
party was reduced to four for the last few months of their stay.
weeks, the Aurora once more left the island. Towards the end of winter, Blake headed off to Lusitania Bay
The Men Finally Leave
where he intended to spend a couple of months surveying the
With the extra supplies the hardships of the previous few months
southern half of the island. The Aurora made a short return visit
became less pronounced and the men spent much of their final
in late November and the rest of the first year of the expedition
days finishing off their assigned tasks and packaging and labelling
passed without major incident. In the New Year, Ainsworth
samples and equipment for the journey home. The Aurora arrived
reported that the men felt a sense of accomplishment as most
on 28 November 1913 and coincidentally, Otto Bauer and his
of the tasks that they had set out to do were achieved and they
fellow sealers left on the same day on the sealing vessel Rachael
looked forward with eager anticipation to leaving the island in
Cohen. The Aurora spent a week at Macquarie Island, loading
April. Provisions began to run short for the party in February and
and unloading supplies, and dropped off three meteorologists led
they rationed themselves to about 450 grams of sugar per week.
by H. Power, who would take over the weather observations and look after the wireless operations during 1914.
Another Year on the Island
In November of 1914, the Fisheries Investigation ship
In early March 1913 the message came through from Mawson
Endeavour left Hobart bound for Macquarie Island. After a rough
in Adelie Land, Antarctica, that his party would be down in the
trip, and a difficult resupply hampered by further inclement
Antarctic for another season and that the Macquarie Island base
weather, the new crew of meteorologists were dropped off and
needed to be maintained for several more months. Although they
Power passed control of the base to Tulloch, the leader of the
were given the option of returning on a sealing vessel, all of the
small party. Tragically, the Endeavour was not heard of again after
men on Macquarie Island elected to stay until their rescheduled
departing Macquarie Island and it was assumed lost with all hands
pick-up in late November. As winter approached, this
somewhere in the vast expanse of open water to the south-west of
necessitated the further rationing of supplies and coal, and wekas
New Zealand. Unfortunately, Power took all of the records made
and fish contributed to a large proportion of the daily meals. The
during 1914 with him on this ill-fated voyage and so little is
sealing ship that was due to bring in supplies for the men around
known about the events of that year.
H I S T O RY
51
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:41 AM
Page 52
The End of Exploitation
T
he official lease that Hatch had obtained in the late 1890s,
of the island needed by the Government to run its meteorological
allowing him to carry out the oil procurement business on
and wireless station. At the end of 1915, the Commonwealth
Macquarie Island, expired in 1911. As he was on the verge of
decided that it was not economically viable to continue running the
bankruptcy, he sold his business to a company formed by business
wireless station on Macquarie Island and at the end of 1915 it was
associates with the aim of continuing the oil business on
closed down. The party of wireless operators and meteorologists
Macquarie Island. At the same time, the Tasmanian Government
returned to Australia on the sealing vessel Rachael Cohen.
was in negotiations with the Federal Government to see if the Commonwealth was interested in leasing Macquarie Island.
Conservation Efforts Begin
Eventually, another licence to harvest penguins and seals was
In 1915, Sir Douglas Mawson began his campaign to have the
issued to Hatch’s new company for one year, excluding the portion
island classified as a wildlife sanctuary. His campaign began with the article ‘A Southern Metropolis’, which interested a range of noteworthy figures of the time, including the Governor-General, Sir R.M. Ferguson. Flowing on from this, in July 1916, the Federal Government wrote to the Tasmanian Government asking if they would be prepared to transfer Macquarie Island to the Commonwealth with a view to it being a dedicated Australian sanctuary for Antarctic birds and animal life. The Tasmanian Government declined, saying that they would sell the island to the
Image rights unavailable
Commonwealth. The Commonwealth declined this proposition and consequently, further negotiations were abandoned. An article published by Tulloch in 1916 expressed concerns about the level of penguin hunting on Macquarie Island and D. Le Soeuf, who was president of the Australian Ornithologists Union, wrote to the premier of Tasmania expressing similar concerns. These allegations were vigorously disputed by the companies involved and the industry continued, seemingly unabated, over the next few years. In 1917, Otto Bauer returned to Macquarie Island to lead a new oiling party. The
OTTO BAUER A larger-than-life character who spent at least ten
52
remonstrations by the Government must have had some effect as
years on Macquarie Island collecting oil from elephant seals and
their contract included the clause, ‘No wilful destruction of birds
penguins. In 1918 he met an untimely demise having spent too long
or eggs will be permitted’. The diaries kept by the men during this
in the water while bringing provisions ashore.
stay reveal a hard life, with little stimulation.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_HISTORY_2
4/11/07
11:42 AM
Page 53
“The rough shingle of the upper part of the beach and boggy tussock were everywhere covered with bones, bleached skeletons and putrid carcasses of sea-elephants which had been killed, stripped of their blubber and left to rot where they lay.” Dr A.L. McLean, 1911
While the conditions that the men worked under were much improved compared to the sealers of the previous century, the environment was harsh and the work unrelenting. The cold was so intense at times that men were known to cut into the jugular vein of the elephant seals and thaw out their hands and arms in the warm blood. Penguins were killed with clubs and hand-packed in the digesters to maximise the yield from each firing. The men living on the island at the time reported seeing a number of wild cats and many rats, the ferocity of the latter remarked upon in many of the personal accounts. Otto Bauer died during a resupply incident in April 1918. He was buried in a grave just to the north of the Nuggets. His headstone still stands to this day. JOSEPH HATCH One of the most successful entrepreneurs
The End of an Era Despite the apparent success of the industry, Douglas Mawson was
involved with the oiling industries on Macquarie Island in the late 1800s and early 1900s.
still working to save the animals on the island from exploitation, but Hatch was assiduous in his rebuttal of any allegations of
visited the island again as part of the British, Australian and
cruelty and it was still maintained by most that Royal Penguins
New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) of
were in inexhaustible supply. Frank Hurley also lent his support to
1929–1931. Mawson’s party arrived on 1 December 1930 and
the cause of the Macquarie Island sanctuary, with a passionate and
spent a couple of days looking around, basing themselves in tents
rousing letter to the Sydney Morning Herald in 1919. In response
and the old sealers’ huts at the northern end of the island. They
to mounting public pressure, the Australian Government
conducted an elephant seal census and spent time observing the
reopened negotiations with the Tasmanian Government with a
Royal Penguins. After a day and night ashore they steamed down
view to taking control of the island as a sanctuary for Australasian
to Lusitania Bay, where they estimated that there were around
subantarctic fauna. Despite concerted attempts by Hatch to rebut
4000 King Penguins. Mawson’s ship, the Discovery, left Macquarie
the calls of these conservationists, the Tasmanian Government
Island on 5 December 1930.
cancelled his licence in 1920. Macquarie Island experienced something of a rest from human
In May 1933, the Lieutenant-Governor of Tasmania signed a proclamation declaring Macquarie Island a Sanctuary for Wildlife.
activity between 1920 and 1929. A fleet of Norwegian whalers
This was a significant landmark in the history of the island and
visited the island in 1923, but there are few other reports of
would not have been possible without the passionate and
visitors during this time period. In 1930, Sir Douglas Mawson
dedicated efforts of men like Mawson, Hurley and many others.
H I S T O RY
53
FINAL_HISTORY_3
4/11/07
11:47 AM
Page 54
THE ANARESAT DOME This receiver provides phone and internet connection, allowing all expeditioners to remain in contact with friends and family while staying on the main base station. Prior to the satellite link, communication with the outside world was limited.
FINAL_HISTORY_3
4/11/07
11:48 AM
Page 55
The Twentieth Century
T
he BANZARE expedition of 1930 represented the only
important and consistent activities of the base on Macquarie
Australian activity on the island between the two world
Island are the meteorological observations. In the early
wars. The next major landmark in the history of the island was the
expeditions priority was given to the physical sciences and, in
establishment of the first Australian National Antarctic Research
addition to the meteorological studies, most other research in the
Expeditions (ANARE) station on the Isthmus in 1948. Using a
early days of ANARE focussed on geomagnetism, seismology,
navy ship, 400 tonnes of materials and supplies were taken to the
cosmic ray research, auroral physics and radio physics.
shores of Macquarie Island in March 1948. Two army amphibious
For the first ten years of ANARE occupation the station
craft ferried the supplies and men ashore. This station formed the
was an all-male affair. In 1959 four women made history by
first permanently occupied base on the island.
becoming the first females to travel and work in the Australian subantarctic for ANARE. Women had stayed on the island
An Early Casualty
before as several sealers had their wives with them for varying
Tragedy struck the first wintering party in July 1948 when the
lengths of time. However, the four researchers, Isobel Bennett,
diesel engineer, C.H. Scoble, drowned in a lake that he fell into
Mary Gilham, Susan Ingham and Hope McPherson, trod a path
while skiing on the plateau. That lake today bears his name and is
into a man’s world that up until then had strongly resisted change.
marked by a headstone in his remembrance. His replacement was
Although they were only visiting the station over a resupply
flown down in an amphibious aircraft, the only time in its history
period, they were, Isobel Bennett relates, told that ‘on our
that an expeditioner has arrived on Macquarie Island travelling
behaviour rested the future of our sex in regard to ANARE
solely by air.
voyages’. The first female to overwinter on Macquarie Island was
The island does not lend itself to the building of an airstrip and although fixed-wing Australian Air Force aircraft were used
Zoe Gardner in 1976, and today women constitute part of almost every ANARE expedition.
to drop supplies between 1978 and the early 1990s, today the only aircraft to grace the skies around the island are helicopters
An Important Discovery
brought down on supply ships to help ferry passengers and gear
Although biology was not a research priority, this did not stop
ashore and resupply the remote field huts.
some members of the early ANARE expeditions taking a keen interest in the natural world around them.
People and Research
One such amateur naturalist was the station doctor, Stefan
The number of people staying at the base is generally between
Csordas, who wintered on Macquarie Island in 1955, 1957 and
ten and 40 individuals, except during resupply when up to 60
1959. His diaries and meticulous photographic albums paint a
individuals can be on the station at any one time. That 1948
comprehensive picture of the island. Amongst his many
group of 13 men was a fairly standard number for the winter
observations was the presence of a fur seal pup at North Head,
months and many of the duties and much of the research that
the first record of this species breeding since it was all but
they conducted are still carried out today. One of the most
exterminated in the early 1800s.
H I S T O RY
55
FINAL_HISTORY_3
6/11/07
6:18 PM
Page 56
ANARE Station
Bauer Bay Bauer Bay hut
Sandy Bay hut Sandy Bay Brothers Point
Mount Eitel
Green Gorge Brothers Point hut
Davis Point hut Davis Point
Waterfall Bay
Tiobunga Lake
Lusitania Bay Windy Ridge Green Gorge hut
Caroline Cove hut Caroline Cove Hurd Point
1
5km
Working hut Unused hut Hut no longer standing
Hurd Point hut
Lusitania Bay hut
Waterfall Bay hut
MACQUARIE ISLAND FIELD HUTS There are five huts still standing on the island today: four on the east coast and one on the west. The three plateau huts and the one at Davis Point were removed in 2001, the same year that the Caroline Cove hut was pulled down.
FINAL_HISTORY_3
4/11/07
11:53 AM
Page 57
“When I read the Home of the Blizzard I thought Ainsworth made too much of the difficulties of the climb to the wireless hut and the need of a stout handline for safety sake, but going up I found that he had in no way exaggerated the case.” Sir Douglas Mawson, 1929
The Mid-Twentieth Century The main station has evolved over time, and up until the early 1970s livestock was maintained on the island, with sheep, cattle, pigs, ducks and hens used for meat, fresh milk and eggs. Cats still formed a regular part of station life and although there was some
Image rights unavailable
attempt at controlling them in 1953, by the late 1950s they were viewed as important in keeping down the numbers of rabbits and rats. The physical sciences continued to dominate as a priority area of research throughout the 1960s and 1970s, but research into the seabirds and elephant seals also formed a major part of the biological research of the time and some of the long-term datasets to arise out of this research are unparalleled around the world. Studies into the vegetation also formed an important part
LIGHT-HEARTED RELIEF This mural, painted in the late 1960s by
of the early research and slowly but surely the vascular plants, and
the meteorological staff, was an attempt to bring some light-hearted
many of the mosses and lichens, were identified and catalogued.
colour into the often drab exterior of these buildings. (Photo courtesy
of Roger Morgan.)
Field Huts Fundamental to much of the research conducted on the island are
The first hut at Caroline Cove, at the southern end of the
the field huts. In the early days of the first ANARE settlements,
island, was a prefabricated aluminium hut built in 1962, but it had
the sites of the old sealers’ huts at Sandy Bay and Lusitania Bay
deteriorated to such an extent that by 1965 it was dismantled and
were used and the early rudimentary structures replaced with
rebuilt at Tiobunga Lake. In 1966, a new hut was built at Caroline
similarly basic accommodation in the form of fitted-out packing
Cove by Alan Parker and Arthur Crabbe. In December 2000,
crates. These early huts were a very simple affair, but as time
several major landslides came down off Petrel Peak in the space of
progressed new ones were built in more contemporary styles.
a couple of hours, funnelling several hundred tonnes of rock and
One of the first huts to be built following the settlement of the
mud onto the hut. The author, who was the only occupant at the
main station was at Bauer Bay. Initially made of ANARE packing
time, climbed out of the tiny ventilation window at the rear of the
crates, and known as the Bauer Bay Hilton, the tiny hut was the
hut and proceeded to spend the rest of the morning digging out
first of several to be erected at this site. In 1962, following the
the back door and clearing an access path. Following this event,
demise of the Bauer Bay Hilton, a prefabricated aluminium hut
the hut was condemned and dismantled in the winter of 2001.
was erected, and in 1964 this was relegated to the status of the
The hut was renowned as a favourite with expeditioners and
store and a new hut was built. Finally, in 1966, another hut was
researchers alike and its outlook would compare favourably with
built and this still stands today, although it has had several facelifts.
some of the most sought-after real estate in the world.
H I S T O RY
57
FINAL_HISTORY_3
5/11/07
6:09 PM
Page 58
FINAL_HISTORY_3
5/11/07
6:10 PM
Page 59
Image rights unavailable
THE MAIN STATION The Isthmus at the north end of the island has always been one of the hubs for human habitation. These images, taken in 1911 (courtesy of Australian Antarctic Division), 1969 (courtesy of Roger Morgan) and 2004, show the changes that have occurred over this time period. Today, there is accommodation for 40 people to sleep comfortably on the main station, along with a fully equipped surgery, a dining room, workshops and laboratories.
FINAL_HISTORY_3
4/11/07
11:54 AM
Page 60
GREEN GORGE HUT In a beachfront location on the east coast, Green Gorge hut is about halfway down the island and is a welcome refuge for expeditioners who are walking long distances along the plateau’s overland track.
The hut at Green Gorge is part of ANARE folklore and was built just off the beach, halfway down the east coast of Macquarie
and the store. The living quarters were extended in 1986 and
Island. Only five hours walk from the station, this hut is also a
with regular ongoing maintenance this hut is one of the most
favourite with expeditioners and, together with the renowned
comfortable on the island today.
Shangri-la store, which was actually the original hut, it has
The most recent permanent additions to the field huts on the
provided many a weary and cold traveller with a warm bed after
island occurred following the Heard Island expedition in 1989–
a typically cold day out in the elements.
1990. Two of the purpose-built, three-person fibreglass structures
Hurd Point hut was also built at the site of one of the sealing
60
and burnt. The two remaining huts served as the living quarters
that were used on Heard Island were relocated to Macquarie
gang camps, close to the biggest Royal Penguin rookery on the
Island in the summer of 1995–1996, one at Brothers Point in the
island. Initially, in 1953, three huts were built—living quarters,
north-east to replace the dilapidated hut at Sandy Bay, and one at
observatory and darkroom—and as part of collaborative research
Waterfall Bay, to replace the packing crate at Lusitania Bay.
conducted during the International Geophysical Year, three more
Several temporary huts were put in place in the late 1990s. Three
huts were built in 1957 and 1958. A fire in 1959 at the main
small, spherical fibreglass structures known as ‘apples’ were located
station severely curtailed the physics program on Macquarie Island
on the plateau at Windy Ridge, Mount Eitel and Tiobunga Lake
for several years and marked the end of the Auroral Observation
to assist with the cat eradication program between 1998 and 2001,
Program at Hurd Point. The huts fell into disrepair over the
while a refitted water tank formed the slightly damp field hut at
ensuing decade and in 1974 the worst of them were dismantled
Davis Point on the west coast between 1993 and 2001.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_HISTORY_3
4/11/07
11:55 AM
Page 61
Getting There Today, travel to Macquarie Island is still only possible by ship. Between 1953 and 1987, four Norwegian ships, the Kista Dan, the Magga Dan, the Thala Dan and the Nella Dan, successfully took most expeditioners and supplies to Macquarie Island. The weather continued to affect the shipping and loading of gear to the island and in 1965 the ANARE resupply ship, the Nella Dan, spent three days about three miles offshore waiting for a southerly gale to abate in the middle of summer. In 1987, tragedy befell this ship when it struck rocks and sank during a resupply. In the late 1980s, the Australian Government commissioned the purpose-built icebreaker, Aurora Australis, and since 1990 this ship has been the main resupply vessel for Australian bases in Antarctica and on Heard and Macquarie
Image rights unavailable
Islands. In addition to the Aurora Australis, researchers intending to go down for a summer occasionally utilise tourist ships that travel to the island in the spring and summer months.
Understanding the Island From its inception in 1948 to the end of the twentieth century, the ANARE station changed considerably. Eventually, biological research was elevated to a similar priority to the physical sciences and at least one biologist was included with each wintering party. This allowed substantial increases in the knowledge of the flora and fauna of the island. Researchers developed specific programs to find out more about almost every aspect of Macquarie Island and slowly the pieces of the island puzzle are being put together. Today, most aspects of the island have been studied and the following chapters are a comprehensive but succinct summary of
CHICKENS AND COWS Domestic animals played an important role in the early days of settlement of the island. These photographs,
the knowledge that has been obtained by a diverse and committed
taken in the 1950s, show the chickens and cows that provided
group of researchers, scientists and naturalists over the course of
welcome fresh food for the expeditioners. (Photographs by Stephen
the last 200 years.
Csordas, courtesy of Ingrid McGaughey.)
H I S T O RY
61
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
10:33 PM
Page 62
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
10:33 PM
Page 63
GEOLOGY Formed when two major tectonic plates came together, forcing up a mid-oceanic ridgeline known as the Macquarie Ridge Complex, Macquarie Island is totally oceanic in its origin.
This makes it very different from the other subantarctic islands that lie on similar latitudes in the Southern Ocean. For example, South Georgia is a continental remnant of South America; large-scale sedimentation played an important role in the formation of the Kerguelen Archipelago and shallow underwater volcanic activity on Heard Island, Iles Crozet and the Prince Edward Islands was a fundamental process in their creation. Macquarie Island is the only example in the world of an exposed piece of oceanic crust still in the ocean basin in which it formed. Consequently, it provides a unique environment where the oceanic crust can be studied in its original state. In the few other parts of the world where oceanic crust is exposed, it is usually attached to part of the coastal margins of a continent. So special is the origin and geology of Macquarie Island that it was a primary factor in it being declared a World Heritage Area in 1997.
RARE ROCKS Ultramafic rocks on the plateau in the north of the island. These rocks, formed at least 6 kilometres under the surface of the Earth, are rarely exposed. They present great opportunities to study the geological processes that occur at these depths.
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
5/11/07
7:23 PM
Page 64
The Origins of the Island
T
ectonic plates are the huge sections of the Earth that make
Australian and Pacific plates came together. This undersea
up its crust, or upper layer. The movements of these plates
ridge complex stretches 1500 kilometres from New Zealand
have formed much of the global landscape as we know it today,
well into the Southern Ocean and is made up of a series of
including well-known features such as the Alps that stretch
smaller ridges and trenches. Its formation began tens of millions
across Europe and the Andes of South America. Macquarie
of years ago and has been described as extremely complicated.
Island was formed in a similar way to these massive mountain
At its southern end the ridgeline ends in a three-way intersection
ranges. The Macquarie Ridge Complex was formed when the
of the Australian, Pacific and Antarctic tectonic plates (see map opposite). To obtain a picture of how the Macquarie Ridge Complex (and subsequently Macquarie Island) formed, geologists have used a combination of data on the shape of the ocean floor, seismic activity (or earthquakes), gravity measurements, magnetic anomalies and reflectance.
The Macquarie Ridge Complex Macquarie Island and the outlying islets to the north and south represent the only exposed portion of this ridge complex and sit atop a 50-kilometre wide and 5-kilometre high section of oceanic crust. The island does not sit directly on top of the active plate boundary but actually lies nearly 5 kilometres to the east of where the Australian and Pacific plates meet. The Pacific plate has been moving reasonably constantly for the last 3–5 million years at a rate of around 3–5 centimetres each year. The relatively high incidence of earthquakes on Macquarie Island is consistent with its location between two tectonic plates and the ongoing movement that occurs there. At least a couple of minor earthquakes are felt each year on the island, not usually strong enough to cause major changes but enough to rattle the cups on the shelves. Although major earthquakes are uncommon, there is little doubt that seismic activity has played a role in shaping the
64
THE FEATHERBED Flat Creek, one of the larger drainage systems on
landscape of the island that we see today. Several historic reports
the island, cuts a path from the north-western coastal slope to the sea
describe earthquakes of enough strength to throw men to the
through the coastal terrace, also known as the featherbed.
ground and alter the shapes of mountains and coastal slopes.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
5/11/07
11:51 PM
Page 65
Rising Above the Waves Millions of years before its emergence, the island was shaped by
NEW ZEALAND
tremendous forces as the tectonic plates moved apart, forcing lava EASTERN AUSTRALIA
into the ocean. Over time, the tectonic plates stopped moving apart and started to move towards each other, forming the Macquarie Ridge Complex and Macquarie Island. The island probably first emerged above the ocean between 600 000 and 700 000 years ago. Its rise would not have been a
AUSTRALIAN PLATE
quick process. Over thousands of years, islets would have first appeared, followed by an archipelago, a few larger islands and
-45º
finally the island as it stands today. There are several parts of Macquarie Island where there are gently sloping seaward-facing terraces that have rounded pebbles and other features consistent with that of a beach, suggesting that these areas were once at sea level for considerable periods of time. MACQUARIE ISLAND
Given its structure, it seems unlikely that the island rose in one fluid movement; rather, parts of it would have been raised more
PACIFIC PLATE
quickly than others. It is also unlikely that the rate of uplift was constant over time as it would fluctuate in response to variation in movement of the underlying tectonic plates.
-60º
Since it emerged from the sea there have been many major changes in the global sea level, largely caused by global
ANTARCTIC PLATE
changes in climate. There is some debate surrounding how much the island has been influenced by glaciation during its history. The last worldwide glacial event, or ice age, occurred around
the relatively low altitude of the island and estimates of global temperature at that time, it seems unlikely that Macquarie Island was covered by an ice sheet for any length of time. In fact the
ANTARCTICA 16 5º
of Macquarie Island then was similar to today. Taking into account
150 º
18 000 years ago and it is likely that the height above sea level
TECTONIC PLATES Macquarie Island is the highest point of the Macquarie Ridge Complex, which was pushed up by the immense pressure of the
impacts of glaciation are today considered to be minimal, if they
Australian and Pacific plates coming together hundreds of thousands of
exist at all.
years ago. (Redrawn with permission from N. Daczko.)
GEOLOGY
65
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
10:34 PM
Page 66
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
10:34 PM
Page 67
THE WEST COAST Sandell and Davis Bays, on the mid-west coast, have extensive areas of coastal terrace that rise sharply to the plateau. The exposed rocks and bluffs are typical features caused by the faults that were such a major force in shaping the island as we see it today.
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
12:11 PM
Page 68
Geomorphology
G
eomorphology is the study of landscapes and how they are
Moving south, the second east–west fault begins in Langdon Bay
moulded, structured and formed by the natural processes of
on the west coast and cuts the island through the Finch Creek
the Earth. Due to the long period of time over which these
valley to Sandy Bay. This valley is one of the more popular routes
processes often occur, it is difficult to ascertain exactly what land-
for crossing the island as it does not require a steep ascent to the
forming events actually took place, but certain distinctive features
plateau. Another east–west fault lies between Sandell Bay on the
often leave clues as to what historic processes have occurred.
west coast and between Waterfall Bay and Lusitania Bay on the east coast, with a fourth in the Caroline Cove area in the south-
Influences on the Landscape The landscape of Macquarie Island has been influenced by the
west of the island. There is another major fault system that runs along the east
combination and interaction between a variety of dynamic
coast for much of the length of the island and is composed of a
processes, many of which are still affecting the island today. Those
complex system of smaller faults. The distinctive ridges along the
like erosion and seismic activity cause changes that can be seen
eastern part of the plateau through most of the central east coast
on a human time scale, while others, like uplifting, bring changes
are formed by the upward movement of rocks associated with
on a much longer, or geological, time scale. In the past, global
these faults. There are many other examples where smaller-scale
changes in climate and sea level have also had a major impact on
faults have influenced the landscape. For example, faults close
the shape and nature of the landscape.
to the east coast have determined its coastline and cliffs; the intensely jagged and convoluted south coast owes its shape to
Faults
fault action; and the numerous valleys and creeks, not to mention
Any break in the continuity of the rock strata is known as a fault,
the lakes, are formed by and owe their orientation to the actions
and the intersection between the two tectonic plates whose
of faults.
collision formed Macquarie Island could be considered a major
68
fault line in the Earth’s crust. The movement and creation of
Uplifting
faults plays an important part in the fundamental formation of
Uplift, caused by continuing movement of the massive tectonic
Macquarie Island, and it also influences the shape of the
plates underlying the island, has also played an important role in
landscape on a smaller scale.
the shape of the landscapes. As Macquarie Island was slowly and
Four major faults, or groups of faults, cross the island from west
inexorably pushed up above the surface of the ocean, every part of
to east, and the associated landscapes are clearly defined by them.
it must have been at sea level at some stage. The rate of uplift has
The most northerly of these crosses at the Isthmus where the main
been calculated as between less than 1mm to more than 14 mm
station is situated and separates North Head from the rest of the
each year. The fact that Macquarie Island is essentially composed
island. The long, flat Isthmus area, dominated by beaches and
of several fault-bounded blocks also means that it is possible for
low-lying tussock hillocks, is a direct result of this fault and is one
some parts to move at different rates and in different directions to
of the best areas for long-term human habitation on the island.
others in response to underlying movements of the Earth.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
12:12 PM
Page 69
THE SOUTH COAST The intensely jagged and convoluted south coast owes its shape to the combination of fault action and erosion. These exposed areas are often stripped bare of vegetation by the full force of wind and rain from the Southern Ocean.
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
12:12 PM
Page 70
“The rocks are chiefly volcanic, and rise rather abruptly as a ridge from the floor of the deep sea. The ... feature is the steepness of the land; the summit forming a miniature plateau having an elevation above sea-level of 1000 feet or thereabouts.” Sir Douglas Mawson, 1919
The Effect of the Ocean
The interaction between uplift and sea-level change is
As it sits in one of the wildest oceans on Earth, the influence
complex and occurred over time scales that humans find difficult
of the sea on the landscape of Macquarie Island cannot be
to comprehend. However, some generalisations can be made
underestimated. Two aspects of the ocean are influential as land-
about the scenarios that may have occurred.
shaping forces. Firstly, the changes in sea level that occur over
If emerging land remains close to sea level for a considerable
geological time, and secondly, the erosive force of the ocean itself.
period of time, a process known as marine planation occurs.
When the island emerged hundreds of thousands of years ago, the
Erosion by waves and wind effectively flattens the landscape.
sea level was similar to that of today. However, between then and
An example of this type of feature on the island is Wireless Hill.
now it has varied in height by 100 metres or more. The action of
Alternatively, if the sea level rises faster than an island uplifts,
the waves and wind against newly exposed sections has shaped
wide, gently sloping marine platforms backed by steep cliffs are
much of the coastal landscape, particularly on the west and south
formed. Finally, if the island’s surface rises faster than the sea level
coasts. The pounding waves undercut cliffs around these coastal
after the formation of the gently sloping marine platforms, these
margins, causing higher sections to collapse and effectively
terraces become progressively exposed. This type of landscape is
resulting in a retreat of the cliff margins.
common on the north-west coast of Macquarie Island and is colloquially known as the ‘featherbed’. If island uplift is rapid compared to sea level rise, then marine erosion is likely to be minimal. The above scenarios simplify what is a complex set of interactions that would have occurred over the exposed life of the island.
Erosion Erosion on Macquarie Island is not limited to the marine environment. Wind and rain also profoundly influence the shape of the landscape. Due to the regular drizzle and rain, the interface between the soil and the bedrock is almost permanently wet. Therefore, the top layer has a natural tendency to move down slope, which on a slow time scale is known as soil creep. With an appropriate trigger, this natural movement can relatively easily turn into a landslide, which has the potential to cause large movements of soil and rocks and expose the underlying substrate.
70
EROSION IN ACTION These rock stacks off the south coast have
Triggers for these events include heavy rain periods, earthquakes
been worn away by the action of the ocean over thousands of years.
and heavy grazing damage caused by rabbits. Flowing water in the
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_GEOLOGY_1
4/11/07
12:12 PM
Page 71
COASTAL TERRACES Extending down much of the west coast, these coastal terraces, also known as ‘the featherbed’, are waterlogged, boggy areas that are difficult to walk through. It is not uncommon for people to sink up to their waists while traversing the wetter sections.
form of creeks and rivers creates and deepens gullies and channels
areas was part of the reason that early geologists thought glacial
over time, and in the more barren areas water flow washes the
action was an important process in the formation of the island.
finer particles downhill, leaving what is known as a gravel lag. In addition to precipitation, wind also changes and sculpts the
On a smaller scale, the freezing and thawing of the ground can also influence the landscape. These actions are also known
landscapes of the island. Wind has eroded plateau areas, creating
as periglacial phenomena and are major factors influencing the
hollows and gullies that are often accentuated at the margins by
landscape in the northern hemisphere tundra. In the unvegetated,
wind-blown sand. Accumulations of wind-blown sand also form
barren and generally high-altitude areas of Macquarie Island
features in some of the valleys, the best examples of which are in
known as feldmark, the ground’s freezing and thawing sorts stones
the upper Finch Creek valley in the north of the island. Erosion
into stripes and polygons and, like the water action, facilitates
from the wind and rain have caused most of the soil to be blown or
the downslope movement of gravel and rocks. These processes
washed away in many places, leaving extensive rocky areas that are
contribute to the formation of the vegetation stripes, or terraces,
reminiscent of glacial debris. It is possible that the presence of these
that occur right around the higher plateau regions.
GEOLOGY
71
FINAL_GEOLOGY_2
4/11/07
12:18 PM
Page 72
Geology
D
uring his stay of nearly two years, between 1911 and 1913,
by Ben Goscombe, represented the first comprehensive, systemic
Leslie Blake was one of the first to make detailed studies
mapping of the entire island that also included structural analyses.
of the geology of Macquarie Island. Although he was to meet an
The geology of Macquarie Island is unique as it is the only
untimely demise in the First World War, his notes and
known slice of the oceanic crust that is in relatively pristine
observations were written up by Mawson in the early 1940s. Since
condition, still in the oceanic basin in which it formed and
this time there have been several important surveys of the geology
independent of any continent. Other known fragments of the
of Macquarie Island, the most significant being in the 1980s and
exposed oceanic crust are the Troodos Massif of Cyprus and the
late 1990s. The latter survey, conducted between 1994 and 1996
Semail Nappe of Oman, both of which have been forced by tectonic pressure on to the margins of continents and as such are significantly changed from their original structure. Exposed sections of the oceanic crust, like Macquarie Island and these other examples, are termed ‘ophiolite complexes’.
Volcanic Origins – Basalts Most of the rock that makes up Macquarie Island is of volcanic origin and the oldest parts of the island are thought to be between 10 and 30 million years of age. When molten lava solidifies it forms either basalt (fine grained), dolerite (medium grained) or gabbros (large grained). Basalt is the extrusive form as it is only formed when the lava is forced out into the air or water, in contrast with dolerite or gabbros which cool under the ground. Pillow basalts form as super hot lava from under the ocean floor cools, and these dominate the landscape on Macquarie Island. Pillow basalts make up much of the exposed part of the island today and are thought to be between 2 and 12 million years old. Solidified lava flows that formed from more vigorous volcanic activity and cooled more slowly into basalt layers, or tabular basalts, are also present but much less common. The underwater volcanic activity that formed these basalt layers and pillows also
72
PILLOW BASALTS These are some of the most common rocks found
had sediments associated with it (volcaniclastic sediments) and
on the island. Pillow basalts are formed when super-heated lava is
these are also present, along with sediments of marine origin
cooled extremely quickly under the ocean.
(oozes) in the gaps between the volcanic rock.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_GEOLOGY_2
5/11/07
7:25 PM
Page 73
REMNANT ROCK STACKS A female elephant seal is dwarfed by the rock stacks on the east coast. Due to the forces of the ocean over many thousands of years, these rock stacks are all that remain of the rocks that once covered these coastal areas.
FINAL_GEOLOGY_2
5/11/07
9:11 PM
Page 74
Metamorphosed pillow basalts Mudstone in a fault zone
Pumice and rounded beach boulders Basalt breccia
Cyanobacteria and lichens on pillow basalts
Serpentinite with foliation bands
Hyaloclastite breccia
Hydrothermal gypsum
Intrusive dolerite dykes
THE ROCKS OF MACQUARIE ISLAND Macquarie Island is a mecca for geologists from around the world. Most of the exposed rock is volcanic in origin, formed by lava flows caused by the movement of the Australian and Pacific tectonic plates millions of years ago.
FINAL_GEOLOGY_2
5/11/07
11:56 PM
Page 75
Other Rocks The next most common type of rock is probably the pebble/cobble
North Head
accumulations, or breccias, at the base of the fault escarpment. Included with these breccias are the accumulations of volcanic glass that have been welded together (hyaloclastites). These are
ANARE Station
produced along the sides of submarine volcanoes. There are also the reddish sandy mudstones formed from mud that has solidified with larger fragments within it. After these mudstones, the next most
Bauer Bay
common are the immature sandstones that were formed from the disintegration of the basalt, dolerite and gabbros. Finally, there are
Sandy Bay Flat Creek
Brothers Point
the solidified remains of microscopic marine organisms, known as ‘oozes’, that are found on the floors of all the oceans. The amount of time that Macquarie Island spent submerged meant that it collected a relatively large amount of these underwater sediments.
Green Gorge
Dolerite dykes form when magma is forced into already solidified or semi-solidified lava flows, then cools slowly. Dolerite
1
5km
dykes tend to intrude amongst other dolerite dykes forming a series of parallel dykes known as sheeted dyke complexes. These
Sandell Bay
Sedimentary rocks
dyke complexes are mainly exposed on the east coast near
Pillow basalt, aphyric
Lusitania Bay and also in the northern third of the island.
Pillow basalt, phyric Tabular basalt flows
On the northern part of the island, coarse-grained rocks
Sheeted dolerite dykes
representing deeper levels of the oceanic crust are exposed. These
Gabbro and olivine gabbro
include the gabbro bodies—solidified remains of large pools of
Troctolite
magma that formed part of the source of the underwater volcanic
Wehrlite
action that created the island. Other rocks that are exposed in the north of the island are known as hazburgites or ultramafic rocks. The plateau examples of these types of rocks were formed by
Dunite and plagioclasebearing dunite
Hurd Point
Harzburgite with subordinate dunite
hydrothermal processes deep under the Earth’s crust and have been forced up from a depth of 6 kilometres or more. As no
GEOLOGICAL MAP This geological map of the island shows
geologist’s drill has ever penetrated this far, they provide a unique
the distribution of most of the known rock types on Macquarie
insight into the geological processes that occur this far below the
Island. (Map redrawn from data provided by Mineral Resources
surface of the Earth.
Tasmania. See bibliography for © notice.)
GEOLOGY
75
FINAL_GEOLOGY_2
4/11/07
12:20 PM
Page 76
Lakes and Rivers
T
he frequent precipitation and low evaporation rate make for
The winds blowing over Macquarie Island usually have a
a plentiful supply of water on Macquarie Island. Much of that
relatively heavy salt load and as a result the salt concentration
water remains on the surface in one of the many freshwater bodies
in the freshwater of most lakes on the island is unusually high.
dotted around the plateau and, to a lesser extent, coastal regions.
Not surprisingly, the concentration of salt in the lakes is highest
There is an almost continuous transition in the types of freshwater
on the western side and declines in lakes closer to the east coast.
bodies, from waterlogged mire-like regions of vegetation to large
Most of the freshwater lakes on Macquarie Island have a neutral
lakes tens of metres deep and covering many hectares. In contrast,
pH, meaning that they are neither particularly acidic nor alkaline.
the number of rivers or creeks on the island is relatively low. The
Temperatures fluctuate throughout the year concurrently with the
geology and underlying structure of the ground is responsible for
ambient temperatures. Temperatures range from 9°C in some of
the location, orientation and size of most lakes, creeks and rivers,
the smaller lakes in summer to less than 1°C in winter.
with faults in the underlying rock being one of the primary
Many of the plateau lakes are oligotrophic, meaning they are
influences. Smaller lakes or ponds (also known as tarns) in the
low in nutrients and therefore support low numbers of animal and
peat beds of the coastal or plateau regions form when depressions
plant life. Some of the lakes have floating stands of vegetation
in the waterlogged soil are filled by rainwater and are usually more
which form isolated ecosystems that tend to blow around the
independent of the underlying geology. Such areas may also form
surface of the lake. In terms of invertebrates, the subantarctic
when the watertable rises to the same level as the ground. Given
copepod Boeckella brevicaudata is the most abundant species in the
the surrounding climate, it is not surprising that the freshwater
freshwater habitats of the island. In addition to several other
bodies on Macquarie Island are cold.
species of copepod, other less common species include cladocerans, oligochaetes, isopods, nematodes and flatworms.
Lakes
Diatoms and planktonic green algae are also important and
There are 24 named lakes on the plateau and several named
common components of the freshwater lake fauna.
lagoons on the coastal margins. In addition to these are many
76
smaller, unnamed water bodies that occur right around the island.
Rivers and Creeks
Most of these smaller water bodies are found in the coastal
There are several main river or creek systems on the island and
regions, in the mire-like environment of the featherbed. Major
they all run from the higher plateau to the lower coastal regions.
Lake is the largest lake on the island, covering an area of 0.5
Most start in large valleys like Finch Creek, Bauer Creek, Red
square kilometres. The deepest lake that has been measured on
River and Jessie Niccol Creek before meandering down to the
the island is Prion Lake (32 metres) which is also the third largest
coast. Sawyer Creek, another major creek system, runs northward
in area at 0.3 square kilometres. Waterfall Lake, which drains on
down from the high central plateau region to the Green Gorge
to the steep slopes of Carrick Bay on the west coast, is the second
basin before meandering out to the east coast. There are many
largest lake, covering an area of approximately 0.35 square
smaller drainage systems that flow down the coastal gullies from
kilometres with a deepest point of 25 metres.
the plateau.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_GEOLOGY_2
4/11/07
12:21 PM
Page 77
FLOATING ISLAND LAKE This small lake, viewed from the slopes of Mount Elder with the Nuggets in the background, is one of the few lakes on Macquarie Island that has a floating ‘island’ of vegetation, which moves around its surface with the wind.
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
10:37 PM
Page 78
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
10:37 PM
Page 79
F LORA There is very little land in the Southern Ocean, and the subantarctic islands dotted throughout this vast expanse of water represent the only terrestrial refuges for plants and animals in the region. In the case of Macquarie Island, which has never been attached to another landmass, all the species that now live there had to make their way across the ocean from other areas. In addition to the isolation, the southerly location of the island also influences the types of vegetation that can grow there. In a similar manner to the way that vegetation changes as altitude increases, moving further south also creates a continuum of vegetation. Macquarie Island is just a bit too far south for trees to grow and, due to the isolation and prevailing climate, there are no large woody shrubs either. The large vegetation is dominated by the megaherbs, tussock grasses and ferns, while the smaller vegetation is made up of a range of other grasses and herbs, sedges, cushion plants, mosses, lichens and fungi. The aquatic vegetation on the island is largely restricted to the marine environment where there are over 100 species of algae.
MACQUARIE ISLAND CABBAGE This is one of the most abundant plants on the island. Growing to a height of 1.5 metres, with leaves as big as dinner plates, this plant truly deserves its title of ‘megaherb’. This photograph shows them densely packed and in flower.
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
12:27 PM
Page 80
Vascular Plants
T
he grasses, herbs, cushion plants and sedges are known as
penguin colonies. Poa foliosa grows to 2 metres in height at some
vascular plants—plants with specialised tissues for consuming
places and is the largest plant on Macquarie Island. The other
and transporting water—and there are at least 45 species now
tall grass is the tussock Poa litorosa. This species has an extremely
present on Macquarie Island. From the earliest studies of Scott,
limited distribution and is only found in small patches on the
and then Hamilton, in the late 1800s, the vascular plants of
north-west coast, in the vicinity of Handspike Point. The sedge
Macquarie Island have been noted for their similarities to those of
Carex trifida, another tall grass-like species, is also restricted to
New Zealand. Comprehensive survey work by Hamilton’s son in
Handspike Point.
the 1911–1914 expedition added more species to the list of
The short grassland is dominated by smaller grasses like
vascular plants and plant collections were also made on the
Agrostis magellanica, Festuca contracta and the sedges Luzula crinita
BANZARE expedition of 1929.
and Uncinia hookeri. These species rarely reach a height of 30 centimetres or more and are much less susceptible to long-term
Plant Communities
damage from rabbit grazing as they can grow back quickly after
Vascular plants are distributed on Macquarie Island in a range of
being eaten. Included amongst the short grassland is the
different types of communities. Underlying the formation of these
introduced annual meadow grass, Poa annua, which forms
communities is a suite of complex factors that include: available
luxuriant carpets around much of the coastal fringe. The ability
water and drainage, the underlying geology and soil structure,
of this species to colonise recently disturbed ground has allowed
aspect, exposure to weather or salt spray, the altitude above sea
it to extend its range to many parts of the island’s coast. Other
level and nutrient availability. After undertaking extensive
short grasses include the coastal endemic Puccinellia macquariensis,
research in the 1950s, B.W. Taylor described five major vegetation
which grows in tufts in dirt that has collected between rock cracks
groups, or communities, on Macquarie Island: feldmark, bog, fen,
or crevices and seems to thrive in the harsh salty environment
herbfield and grassland. These definitions were reviewed by later
near the coast.
researchers and the following communities are recognised today: tall tussock grassland, short grassland, fernbrake, mire, feldmark
Herbs
and herbfield. There is only one true aquatic plant, Myriophyllum
Herbfields make up most of the vegetation in areas where winds
triphyllum, which grows in upland freshwater lakes.
are generally moderate, including sheltered valleys, on coastal and mountain slopes and on the raised coastal terraced areas.
80
Grasses
The megaherbs Pleurophyllum hookeri and the Macquarie Island
The tall tussock grassland is dominated by the tussock grass
cabbage dominate in many of these communities, although the
Poa foliosa and occurs on much of the coastal slopes and valley
latter also grows interspersed with tussock grasses on many of the
regions around the island. These tussocks are also found at the
coastal slopes. The remaining 14 herbaceous plant species on
beach margins, where the closely related, but much less abundant,
Macquarie Island are all small, growing close to the ground and
tussock Poa cookii is also usually found, often in the vicinity of
rarely reaching over 20 centimetres in height.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
12:28 PM
Page 81
FERNS The unfurling fronds of the fern Polystichum vestitum are shown here on the slopes above Jessie Niccol Creek on the east coast. While their distribution is limited to only a few sites, they are the largest ferns on the island, growing to a height of over 1 metre.
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
10:50 PM
Page 82
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
10:50 PM
Page 83
PLEUROPHYLLUM HOOKERI This large megaherb is a member of the daisy family and grows in fields around various parts of the island. The red flowers only appear every second or third year and they are pollinated by the strong winds that are typical of the island.
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
12:29 PM
Page 84
“The general appearance of a Macquarie Island landscape is barren in the extreme. There is not a tree or shrub on the island, and what vegetation there is has a great deal of sameness … ” Professor J.H. Scott, 1882
The Macquarie Island cabbage and most of the smaller herbs
their flowers. The cushion plant Azorella macquariensis is one
tend to flower once a year, while the daisy Pleurophyllum hookeri
of the only four plants on Macquarie Island that is regarded as
flowers every two or three years, resulting in some years being
endemic. It grows at all altitudes, but is more common in higher
‘good’ years when most of the plants are flowering.
regions amongst the feldmark and only tends to grow at low
Other herbs that are common on the coastal flats include
altitudes on rock stacks.
Montia fontana and the cress Callitriche antarctica, particularly common in wet, muddy patches like elephant seal wallows.
Ferns
The brassica Cardamine corymbosa forms small rosettes no larger
The fern community (or fernbrake) is largely dominated by
than 10 centimetres in height or width, while the buttercup
Polystichum vestitum, with an understorey of a variety of mosses
Ranunculus crassipes also occurs across a range of communities,
and small herbs like Cardamine sp., Ranunculus sp. and Epilobium
thriving in waterlogged mire-like areas, where it forms thick mats
sp. These large ferns grow to a height of up to 1.5 metres and are
with leaves up to 5 centimetres in diameter. The two species of
most abundant on the east coast, south of Lusitania Bay, and
the herb from the genus Epilobium (E. pedunculare and E.
where the Jessie Niccol Creek meets the coast. A large fern
brunnescens) can occur in thick mats throughout a range of
community at Sawyer Creek declined markedly between 2001
communities, and together with R. crassipes are often the first
and 2005, largely attributable to rabbit grazing and possibly
plants to colonise disturbed areas, such as that caused by landslips
affected by changing climate. Other ferns on the island are less
or severe rabbit grazing. Leptinella plumosa is a small coastal daisy
common with the small Blechnum penna-marina occurring mostly
with fine filamentous leaves that often forms carpets around the
in short grasslands at medium altitudes and the tiny Grammitis
periphery of some of the beach areas.
poeppigiana restricted to higher altitude feldmark communities. Closely related to the ferns is the filmy fern Hymenophyllum
Cushion Plants
falklandicum, and the lycopod, Huperzia australiana, both of which
Cushion plants are a common feature of both coastal and higher
are considered uncommon on the island.
altitude areas and four main species occur on Macquarie Island.
84
Three of these are of the genus Colobanthus. The most widespread,
Small Unusual Plants
C. muscoides, forms true, tight cushions and is common on coastal
To the uninformed eye there do not appear to be any woody plants
areas, where it often covers rock stacks, or is interspersed with
on Macquarie Island; there are no obvious shrubs or trees and the
tussock on the coastal flats. In some areas this species forms a
grasses and megaherbs seem to dominate most communities by
continuous cushion that extends for several hundreds of metres.
size. However, there is one small plant, Coprosma perpusilla, that
The other two species of Colobanthus (C. affinis and C. apetalus)
grows in prostrate mats to heights below 10 centimetres and has
do not form true, tight cushions. However, they still form dense
small, distinctive red berries. Although its appearance is nothing
mats that have the appearance of cushion plants. They are less
like the woody shrubs of temperate latitudes, this plant has the
widespread than C. muscoides and can only be differentiated by
honour of being the only woody plant on the island.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FLORA_1
5/11/07
9:18 PM
Page 85
The large sedge, Carex trifida
The small fern Blechnum penna-marina
The helmet orchid, Nematoceras dienema
Coprosma perpusilla, technically a woody plant
The cushion plant Colobanthus sp.
Colobanthus muscoides colonising dead tussocks
The buzzy, Aceana minor
VASCULAR PLANTS Although there are only 45 vascular plant species known to live on the island today, they are amazingly varied. From grasses to megaherbs, cushion plants to ferns, they all thrive and grow in Macquarie Island’s harsh conditions.
FINAL_FLORA_1
5/11/07
6:14 PM
Page 86
MEGAHERBS AND TUSSOCKS The three largest plants on the island: the Macquarie Island cabbage (Stilbocarpis polaris), the daisy
Pleurophyllum hookeri and the tussock grass (Poa foliosa).
FINAL_FLORA_1
5/11/07
6:15 PM
Page 87
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
12:31 PM
Page 88
“In some of the more sheltered places or gullies stunted plants of Stilbocarpa and Pleurophyllum cover the ground. The Pleurophyllum was, unfortunately, long past flower, and so I did not get any specimens of this beautiful aster-like flower.” Professor A. Hamilton, 1894
It is most common on the raised coastal terraces, generally
weed Stellaria media. It is not known when these plants were first
in wet areas. Also common in wet areas are the endemic orchids,
introduced to the island but they were first reported by Hamilton
the Macquarie Island helmet orchid (Nematoceras dienema) and
in 1895. Today, they are widespread but rare on the island.
the grooved helmet orchid (Nematoceras sulcatum). Both are very small, rarely exceeding a height of 2 centimetres. The latter one
Distribution
was only discovered in 2005.
Due to its remoteness and isolation, it seems likely that most vascular plants reached Macquarie Island through wind dispersal
The Feldmark
of seeds, or seed transport by birds. The shapes of many seeds are
In direct contrast to the wet, nutrient-rich coastal areas is the
consistent with these modes of dispersal. Many of the plants on the
feldmark of the higher regions. Here, plants are subjected to
island have hooked spines that readily stick to the feathers of birds,
strong cold winds and snow on a regular basis, with nutrient-
such as Aceana magellanica and Aceana minor, and the shape and
deficient mineral soils. Much of the feldmark is vegetation free,
structure of others makes them well adapted for dispersal by wind.
with only sparse terraces of low-lying hardy vegetation or cushion
The native animals of Macquarie Island also influence the
plants. Mosses and lichens form much of the living ground cover
vegetation in other ways. The high nutrients associated with
in these areas. Vegetated terraces are conspicuous in many
penguin colonies result in lush growth around these colonies,
feldmark areas and these are largely formed by prevailing westerly
particularly of the Poa tussock grasses. Guano left by cormorants
winds. In more sheltered areas of feldmark, terraces still occur and
may influence the growth of the coastal daisy Leptinella plumosa,
are influenced by wind, moisture, slope angle and the type of
and the haul-out sites of both elephant and fur seals changes the
vegetation present. The transition between the feldmark and
type of vegetation that grows in these locations.
short grassland communities is not usually distinct and many plants, mosses and lichens found in the short grassland are found
Introduced Animal Impacts
in limited numbers in the feldmark.
In addition to influences by the native wildlife, most of the vascular plants on Macquarie Island are also affected by the feral
88
Non-native Plants
animals. Mice and rats cache and graze on seeds and also influence
Although several attempts have been made by early visitors to
the dispersal of many species, particularly the daisy Pleurophyllum
introduce and propagate a variety of non-native species on
hookeri. Rabbits have a devastating impact, particularly on the
Macquarie Island, there are only three species that are recognised
megaherbs and tussocks that tend to grow relatively slowly and
as ‘unnaturally’ introduced today. The short grass Poa annua is the
struggle to recover from intensive rabbit grazing. The effect of the
most widespread and was first reported in 1880. P. annua is an
rabbits on the vascular plants of Macquarie Island is particularly
aggressive coloniser of disturbed ground and is not negatively
severe and has the potential to be one of the biggest human
affected by either human trampling or rabbit grazing. The other
mediated, long-term impacts on the natural environment in the
two herbaceous alien plants are Cerastium fontanum and the chick
history of human settlement of the island.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FLORA_1
4/11/07
12:31 PM
Page 89
CUSHION PLANTS IN THE FELDMARK This species of cushion plant (Azorella macquariensis) typically grows at higher altitudes on Macquarie Island and thrives in the nutrient-poor soils of the feldmark where very little other vegetation grows.
FINAL_FLORA_2
4/11/07
12:34 PM
Page 90
Mosses, Liverworts and Lichens osses and liverworts collectively form what are often
M
on Macquarie Island after being transported by the wind from
referred to as bryophytes. Species in these groups are
other landmasses. While several of the mosses of Macquarie Island
generally small plants. They have a relatively simple internal
are only found in Australasia, others are found right around the
structure, typically live in moist environments and reproduce
subantarctic, or cool temperate zones. Much of the knowledge of
through the formation of spores or through vegetative
the mosses of Macquarie Island has been collated in a recent book
reproduction. On Macquarie Island, vegetative reproduction is
by R. Seppelt.
often assisted by rabbits or skuas loosening fragments of plants. Lichens are symbiotic associations of a fungus with a
The Coast and Featherbed
photosynthetic partner that creates food for the lichen from
Starting where the ocean meets land, above the high-tide mark,
sunlight. The photosynthetic part of the lichen is usually an algae
lichens dominate, with common genera including Verrucaria,
or cyanobacteria and the fungus often surrounds the algal cells,
Xanthoria, Buellia, Turgidosculum and Lecanora. Lichens are not
forming structures that quite often resemble plants.
the only living matter to occupy this harsh zone, which is often
Mosses, liverworts and lichens are abundant on Macquarie
inundated with salty water in rough weather; the moss Muelleriella
Island and they occur in all areas, from wet coastal communities
crassifolia also grows on rocks and in rock crevices near the high-
to the most barren feldmark at high altitudes. Like the vascular
water level and survives the occasional submersion by salt spray or
plants, it is likely that the spores of mosses and lichens first arrived
water. The spores of this species are resistant to prolonged immersion in salt water, allowing it to reproduce and flourish in the salty environment. Many of the coastal rocks are capped by bryophytes such as Hypnum cupressiforme, Metzgeria sp., Lophocolea bidentata, Macromitrium longirostre, Hennediella heimii and Bryum dichotomum. On steeper beaches with larger stones, the lichen zone may extend up to the upper level of the beach. On sandy beaches, the mosses Bryum argenteum, B. dichotomum and H. heimii colonise some of the more stable areas. In coastal areas there is a complex interaction between vascular plants, mosses and lichens that is dependent on a combination of factors, such as the amount of salt spray, the nutritional inputs of breeding animals and drainage. In the mires of the coastal terraces, lichens and mosses also abound and are the main form of vegetation in many areas. Drainage plays an important role in the development of these
90
MICRO PLANTS Small mosses grow up amongst the abundant
communities, as does the nature of the underlying peat. Bryophytes
liverwort Marchantia berteroana.
dominate large sections of the north-western featherbed, with the
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FLORA_2
4/11/07
12:34 PM
Page 91
liverworts Chiloscyphus (Lophocolea) spp., Clasmatocolea spp. and Megaceros sp. particularly abundant, as are the moss species Breutelia pendula, Sanionia uncinata, Aulacomnium palustre and Pyrrhobryum mnioides. The moss Sphagnum falcatulum also occurs in isolated patches on the featherbed regions and changes in its abundance and distribution have been used as an indication of climate change.
Coastal Slopes and Plateau Beneath the dense tussocks on the coastal slopes, bryophytes are common understorey plants. Species of Brachythecium,
LICHENS These plants have the ability to grow in some of the harshest environments on the island.
Chiloscyphus and Metzgeria as well as Achrophyllum dentatum and Amblystegium serpens occur under the closed canopy, while other
Other mosses that are common in the feldmark include Andreaea
species, including Hypnum cupressiforme, Breutelia pendula and
spp., Rhacocarpus purpurascens and Rhacomitrium pruinosum, while
Tortula rubra occur more commonly in the open tussock grassland
the lichens Pertusaria sp., Lepraria sp. and Stereocaulon sp. are
on plateau slopes. On the plateau itself, mires often form when
also commonly found. Rocky outcrops in the feldmark provide
the watertable is high and drainage is restricted. Bryophytes
additional niches for mosses such as Macromitrium longirostre, R.
associated with these types of areas include Breutelia pendula,
purpurascens, Frullania rostrata and Plagiochila retrospectans, and
Bryum laevigatum and Riccardia cochleata. The moss Trematodon
crustose species of lichen are also common in these areas.
flexipes is often found in waterlogged, bare, peaty soils where there is little competition from other plants.
Distribution Bryophytes are some of the earlier colonisers of disturbed
Feldmark
ground from events such as landslips or severe rabbit grazing.
The feldmark is dominated by bryophytes, in some areas making
Bryophyte species that colonise these sites quickly include the
up nearly 70 per cent of the total vegetation cover. Early
abundant liverwort Marchantia berteroana and several other
researchers described the feldmark on Macquarie Island as ‘… an
genera, including Jungermannia, Jamesoniella, Riccardia, Dicranella,
open subglacial community of dwarf flowering plants, mosses and
Breutelia, Ditrichum, Notoligotrichum and Polytrichastrum, amongst
lichens’. The bryophyte Ditrichum strictum is particularly common,
many others. Once established, these early colonisers entrap
forming dense cushion-like structures throughout the gravel beds
mineral particles and allow the build-up of a thicker substrate,
in some of the most windswept places on the island. Another
which allows further colonisation of the site by small vascular
common bryophyte in the feldmark is Rhacomitrium crispulum,
plants and eventually, in the absence of rabbit grazing, larger
which often forms terraces in the gravel beds that typify these areas.
vascular plants like megaherbs and tussocks.
FLORA
91
FINAL_FLORA_2
4/11/07
10:52 PM
Page 92
FINAL_FLORA_2
5/11/07
12:03 PM
Page 93
MOSS ON FELDMARK Very little vegetation grows in the gravelly feldmark areas of the higher altitudes. The mosses shown here are some of the more common species in this environment, often growing in amongst the cushion plants.
FINAL_FLORA_2
4/11/07
12:35 PM
Page 94
Fungi
F
ungi form an integral part of most of the terrestrial ecosystems
discovered on Macquarie Island, in 1979, was identified as the
in the world today. Their role as decomposers is well known
plasmodial slime mould Lamproderma ovoideum. Further surveys in
and they can assist in the decomposition of most types of organic
the 1990s revealed other types of slime moulds living in all major
matter. Fungi play an important role in nutrient turnover and
types of plant communities, including tussock grassland, short
carbon flux, both in soils and in the atmosphere. The relationships
grassland, herbfields, mires, fernbrake and feldmark. Few examples
between fungi and other plants can be positive, as in the case of
were obtained from altitudes higher than 200 metres and the
mycorrhizal, or root-dwelling, fungi, or negative in the case of
highest densities of these species were found in moist litter around
parasitic fungi that can cause the death of its host. Atmospheric
the base of plants like Pleurophyllum hookeri and Stilbocarpa polaris.
pollution, global climate change and large-scale disturbance may all lead to significant disruption of these complex associations.
Symbiotic Associations Associations between the roots of plants and various forms of
Early Studies
fungi have been known for a long time and these associations
Fungal spores also made their way to Macquarie Island via wind,
often play a critical role in plant nutrition, particularly in cold
animal or sea transport and no endemic species have been
environments. Macquarie Island is no exception and mycorrhizal
identified to date. Some early work on the fungi of the island was
fungi are a common element in the roots of several vascular plant
carried out in the 1950s by Bunt, who described 27 fungal genera.
species. This type of fungi can be either on the external surface of
This work was continued in the 1980s with a general survey of the
the root systems or actually penetrate and live within the root
fungi on plants and litter of Poa foliosa, Pleurophyllum hookeri and
itself. Vascular plants that have most evidence of mycorrhizal
Stilbocarpa polaris. Most of the work on the fungi was carried out in
fungus include the Macquarie Island cabbage, cushion plants and
the 1990s when researchers conducted a comprehensive survey of
many of the grasses, including all species of Poa. Recent research
micro- and macrofungi, including slime moulds, microscopic soil
also suggests that there are close ecological associations between
fungi, more typical large mushrooms and mycorrhizal fungi.
some species of mosses and fungi.
Researchers have ascertained that all of the main fungus groups are represented on Macquarie Island—that is, the Basidiomycetes,
Cryptic Distribution
Ascomycetes, Imperfect Fungi and Lower Fungi.
Macrofungi on Macquarie Island are difficult to comprehensively assess and document. Not only are their occurrences sporadic and
94
Slime Moulds
unpredictable, they grow in cryptic locations that can elude even
Slime moulds are a type of fungi that typically occur in forested
the most observant collector. The difficulties are further
areas where they are usually found in association with decaying
compounded by the fact that identifications have to be made at
wood and/or leaf litter. They are known to play an important role
the time of collection as most of the diagnostic features are lost
in maintaining the health of ecosystems and are sometimes useful
when the specimen dries out. The most common of the
indicators of environmental change. The first slime mould to be
macrofungi are the Basidiomycetes followed by the Ascomycetes.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FLORA_2
5/11/07
9:30 PM
Page 95
Galerina sp. with liverworts and small herbs
Hygrocybe cf. nigrescens comes up through the moss
Mycena sp. nestled into a dead tussock pedestal
Tephrocybe (Mycena) sp.
Panaeolus cf. macquariensis
Tephrocybe (Mycena) sp. with small herbs
Agrocybe sp. amongst moss and grasses
MUSHROOMS The macrofungi of Macquarie Island are extremely diverse, with over 100 species documented and many more yet to be described. Fungi play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter and are a critical part of the island ecosystem.
FINAL_FLORA_2
5/11/07
6:19 PM
Page 96
FINAL_FLORA_2
5/11/07
6:19 PM
Page 97
FUNGAL DIVERSITY As these examples show, the fungi on the island come in a variety of shapes. None of those shown here stand any higher than 3 centimetres, with the small red ones (centre:
Scutellinia sp.) usually less than 1 centimetre in diameter.
FINAL_FLORA_2
4/11/07
12:38 PM
Page 98
Marine Plants arine flora on Macquarie Island is dominated by algae,
M
which lives in slightly deeper water, also scour away any other
which comes in three main forms: red, brown and green.
plants that attempt to grow in this region. Below the bare zone
There is a transition of species from the areas just above high tide
is an area that is dominated by the red algal species Rhodymenia
to the waters beyond the tidal zone. Highest living of all the algae
subantarctica and Adenocystis utricularis.
is Porphyra columbina, with leaf-like fronds, which inhabits the
Brown algae, also known as kelp, is the largest of the marine
area just below the lichen zone. Its upper limit is defined by the
flora and dominates the upper intertidal zone below the red algal
region reached by the spring tide and it forms dense associations
zone in the form of Antarctic bull kelp. Beyond this intertidal
that provide shelter for a host of invertebrates.
kelp zone is another area that is dominated by red algae. Further offshore from this zone, another dominant form of brown algae,
The Intertidal Transition
Macrocystis pyrifera, forms extended floating beds in deeper waters
Below the Porphyra zone is an area that is generally quite bare
up to depths of 30 metres.
of marine plants, a situation that may be helped by a limpet
Green algae are less diverse than the brown and red algae, but
that dominates these areas and grazes on algae. It is likely that
in some sheltered areas they are more common than red or brown
the fronds of the Antarctic bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica),
species. Both green algae and encrusting coralline red algae occur in intertidal rock pools, with the filamentous green species tending to dominate in the small-volume, high-intertidal pools. In some areas the dominance of the green algae is associated with freshwater runoff, and it appears that these species are able to tolerate freshwater better than the red or brown algae.
Kelp Forests The Antarctic bull kelp grows in two distinct forms, both of which need regular covering by water to survive. The first, rarely visible, tends to live in water that is at least 15 metres deep and has compressed fronds with very few air pockets. The second, which is most commonly observed during low tide around the coast of Macquarie Island, has fronds which are much more spongy, with relatively large sacs of air within them. Bull kelp sticks to the ALGAE Growing in small rock pools, algae such as these are abundant in this type of environment. They do not have the strong
98
rocky substrate using holdfasts, the equivalent of the roots of trees. Holdfasts have been known to grow to 0.5 metres in diameter and
holdfasts of some of the larger kelp species and utilise the shelter of
it is not uncommon for fronds to be several metres long. As these
rock pools to survive.
fronds are whipped around in the often frenzied wave action
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FLORA_2
4/11/07
12:38 PM
Page 99
ANTARCTIC BULL KELP The large brown algae Durvillaea antarctica aligns itself in the gentle swell. Growing to several metres in length, this kelp thrives in the cold, nutrient-rich waters of Macquarie Island and is abundant right around the coast.
around the coast of the island, the holdfasts have to withstand
of smaller animals and may assist in the transport of invertebrates
extreme pressures. They achieve this incredibly well and it is not
between islands.
uncommon to find holdfasts on the beach with pieces of rock still
The presence of the Antarctic bull kelp has several implications
attached, signifying that the rock gave way before the holdfast did.
for the immediate environment. Firstly, it provides an environment
Like the Antarctic bull kelp, the other large brown algae,
that is sheltered from UV light, intermediate wave action, wind
Macrocystis pyrifera, use holdfasts to attach themselves to rocks on
and rain. Whole micro-ecosystems build up around this sheltered
the sea floor. This species has the ability to grow quickly and
environment and if the kelp is removed from a particular area,
fronds can attain a length of 25 metres or more. Both Antarctic
most of the animals that were in that area will die or move away.
bull kelp and M. pyrifera are known to form kelp rafts. If several
In addition, the holdfasts themselves provide homes for many
plants are uprooted in a single storm event, the individuals will
species of invertebrate. The other major brown algae, Desmarestia
tangle together and form dense mats that can be transported vast
sp., also helps to provide shelter and shade for the low-light-
distances across the ocean. These rafts provide a home for a range
tolerant red algae as well as a range of invertebrates and fish.
FLORA
99
FINAL_FAUNA_1
5/11/07
12:50 PM
Page 100
FINAL_FAUNA_1
5/11/07
12:50 PM
Page 101
FAUNA Macquarie Island is a haven to a diverse and abundant range of wildlife. Many of these animals leave their habitual marine environment and come ashore to breed.
Penguins, albatrosses, petrels and seals require dry land for this purpose and when they come ashore, primarily in the spring, summer and early autumn, the island comes alive. Literally hundreds of tonnes of animal biomass move out of the ocean and on to the shores of Macquarie Island to mate, lay, give birth and feed in a relentless annual cycle that is an integral part of the Southern Ocean ecosystem. Not every animal leaves the island in winter, with giant petrels, King Penguins, Wandering Albatross chicks and elephant seals found throughout most of the year. Invertebrates, too, are common all year round, from the flies that inhabit the rotting kelp to the worms that live in the tussocks. With its wonderland of animal biodiversity, Macquarie Island truly is a subantarctic sanctuary.
ITCHY SKIN A young Southern Elephant Seal scratches itself during the moult. At this time the seals become quite itchy and use their flippers and sharp nails to relieve the irritation of the moulting skin and expose the beautiful new silver hide underneath.
FINAL_FAUNA_1
4/11/07
12:46 PM
Page 102
Penguins
P
enguins are closely related to the petrel family—birds that
congregate during the summer. Total population numbers are
include the albatrosses, smaller petrels, shearwaters and
around 800 000 breeding pairs but could be as high as one million.
prions—and it is likely that all these birds evolved from a
Some of the inland colonies are up to a kilometre inland and at
common ancestor. Penguins have developed specialised
altitudes of up to 200 metres.
physiology in order to withstand the very low temperatures that
Nests are made out of small rocks and pebbles. Competition
they experience in most of the places where they live. Their
is fierce for rocks of the right size and shape and individuals will
feathers are short, thick and packed in closely to each other
often carry them some distance to their nest site. Eggs are laid in
against the body. This has the effect of trapping warm air next to
October. Although two eggs are generally laid, only one is usually
the skin. Antarctic and subantarctic species also have a dense
incubated to full term. Both parents incubate the egg and after
layer of fat under the skin, similar to the blubber of marine
hatching the chicks form creches. Forming creches is likely to
mammals. The blubber layer is particularly important in the
serve two purposes: firstly, as a defence mechanism against skuas
penguin chicks as they lack the dense feathers of the adults. All
and giant petrels, the main predators of young penguin chicks on
penguins are supreme swimmers and divers; what were once wings
Macquarie Island, and secondly, for warmth.
now serve as high-propulsion paddles and these flippers allow
The chicks start to fledge after about 10 weeks and mortality
most of the species to propel themselves out of the water as they
of the young chicks is high as they attempt to leave the island
swim close to the surface. In this way they can breathe without
for the first time. Young Royal Penguin fledglings can stay at the
slowing their swimming speed. At least 17 species of penguin are
water’s edge for hours, occasionally days, before they attempt to
recognised throughout the world and most of these inhabit the
take their first swim. Once they do, they stay at sea for a year
northern half of the Southern Ocean. Four of those species breed
before returning to the colony to moult (shed the outer layer of
on Macquarie Island.
feathers). Parents leave the breeding colony soon after the chicks have fledged and head out to sea to fatten up for their moult.
Royal Penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli)
They spend at least three to four weeks at sea before returning to
Royal Penguins are a medium to large penguin with a bright crest
complete they leave the colony and by the end of April most of
made up of thin yellow/orange feathers. Most members of this
the birds have left Macquarie Island.
land, where they again attend their nest site. Once this process is
species have a pale face, but there is a lot of variation and in some individuals it can be quite dark. The bill is chunky and orange and there is usually a conspicuous pink gape at the base. Royal Penguins only breed on Macquarie Island and are the
102
Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) The smallest of all the crested penguins, the Rockhopper Penguin
most abundant penguin there, breeding in both large colonies
breeds on most of the subantarctic islands around the world. It is
around the coast and also some quite large inland colonies. The
readily identified by its bright yellow crest that stands out initially
largest colony is at Hurd Point, where over 500 000 breeding pairs
at right angles to the head before dropping down the sides.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_1
4/11/07
12:46 PM
Page 103
TOP OF THE HEAP A single Royal Penguin stands at the head of an extremely large colony, numbering hundreds of thousands of individuals. This species is the most abundant penguin on the island and breeds right around the coast.
FINAL_FAUNA_1
4/11/07
12:47 PM
Page 104
After hatching, the chick is attended constantly by one of the parents as they take turns to go out and find food. The chicks are left alone at around three to four weeks of age and as they grow older they slowly lose their dark down, fledging just after the Royal Penguin chicks fledge in March. Once the chick has fledged, breeding Rockhopper Penguins also leave the nesting grounds to feed at sea for a few weeks before returning to the PAIR BONDING These Rockhopper Penguins are allopreening, which is important behaviour in forming strong pair bonds.
krill, but they are also known to eat small fish, squid and octopus.
It is hard to estimate breeding numbers for this species as it nests
King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus)
in such a variety of locations, often under vegetation, in rock
The King Penguin is the second largest penguin in the world
crevices or under overhangs, making it very difficult to conduct
and breeds on several of the main subantarctic islands, including
population censuses. It seems likely that the Rockhopper Penguin,
Prince Edward Islands, Iles Crozet, Iles Kerguelen, Heard Island,
being the smallest penguin, is the most vulnerable to predators
Macquarie Island, the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. The
like skuas and therefore nesting in cryptic locations makes them
global population is thought to be between 2–3 million breeding
less of a target. The best estimates suggest that there are around
pairs, with at least 200 000–300 000 pairs estimated to be on
300 000 pairs on Macquarie Island out of a global population of
Macquarie Island today. The King Penguin is a majestic and
around 3–3.5 million pairs.
striking penguin, with bright orange to yellow patches on the sides
As their name suggests, Rockhopper Penguins are adept at
of the head and a long, slender bill with broad, coloured stripes
getting across difficult terrain and their ability to move around
along the side. Juvenile birds tend to be less colourful. As they
some of the rocky coastline of Macquarie Island occasionally
approach adulthood their plumage gets more striking.
defies belief. They nest in a variety of locations, not only on the
King Penguins have the longest breeding cycle of all the
coast but also up into the coastal slopes. Like the Royal Penguins,
penguins, with chicks taking a year to fledge after hatching. This
Rockhopper Penguins form monogamous lasting pair bonds and
14–16 month cycle means that a pair is only capable of fledging
they are very attentive and protective of their mates and their
two chicks every three years. King Penguins do not generally have
nest site.
a nest as such and the single egg can be incubated on top of the
Rockhopper Penguins return to Macquarie Island a little later than the Royal Penguins and generally start coming back to their
104
island for their moult. The main food of Rockhopper Penguins is
feet, allowing the bird to move with it if need be. In larger colonies, communal creches form, often containing
nest sites in October. They build their nest out of mud and/or
hundreds of chicks. The half-grown chicks look very different
grass and lay their eggs soon after. Both parents incubate the eggs.
from their parents, with their long brown downy hair.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_1
4/11/07
12:48 PM
Page 105
KING PENGUINS Breeding in large colonies, mainly on the east coast, King Penguins are one of the few seabirds that are present on the island all year round. They are the second-largest penguin in the world, standing just under 1 metre tall and weighing 20–25 kilograms.
FINAL_FAUNA_1
5/11/07
9:32 PM
Page 106
Rockhopper Penguin feet The small Rockhopper Penguin finds shelter in cabbage
A King Penguin chick loses its down
Black King Penguin feet blend in with the sand
Royal Penguins preen each other while pair bonding
A Rockhopper Penguin fledgling
Gentoo Penguins congregate on the coastal flats
Striking orange feet of the Gentoo Penguin
PENGUINS Of the 17 species recognised around the world, four breed on Macquarie Island. They differ in size and appearance considerably. Rockhoppers are the smallest, Royals slightly bigger followed by Gentoo Penguins, with King Penguins being the largest.
FINAL_FAUNA_1
4/11/07
12:49 PM
Page 107
Like other young penguins on Macquarie Island, they are at risk from the skuas and giant petrels. While in the tight-knit creches the chicks have the benefit of safety in numbers, and the wouldbe predator’s only hope is to work in groups to isolate individuals and overwhelm them. King Penguins nest in very large colonies on the less rocky beaches of Macquarie Island. Due to their preference for this type of terrain, most of their colonies are on the east coast. After they were nearly wiped out by the penguin hunters in the early days of
GENTOO PENGUIN A fledgling chick rests in the sand. In a few weeks it will fledge and have to fend for itself in the Southern Ocean.
settlement, numbers have increased rapidly over the last century, undergoing exponential growth through the 1940–1980s. Colonies are extremely noisy and on still days can be heard
on the sides of their heads, it is difficult to mistake the Gentoo
kilometres away. Sensory overload is common around these
Penguin for any other species. On Macquarie Island they are very
colonies as the smell is also overwhelming.
wary of people and do not respond well to disturbance. Colonies
King Penguins are exceptionally good swimmers and their ungainly nature on land is more than made up for by their speed and grace in the water. They feed on small fish but have also been
on the island are usually relatively small, generally with no more than 100 birds and locations typically move from year to year. Gentoo Penguins spend most of the year close to Macquarie
known to feed on squid. They are exceptionally good divers and
Island and many birds attend their nest sites throughout the year.
are capable of remaining underwater for ten minutes or more.
Nest sites for the following years are generally chosen at the end
They generally dive to depths of tens of metres but have been
of each breeding season. Although monogamous, the pairs may
recorded as deep as 300 metres.
only last two to three seasons, suggesting that the pair bond is not as strong as in other penguin species.
Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua papua)
Macquarie Island. Unlike the crested penguins, they will often
The Gentoo Penguin is the third largest penguin, standing up
rear two chicks successfully. Gentoos also differ from the other
to 75 centimetres in height. They breed on several subantarctic
penguins in that they usually only do day trips away from the nest
islands, with a similar distribution to the King Penguin. The
and therefore forage relatively close to the island. During the
global population is thought to be in the vicinity of 350 000–
breeding season this species mainly feeds on squid and small fish,
500 000 breeding pairs. Fewer than 5000 pairs breed on Macquarie
usually taken within 10–15 kilometres of the island. Gentoos
Island around the grassy coastal flats and occasionally the lower
have been known to dive to depths of over 200 metres in search
reaches of the tussocked coastal slopes.
of food. The egg laying season is longer than other species, with
With their bright orange bill and feet and obvious white blaze
Gentoo Penguins lay two eggs in spring or early summer on
eggs laid as late as December.
FA U N A
107
FINAL_FAUNA_1
6/11/07
2:49 PM
Page 108
FINAL_FAUNA_1
6/11/07
2:49 PM
Page 109
A SUMMER’S DAY A group of non-breeding King Penguins rest on Nuggets Beach. Days like this—when the sun is shining brightly, there’s hardly a cloud in the sky and the ocean is more reminiscent of tropical latitudes—are rare.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
4/11/07
6:22 PM
Page 110
Albatrosses
A
lbatrosses are the largest members of the petrel group, or Procellariiformes. Their special place in the oceanic
it is thought that before people arrived on Macquarie Island there may have been 200 breeding pairs or more.
environment has long been recognised by mariners and they are
The first settlers, including sealers and shipwrecked sailors,
an almost ubiquitous presence in the Roaring Forties and Furious
ate their way through most of this population, utilising the adults,
Fifties of the Southern Ocean. Albatrosses are built for this
eggs and chicks for food. By the early 1900s the population had
environment and their awkward nature on land belies their
been greatly reduced, probably to fewer than ten breeding pairs.
extreme grace and beauty in the wild winds of the Southern
Between 1910 and 1965 the Wandering Albatross was relatively
Ocean. There are 23 species of albatross recognised around the
free of human interference and over this time numbers grew to
globe and four of these breed on Macquarie Island. A single
between 40 and 60 breeding pairs. In the late 1960s and 1970s
Antipodean Albatross (Diomedea antipodensis) was recorded
long-line fishing exacted a heavy toll on the population,
breeding on the island in 2005–2006 and it is likely that this bird
particularly the younger birds, and as a result they once again
is an immigrant from a New Zealand subantarctic island. Most
became nearly extinct. An increase in the survival of the young
albatrosses around the world are affected in some way by fisheries
birds (probably due to a reduction in fishing) allowed the
operations and long-line fisheries have been identified as
population to slowly increase in the late 1980s and early 1990s
responsible for the declines in many populations. Albatrosses only
to its current level. However, the population has not increased
lay one egg and if that egg fails they must wait at least until the
since 1995 and it is still extremely vulnerable to elevated or
next breeding season before they can lay again. Two of the species
unnatural mortality.
on Macquarie Island—the Black-browed and Grey-headed
Wandering Albatrosses do not breed until at least eight years
Albatrosses—are listed as ‘vulnerable’ while the Wandering
of age and the adult males are usually the first to return to the
Albatross is listed as ‘critically endangered’ under the Australian
breeding sites at the start of the breeding season. On Macquarie
Environmental Protection and Biodiversity (EPBC) Act 1999.
Island this generally occurs in early December. After the female has laid the egg both members of the pair take it in turns to
110
Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans)
incubate it. After hatching, the young chick is brooded for three
Wandering Albatrosses are the largest of all the albatross species
For the next nine to ten months the chick sits on the nest,
and they breed in very small numbers on Macquarie Island.
patiently waiting for the parents to return and provide it with
Currently there are only 19 breeding pairs, with a total population
food. The interval between feeds may be as long as three weeks,
estimated at around 70–100 individuals. This is a tiny proportion
but usually the success of chicks that hatch is quite high and most
of the estimated global population of 8500 pairs and, as such, it
fledge in November or December. After leaving the nest for the
represents an extremely vulnerable population. Wandering
first time, the fledglings typically will not return to Macquarie
Albatrosses have been significantly influenced by the presence
Island (or any land at all) for at least four years and maybe for as
of people on Macquarie Island. Although it is difficult to estimate,
long as seven years.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
to four weeks, after which it is left unattended for the first time.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
4/11/07
6:23 PM
Page 111
YOUNG LOVE These two young Wandering Albatrosses sit at their new nesting site, courting and pair bonding. They will not breed for another two years, but will continue to strengthen the pair and nest bond to increase the odds of a successful breeding attempt.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
5/11/07
12:54 PM
Page 112
WANDERING ALBATROSSES A female (left) and male (right) Wandering Albatross sit together on Petrel Peak. There are only 19 pairs of Wandering Albatrosses breeding on the island and the population is classified as ‘critically endangered’.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
5/11/07
12:55 PM
Page 113
FINAL_FAUNA_2
4/11/07
6:24 PM
Page 114
Black-browed Albatrosses usually attempt to breed every year regardless of breeding success. Most do not breed until at least seven years of age. Males return to the island in late August or September, eggs are laid throughout October and hatch around 70 days later. Both members of each pair take turns incubating the egg in what are usually short shifts of one to seven days, although they can be as long as 21 days. After hatching, the chicks are brooded for around three weeks before they are left unattended. Chicks fledge during late TAKING OFF A Black-browed Albatross takes off from the slopes of Petrel Peak, the only breeding site for this species on the island.
April or May, after which the adults leave the island for several months before returning to start the cycle again. During the breeding season, Black-browed Albatrosses tend to concentrate most of their foraging efforts close to Macquarie Island, where
After successfully fledging a chick, the breeding pair will have a
they mainly feed on squid and small fish. However, occasionally
year off before attempting to breed again. If a pair fails in the egg
individuals will travel long distances to the south-east Australian
or early chick stage, however, they will usually return to breed in
shelf or the Antarctic ice edge.
the next season.
Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys)
Grey-headed Albatrosses also breed around the world, although
Like the Wandering Albatross, the Black-browed Albatross breeds
in much smaller numbers than the Black-browed Albatrosses.
right around the globe on many of the subantarctic islands. It is
The global breeding population is thought to be around 90 000
one of the most numerous albatrosses in the world, with
breeding pairs. Although similar in size to the Black-browed
population estimates of around 680 000 breeding pairs. This
Albatross, this species is easily distinguished by its grey head and
species is also affected by long-line fisheries, although the effect of
yellow, orange and black bill. Like the Black-browed Albatross it
this practice on the small population breeding on Macquarie
breeds in low numbers on Macquarie Island and is only found in
Island is thought to be minimal. They are much smaller than the
the south-west corner of the island, on the slopes of Petrel Peak
Wandering Albatross, with a wingspan of just over 2 metres and
and an outlying rock stack known as West Rock. Usually, 65–90
weighing 3–4 kilograms as adults. Around 40–50 breeding pairs of
pairs breed each year in these areas and the total population is
Black-browed Albatross breed on Macquarie Island each year,
probably in the vicinity of 150 breeding pairs.
with a further 100 or so pairs breeding on the Bishop and Clerk Islets just to the south of Macquarie Island.
114
Grey-headed Albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma)
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
Grey-headed Albatrosses first return to Macquarie Island around the same time as the Black-browed Albatross.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
4/11/07
6:25 PM
Page 115
PARENT AND CHICK On the southern slopes of Petrel Peak a Grey-headed Albatross chick pokes its head out from underneath its parent. In a few days time this three-week-old chick will be left unattended and will have to fend for itself against predators like the skua.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
4/11/07
6:25 PM
Page 116
LIGHT-MANTLED SOOTY ALBATROSS Soaring high above the waters of Windsor Bay, this Light-mantled Sooty Albatross shows its superb flying ability in gale-force winds. This is the most manoeuvrable of all the albatross species and undertakes spectacular aerial courtship displays.
FINAL_FAUNA_2
4/11/07
6:26 PM
Page 117
“Albatrosses are found on Macquarie Island, where they lay their eggs and hatch their young. During the breeding season, the sealers have no need for guns and powder; they simply kill the birds with a stick and use them for food … ” Admiral Bellingshausen, 1820
Most eggs are laid in October and hatching occurs in late
albatrosses on Macquarie Island and their narrower wings and
December or early January. During incubation this species tends
longer tail give them greater manoeuvrability in the air, which
to undertake longer foraging trips, so the shift length is more like
they use to great advantage during their courtship flights.
seven to ten days on average. Once the chick has hatched the
Light-mantled Sooty Albatrosses return to the island later
shifts shorten as the young chick needs nourishment on a regular
than the Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatrosses. The first
basis and by the time it is three weeks old it is ready to be left on
individuals typically arrive back in September, and their courting
its own. The Grey-headed Albatross chicks take a little longer to
call (unique amongst albatrosses) heralds the end of winter. Most
fledge than the Black-browed Albatross chicks, and most leave
eggs are laid by the first week in November and chicks hatch after
the island for the first time during May. Once at sea, the young do
65 days of incubation. Parents travel long distances during
not return to Macquarie Island for several years and some may stay
incubation, sometimes travelling as far as the Antarctic ice edge,
away for as long as ten or twelve years before returning to the
with shifts of up to three weeks. After the chick hatches, both
island to find a mate and breed.
parents brood it for two to three weeks, typically feeding closer to
Like the Black-browed Albatross, there is little evidence to
the island to allow more frequent feeds to the chick. Once the
suggest that the population on Macquarie Island has been affected
chick has been left unattended the parents combine these short
in the past by long-line fishing, probably because there is little
foraging trips with longer foraging trips, allowing them to provide
overlap in the areas where they forage and where long-line
the chick with enough food to keep it growing while still finding
fisheries operate. However, many other populations of both
enough food to keep themselves alive. A Light-mantled Sooty
species worldwide have been severely depleted by interactions
Albatross chick is fed in the vicinity of 35–40 kilograms of food
with fisheries.
over a five-month period to gain a total weight of about 3–4 kilograms. The preferred food of the Light-mantled Sooty
Light-mantled Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria palpebrata)
Albatross is squid, which it finds in large numbers in the southerly
Light-mantled Sooty Albatrosses are the most common species of
known to feed on large crustaceans and small fish.
albatross on Macquarie Island. Around 1000–1500 pairs breed on
waters close to the Antarctic ice edge. This species has also been Once they fledge, or leave the island for the first time, young
the coastal slopes each year. This represents around 5 per cent of
Light-mantled Sooty Albatrosses usually spend several years at sea,
the global population. This species also breeds on other
although they have been observed back on Macquarie Island as
subantarctic islands in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans, as well as
young as four years of age. This species only breeds every second year,
on the New Zealand subantarctic islands. It is easily distinguished
if successful, and some pairs will have two, or even three, seasons
from most other species of albatross by the dark plumage, which
between subsequent breeding attempts. For a small albatross, the
grades from nearly jet black around the head to light grey down
Light-mantled Sooty Albatrosses are known to live for a long
the centre of the back. This plumage is considered by many to be
time—often to an age of 40 years or more—and it is possible that
one of the most beautiful in the world. They are the smallest
this longevity is related to their tendency to defer breeding.
FA U N A
117
FINAL_FAUNA_2
5/11/07
12:55 PM
Page 118
FINAL_FAUNA_2
5/11/07
12:56 PM
Page 119
GREY-HEADED ALBATROSS CHICK An expectant four-week-old chick hungrily awaits the return of its parent, who is about to land. Young chicks need regular feeding from both parents to keep them alive, and they are usually fed every day or two.
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:37 PM
Page 120
TERRITORIAL DISPUTE Two Northern Giant Petrels fight over the carcass of a dead seal on the beach at Hurd Point. This species scavenges most of its food from carrion and there are often serious disputes about who has precedence at the feeding sites.
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:38 PM
Page 121
Petrels
L
ike the albatrosses, petrels (including shearwaters and prions) are members of the Procellariiformes, or tube-nose, order of
seabirds. Petrels are common on many of the subantarctic islands around the Southern Ocean and Macquarie Island is no exception. They range in size, from the giant petrels that are similar in size to the small albatrosses, to the prions and storm petrels, whose tiny wingspans belie their ability to withstand the harsh environment of the Southern Ocean. Macquarie Island is home to both species of giant petrel, several species of burrowing petrel and one species of surface-nesting small petrel. It is likely that some species, like the Soft-Plumaged Petrel (Pterodroma mollis) and Grey-backed Storm Petrel (Oceanites nereis), also breed on the island in small numbers. Most of the information on the smaller petrels presented here is based on the extensive surveys conducted by Nigel Brothers since the 1970s. The burrow-nesting
GIANT PETRELS Southern Giant Petrels (centre) can be
habitat of many petrels is currently under threat on Macquarie
distinguished from the closely related Northern Giant Petrels
Island due to damage from rabbit grazing.
(surrounding) by their green-tipped bills.
Northern Giant Petrel (Macronectes halli) Northern Giant Petrels breed right around the coast of Macquarie
Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus)
Island and up to 1800 pairs breed each year. Eggs are laid in
Although similar in appearance, Southern Giant Petrels are
September, with chicks hatching some 65 days later. After a short
quite different in behaviour and breeding ecology to the closely
brood stage, chicks are left unattended while both parents forage
related Northern Giant Petrel. They nest in colonies around
close to the island. This species scavenges most of its food from
the coastal flats and in a few sheltered locations on the plateau.
carcasses on the beach during the summer months, but as the
These colonies range in size from just a few birds to many
summer progresses they will also target live penguins, rabbits and
hundreds of individuals. Just over 2000 pairs of Southern Giant
marine life. Chicks fledge through February and early March and,
Petrel breed on Macquarie Island each year. They are very wary
like the albatrosses, young birds will spend several years at sea
birds, vulnerable to disturbance of any kind, and this trait probably
before returning to land. In the first few months after leaving the
contributes to their typically low breeding success. Southern Giant
island young birds are known to fly as far as the continental shelf
Petrels lay their eggs during late September and October, with
of South America.
chicks hatching in December and fledging in March and April.
FA U N A
121
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:39 PM
Page 122
BURROWING PETRELS White-headed Petrels, Sooty Shearwaters, Blue Petrels and Grey Petrels all breed on the island. Their breeding habitat has been severely affected by rabbit grazing in recent years, reducing their breeding success and population numbers.
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:40 PM
Page 123
Grey Petrel (Procellaria cinerea) Largest of the burrowing petrels, the Grey Petrel nests in burrows on the plateau edge or on slopes, usually in amongst the Poa foliosa tussocks. It also nests on other subantarctic islands, including Prince Edward Islands, Iles Crozet, Iles Kerguelen and the Antipodes Islands. Grey Petrels differ from most other petrels in that they are winter breeders, establishing their nest sites in April, with chicks fledging in September. Although sporadic, reports from the 1800s described the presence of plentiful burrowing petrels on Macquarie Island and it is likely that Grey Petrels were amongst them. However, the feral animals brought to Macquarie Island by the sealers, particularly the cats, exacted a heavy toll on this species. Although individuals were found in breeding condition in the 1950s, this species was not confirmed to be breeding on Macquarie Island until 1999, following the removal of most of the cats. After cats were completely removed from the island, they showed a remarkable recovery, with breeding numbers increasing from just a few pairs in 1999 to over 70 breeding attempts in 2005. Unfortunately, rabbit grazing is having a negative effect on their nesting habitat and if it continues, breeding numbers are likely to decline.
CAPE PETREL This species only breeds in small numbers on Macquarie Island but it is one of the most commonly observed
White-headed Petrel (Pterodroma lessonii)
seabirds in the Southern Ocean.
White-headed Petrels also breed on many subantarctic islands,
breeding pairs. These petrels prefer to nest in tussocked slopes or
including Iles Kerguelen, Iles Crozet and the islands south of
ridgelines, generally at high altitude and often at the transition
New Zealand. They are medium-sized petrels that breed in large
between higher, flatter areas and the beginning of the slopes. This
numbers on Macquarie Island. As with most burrow-nesting birds,
species was also severely impacted by cats, with very high mortality
total breeding numbers are difficult to estimate. A census in the
of chicks. Unfortunately, the benefits that were observed following
late 1970s estimated approximately 8000 breeding pairs, however,
the eradication of the cats are being reduced by the damage
more recent counts suggest numbers may be as low as 5500
caused to their nesting habitat by rabbits and changing climate.
FA U N A
123
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:40 PM
Page 124
“The burrows are in great numbers on the hill-sides, from sea-level up to about 400 or 500 feet, and extend on average four or five feet in the soft soil, the nesting chamber being sparingly lined with portions of tussock grass.” Joseph R. Burton, 1894
Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus)
grams, adults dig burrows in the gravel and peaty soils of the
Sooty Shearwaters breed in low numbers on islands around
but also found in the feldmark regions and occasionally in rock
Australia and larger populations are found on islands south of
crevices. On Macquarie Island numbers are highest in the central
New Zealand. On Macquarie Island they typically breed on slopes
third of the plateau and overall there are estimated to be around
or ridgelines, generally at altitudes of between 100 and 200
50 000 breeding pairs nesting on the island.
plateau region. They are most abundant in the short herbfields
metres. The burrows are often deep, at up to 2 metres from the surface to the nesting hollow. Accurate censuses for this species
Other Petrels
are difficult as there is often more than one entrance to a single
Fairy/Fulmar Prions (Pachyptila turtur/crassirostris) and Common
nest. However, in a comprehensive census in the late 1970s the
Diving Petrels (Pelacanoides urinatrix) have also been recorded
population was estimated at around 1700 breeding pairs. More
breeding on Macquarie Island, albeit in very low numbers. A few
recent counts estimate the population to be 1100 breeding pairs.
Cape Petrels (Daption capense) were found breeding on North
Sooty Shearwaters return to the island in October and often utilise
Head in recent years and calls of Soft Plumaged Petrels (Pterodroma
similar habitats, or even the same burrows, as the Grey Petrels.
mollis) indicate that they are present and likely to be breeding in low numbers as well. Carcasses of Grey-backed Storm Petrels
Blue Petrel (Halobaena caerulea)
(Oceanites nereis) have also been found and it is possible that this species, too, is breeding on Macquarie Island in low numbers.
Blue Petrels have a circumglobal breeding distribution, with nesting sites on South Georgia, Iles Kerguelen, Iles Crozet, Heard Island and
Historic Impacts
Macquarie Island. On Macquarie Island they have been severely
In the 1800s reports by the early naturalists suggested that
affected by the presence of feral animals, and since the arrival of
burrowing birds were plentiful on the slopes of Macquarie Island.
cats, rats and rabbits the breeding population has been largely
However, the early ANARE scientists staying on the island in the
restricted to offshore rock stacks that are free of these predators.
1950s found numbers had been considerably reduced by the time
They are listed as ‘vulnerable’ under the Australian EPBC Act
they arrived. Feral animals have had a massive impact on these
1999. These tiny, blue-grey winged petrels nest in small, relatively
birds and, since the introduction of cats, rats, wekas and rabbits
shallow burrows, laying their eggs in October and November.
in the 1800s, the distribution of many species has been restricted to the outlying rock stacks that surround the island. The removal
124
Antarctic Prion (Pachyptila desolata)
of wekas in the 1980s and cats in the late 1990s has taken
One of the most widespread burrowing petrels in the Southern
unfortunately, habitat damage due to rabbit grazing is neutralising
Ocean, this tiny fine-winged seabird breeds right around the
or reversing many of these positive effects. There is also evidence
world, on Antarctic and subantarctic islands. Weighing only 150
that changing climate is influencing abundance and distribution.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
considerable predation pressure off many of these species, but
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:41 PM
Page 125
A FAIRY PRION Both Antarctic and Fairy Prions breed on Macquarie Island, utilising small burrows in the soil, gravel or rock crevices to lay their eggs and care for their chicks. Their small size (around 150 grams) and distinctive blue-grey plumage distinguish them from the other petrels.
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:41 PM
Page 126
Other Birds
I
n addition to the seabirds that have been described in the previous sections, there are a number of other birds that
Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus)
have been observed on Macquarie Island. They include
Kelp Gulls breed right around subantarctic and temperate
Subantarctic Skuas (Catharacta lonnbergi lonnbergi), Kelp Gulls
southern latitudes, sometimes extending into the southern
(Larus dominicanus), Macquarie Island Shags (Leucocarbo atriceps
Antarctic islands. They are medium to large gulls, identified by
purpurascens), Antarctic Terns (Sterna vittata bethunei), Redpolls
their bright yellow beaks with a red spot on the lower part of
(Carduleis flammea), European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), ducks,
the bill. On Macquarie Island they breed around the coast, on
vagrants and three species that are now extinct.
rock stacks or small coastal rises. They feed on a variety of food items including kelp flies, molluscs in the intertidal zone
Subantarctic Skua (Catharacta lonnbergi lonnbergi)
and terrestrial vertebrates on the wet plateau areas, often
Subantarctic Skuas are closely related to gulls and jaegers. They
They will also compete with giant petrels and skuas for carrion
are voracious scavengers and predators on Macquarie Island,
and, although they are subordinate to both in this environment,
feeding on carrion, fish, small birds, penguin eggs and chicks and
they regularly out-compete skuas in territorial disputes around
any sick or injured animals too weak to defend themselves. They
nesting sites. They usually lay three eggs, mostly in the summer
are renowned for their appetites and have been observed feeding
months, and like the skuas the young chicks (also known as
on the milk as it drips from lactating elephant seals, and even on
runners) are very mobile from a young age. Young Kelp Gulls are
human faeces. On Macquarie Island they eat rabbits and rats in
easily distinguished from the adults by their mottled plumage.
large numbers.
Breeding numbers on Macquarie Island are thought to be in the
Subantarctic Skuas breed all over Macquarie Island, mainly on
congregating in large groups when feeding in the latter regions.
vicinity of 100–150 pairs.
the plateau or coastal flats. While a comprehensive census has not likely to exceed 500. Although a few skuas overwinter on the
Macquarie Island Shag (Leucocarbo atriceps purpurascens)
island, most leave after the summer breeding season that coincides
Macquarie Island Shags (or cormorants) are endemic to
with the breeding cycles of the penguins and elephant seals. Most
Macquarie Island and breed on rock stacks around the coast in
eggs are laid in October, although a second round of egg laying
colonies ranging from just a couple of birds to hundreds of pairs.
also occurs in December. Two eggs are generally laid and often two
Due to their limited distribution they are listed as ‘vulnerable’
chicks are raised successfully by the parents. Skua chicks are very
under the EPBC Act 1999. They are present on the island all year
mobile from a young age and are vigorously protected by their
round, with their breeding season in the summer months. They
parents. Skuas are extremely territorial, with a pair generally able
lay two eggs and often successfully rear two chicks to fledging.
to hold a territory of several hundred square metres around their
Like other cormorants, this species dives to depths of up to 50
nesting site.
metres for its food and mainly survives on small benthic fish.
been undertaken for many years, the number of breeding pairs is
126
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:42 PM
Page 127
MACQUARIE ISLAND SHAGS Also known as Blue-eyed Cormorants, this species is endemic to the island. Adults have a distinctive blue ring around their eye and breed in relatively low numbers on coastal rock stacks. They build their nests using grass from the coastal slopes.
FINAL_FAUNA_3
5/11/07
9:58 PM
Page 128
The hooked beak of the Subantarctic Skua helps it to catch its prey
Subantarctic Skuas congregate to rest on Nuggets Beach
The black cap and red bill identifies the Antarctic Tern
An Antarctic Tern prepares to dive in pursuit of small fish
Kelp Gulls brace themselves against an easterley gale
A Pacific Black Duck rests in a small tarn on the north-western featherbed
OTHER BIRDS Although penguins and petrels (including albatrosses) make up most of the birdlife on Macquarie Island, there are at least eight other species, including the skuas, terns, ducks and gulls shown above, living and breeding there.
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
6:53 PM
Page 130
Seals
T
hree main species of fur seal can be found on Macquarie
that there are 180–200 individuals, with 40–50 pups produced
Island. The Antarctic Fur Seal (Arctocephalus gazella) is
each year. However, hybridisation with the Antarctic Fur Seal
found on many subantarctic islands, including Heard Island
makes it difficult to conclusively identify species and therefore it
and South Georgia. It breeds on Macquarie Island in relatively
is difficult to obtain accurate estimates of the pup production of
low numbers compared to these other subantarctic islands. The
this species. Antarctic Fur Seals breed in greater numbers on
Subantarctic Fur Seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis) is the other main
Macquarie Island, with over 150 pups produced each year. Again,
species that breeds on Macquarie Island. The third fur seal species
hybridisation with the other two species make accurate estimates
on the island is the New Zealand Fur Seal (Arctocephalus forsteri).
of the true pup numbers difficult. New Zealand Fur Seal females are
Elephant seals are the other common species of seal on the island. Their population was severely depleted during an extended period of exploitation from the 1800s to the early 1900s.
not typically observed on Macquarie Island, but several hundred subadult and adult males come ashore in the summer months. The breeding ecology of the Antarctic and Subantarctic Fur
Following the cessation of sealing, the population began to
Seals is similar, although there are minor differences in the timing.
recover and by the early 1960s the Macquarie Island population
Both species return to shore to breed and establish territories
was estimated to be over 60 000 individuals. Currently, it makes
around September. The main difference is in the lactation period,
up around 10 per cent of the global population.
which is 10–11 months for the Subantarctic Fur Seals compared to four months for the Antarctic Fur Seals. Most pups are born on
Fur Seals
beaches around North Head with one or two pups occasionally
Fur seals were wiped out on Macquarie Island in the early 1800s.
observed in the south of the island, near Hurd Point.
Thereafter sightings were sporadic, with only a few recorded was established in 1948, the men found a small non-breeding
Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina)
group of fur seals at the northern end of the island. An annual
The Macquarie Island Southern Elephant Seal population has
census was subsequently carried out and there appears to have
experienced a decline since 1985, with an estimated decrease of
been a steady increase in numbers. On 15 March 1955, the station
1.2 per cent per annum. Several explanations for this decline have
doctor Stefan Csordas was conducting the annual fur seal census
been presented by a number of researchers (see Bibliography):
of North Head when he came across a seal pup. This represents
perhaps the decrease reflects a return to population equilibrium
one of the first records of a fur seal breeding on Macquarie Island,
following a sharp increase, or Southern Ocean resources are
occurring some 145 years after they were all exterminated.
limiting population, or interspecific competition and
observations of one or two animals. When the first ANARE base
By the mid 1990s, the Macquarie Island Subantarctic Fur Seal
130
environmental changes are doing so. Other populations of
population was estimated to be between 90 and 130 individuals,
elephant seals have also shown a decline in the subantarctic,
with some evidence of a slow increase since the 1980s. Research,
but recent studies have shown that this decline has been reversed
led by S. Goldsworthy, is ongoing and current estimates suggest
at Iles Kerguelen and stabilised at Marion Island.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_3
4/11/07
6:44 PM
Page 129
“… the birds seem to have disappeared from all parts of the island, whereas the cats do not seem to have reached the south. The parakeets are said to have frequented the heaps of seaweed on the sea-shore in search of the crustaceans … ” Professor A. Hamilton, 1894
Antarctic Tern (Sterna vittata bethunei)
Ducks
While Antarctic Terns have a circumglobal breeding distribution
following studies in the 1980s by F. Norman and three main
in the Southern Ocean, the only other breeding sites of the
species are present. Some ducks were introduced for food in the
subspecies that breeds on Macquarie Island are on islands to the
early 1900s, but most were probably self-introduced in a similar
south of New Zealand. Antarctic Terns breed in around 18
way to the European Starlings and Redpolls, finding their way to
locations on Macquarie Island, with a total estimated population
Macquarie Island accidentally and establishing breeding
of 20–30 breeding pairs. Adults are identified by their black cap
populations there. Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and Pacific Black
and bright red bill. They breed during the summer months,
Ducks (Anas superciliosa) are both found on Macquarie Island and
generally lay only one egg each breeding season and aggressively
are known to interbreed, producing hybrids that can be difficult to
protect their young from intruders.
identify in the field. Grey Teal (Anas gracilis) have also been
Ducks on Macquarie Island have been described in detail
observed and reports indicate that they were probably there when
Redpoll and European Starling (Carduleis flammea) (Sturnus vulgaris)
people first arrived on the island.
Redpolls and European Starlings originated from the northern
Extinct Birds
hemisphere and were brought to Australia and/or New Zealand in
Three species of bird, now extinct, were known to exist on
the 1860s. The established populations of Redpolls and European
Macquarie Island. One of these, the Stewart Island Weka, was
Starlings that are found on Macquarie Island today are the result
introduced and it is likely that it, together with the other feral
of birds finding their own way there, although there are no
animals, played a role in the extinction of the other two bird
conclusive records of when this occurred. Redpolls feed on the
species. Wekas were eradicated in the late 1980s following a
seed heads of Pleurophyllum hookeri and Leptinella plumosa. They
concerted trapping and shooting program by the Tasmanian
are regularly seen in flocks of up to 100 birds. Starlings also occur
Parks and Wildlife Service.
in flocks, often in the hundreds, and nest in rock cracks, crevices and caves, mainly around the coast.
The Macquarie Island Parakeet and the Macquarie Island subspecies of the Pacific Banded Rail were probably extinct by the turn of the twentieth century, less than 100 years after
Vagrants
human settlement. There is little doubt that both species were
Many other species of bird have been observed on Macquarie
sought after and highly prized food items for the hungry sealers.
Island, most arriving there unintentionally, blown off-course by
Predation by wekas and rats was very likely instrumental in the
strong winds. Other vagrants that have been observed include
decline of the endemic rail. The decline of the parakeet was
European Blackbirds (Turdus merula), Song Thrushes (Turdus
very likely linked to a chain of events, starting with human
philomelos), Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria interpres), Cattle Egrets
consumption and culminating in the introduction of the rabbits
(Bubulcus ibis) and a single Homing Pigeon (Columba livia).
and wekas.
FA U N A
129
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
6:53 PM
Page 131
ANTARCTIC FUR SEAL PUP This young seal, only a few weeks old, is still completely dependent on its mother for food. Its mother will continue to return to the island on a regular basis and feed it for the next four months before leaving it to fend for itself.
FINAL_FAUNA_4
5/11/07
1:03 PM
Page 132
FINAL_FAUNA_4
5/11/07
1:04 PM
Page 133
FEMALE SOUTHERN ELEPHANT SEALS These female seals lie together in the kelp adjacent to a large King Penguin rookery on the east coast during summer. At this time of year they are moulting their outer layer of skin, taking at least a few weeks ashore to complete this process.
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
7:08 PM
Page 134
YOUNGSTERS PLAY FIGHTING A young elephant seal playfully bites a pup. Young seals spend a lot of time in this sort of behaviour, which provides them with the skills they will need for interacting with each other later in life.
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
7:09 PM
Page 135
The breeding season of Southern Elephant Seals on Macquarie Island begins in late August with the arrival of the adult male seals, or bulls. Once ashore, the bulls establish territories in preparation for the arrival of the females, the first of which come ashore in
Image rights unavailable
mid to late September. Bulls (known as beachmasters) control harems of up to several hundred females, or cows, and spend significant time attempting to stop other males from fertilising them. Fights between rival bulls are common as younger bulls attempt to obtain control of a harem. Occasionally, beachmasters will hold larger-than-normal harems and allow other bulls, known as assistant beachmasters, to service a small proportion of them. The female usually comes ashore three to eight days before giving birth, in September and October. During the three-week lactation period she stays ashore with the pup and does not forage
LEOPARD SEAL With an impressive array of teeth, these Leopard Seals feed on penguins around the island’s coast. (Photograph by
Stefan Csordas, Courtesy of Ingrid McGaughey.)
at all. Pups can increase in weight dramatically on the rich milk from the mother and the weaners can reach up to 200 kilograms the female leaves the island and does not return to shore until
Leopard Seal (Hydrurga leptonyx)
December or January for the moult.
Leopard Seals are also regular visitors to Macquarie Island,
in weight over the three-week period. Once the pup is weaned,
although numbers vary each year. Some researchers have
New Zealand Sea Lion (Phocarctos hookeri)
suggested that this variation is related to the annual movement
Several New Zealand (or Hooker) Sea Lions are typically
around the Antarctic continent and adults are rarely spotted on
observed on Macquarie Island each year. This species breeds on
land to the north of the ice extent. Many of the Leopard Seals
New Zealand subantarctic islands, the largest breeding site being
observed on Macquarie Island are in poor condition, looking
Dundas Island in the Auckland Island group. Most of the New
underweight or with a heavy parasite load. Nevertheless while
Zealand Sea Lions observed on Macquarie Island are subadult
in the vicinity of Macquarie Island they take advantage of the
males, with only rare sightings of females. There are no records of
penguin colonies and will often lie in wait in shallow water
them breeding on the island. Those that are observed often wreak
where penguins tend to come ashore, plucking them out of the
havoc amongst the small fur seal population, killing and eating
continuous stream as the need arises. Most of the Leopard Seals
many pups. They have also been observed killing and eating
that visit Macquarie Island only spend a few days on the island
young elephant seal weaners.
before departing again.
and extent of the sea ice. Leopard Seals breed on the pack ice
FA U N A
135
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
7:09 PM
Page 136
Introduced Animals
T
he arrival of the sealers in the early 1800s heralded the
altitude of around 200–250 metres. They are omnivorous, feeding
beginning of the age of introduced animals on the island.
on invertebrates, seeds and seedlings, other plant matter and the
The sealing industries, and later the penguin-harvesting industries, involved the movement of many boats to and from the
eggs and small chicks of the smaller petrels. Mice are also omnivorous and seem to be able to live in a wider
island for over 100 years. Government-sponsored scientific and
variety of terrain than the rats, living at altitudes up to 300 metres.
research expeditions in the 1900s also resulted in regular shipping
It is not uncommon to see small holes in the snow through which
to the island. These movements, particularly in the early days,
the mice have burrowed and these hardy little creatures seem to
invariably resulted in introductions of non-native animals, both
thrive on the island. It is impossible to estimate the numbers of
accidental and on purpose.
rats and mice currently on the island but they are abundant and
Compared to those animals brought to the island on purpose, the number of species introduced to the island accidentally has
widespread and their impact is likely to be significant. When Brown Rats (Rattus norvegicus) were removed from
been relatively low: only the Black Rat (Rattus rattus) and House
Campbell Island, south of New Zealand, the invertebrate fauna
Mouse (Mus musculus). The purposely introduced animals ranged
increased significantly over a very short period of time and the
from domesticated animals brought for food (chickens, goats and
vegetation also responded positively. A similar positive result was
sheep); wild animals introduced for food (European Rabbits and
also observed on Enderby Island after the removal of the mice.
Stewart Island Wekas); domesticated animals for work purposes
Removal of rodents from Macquarie Island would also probably
(horses and dogs); and finally, animals for companionship (dogs
result in benefits for the natural invertebrate and plant
and cats). These animals have dramatically changed the landscape
communities, with subsequent flow-on benefits for other species
of Macquarie Island, and in many cases caused long-term or
higher up the food chain. Removal of rats would also reduce
permanent perturbations to the natural ecosystem. Animals that
pressure on some of the smaller burrowing petrels.
are not native but have found their own way to the island are not classified as true ferals and are not described here.
Domesticated Animals Humans have a long history of living with a variety of
136
Rodents
domesticated animals and the early settlers to Macquarie Island
Black Rats and House Mice were first recorded on Macquarie
were no exception. Sheep, goats and chickens were first introduced
Island in the early 1800s. These animals were common on ships of
to the island in the 1800s and were sporadically utilised for food
the day and undoubtedly hitched a ride to the island via the food
up until the 1970s. Their impact on the island was severe in
containers and other supplies. Even though Macquarie Island
localised areas, but overall probably minimal. Their domestic
represents the southern-most extent of their distribution, once on
nature and the inclement climate meant it was unlikely that these
the island they were able to establish a firm foothold, finding
animals would form wild sustainable populations and when the
abundant food and unexploited niches for them to inhabit. Rats
decision was made to remove them from the island it was
tend to live in the more heavily tussocked areas, usually up to an
relatively easy to achieve.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_4
5/11/07
9:51 PM
Page 137
Black Rats (Rattus rattus) A cat investigates a rat (Photo S. Csordas, Courtesy I. McGaughey)
Image rights unavailable
Rabbit-eaten Pleurophyllum
How the tussock used to be
A Stewart Island Weka
Blue Petrel remains
European Rabbits sit amongst tussocks devasted by rabbit grazing
INTRODUCED ANIMALS Humans brought several species of non-native animals with them to Macquarie Island. The impact of these animals on the island has been severe, and since their introduction they have had serious effects on many plants and animals.
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
7:11 PM
Page 138
“Whilst mentioning food supplies, I may say that rabbits are fairly numerous in the south-east; they have disappeared from the north owing to the wild cats, which are very numerous and of great size.” Professor A. Hamilton, 1894
Stewart Island Weka (Gallirallus australis scotti)
European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
The Stewart Island Weka were first introduced to Macquarie
Rabbits were first introduced to Macquarie Island in the late
Island by the sealers as a food source in the 1860s. They were
1870s to supplement the diets of the sealing gangs stationed there.
soon running wild and before long established a feral breeding
The population increased and decreased over time but by the
population. The weka is a flightless bird that lives on several New
1950s they were widespread over the entire island.
Zealand islands and the New Zealand mainland. Consequently,
In an attempt to control a rapidly expanding and destructive
they adapted well to the similar environment on Macquarie Island
population, the Myxoma virus was introduced by the Tasmanian
and numbers increased dramatically. They probably competed
Parks and Wildlife Service in the late 1970s. The introduction
with the endemic rail for resources and impacted on other bird
of this virus and its vector, a flea, resulted in a rapid drop in
species, not only by direct predation but also indirectly by
population numbers and by 1985 effective control of rabbits was
providing a good winter food source for the cats, allowing
widespread throughout the island. Myxoma virus proved a
population numbers to increase. Wekas are omnivorous, eating
successful control mechanism between 1985 and the mid 1990s
vegetable matter, invertebrates and rodents. They were recognised
but since then a disturbing increase in rabbit numbers has been
as a serious pest in the 1970s and 1980s and after a targeted
documented. The reduction in rabbit numbers achieved over the
eradication program were completely eliminated from the island
first 20 years of using the Myxoma virus allowed much of the
in the 1980s.
vegetation to return to abundance and coverage levels not seen for many years. Unfortunately, due to the increase in rabbit
138
Cats and Dogs
numbers and sustained grazing pressure observed over the last
Cats and dogs were brought in by sealers for companionship
decade, many areas around Macquarie Island are now in a similar
and for work purposes. Although there were packs of wild dogs
condition, or worse, to how they were prior to the release of the
roaming the island in the 1820s, these seemed to have died out,
Myxoma virus.
possibly with assistance from the penguin harvesters who did
This is of particular concern around the coastal slopes and
not want dogs disturbing and killing penguins in the colonies.
adjacent ridgelines, where the four species of albatross and several
The cats were a different story and established wild breeding
species of burrow-nesting petrel breed. Following the successful
populations soon after their introduction. A single cat is capable
cat eradication, numbers of burrowing petrels, particularly the
of despatching hundreds of burrowing birds in a year and when
Grey and Blue Petrel, increased significantly over just a few years.
the cat population was at its peak, in the late 1980s or early
Unfortunately, due to the impacts of heavy rabbit grazing in more
1990s, it is believed that there were several hundred living on
recent times, many of these nesting sites are no longer suitable for
the island. Like the wekas, the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife
these species and many will not return to breed there until the
Service successfully eradicated the cats, with the last one being
vegetation returns. At the time of writing funding had been
shot in 2000.
approved to eradicate rabbits and rodents from the island.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_4
4/11/07
7:11 PM
Page 139
DEVASTATION A European Rabbit sits amongst the eaten-out mounds of tussock on the slopes of Petrel Peak. Rabbits have grazed these slopes so heavily that landslides are occurring, destroying habitat for breeding albatrosses and collapsing onto penguin colonies.
FINAL_FAUNA_5
5/11/07
10:32 PM
Page 140
MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES Most species of moth or butterfly are rarely seen on Macquarie Island. The exception is the Pyralid Moth (Eudonia mawsoni), which is commonly seen feeding on moss, particularly on the featherbed.
FINAL_FAUNA_5
4/11/07
9:54 PM
Page 141
Terrestrial Invertebrates
T
errestrial invertebrates, including insects, are common on Macquarie Island, but few studies have been carried
out on them until relatively recently. The first comprehensive survey of invertebrates was conducted in the 1960s and this and other studies have been collated into a comprehensive book by P. Greenslade and R. Dekker van Klinken.
Insects The insects are the most abundant of all the terrestrial invertebrates on Macquarie Island. They include one species of booklice and several species of parasitic lice. Lice that live on seals feed entirely on blood, while those that live on birds usually feed on the downy parts of feathers. In addition to the lice, there are bugs, aphids, thrips, at least five species of beetles, fleas, moths and a single species of wasp. Flies are the most abundant insect on Macquarie Island, with 11 species thought to be present regularly. The most common of these are the two species of kelp fly, whose larvae live and feed in the rotting kelp around the beaches and assist in its decomposition.
Other invertebrates In addition to the insects there are 22 species of springtails. There are only two terrestrial crustaceans, one isopod and one amphipod, and both are thought to have been introduced from New Zealand. Three species of spider are commonly observed, while the closely related mites and ticks are one of the best represented invertebrates on the island in terms of species, with 119 identified to date. Worms are also well represented, with at least 15 species of earthworm identified, three of which are
INSECTS The kelp flies (top) live primarily on the coastal beaches
considered endemic and five of which are probably introduced.
of the island and assist in the breakdown of the kelp that has been
There are also two species of terrestrial molluscs known; one a
washed ashore, while the moths (bottom) feed on mosses and are
tiny endemic snail and the other an introduced slug.
common on the featherbed.
FA U N A
141
FINAL_FAUNA_5
4/11/07
9:54 PM
Page 142
Marine Fauna
M
arine fauna around Macquarie Island ranges from small intertidal animals, like the molluscs and other small
invertebrates that live in the intertidal zone, to the great Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) that hunt in the nearshore waters at certain times of the year. The intertidal fauna is best described in terms of the zones it inhabits.
The Intertidal Zone In the kelp zone, two species of starfish and one chiton have been found on the east coast. Other intertidal fauna in the kelp zone includes at least two species of limpet, one species of sea cucumber, another chiton, an anemone and the brightly coloured tiny red bivalve Lasaea rubra rossiana. In the lower red algal zone, limpets, gastropods, chitons and several species of starfish have been identified. Less commonly occurring in this zone are isopods, amphipods, anemones and the bivalve. The often massive holdfasts of the Antarctic bull kelp host a diverse range of organisms with over 90 taxa. The most common species are isopods, amphipods, gastropods and worms. The holdfasts provide a sheltered environment for many of these creatures and protect them from the strong currents, sunlight and predators. The invertebrate fauna of holdfasts is known to be extremely vulnerable to pollution and the oil spill that occurred off the coast of Macquarie Island following the wrecking of the Nella Dan in 1987 had a profound effect on many invertebrates inhabiting the intertidal zone.
SQUID An extremely important part of the Southern Ocean food chain, squid are part of the diet of a whole range of animals including albatrosses, penguins, seals and whales.
142
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_5
4/11/07
9:55 PM
Page 143
ON THE BEACH The coastal area between high and low tide is home to a variety of shellfish, dominated by molluscs. These range in size from large chitons (centre), which grow to several centimetres in length, to the tiny red bivalves (centre top), which are often less than 1 centimetre across.
FINAL_FAUNA_5
5/11/07
10:36 PM
Page 144
“The fish called by the whalers the Killer, is very common: it is said to kill its prey by goring it in the belly with it’s dorsal fin, which is sharp … shaped like a scythe and frequently appearing above the water.” Captain T. Raine, 1822
Offshore Marine Life There are a number of nearshore fishes that inhabit the waters
animals, either females or juveniles. Adult males can be easily
close to Macquarie Island. Due to the proximity of the island to
differentiated from females or juveniles by the large size of their
the Polar Front, both temperate and Antarctic species are present,
dorsal fin.
and have been described by R. Williams. The most common
Killer Whales around Macquarie Island prey on a variety
bottom-dwelling species are the Spiny Horse Fish (Zanchlorrhynchus
of animals, including Southern Elephant Seals, fur seals and
spinifer), the Black (or Maori) Cod (Paranotothenia magellanica)
penguins. Most Killer Whales are sighted in November, which
and the Spiny Plunderfish (Harpagifer georgianus georgianus). The
coincides with the annual departure of the elephant seal weaners.
bottom-dwelling Patagonian Toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) is
Elephant seal weaners are extremely vulnerable to Killer Whales
also present and the Australian Government issues a single trawl
as they are still adapting to life at sea and are probably quite naïve
licence to fish for this species in specific areas around Macquarie
to the risks of predation. During November it is not uncommon
Island. The pelagic fish are well represented by small mid-water
to see Killer Whales within metres of the coast, hunting weaners.
fishes from the genera Electrona and Gymnoscopelus.
When they catch them, they have been observed throwing them
Macquarie Island seems to be an important feeding ground for
in the air and pushing them around before consuming them,
Killer Whales, or Orcas as they are also known. These whales are
behaviour that is probably related to teaching the young Killer
most often observed in the summer months and most sightings are
Whales to hunt.
on the east coast of the island. Killer Whales are generally observed in pods, typically made up of one adult with two smaller
Other whales that have been observed in waters around Macquarie Island include pilot whales and beaked whales. Several beaked whale skulls have been found around the coast, suggesting that these species inhabit the waters surrounding the island. Other beach-washed remains of whales that have been found in recent years included a Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus), a Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) and at least one Spectacled Porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica).
WHALE SKULL This beaked whale skull is all that remains from a stranding on the remote west coast. Most species of beaked whales are rarely seen at sea so stranded individuals have provided the best opportunity to learn about them.
144
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_FAUNA_5
4/11/07
9:56 PM
Page 145
Image rights unavailable
KILLER WHALE The distinctive high dorsal fin of a male Killer Whale breaks the surface of the water in a small bay off the main station. These whales come in close to shore in search of elephant seals and penguins, especially in November when elephant seal weaners are easy prey. (Photograph by Rowan Trebilco.)
FINAL_MI_TODAY
5/11/07
1:08 PM
Page 146
FINAL_MI_TODAY
5/11/07
1:08 PM
Page 147
THE ISLAND TODAY From its humble beginnings in 1911, the Australian Government station on Macquarie Island has grown to cover most of the Isthmus, with over a dozen buildings and significant amounts of supportive infrastructure.
This infrastructure means that people travelling to and living on the island today have many of the comforts of home and, despite the often inclement weather, are able to live a relatively comfortable existence. Nevertheless, Macquarie Island is still a unique environment to live and work in. Everybody has a job to do and undertakes their role within the island community, going about their lives and fitting in as best they can with the people around them. There are tradespeople, technicians, researchers, managers and scientists from all walks of life undertaking all sorts of activities. The research that is being and has been done benefits the island in many ways, as do the management strategies employed to combat some of the negative influences that have come with humans in their settlement of this once pristine and unique wilderness area.
HOME AWAY FROM HOME The Macquarie Island station is built on the Isthmus, a low-lying piece of land at the northern end of the island. Although it looks vulnerable, and waves have been known to cross the Isthmus occasionally, the station has never sustained any major damage throughout its history.
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:13 PM
Page 148
MARINE DEBRIS It is amazing how much rubbish there is in the Southern Ocean. Even though Macquarie Island is only a remote speck of land, hundreds of kilograms of marine debris washes up on its shores each year. Expeditioners are shown here removing it from the island.
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:14 PM
Page 149
Life on the Island
L
ife on Macquarie Island is different. For a start there are only between 15 and 40 people in your world. These people
The Chef The chef probably has one of the most important jobs on the
are known as expeditioners, although life on the main station
station, and maybe the most difficult. No one else has their work
is hardly an expedition these days, with many of the modern
assessed three times a day by most people on the station or has
conveniences of home. The group dynamic that eventuates from
people walking through their workplace on a daily basis. A good-
living with such a small number of people is one of the most
natured, competent chef makes a huge difference to station
striking aspects for newcomers to island life. Expeditioners can
morale, and a ‘good year’ often coincides with a good chef. The
be classified into several groups on the island.
chef prepares three cooked meals a day—‘smoko’, lunch and dinner—six days a week. To help with the food preparation and
Tradespeople
kitchen maintenance, expeditioners are rostered on as kitchen
The tradespeople (or ‘tradies’) are employees of the Australian
hands, colloquially known as ‘slushies’. One or two slushies are
Antarctic Division (AAD) and usually include a diesel mechanic,
rostered on each day, depending on the number of people on
carpenter, electrician and plumber. Like other groups on the
station. The chef has Sunday off and then the rostered slushies
island the ‘tradies’ are often a mixed bunch. Some are down for
prepare food for the rest of the station.
the money, some are there because they like the lifestyle and the interesting work that Australian National Antarctic Research
Communications Officers
Expeditions (ANARE) offers them, and some are there because
The communications officers maintain the communications,
they have fallen in love with Macquarie Island. The tradespeople
computing and other electronic gear on station. Communications
on Macquarie Island frequently assist with the science projects,
with the outside world are facilitated through the ANARE
often taking last-minute and sometimes outlandish requests in
satellite system, or ANAREsat. The satellite communications
their stride and using their skills and expertise to maintain and
system came online at Macquarie Island in December 1988 and
construct equipment critical to ongoing research.
they have made a huge difference to the quality of life on the island. Communication with loved ones back home is one of the
The Doctor
biggest issues for people staying for extended stints on the island
The doctor often has very little to do and has to be very good
and the satellite system is a huge improvement on historical
at keeping him or herself constructively occupied. However, the
communications which were restricted to morse code or telex for
role of the doctor is a critical one, particularly in the event of a
many years.
medical emergency. There have been some emergencies in recent
In addition to communications with the outside world,
years where the doctor played a critical role in ensuring the
the communications officers also maintain and facilitate
survival of people on the island. Other, more common, medical
communications around the island. Anybody visiting one of
situations that have been dealt with in recent years include seal
the field huts for an overnight stay has to report in to the main
bites and injuries to joints.
stations via a daily HF radio call, normally received by one of
T H E I S L A N D T O D AY
149
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:14 PM
Page 150
Bureau of Meteorology There are usually at least three Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) staff present on the island each year. They do shifts covering the weather observations over a 24-hour period seven days a week. One of these staff members is usually a technician, a critical role because, in addition to taking part in the observations, the technician is also responsible for repairing any of the gear that has broken down. As well as the daily observations that are taken by DESCENDING FROM THE PLATEAU Many of the slopes on the island have gravel screes that can be used to descend to the coast.
the staff and recorded by the automatic weather stations, the BOM staff also release a weather balloon each day, with an attached radiosonde that transmits information back to the base about weather and atmospheric conditions high above the Earth’s surface.
the communications officers. This allows the field parties to let the station know that they are OK and to notify the officers of
Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service
their intentions for the following day. They can also get a weather
At least one Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Ranger or Field
update and find out any other interesting station news. In
Officer overwinters on Macquarie Island each year and since 2003
addition to HF communication, there is also a VHF radio network
a second ranger, concentrating on documenting the distribution
that connects the station with field parties via a series of repeaters
and abundance of the burrowing petrels, has also been present.
on some of the higher peaks of the island.
A third ranger is often employed over the summer to assist with the tourist ships. Currently, between 500 and 1000 tourists visit
The Station Leader
the island each year on strictly controlled visits that allow them
The station leader plays a pivotal role on the island. Since 2003
to undertake day trips to the main station and Sandy Bay, a few
the role of station leader on Macquarie Island has been taken on
kilometres to the south of the main station on the east coast. In
by one of the AAD staff, but prior to that it was considered a
addition to managing the tourist visits, the rangers also monitor
full-time job in itself. The station leader has a difficult job, but
and maintain the tracks, undertake feral animal control and
with an experienced and tolerant crew behind them they can
ensure that permits and access regulations are being adhered to.
find themselves with little to do. On the other hand, if the group
150
dynamics are problematic and there is disharmony and personality
Researchers and Scientists
clashes, then it generally falls to the station leader to sort it out.
The researchers or scientists are the final people that make up a
It is probably impossible to put a group of 20 or more people
group of expeditioners each year. These people are often known as
together and expect them all to get on and tolerance becomes an
the ‘boffins’ and in earlier times it was not uncommon for there to
important facet of daily life for the experienced expeditioners.
be significant divisions between the boffins and the tradies.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_MI_TODAY
5/11/07
6:23 PM
Page 152
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:14 PM
Page 151
AT ANCHOR OFF MACQUARIE ISLAND The resupply ship, Aurora Australis, shown here at anchor off the east coast, is the main transport vessel that takes people to Antarctica and Macquarie Island. It holds up to 116 passengers and the journey to Macquarie Island usually takes about 3–4 days.
FINAL_MI_TODAY
5/11/07
6:24 PM
Page 153
LIFE ON THE ISLAND The researchers’ work takes them to most parts of the island. It can include trekking to the rugged west coast (left), carting plants from North Head (top), climbing high up the eastcoast cliffs (middle) or working on the rocks of the south coast (bottom).
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:16 PM
Page 154
As Macquarie Island is a specially protected Nature Reserve under Tasmanian Legislation, everybody visiting or staying on the island is required to have an access permit, issued by the Tasmanian Government through the Parks and Wildlife Service. Access can be quite limited at certain times of the year due to the presence of breeding wildlife, although most of the plateau regions are open to most expeditioners all year round. Access to many of the coastal areas is very difficult in the INFLATABLE BOATS In the absence of any long-distance land vehicles, Zodiacs are a useful way of getting around the island in the event of an accident or to resupply field huts.
summer months as thousands of penguins congregate on the beaches to breed. Access issues have been known to create some tension on station as, depending on the work they are carrying out, some people have more access to areas than others. The management of access issues is an important role that the ranger
Getting Out and About
in charge has to deal with.
All expeditioners usually have the opportunity to head out to the field huts for some rest and recreation and a break from
Mental Challenges
station life. Although most of these trips last a few days, often
It is a psychological challenge to live on Macquarie Island,
members of the wintering crew will take at least a week out of
even these days when many of the comforts of civilisation are
their winter schedule to travel down the island, stay in all the
present. Many people become dependent on the routine of
field huts and visit parts of the island that their access permits
station life and small things often become very important. There
allow. Often tradies combine these trips with field hut
are recreational buildings where people can watch DVDs or play
maintenance and as a result all the huts on Macquarie Island
pool. The building that contains the kitchen and dining room,
are in good, clean, comfortable condition.
known as the mess, is the hub of all social activities, with the
The only real way to get around the island is to walk. The
154
dartboard and bar the centre of many social events. In many
only road is on the Isthmus and all the vehicles (quads, tractors
years, themed parties are relatively common as a way of letting off
and caterpillar bulldozers) are restricted to this area. There are
steam and the social nature of these events appears to be critical
three inflatable Zodiacs on the station and these are a useful way
in maintaining a balanced station life. There is little doubt that
to resupply field huts during the year. These boats are taken out
the inclusion of women in ANARE expeditions was a positive
relatively infrequently due to the inclement weather, but when
move in creating and maintaining a harmonious life on station.
the weather does permit, it is a fantastic way to see the island.
Although some old timers would still maintain that women
It takes around 2–3 hours to travel from one end of the island to
complicate life on the island their presence makes station life
the other.
more in keeping with a normal, healthy human situation.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:16 PM
Page 155
HURD POINT HUT A Light-mantled Sooty Albatross soars high above the Hurd Point field hut at the south-eastern end of the island. This field hut is home to the albatross researchers, who make their way across the island to Petrel Peak each day.
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:17 PM
Page 156
Research and Management
T
he physical sciences dominated much of the research
other geophysical aspects. From the early work of Blake to the
that was conducted on Macquarie Island when the
more sophisticated work that is carried out today, geoscientists
ANARE station was first settled in 1948. Atmospheric physics
have increased our understanding of the underlying nature and
has been particularly important and there were physicists on
structure of the island and the processes that formed it. Similarly,
the island in every year up until 2001. The upper atmospheric
with the study of the plants, all of the vascular plants of the island
studies concentrated on the auroral displays that often light
are thought to have been documented and extremely good
up the Macquarie Island sky. Photographing and identifying
progress has been made with the bryophytes, lichens and marine
the conditions that cause these displays has occupied physicists
flora. There is still a little way to go with the fungi but, as one of
for many years on the island. Other physical sciences that have
the most complicated and diverse groups, this is hardly surprising.
been studied on the island include seismology, cosmic ray physics and radiophysics.
Wildlife Research into the animals that live on Macquarie Island has also
Geology and Botany
been extensive. All the large vertebrate fauna have had research
Due to its unique formation, Macquarie Island is a magnet for
programs dedicated to their study and in general these studies
geologists from around the world interested in studying ophiolite
have contributed knowledge that will in some way benefit the
complexes, faulting, oceanic crust geology and a whole range of
species. Not all research that is conducted can be justified in this way and in more recent years those responsible for managing the research on the island have tried to ensure that any research approved on the island will have a direct conservation benefit.
Reserve Status Macquarie Island was first made a Wildlife Sanctuary by the Tasmanian Government in 1933. In 1972 it was proclaimed a State Reserve under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970, to be known as the Macquarie Island Wildlife Reserve. In 1977 it was declared a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and Biosphere program and in 1978 the State Reserve was extended to include the offshore islands and was formally named the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve. It was declared a restricted area
156
TOURISTS Visitors to the island watch an elephant seal move down
in 1979, with intending visitors requiring a permit for access. In
towards the water. Allowing tourists to have interactions like this is
December 1997, the Reserve and its surrounding waters out to 12
important in promoting the conservation of these remote places.
nautical miles were inscribed on the World Heritage List, largely
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:18 PM
Page 157
PLANT RESEARCH This complicated-looking apparatus is for studying the responses of plants to different temperature and light conditions. This type of study contributes to research on climate change.
on the basis of the unique geology and outstanding natural values.
cats by the Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service has made
In 1999, the Australian Government proclaimed the Macquarie
significant inroads into the pest problem on the island. At the
Island Marine Park that includes a habitat Species Management
time of writing, funding has been obtained and plans are being
Zone (where trawling for Patagonian Toothfish is allowed) and a
made to eradicate the rabbits and rodents, a monumental task but
Highly Protected Zone (where no commercial fishing is allowed).
necessary if Macquarie Island is to be restored to somewhere near
The Marine Park also restricts activities like mining and tourism,
its condition prior to the arrival of people. If the eradication of
depending on the zone. In 2000, the State Reserve was extended
the rabbits and rodents is not achieved, then the future of
out to 3 nautical miles from the island and outlying islets. Finally,
Macquarie Island as a subantarctic wilderness is in doubt. Species
in 2002 the Macquarie Island Nature Reserve was listed on the
diversity will diminish and large tracts of the island will be devoid
Register of Critical Habitat under the EPBC Act as habitat critical
of vegetation and accompanying wildlife. There is no doubt that
to the survival of the Grey-headed and Wandering Albatrosses.
humans have had a marked and long-lasting influence on the
In terms of applied island management, most has concentrated
island. Consequently we are responsible for the fate of this once
on the removal of the feral pests. The cessation in the use of
pristine and unique landscape and hopefully, in time, we can assist
livestock and the successful eradication of the wekas and then the
in the restoration of the island to a true subantarctic wilderness.
T H E I S L A N D T O D AY
157
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:18 PM
Page 158
FINAL_MI_TODAY
4/11/07
10:19 PM
Page 159
THE SOUTHERN LIGHTS An aurora australis fills the sky just after sunset. This sequence of images was taken over four minutes as the sun slowly sank over the horizon. Auroras of this intensity are often seen on the island. They are an incredible sight to behold and are one of the most visually impressive phenomena in the natural world.
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
1:12 PM
Page 160
ALBATROSS CHICK This Grey-headed Albatross chick sits on its nest on the slopes of Petrel Peak, home to most of the albatrosses breeding on the island. In about four weeks time it will fledge and won’t return to any land until it is at least six years of age.
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
1:12 PM
Page 161
Bibliography Several texts have been consulted
6.
extensively. In particular, the historical research conducted by Robert McNab in Murihiku and the Southern Islands and John Cumpston in Macquarie Island are unparalleled and were
Tweedie, C.E. (2000) Climate change and the autecology of six plant species along an altitudinal gradient on subantarctic Macquarie Island. PhD thesis. University of Queensland. Brisbane.
Zealand and adjacent subantarctic islands during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries. Australian Zoologist 31:323–350. 6.
and Fletcher, L. (1988) Recovery of the
extremely useful. Sir Douglas Mawson’s Home of the Blizzard, particularly the narrative of George
7.
Ainsworth, was also very helpful. Subantarctic Macquarie Island Environment and Biology by Patricia Selkirk, Rod Seppelt and David Selkirk helped to fill in many gaps as did The Moss of
Smith, V.R. (1993) Climate change and ecosystem functioning: A focus for subantarctic research in the 1990s. South African Journal of Science 89:69–71.
fur seal population at Macquarie Island. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 122(1):177–187. 7.
8.
Macquarie Island by Rod Seppelt and The Terrestrial Invertebrates of Macquarie Island by Penelope Greenslade and Rieks Dekker van Klinken. Other literature consulted is listed below in the order that it was utilised. The full attribution of major quotes used throughout the text are also included in this section.
Tweedie, C.E. and Bergstrom, D.M. (2000) A climate change scenario for surface air temperature at subantarctic Macquarie Island. In: Davison, W., HowardWilliams, C. and Broady, P. (eds) Antarctic Ecosystems: Models for wider ecological understanding. New Zealand Natural Sciences. Christchurch. pp. 272–281.
Chapter 2 History
1.
1.
Antarctic Expedition 1911–1914. Facsimile copy. Wakefield Press. Kent Town. 8.
2.
3.
Brothers, N. and Ledingham, R. (submitted) The avifauna of Bishop and Clerk Islands, its relationship to nearby Macquarie Island and the implications of current management prescriptions. Notornis.
Antarctic Expedition Scientific Reports, Series A (V).
Captain Douglass of the Mariner, Published in the Sydney Gazette in 1822.
5.
Hnatiuk, R.J. (1975) Aspects of growth and climate of tussock grasslands in montane New Guinea and subantarctic islands. PhD thesis. Australian National University. Canberra.
Bennett, I. (1971) Shores of Macquarie Island. Rigby Limited. Adelaide. Gillham, M. (1967) Sub-antarctic Sanctuary Summertime on Macquarie Island. A.H. and A.W. Reed. Auckland.
11.
Selkirk, P.M. et al. (1990) Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
2.
McNab, R. (1907) Murihiku and the Southern Islands.William Smith. Invercargill.
3.
Cumpston, J.S. (1968) Macquarie Island. ANARE Scientific Reports, Series A(1) Narrative. Antarctic Division, Department of External Affairs. Melbourne.
Hines, K.C. Unpublished account of the first ANARE expedition of 1948.
4.
Mawson, D. (1943) Macquarie Island: Its geography and geology. Australasian
10. Kostoglou, P. (1996) Sealing in Tasmania Historical Research Project. A report for the Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania: 173 pp. Hobart.
Mawson, D. (1996) The Home of the Blizzard: The Story of the Australasian
9.
Chapter 1 The Island Selkirk, P.M., Seppelt, R.D. and Selkirk, D.R. (1990) Subantarctic Macquarie Island: Environment and Biology. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Shaughnessy, P.D., Shaughnessy, G.L.
4.
Shaughnessy, P.D. and Goldsworthy, S.D. (1993) Feeding ecology of fur seals and their management at Heard and Macquarie Islands. Proceedings NIPR Symposium. Polar Biology 6:173–175.
Chapter 3 Geology 1.
Selkirk, P.M. et al. (1990) Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
2.
Varne, R., Gee, R.D. and Quilty, P.G.J. (1969) Macquarie Island and the cause of oceanic linear magnetic anomalies. Science 166:230–233.
3.
Hayes, D.E. and Talwani, M. (1972) Geophysical investigation of the
5.
Ling, J.K. (1999) Exploitation of fur seals and sea lions from Australia, New
Macquarie Ridge Complex. In: D.E. Hayes (ed) Antarctic Oceanology II
BIBLIOGRAPHY
161
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
1:13 PM
Page 162
The Australian–New Zealand Sector. pp.
4.
11.
19.
Processes and Environmental Change on
Antarctic Research Series 19. American
Macquarie Island. ANARE Research Notes
Subantarctic Macquarie Island. PhD thesis.
Geophysical Union. Washington.
21:1–15.
Macquarie University. Sydney.
Williamson, P.E. (1988) Origin, structure
12.
S., Coffin, M.F. and Meckel, T.A. (2003)
20.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania
Expedition Scientific Reports, Series A (V). 21.
special emphasis on heavy metal trace 13.
Goscombe, B.D. and Everard, J.L.
element distribution. ANARE Research
(2001) Tectonic evolution of Macquarie
Notes 39:1–28.
Island: Extensional structures and block
transpressional transform plate boundary
rotations in oceanic crust. Journal of
near Macquarie Island. Geochemistry
22.
Geological Atlas 1:10 000 Series. 7 sheets. 14.
Wertz, K.L., Mosher, S., Daczko, N.R.
Mineral Resources of Tasmania. Hobart.
and Coffin, M.F. (2003) Macquarie
03GC000523, 2003.
Island’s Finch–Langdon fault: A ridge-
23.
transform inside-corner structure. Geology
Major Lake, Macquarie Island. Australian
Pacific plate motion. Nature 320:738–741.
31:661–664.
Society for Limnology Bulletin 6:17–26.
Cumpston, J.S. (1968) Antarctic
15.
Pemberton, M., Davidson, G. and
Colhoun, E.A. and Geode, A. (1973)
24.
A new arrival. Tasmanian Parks and
ecology of a calanoid copepod,
raised marine terraces of Macquarie Island:
Pseudoboekella brevicaudata Brady 1875, on
some comments. Search 4:499–501.
a subantarctic island. ANARE Scientific Reports, Series B (I) Zoology, 100 pp.
16.
25.
Tyler, P.A. (1972) Reconnaissance
Macquarie Island. M.Sc thesis.
limnology of sub-Antarctic islands. I.
Ledingham, R. and Peterson, J.A. (1984)
Macquarie University. Sydney. Cited in
Chemistry of lake waters from Macquarie
Raised beach deposits and the distribution
Selkirk, P.M. et al. (1990) Cambridge
Island and the Iles Kerguelen. International
of structural lineaments on Macquarie
University Press. Cambridge.
Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und
Island. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 118:223–235.
Hydrographie 57:759–778. 17.
Adamson, D.A., Selkirk, P.M. and
26.
Greenslade, P. (2006) The Invertebrates of
for Holocene environmental change and
Macquarie Island. Australian Antarctic
uplift on Wireless Hill, Macquarie Island.
Division. Kingston.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New
aeolian, tectonic and marine origin in
South Wales 107:1–17.
the Bauer Bay–Sandy Bay region of subantarctic Macquarie Island. Papers and
Selkirk, D.R., Selkirk, P.M. and Griffin, K. (1983) Palynological evidence
Colhoun, E.A. (1988) Landforms of
162
Bergstrom, D.M. (1985) The Holocene vegetation history of Green Gorge,
Wildlife Service Publication. Hobart.
10.
Evans, A.J. (1970) Some aspects of the
Fossil penguin bones, 14C dates and the
Burdon, J. (1998) Macquarie Island:
9.
Petersen, J.A. (1975) The morphology of
Pollitz, F.F. (1986) Pliocene changes in
Division, DEA. Melbourne. 8.
Goscombe, B.D. and Everard, J.L. (1998) Geology of Macquarie Island.
Structural Geology 23:639–673.
Geophysics Geosystems 4:1080,
7.
Crohn, P.W. (1986) The geology and geomorphology of Macquarie Island with
122:45–50.
Extension along the Australian–Pacific
doi:10.1029/20 2003GC000523,
Mawson, D. (1943) Australasian Antarctic
rocks of Macquarie Island. Papers and
Royal Society of Tasmania 122:27–43. Daczko, N.R., Wertz, K.L., Mosher,
Duncan, R.A. and Varne, R. (1988) The age and distribution of the igneous
Island region. Papers and Proceedings of the
6.
Selkirk-Bell, J.M. (2000) Geomorphic
Foden, J. (1984) The geology of
and tectonic history of the Macquarie
5.
Christodolou, C., Griffin, B.J. and
211–234. American Geophysical Union
27.
Geological map copyright notice This map incorporates data that is
Chappell, J. (1983) A revised sea-level
copyright owned by the Crown in Right
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania
curve for the last 300 000 years from Papua
of Tasmania. The data has been used
122:65–82.
New Guinea. Search 14:99–101.
in the product with the permission of the
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
18.
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
1:13 PM
Page 163
Crown in Right of Tasmania. The Crown
7.
Selkirk, P.M., Adamson, D.A. and
Ecological classification and nomenclature.
and agents:
vegetation dynamics on Macquarie Island.
Proceedings of the Linnean Society of NSW
(a) give no warranty regarding the data’s
Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society
77:61–82.
accuracy, completeness, currency or
of Tasmania 122:59–64. 16. 8.
the fungi of Macquarie Island.
arising, including but not limited to
Selkirk, P.M., Convey, P., Skotnicki,
ANARE Scientific Reports, Series B (II)
negligence, for any loss resulting from the
M. and Bergstrom, D.M. (2005)
Botany, 22 pp.
use of or reliance upon the data.
Biological invasions in the Antarctic: Extent, impacts and implications.
Chapter 4 Flora
3.
Ricker, R.W. (1987) Taxonomy and
Macquarie Island. Tasmanian Naturalist
Hamilton, A. (1895) Notes on a visit to Macquarie Island. Transactions and
British Museum (Natural History).
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute
London.
1894 27:550–579.
18.
and Laursen, G.A. (1992) The first record of a myxomycete from subantarctic
Shaw, J.D., Hovenden, M.J. and Bergstrom, D.M. (2005) The impact of
Macquarie Island. PhD thesis. University
introduced ship rats (Rattus rattus) on
of Tasmania. Hobart.
seedling recruitment and distribution of a
4:431–432. 19.
Dictyostelium mucoroides from subantarctic Macquarie Island. Mycologia 90:368–371.
hookeri. Austral Ecology 30:118–125. 11.
Copson, G. and Whinam, J. (1998)
20.
Mycorrhizal assessment of vascular plants
Macquarie Island to reduced rabbit
from subantarctic Macquarie Island.
grazing. Australian Journal of Botany Bergstrom, D.M., Turner, P.A.M., Scott, Restricted plant species on sub-Antarctic
6.
Arctic and Alpine Research 29:483–491.
46:15–24.
J., Copson, G.R. and Shaw, J. (2006) 12.
Selkirk, P.M. and Seppelt, R.D. (1984)
Macquarie and Heard Islands. Polar Biology
Fellfield on Macquarie Island. Tasmanian
29:532–539.
Naturalist 78:24–26.
Laursen, G.A., Treu, R., Seppelt, R.D. and Stephenson, S.L. (1997)
Response of vegetation on subantarctic
Selkirk, P.M. et al. (1990) Cambridge
Stephenson, S.L., Laursen, G.A., Landolt, J.C. and Seppelt, R.D. (1998)
subantarctic megaherb Pleurophyllum
Taylor, B.W. (1955) The flora, vegetation
University Press. Cambridge. 5.
Stephenson, S.L., Seppelt, R.D.
Macquarie Island. Antarctic Science 10.
ecology of the plants on subantarctic
Reports, Series B (II) Botany, 192 pp.
Kerry, E. (1984) The fungal flora of 78:16–21.
9.
Biogeography of Macquarie Island Seaweeds.
Shaw, J.D. (2005) The reproductive
17.
Biological Reviews 80:45–72.
and soils of Macquarie Island. ANARE
4.
Bunt, J.S. (1965) Observations on
Frenot, Y., Chown, S.L., Whinam, J.,
(b) do not accept liability, howsoever
2.
Beadle, N.C.W. and Costin, A.B. (1952)
Seppelt, R.D. (1988) Terrace form and
suitability for any particular purpose; and
1.
15.
in Right of Tasmania and its employees
21.
Laursen, G.A., Stephenson, S.L. and Seppelt, R.D. (1997) Fungi of subantarctic Macquarie Island, Australia. Proceedings of the American Association for
Seppelt, R.(2004) The moss flora of
the Advancement of Science, p. 99. 48th
Copson, G.R., Molloy, B.P.J.,
Macquarie Island. Australian Antarctic
Arctic Division Science Conference,
Carmichael, N., Skotnicki, M.L. and
Division. Hobart.
Valdez, Alaska.
Clements, M.A., Mackenzie, A.M.,
13.
Selkirk, P.M. (2007) Biology and molecular phylogenetics of Nematosceras
14.
Whinam, J. and Copson, G. (2006)
22.
Kenny, R. and Haysom, N. (1962)
sulcatum, a second endemic orchid species
Sphagnum moss: An indicator of climate
Ecology of rocky shore organisms at
from subantarctic Macquarie Island. Polar
change in the sub-Antarctic. Polar Record
Macquarie Island. Pacific Science
Biology 30:859–869.
42:43–49.
16:245–263.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
163
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
23.
1:13 PM
Page 164
Klemm, M. and Hallam, N. (1988) Conceptacle development, gamete maturation and embryology of Durvillaea antarctica from Macquarie Island. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 122:199–210.
7.
Robinson, S. and Hindell, M.A. (1996)
Antarctic islands. In: Robertson, G. and Gales, R. (eds) Albatross Biology and Conservation. Surrey Beatty and Sons. Chipping Norton. pp. 84–91.
Foraging ecology of the Gentoo Penguin at Macquarie Island. Ibis 138:722–731. 8.
Robertson, C.J.R. and Nunn, G.B. (1998) Towards a new taxonomy for
15.
Terauds, A. and Gales, R. (2006) Provisioning strategies and growth patterns of Light-mantled Sooty Albatrosses (Phoebetria palpebrata) on Macquarie Island. Polar Biology 29:917–926.
16.
Gillham, M. (1967) A.H. and A.W. Reed. Auckland.
17.
Brothers, N.P. (1984) Breeding distribution and status of burrow-nesting petrels at Macquarie Island. Australian Wildlife Research 11:113–131.
18.
Brothers, N.P., Bone, C. and Wilson, A. (in preparation) The response of burrownesting petrels and other vulnerable bird species to vertebrate pest management and climate change on subantarctic Macquarie Island. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania.
19.
Guinet, C., Chastel, O., Koudil, M., Durbec, P. and Jouventin, P. (1998) Effects of warm sea-surface temperature anomalies on the Blue Petrel at the Kerguelen Islands. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 265:1001–1006.
20.
Reid, K., Croxall, J.P. and Edwards, T.M. (1997) Interannual variation in the diet of the Antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata at South Georgia. Emu 97:126–132.
21.
Cumpston, J.S. (1968) Antarctic Division, DEA. Melbourne.
22.
Higgins, P.J. and Davies, S.J.J.F. (1996) Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol 3. Oxford University Press. Melbourne.
albatrosses. In: Robertson, G. and Gales, 24.
Lewis, P.N., Riddle, M.J. and Smith, S.D.A. (2005) Assisted passage or passive drift: A comparison of alternative transport mechanisms for non-indigenous marine organisms into the Southern Ocean. Antarctic Science 17:183–191.
R. (eds) Albatross Biology and Conservation. Surrey Beatty and Sons. Chipping Norton. pp. 13–19. 9.
Gales, R. (1998) Albatross populations: Status and threats. In: Robertson, G. and Gales, R. (eds) Albatross Biology and Conservation. Surrey Beatty and Sons. Chipping Norton. pp. 20–45.
Chapter 5 Fauna 1.
2.
3.
Shirihai, H. (2002) A complete guide to Antarctic wildlife. Alula Press Oy. Finland. Copson, G.R. and Rounsevell, D.E. (1986) The abundance of Royal Penguins (Eudyptes schlegeli, Finsch) breeding at Macquarie Island. ANARE Research Notes 41. 11 pp. Marchant, S. and Higgins, P.J. (1990) Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol 1A. Oxford University Press. Melbourne.
10.
Mawson, D. (1996) Wakefield Press. Kent Town.
11.
Terauds, A., Gales, R., Baker, G.B.R. and Alderman, R. (2006) Population and survival trends of Wandering Albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) breeding on Macquarie Island. Emu 106:211–218.
12.
Terauds, A., Gales, R. and Alderman, R. (2005) Trends in numbers and survival of Black-browed (Thalassarche melanophrys) and Grey-headed (T. chrysostoma) Albatrosses breeding on Macquarie Island.
4.
Rounsevell, D.E. and Copson, G.R. (1982) Growth rate and recovery of a King Penguin, Aptenodytes patagonicus, population after exploitation. Australian Wildlife Research 9:519–525.
Emu 105:159–167. 13.
Terauds, A., Gales, R., Baker, G.B.R. and Alderman, R. (2006) Foraging areas of Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatrosses breeding on Macquarie Island
5.
6.
164
Hindell, M.A. (1987) The diet of the King Penguin, Aptenodytes patagonicus, at Macquarie Island. Ibis 130:193–203. Robertson, G. (1986) Population size and breeding success of the Gentoo Penguin, Pygoscelis papua, at Macquarie Island. Australian Wildlife Research 13:583–587.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
in relation to marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 16:133–146. 14.
Weimerskirch, H. and Jouventin, P. (1998) Changes in population sizes and demographic parameters of six albatross species breeding on the French sub-
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
1:14 PM
Page 165
A CLOSE ENCOUNTER A female elephant seal gets up close and personal with her pup. In the three weeks since the pup was born, the mother would have constantly fed it, allowing it to put on 100 kilograms or more. Soon the mother will leave the pup to fend for itself.
23.
Rounsevell, D.E. and Brothers, N.P.
26.
Schulz, M. and Gales, R. (2004) Breeding of the Antarctic Tern (Sterna
Island Parakeet became extinct. New
vittata bethunei) on Macquarie Island.
Zealand Journal of Ecology 2:42–45.
J.P., Evans, P.G.H. and Schrieber, K.W.
Notornis 51:114–116. 32.
and Fletcher, L. (1988) Recovery of the
Preservation Technical Publication.
some Macquarie Island birds. Notornis
fur seal population at Macquarie Island.
Cambridge. pp. 587–592.
16:190–197.
Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society
Conroy, J.W.H. and Twelves, E.L.
27.
Shaughnessy, P.D., Shaughnessy, G.I.
Warham, J. (1969) Notes on
Seabirds. International Council of Bird
28.
of Tasmania 122:177–187.
Norman, F.I. (1987) The ducks of
(1972) Diving depths of the Gentoo
Macquarie Island. ANARE Research Notes
Penguin (Pygoscelis papua) and Blue-eyed
42:1–22.
33.
South Orkney Islands. British Antarctic
29.
Survey Bulletin 30:106–108.
Goldsworthy, S.D. and Shaughnessy, P.D. (1995) Subantarctic fur seal.
Shag (Phalacrocorax atriceps) from the
25.
Taylor, R.H. (1979) How the Macquarie
seabirds at Macquarie Island. In: Croxall, (eds) Status and Conservation of the World’s
24.
31.
(1984) The status and conservation of
Hamilton, A. (1895) Transactions and
Arctocephalus tropicalis. In: Strahan, R. (ed)
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute
The Mammals of Australia. Reed.
1894 27:550–579.
Chatswood. pp. 683–684.
Kato, A., Nishiumi, I. and Naito, Y. (1996) Sexual difference in the diet of
30.
Vestjens, W.J.M. (1963) Remains of the
34.
Goldsworthy, S.D., Wynen, L., Robinson,
King Cormorants at Macquarie Island.
extinct Banded Rail at Macquarie Island.
S. and Shaughnessy, P.D. (1998) The
Polar Biology 16:75–77.
Emu 62:249–250
population status and hybridisation of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
165
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
35.
1:14 PM
Page 166
three sympatric fur seals (Arctocephalus
Species under the Environment Protection
spp.) at Macquarie Island. New Zealand
and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Population status and seasonal haulout
Natural Sciences Supplement 23:68.
www.ea.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/
patterns of the Southern Elephant Seal
species/mleonina.html
(Mirounga leonina) at Heard Island.
Wynen, L., Goldsworthy, S.D., Guinet, C., Bester, M.N., Boyd, I.L., Gjertz, I.,
41.
Slade, P.R. (2000) Post-sealing genetic
comparison of two Southern Elephant
(2004) Annual cycle and inter-annual
Seal populations. Journal of Animal Ecology
variation in the haul-out pattern of an
A. tropicalis). Molecular Ecology 9:299–314.
42.
C.J.A. (2005) Population status, trends
Mammal Review 35:82–100. 43.
Mammals of Victoria. Oxford University Press. Melbourne.
of Southern Elephant Seals on Crozet and
of Zoology 247:429–438.
45.
51.
Selkirk, P.M. et al. (1990) Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Pistorius, P.A., Bester, M.N. and 52.
Brothers, N.P. and Skira, I.J. (1984)
distributions in a declining population of
The weka on Macquarie Island. Notornis
Southern Elephant Seals. Antarctic Science
31:145–154. 53.
Weimerskirch, H. (1999) Recent
(eds) Elephant Seals: Population Ecology,
population change of the Southern
Taylor, B.W. (1955) ANARE Reports, Series B (II) Botany, 192 pp.
Guinet, C., Jouventin, P. and
Oceans. In: LeBoeuf, B.J. and Laws, R.M.
54.
Copson, G. and Whinam, J. (2001) Review of ecological restoration program
Behaviour and Physiology. University of
Elephant Seal at Iles Crozet and Iles
California Press. Berkeley. pp. 66–84.
Kerguelen: The end of the decrease.
on subantarctic Macquarie Island: Pest
Antarctic Science 11:193–197.
management progress and future
TSSC (2001) Mirounga leonina (Southern Elephant Seal). Advice to
166
subantarctic Macquarie Island. Journal
11:446–451.
of Southern Elephant Seal populations in
40.
changes, haulout pattern and movements
Kirkman, S.P. (1999) Dynamic age
H.R. (1994) Possible causes of the decline
Pye, T., Swain, R. and Seppelt, R.D. of the feral black rat (Rattus rattus) on
12:349–356.
Hindell, M.A., Slip, D.J. and Burton,
50.
Guinet, C., Jouventin, P. and
parameters of a declining population of
the southern Pacific and southern Indian
Wildlife Research 26:35–52.
Weimerskirch, H. (1992) Population
Kerguelen Archipelago. Polar Biology
Journal of Animal Ecology 60:119–134. 39.
New Zealand Sea Lion, Phocarctos hookeri.
(1999) Distribution and habitat use
Hindell, M.A. (1991) Some life history
44.
Gales, N.J. and Fletcher, D.J. (1999) Abundance, distribution and status of the
Southern Elephant Seal Mirounga leonina.
Island. Polar Biology 21:316–325.
Southern Elephant Seals, Mirounga leonina.
49.
explaining the recent declines of the
Seals, Arctocephalus spp., at Macquarie
Elephant Seal. In: Menkhorst, P.W. (ed)
Antarctic Science 16:219–226.
and a re-examination of the hypotheses
breeding Antarctic and Subantarctic Fur
Lewis, M., Campagna, C. and Zavatti, L.
increasing Southern Elephant Seal colony.
McMahon, C.R., Bester, M.N., Burton, H.R., Hindell, M.A. and Bradshaw,
Goldsworthy, S.D. (1999) Maternal
Warneke, R.M. (1995) Southern
48.
72:61–74.
attendance behaviour of sympatrically
38.
Antarctic Science 11:38–47.
McMahon, C.R., Burton, H.R. and Bester, M.N. (2003) A demographic
species of fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella and
37.
Slip, D.J. and Burton, H.R. (1999)
Hofmeyr, G.J.G., White, R.W.G. and variation and population structure of two
36.
47.
directions. Ecological Management 46.
Pistorius, P.A., Bester, M.N., Kirkman,
& Restoration 2:129–138.
the Minister for the Environment and
S.P. and Taylor, F.E. (2001) Temporal
Heritage from the Threatened Species
changes in fecundity and age at sexual
Scientific Committee (TSSC) on
maturity of Southern Elephant Seals at
arthropoda of Macquarie Island. ANARE
Amendments to the List of Threatened
Marion Island. Polar Biology 24:343–348.
Reports 99.
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
55.
Watson, K.C. (1967) The terrestrial
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
56.
5/11/07
1:15 PM
Page 167
Greenslade, P. (2006) The Invertebrates
Chapter 6 The Island Today
7.
Division. Kingston. 57.
1.
van Klinken, R.D. and Greenslade, P. (2006) Insecta. In Greenslade, P. The Invertebrates of Macquarie Island. Australian Antarctic Division. Kingston. pp 19–74.
58.
P70 Extract from a lecture given by Sir Douglas Mawson to the South Australian
of Macquarie Island. Australian Antarctic Environment Australia (2001) Macquarie Island Marine Park Management Plan. Department of Environment and Heritage. Canberra.
Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, 12 September 1919. 8.
P84 Extract from paper delivered by Professor John H. Scott to the Otago
2.
Palma, R.L. and Horning, D.S. (2002) The lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) from Macquarie Island. ANARE Research Notes 105.
Parks and Wildlife Service (2006) Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan. Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Tourism, Arts and the Environment. Hobart.
Institute New Zealand on 9 May 1882 describing his 1881 visit. 9.
P88 Extract from paper delivered by Professor A. Hamilton to the Otago Institute New Zealand on 13 November 1894 describing his visit earlier that year.
59.
Greenslade, P. (2006) The Invertebrates of Macquarie Island. Australian Antarctic Division. Kingston. And references therein. p. 116.
60.
Quote Attributions
(2002) Spatial variation in the 2.
habitats at Macquarie Island (subAntarctic). Antarctic Science 14:374–384. 61.
Smith, S.D.A. and Simpson, R.D.
3.
(1998) Recovery of benthic communities at Macquarie Island (sub-Antarctic) following a small oil spill. Marine Biology 131:567–581.
P5 Extract from a lecture given by Sir Douglas Mawson to the South Australian Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, 12 September 1919.
Macquarie Island in 1820. Translated and
P12 Extract from a letter sent by Charles Hook (Acting Director, Campbell and Co.) to Robert Campbell, 23 October 1810.
Debenham, 1945.
P49 Extract from a letter sent by D. Livingstone (member of penguin oiling party 1908–1911) describing the observation of the Aurora for the first time in 1911.
Pople, A., Simpson, R.D. and Cairns, S.C. (1990) An incident of 5.
shore of Macquarie Island (sub-Antarctic). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 41:603–620. 6. 63.
Williams, R. (1988) The nearshore fishes of Macquarie Island. Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 122:233–245.
Voyage of Captain Bellingshausen to the Antarctic Seas, 1819–1821. Edited by Frank
11.
P124 Extract from article written for the Australian newspaper by Joseph R. Burton (taxidermist, Colonial Museum, Wellington), about his experiences in 1894, published on 18 August 1900.
12.
P51 Extract from letter sent by Captain Douglass (of the sealing ship the Mariner) to the Sydney Gazette in 1822.
Southern Ocean oil pollution: Effects of a spillage of diesel fuel on the rocky
printed by the Hakluyt Society – The
P129 Extract from paper delivered by Professor A. Hamilton to the Otago
4. 62.
P117 Extract from Admiral T. Bellingshausen’s account of his visit to
1.
Smith, S.D.A. and Simpson, R.D. community structure of the intertidal
10.
P53 Extract from an article written for the Bulletin magazine by Dr A.L. McLean (surgeon and biologist of the Aurora) on conditions of the island in 1911. P57 Extract from Mawson (1932) The British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition 1929–1931. Geographical Journal 80(2):101–131 describing the island in 1929.
Institute New Zealand on 13 November 1894, describing his visit earlier that year. 13.
P138 Extract from paper delivered by Professor A. Hamilton to the Otago Institute New Zealand on 13 November 1894, describing his visit earlier that year.
14.
P142 Extract from Captain Thomas Raine (1824) Notice with respect to Macquarie Island, Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, XI:46, on his visit to Macquarie Island in 1822.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
167
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
4:39 PM
Page 168
Artists & Photographers 1.
c. William McKibbin. Photographer: J.K. Davis (1909).
P28 On the deck off the West Coast, Macquarie Island. Kelvin sounding machine in foreground. Photographer:
d. Lieutenant Charles Wilkes. (c. 1798–1877). Courtesy of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
P. Gray (1911). Courtesy of the State Library of NSW. Ref: ON 144/Q231. 2.
P31 From a sketch of Garden Cove, Macquarie Island. By P. Mikhailov on the
e. The Discovery. (c. 1900).
Russian discovery ship Vostok (1820). 3.
P35 Hatch’s Sea Elephant harness oil label (c. 1900). Courtesy of the State Library of Tasmania, Heritage Collections.
4.
P38 Penguin oil works at Nuggets Point on Macquarie Island. Photographer:
Turnbull Library, Wellington, NZ. Ref: PAColl-5898-01. 5.
P40 Royal Penguins near the remains of a wrecked ship, Gratitude, Nuggets Beach, Macquarie Island. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla. pic-vn3251741.
6.
P42 The wreck of the Clyde, Macquarie Island. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the State Library of NSW. Ref: ON 144/H391.
7.
P44 Clockwise from top left: a. The Nimrod in the sea ice. (c. 1907–1909). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-vn3146964. b. Captain John King Davis, master of the Discovery. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1929–1931). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-an10932811-118.
168
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
8.
Macquarie Island. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.picvn3120425. 9.
P50 Clockwise from top left: a. The result of three hours fishing,
f. Captain Robert Falcon Scott. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1929–1931). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-an11208027.
Lusitania Bay. Photographer: H. Hamilton
g. The Peacock driven into the ice. (c. 1830–1840).
b. Wireless engine hut. Photographer:
h. Admiral Fabian Gottleib Thaddeus von Bellingshausen. (c. 1820).
of the National Library of Australia.
P47 Clockwise from top left:
c. Sir Douglas Mawson standing at water’s
L. Deighton (1929–1931). Courtesy of the Leslie Hinge Collection, Alexander
f. Leslie Blake, Macquarie Island Party,
(c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.picvn3122321.
C. Sandell (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy Ref: nla.pic-vn3158410.
edge near boat at Caroline Cove, Macquarie a. Sir Douglas Mawson wearing a knitted woollen balaclava and jumper. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1910–1962). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-an23478526.
Island. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1910
b. Macquarie Island party. Photographer: L. Blake (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla. pic-vn3119203.
Photographer: C. Sandell (c. 1911–1914).
–1962). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-vn3118920. d. Exterior view of a hut, Macquarie Island. Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-vn3120778. e. Dogs tethered out on Macquarie Island.
c. Sawyer and sea elephant pup. Photographer: H. Hamilton (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the State Library of NSW. Ref: 144/H286. d. Charles A. Sandell, wireless operator and mechanic, Macquarie Island. (c. 1911 –1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-vn3119253. e. Hamilton and an albino giant petrel. Photographer: C. Sandell (c. 1911–1914). Courtesy of the State Library of NSW. Ref: 144/Q9.
Photographer: D. Mawson (c. 1911). Courtesy of the State Library of NSW. Ref: Home and Away-38116. f. Two team members with penguins, Macquarie Island. Photographer: F. Hurley (c. 1910–1962). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-vn3125709. g. Blake taking a sun observation. Photographer: H. Hamilton (c. 1911– 1914). Courtesy of the National Library of Australia. Ref: nla.pic-vn3120791.
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
4:45 PM
Page 169
MOSS AT SUNSET This moss, on the edge of the escarpment above Hurd Point, grows extremely well in the harsh feldmark environment. Shown here illuminated by the last rays of the setting sun as it drops below the plateau edge.
10.
P52 Mr. Bauer, the Headsman at the
13.
P59 (bottom) The Isthmus – 1969.
Macquarie Island sealery. Photographer:
Photographer: Roger Morgan.
Coombe (c. 1890–1909). Courtesy of the
Reproduced with permission.
16.
a. Weka on Macquarie Island. Photographer: D. Mawson (c. 1911– 1914). Courtesy of the State Library of NSW. Ref: Home and Away-36916.
State Library of NSW. Ref: Home and Away-37563.
14.
P137
P61 (top) Chickens and cats and (bottom) Cow in Leptinella. Photographer: S.
11.
P57 Met building mural. Photographer:
Csordas (c. 1955–1959). Courtesy of
Roger Morgan (1969). Reproduced
Ingrid McGaughey.
b. A cat investigates a rat. Photographer: S. Csordas (c. 1955–1959). Courtesy of Ingrid McGaughey.
with permission. 15. 12.
P135 Leopard Seal yawning. Photographer:
P59 (top) The Isthmus – 1911. Courtesy
S. Csordas (c. 1955–1959). Courtesy of
of the Australian Antarctic Division.
Ingrid McGaughey.
17.
P145 Killer whale in Garden Cove. Photographer: Rowan Trebilco (2006). Reproduced with permission.
A RT I S T S & P H O T O G R A P H E R S
169
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
5/11/07
1:16 PM
Page 170
MOUNT ELDER One of the highest peaks in the northern half of the island, Mount Elder rises high above the plateau. While much of the exposed areas are devoid of vegetation, the more sheltered east coast has a good covering of grasses and herbs.
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
6/11/07
7:05 PM
Page 171
Index access permits 154
Auckland Islands 12, 19, 43, 135
Aceana 45
Aurora (Mawson) 46, 48, 51
Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres) 129 Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos) 129
A. magellanica 88
Aurora (sealer) 29, 33, 46, 48, 51
Bishop, Captain Charles 30
A. minor 85, 88
aurora australis (southern lights) 159
Bishop and Clerk Islets 23, 114
Ainsworth, G. 41, 46, 48, 49, 51, 57
Aurora Australis (supply ship) 61, 151
Blake, Leslie 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 72, 156
albatross 12, 21, 22
Auroral Observation Program 60
breccias 74, 75
Australasian Antarctic Expedition 46–51
Brothers, N. 12, 121
Australian Antarctic Division 149
Brothers Point 22, 56, 60
Australian tectonic plate 64, 65, 74
Bryophytes
Antipodean Albatross (Diomedea antipodensis) 110 Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophrys) 23, 110, 114, 114, 117 breeding grounds 17, 22, 112, 114, 114, 115, 157 effect of long-line fisheries 110, 114, 117 Grey-headed Albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma) 110, 114, 115, 117, 118–19, 157, 160 Light-mantled Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria palpebrata) 116, 117, 155 Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans) 41, 46, 48, 110, 111, 112–13, 114, 157 algae 79, 98 green algae 76, 98 Porphyra columbina 98 red algae (Adenocystis utricularis) 98 red algae (Rhodymenia subantarctica) 98 see also kelp (brown algae) amphipods 142 ANARE (Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions) 26, 124, 130, 149, 154, 156 station 55–61 ANAREsat 54, 149 animals see domesticated animals; feral animals; rodents Antarctica 19, 21 Antarctic Circumpolar Current 17, 19, 21 Antarctic Convergence 17 Antarctic expeditions 26, 34, 45, 46–51, 47, 53, 55, 80, 124, 130
on ‘featherbed’ 80, 90–1
BANZARE (British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expeditions)
on feldmark 88, 90, 91, 93
53, 55, 80
origins 90 on plateau 91
basalt distribution 75
reproduction 90
formation 72
spread 91
pillow basalts 25, 72, 72, 74, 75
as understorey 91
tabular basalts 72, 75
see also lichens; liverworts; mosses
Bauer, O. 48, 51, 52, 52, 53
Buckles Bay 42, 46
Bauer Bay 22, 56, 57
Bunt, J.S. 94
Bauer Creek 76
Bureau of Meteorology 150
beaches 23
Burton, J.R. 44, 45, 124
Bellingshausen, Admiral von 34, 43, 44, 117
Campbell & Co. (sealers) 30, 33
Bencleugh (shipwreck) 35, 41
Campbell Island 12, 19, 30, 43, 136
Bennett, I. 55
Campbell Macquarie (shipwreck) 41
Betsey (shipwreck) 41
Caroline (shipwreck) 41
Big Ben volcano 19
Caroline Cove 34, 41, 46, 48, 50, 68
birds
Carrick Bay 76
burrowing 12, 23, 121, 122, 123–4, 138 see also particular birds birds, extinct Macquarie Island Parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis) 34, 43, 44, 45, 129 Pacific Banded Rail (Rallus philippensis macquariensis) 43, 44, 45, 129 Stewart Island Weka (Galliralus australis scotti) 35, 124, 157, 129, 137, 138 birds, vagrant
cats domesticated 57, 136 feral 43, 44, 53, 60, 123, 124, 129, 137, 138, 157 chitons 142, 143 cladocerans 76 climate change 27, 124, 157 Clyde (shipwreck) 42, 42 coastal fringe 23 coastal terraces see ‘featherbed’
Antipodes Islands 19, 123
Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) 129
communications 149–50
aquatic plants
European Blackbird (Turdus merula) 129
copepods 76
Homing Pigeon (Colomba livia) 129
Countess Cimento (shipwreck) 41
Myriophyllum triphyllum 80
INDEX
171
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
6/11/07
7:05 PM
Page 172
Crabbe, A. 57
Eld, H. 43
Gymnoscopelus spp. 144
creeks 76
Elder, W. 35
mid-water 144
Csordas, Dr. S. 55, 130
Endeavour (shipwreck) 42, 51
Patagonian Toothfish
cushion plants 79
Enderby Island 45, 136
Azorella macquariensis 84, 89
erosion
Colobanthus affinis 84
due to ocean 69, 70, 70
C. apetalus 84
due to wind and rain 70, 71
C. muscoides 23, 84, 85
forming rock stacks 70
Davis, Captain J.K. 44, 45, 46
forming South Coast 69, 70
(Zanchlorrhynchus spinifer) 144 Spiny Plunderfish (Harpagifer georgianus georgianus) 144 Flat Creek 22, 64
Davis Bay 56, 60, 67
extinct birds see birds, extinct
flatworms 76
Dekker van Klinken, R. 141
faults
Floating Island Lake 77
diatoms 76
major fault systems 68
floating islands 76, 77
Discovery 44, 45, 53
shaping landscape 68, 69
freezing and thawing shaping landscape 71
dogs
Featherbed Flat Creek 64
domesticated 49, 136, 138 feral 33, 43, 138
‘featherbed’ (coastal terrace) formation 64, 67, 70, 71
huskies 48, 50
mosses, liverworts and lichens on 80, 90–1
dolerite 72, 74, 75 dolerite dykes 74, 75
named 49 feldmark vegetation 80
domesticated animals
cushion plants 23, 79, 84, 85, 89
cattle 57, 61
mosses, liverworts and lichens 88, 90, 91
chickens 49, 57, 61, 136
transition to grassland communities 88
goats 136
feral animals 15
sheep 49, 57, 136
impact on vascular plants 88
see also cats; dogs
and petrel populations 44, 123, 124
Douglass, Captain 26, 51
Stewart Island Weka 137, 138
ducks
see also cats; dogs; rabbits; rats and mice
Grey Teal (Anas gracilis) 129
fernbrake community 79, 80
fresh water bodies 76 see also lakes fungi 79 Ascomycetes 94 Basidiomycetes 94 distribution 94 early studies 94 Imperfect Fungi 94 Lower Fungi 94 mycorrhizal 94 slime moulds 94 symbiotic associations 94 see also mushrooms Furious Fifties 21 gabbro bodies 72, 75 Gardner, Z. 55
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) 129
Blechnum penna-marina 84, 85
gastropods 142
Pacific Black Duck (Anas superciliosa)
Grammitis poeppigiana 84
geology 72–5, 72, 73, 75
128, 129
Polystichum vestitum 81, 84
research 156
Dundas Island 135
field huts 56, 57, 57, 154
surveys 72
dunite 75
filmy fern (Hymenophyllum falklandicum) 84
volcanic origins 72, 74
Eagle (shipwreck) 41
Finch Creek 76
Eagle Cave 41
Finch Creek valley 68, 71
geological map 75
earthquakes 64, 70
First Fleet (sealers) 33
geomorphology
east coast 22
fish
field huts 56 rock stacks 73
172
(Dissostichus eleginoides) 144, 157 Spiny Horse Fish
see also particular rock types
effect of ocean 69, 70, 70 Black (Maori) Cod (Paranotothenia magellanica) 144
erosion 70–1 faults 68, 69
sheeted dyke complexes 75
bottom-dwelling 144
freezing and thawing of the ground 71
shipwrecks 41, 42
Electrona spp. 144
uplift 68, 69, 70
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
6/11/07
7:06 PM
Page 173
Gilham, M. 55 glaciation 65, 71
Hurd Point 49, 56, 60, 120, 130, 155 penguin colonies 43, 102
global warming 65
Hurley, Frank 48, 53
Goldsworthy, S. 130
hyaloclastites (volcanic glass) 74, 75
Goscombe, B. 72
hydrotheramal gypsum 74
grasses, smaller
Iles Crozet 19, 63, 104, 123, 124
Agrostis magellanica 80
Iles Kerguelen 19, 63, 104, 123, 124, 130
annual meadow grass (Poa annua) 80
Ingham, S. 55
Festuca contracta 80
insects 140, 141, 141
Puccinellia macquariensis 80 grasses, tall tussock 79, 88, 91 Poa cookii 80
Pyralid Moth (Eudonia mawsoni) 140 International Geophysical Year 60 introduced plants
P. foliosa 80, 86, 94, 123
Cerastium fontanum 88
P. litorosa 80
chick weed (Stellaria media) 88
Gratitude (shipwreck) 40, 41, 44 gravel lag 71 Green Gorge Basin 22, 56, 60, 60, 76 Greenslade, P. 141 guano 88 gull Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) 23, 126, 128 Hamilton, Professor A. 80, 88, 129, 138 Hamilton, Professor H. 44, 47, 48, 49 Handspike Point 23, 41, 80 harzburgite 63, 75 Hasselburg, Captain F. 30, 33 Hatch, J. 35, 39, 41, 44, 52, 53, 53 Heard Island 19, 63, 124, 130 Heard Island expedition 60 herbfield vegetation 80, 95
Poa annua (annual meadow grass) 80, 88 isopods 76, 142 Isthmus area 22, 49, 50 formation 68 Macquarie Island station 58–9, 68, 147, 147 Jessie Niccol (sealer) 35, 42, 43, 45 Jessie Niccol Creek 76, 84 Judge and Clerk Islets 23 kelp (brown algae) Antarctic bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica) 98–9, 99 Desmarestia spp. 99 holdfasts 98–9, 142 kelp forests 98–9 kelp rafts 99 Macrocystis pyrifera 98, 99, 99 Kista Dan 61
brassica (Cardamine corymbosa) 84
krill 21
buttercup (Ranunculus crassipes) 84
lagoons 76
coastal daisy (Leptinella plumosa) 84, 88, 129
Lake Scoble 55
cress (Callitriche Antarctica) 84
lakes
Epilobium brunnenscens 84
aquatic plants 80
E. pedunculare 84
fauna 76
Montia fontana 84
largest 22, 76
see also megaherbs
oligotrophic 76
Hines, K.C. 26
plateau 76
Hodgson, T.V. 45
salt concentration 76
Hooker, W.J. 43
temperatures 76
landscape, factors shaping see geomorphology landslides 70 Langdon Bay 68 Le Soeuf, D. 52 lichen 23, 79, 91 Buellia sp. 90 crustose species 91 Hypnum cupressiforme 90, 91 Lecanora sp. 90 Lepraria sp. 91 Metzgeria sp. 90, 91 Pertusaria sp. 91 Stereocaulon sp. 91 Turgidosculum sp. 90 Verrucaria sp. 90 Xanthoria sp. 90 life on the island Bureau of Meteorology 150 chef 149 communications 149–50 communications officers 149–150 doctor 149 getting out and about 154 mental challenges 154 researchers 150, 152–3 scientists 150 station leader 150 Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service 150 tradespeople 149 liverworts 95 Breutelia pendula 91 Chiloscyphus (Lophocolea) sp. 91 Clasmatocolea spp. 91 Dicranella sp. 91 Jamisoniella sp. 91 Jungermannia sp. 91 Lophocolea bidentata 90 Marchantia berteroana 90, 91 Megaceros sp. 91 Notoligotrichum sp. 91 Polytrichastrum sp. 91 Riccardia cochleata 91 long-line fisheries, effect on albatross 110, 114, 117
INDEX
173
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
6/11/07
7:06 PM
Page 174
Lord Nelson (shipwreck) 41
Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) 30, 144
Sanionia uncinata 91
Lusitania Bay 34, 39, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56,
Spiny Horse Fish
Sphagnum falcatulum 91
57, 60, 68, 75 lycopod (Huperzia australiana) 84 McKibbin, W. 44, 45
Spiny Plunderfish (Harpagifer georgianus georgianus) 144
Tortula rubra 91 Trematodon flexipes 91 Mount Aurora 25
McPherson, H. 55
marine planation 70
Mount Eitel 60
Macquarie Island 147, 147
marine plants
Mount Elder 164
climate 12, 26–7 current status 15
intertidal transition 98
Mount Hamilton 22
see also algae
mudstone 74, 75
discovery 12, 29, 30
marine platform formation 70
geography 22–3, 23
Marion Island 19, 130
Agrocybe sp. 95
Mawson, Sir D. 5, 22, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53,
Galerina sp. 95
geology 12, 72–5, 72, 73, 74, 75 geological map 75 geomorphology 68–71, 69, 70, 71 history 15, 29–62 influence of people on fauna 110 life on the island 149–54 location 19 origins 63, 64–5 rainfall 26, 27 research and management 15, 156–7 State Reserve (Tasmania) 156 travel to 61 Wildlife Sanctuary 52, 53, 156
57, 70, 72 Megaherbs Macquarie Island Cabbage (Stilbocarpa polaris) 9, 34, 79, 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 94 Pleurophyllum hookeri 9, 79, 80, 83, 86, 88, 91, 94, 129
mushrooms
Hygrocybe cf. nigrescens 95 Mycena sp. 95 Panaeolus cf. macquariensis 95 Scutellinia sp. 97 Tephrocybe (Mycena) sp. 95 see also fungi
meteorological observations 27, 49, 51, 55
mycorrhizal fungi 94
Mice, House (Mus musculus) 136
Nella Dan (shipwreck) 42, 61, 142
mire vegetation 80
nematodes 76
molluscs 143
New Zealand 26, 30, 35, 39, 41
mosses 79, 91
Nimrod 44, 45
Achrophyllum dentatum 91
Norman, F. 129
Macquarie Ridge Complex 22, 22, 63, 64–5
Amblystegium serpens 91
North Head 22, 68
Magga Dan 61
Andreaea spp. 91
Major Lake 22, 76
Aulacomnium palustre 91
marine debris 148
Brachythecium spp. 91
Nuggets 13, 38, 39, 40, 128
marine life offshore 21
Breutelia pendula 91
oceanic crust 17, 63, 64–5, 72, 156
beaked whale 144, 144
Bryum argenteum 90
oligochaetes 76
Electrona spp. 144
B. dichotomum 90
oozes 72, 75
Gymnoscopelus spp. 144
B. laevigatum 91
ophiolite complexes 17, 63, 64–5, 72, 156
intertidal zone 142, 143
Ditrichum strictum 91
orchids
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) 142, 144, 145
Frullania rostrata 91
marine plants 98
Hennediella heimii 90
Patagonian Toothfish (Dissostichus
Macromitrium longirostre 90, 91
World Heritage status 15, 63, 156–7
eleginoides) 144, 157
174
(Zanchlorrhynchus spinifer) 144
Muelleriella crassifolia 90
Cape Petrel breeding 124 seal breeding 130
grooved helmet orchid (Nematoceras sulcatum) 88 Macquarie Island helmet orchid (Nematoceras dienema) 85, 88
pilot whales 144
Plagiochila retrospectans 91
Pacific tectonic plate 64, 65, 74
red bivalve (Lasaea rubra rossiana) 142, 143
Pyrrhobryum mnioides 91
parakeets
Southern Right Whale
Rhacomitrium crispulum 91
(Eubalaena australis) 144 Spectacled Porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica) 144
R. pruinosum 91
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
Rhacocarpus purpurascens 91
Macquarie Island Parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae erythrotis) 34, 43, 44, 45, 129 Red-crowned Parakeet 45
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
6/11/07
7:06 PM
Page 175
Parker, Alan 57
phytoplankton 21
Russian Antarctic Expedition 34
Peacock 43, 44
pillow basalts 25, 72, 72, 74, 75
Sandell, C. 47, 48
penguins 12
plants see aquatic plants; cushion plants;
Sandell Bay 67, 68
Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua papua) 106, 107, 107 King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus) 21, 21, 38, 39, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108–9
grasses; herbfield vegetation; introduced
sandstones 75
plants; marine plants; orchids; sedges;
Sandy Bay 22, 49, 56, 57, 60, 68, 150
vascular plants; woody plants plateau 22, 25, 27, 27
oil industry 15, 38, 39, 39, 52–3, 107, 136
field huts 56
physiology 102
mosses, liverworts and lichens on 91
population 38, 39, 107
vegetation stripes (terraces ) 71
Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) 50, 102, 104, 104, 106 Royal Penguins (Eudyptes schlegeli) 13, 39, 39, 46, 53, 60, 102, 103, 104, 106 periglacial phenomena and landscape 71 Perseverance (whaler) 30, 33 petrels Blue Petrel (Halobaena caerulea)
Sawyer, A. 47, 48, 51 Sawyer Creek 76, 84 scientific expeditions 34, 43, 46–51, 47, 50, 55 see also ANARE Scoble, C.H. 55
Polar Front 17, 19, 21, 144
Scott, Captain 44, 45
Power, H. 51
Scott, Professor J.H. 43, 80, 84
Prince Edward Islands 19, 63, 104, 123
sea level changes
prions 121 Antarctic Prion (Pachyptila desolata) 20, 124, 125 Fairy/Fulmer Prion (Pachyptila turtur/crassirostris) 124, 125
interaction with uplift 70 shaping landscape 70 seals Antarctic Fur Seal (Arctocephalus gazella) 33, 130, 131
Prion Lake 76
fur trade 15, 30, 31, 33, 33, 35, 55, 130
burrowing 23, 121, 122, 123–4, 138
pumice 74
hybridisation 130
Cape Petrel (Daption capense) 123, 124
rabbits
Leopard Seal
44, 122, 124, 138
Common Diving Petrel (Pelacanoides urinatrix) 124 Grey Petrel (Procellaria cinerea) 122, 123, 24, 138 Grey-backed Storm Petrel (Oceanites nereis)
damage done by 15, 35, 57, 66, 70, 80, 84, 121, 122, 123, 137 European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 35, 137, 138, 139 Raine, Captain T. 43, 144
(Hydrurga leptonyx) 49, 135, 135 New Zealand Fur Seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) 130 New Zealand (Hooker) Sea Lion (Phocarctos hookeri) 135
Ramsay, D. 43
oil industry 15, 30, 33, 34–5, 34, 53
impact of feral animals 44, 123, 124
Rats, Black (Rattus rattus) 136, 137
populations 15, 30, 31¸32, 33, 34, 49, 130
Northern Giant Petrel
Red River 76
Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina)
121, 124
(Macronectes halli) 120, 121 Soft-plumaged Petrel (Pterodroma mollis) 121, 124 Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) 121, 121 White-headed Petrel (Pterodroma lessonii) 122, 123 see also prions; shearwaters Petrel Peak 22, 57, 139 albatross breeding ground 17, 22, 112, 114, 114, 115, 157
Redpoll (Carduleis flammea) 126, 129 research 150, 152–3 botany 61, 156, 157 geology 156 wildlife 61, 155, 156, 157
12, 15, 15, 30, 33, 34–5, 34, 36–7, 49, 101, 130, 132–3, 134, 135, 144, 145, 164 Subantarctic Fur Seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis) 30, 32, 33, 130 sedges 79
rivers 76
large sedge (Carex trifida) 80, 85
rock stacks 18, 70, 73
Luzula crinita 80
rodents 49, 53, 57
Uncinia hookeri 80
Black Rat (Rattus rattus) 136, 137
sedimentary rocks 75
Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) 136
Seppelt, R. 90
House Mouse (Mus musculus) 136
serpentinite 74
INDEX
175
FINAL_MI_REF_INDEX
6/11/07
7:07 PM
Page 176
The ‘Shack’ 48, 51
Taylor, B.W. 80
West Rock 114
Shackleton, E. 45, 46
tectonic plates 63, 64, 65, 65, 68, 74
whales 21
shag
tern
Macquarie Island Shag (Blue-eyed Cormorant)
beaked whale 144, 144 Antarctic Tern (Sterna vittata bethunei) 126, 128, 129
(Leucocarbo atriceps purpurascens) 126, 127 shearwaters 122 Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus) 122, 124 sheeted dyke complexes 75 shipwrecks 40, 41–2
The Home of the Blizzard: The story of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911–1914 46
pilot whales 144 Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) 144 Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) 30, 144 wildlife research 156
short grassland vegetation 80
Tiobunga Lake 57, 60
Wilkes, Lieutenant C. 43, 44
skuas 23
tourists 61, 150, 156
Williams, R. 144
troctolite 75
wind 12, 21, 27, 76
Subantarctic Skua (Catharacta lonnbergi lonnbergi) 126, 128 slime moulds Lamproderma ovoideum 94
ultramafic rocks 63, 75
changing landscape 70, 71
United States Exploring Expedition 43
Windy Ridge 60
uplift
Wireless Hill 48, 49, 50, 70
cause 68
wireless station 46, 48, 49, 51, 52, 57
soil creep 70
interaction with sea level changes 70
woody plant
South Coast 22, 46
rate of 68
role in environment 94
formation of landscape 69, 70
shaping landscape 68, 69
South Georgia 19, 63, 104, 124, 130
vagrant birds see birds, vagrant
southern lights (aurora australis) 159
vascular plants 85
Southern Ocean 19
distribution 88
changing sea level 70
impact of feral animals 88
composition 21
impact of native animals 88
erosive effects 69, 70, 70
mycorrhizal fungi 94
marine life 21
similarities to New Zealand 80
shaping landscape 70 subantarctic islands 17, 19, 26, 45, 63
vegetation groups 80 vegetation groups 80
South-west Coast 17
volcano 19
springtails 141
volcaniclastic sediments 72
squid 21, 117, 142, 142
Waterfall Bay 56, 60, 68
starling
Waterfall Lake 17, 76
European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) 126, 129
weather observations 27, 49, 51, 55
subantarctic copepod (Boeckella brevicaudata) 76
wehrlite 75
subantarctic islands 17, 19, 26, 45, 63
west coast 22, 46
tabular basalts 72, 75
coastal terraces 67, 71
tall tussock grassland vegetation 80
erosion 15, 70
tarns 76
field huts 56
Tasmanian Government 35, 39, 52, 53, 156
inhospitable 39
Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service 15, 138,
sealing bases 34
150, 154, 157
176
Thala Dan 61
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) 142, 144, 145
S U B A N TA R C T I C W I L D E R N E S S
shipwrecks 41
Coprosma perpusilla 84, 85, 88 Zodiacs 154 zooplankton 21
