Theatrical Scene Painting: A Lesson Guide, 2nd edition

Theatrical Scene Painting

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Souther IllinoIs

Pr~ss • Ca~bcmdale

For Jenny, Averie, and Reilly

Copyright © 1987, 2008 by the Board of Trustees, Southern Illinois University All rights rese rved, First edition 1987 Second edition 2008 Printed in the United States of America 11

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data Pinnell, William H . Theatrical scene painting: a lesson guide I William H. Pinnell-2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-2765-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-lO: 0-8093-2765-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Scene painting-Technique. 1. Title. ND2885.P562008 751.7'5- dc22 2007019669 Printed on recycled paper. 0 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.0

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments xi

vii ix

Part 1 Materials and Techniques of Texture 1 1. Space 3 Paint frame; boomerang; continental system; floor paper 2. Equipment 7 Buckets and containers; paint carriers; brushes; paint and dye: dry pigments, cascin, vinyl paints, latex paints, dyes, bronze powders 3. Color 19 Color psychology; basic color mixing; color wheel; primaries, secondaries, and complementaries; using black and white; T able ofNioc Mixtures; classic scene-painting palette (traditional terminology) 4. M ixing the Base, T int, and Shade 29 Procedure; analogous colors and the common denominator 5. Prepa ring the Surface to Be Painted 32 Flameproofing; primer coat 6. Basic Scene Painting a nd Texture 34 Focus and toning; procedural methods; graded wet blend; scumbling; spattering (and spatter and drag); sponging; stippling; rag rolling; rolling; flogging; puddling; dry brushing; stenciling and stamping; spraying; brush care

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Part 2. Basic Lessons 71 7. The Three-D imensional Illusion and the Light Source 71 Highlights and lowlights; shadows, glazes/washes; lining; using the straightedge 8. Stonework 80 Bricks; rough stones; cut stones; marble 9. Wallpaper 103 Painting considerations; pounce method; stenciling; pattern arrangements; spattering or spraying; stamping a pattern 10. Woodwork 116 Graining; rendering methods: wash method, opaque method, drybrush method; wainscoting; recessed and protruding panels; additional examples

Part 3. Advanced Lcssons 139 11. Cornice Moldings 139 Roman agee and cove; reversing the light source 12. Panels and Posts 157 13. Reflective Metallic Objects 161 Graphic-arts approach; scene-painting approach 14. Draperies 170 15. Foliage 180 16. Clouds, Mountains, and Water 191 17. Scale Transfers 202 Pai nter's elevation; gridding; opaque and overhead projectors 18. Perspective and the Vista 209 Perspectivc; vanishing points 19. Drops and Scrims 222 Laying out; starch priming; storing drops; flexible glue; painting the drop; translucencies; cut drops and scrims 20. A Final Word 232 Glossary

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Preface to the Second Edition

Any readers fam iliar with the first edition of this book will fi nd its second edition far morc comprehensive in scope. lhe first edition, a good primer, is geared to the beginning- and intermediate-level scene painters, but I have found over the decades of teaching design and painting at the university level that as the caliber of my students began to risc, so did the need for a more in-depth syllabus for my scene-painting courses. The first edition of 'Theatrical Scene Painting left some questions unanswered, and the range of its painting examples did not match the growth and eagerness of my students. I have expanded the painting projects in my classes, so writing a second edition to keep in step seemed the natural and necessary thing to do. Many sections from the first edition were kept, some dated ones ] threw out, and in others, I updated methods of procedure for both the basic and advanced painting lessons. Some new features are additional text to support origins of painting techniques clearer step-by-step descriptions and more convenient illustration-to-text sequencing many new instructional photographs and drawings additional painting projects and their possible variations an expanded glossary a gaIJery featuring examples of professional scenic designers and scenic artists ' Lhese improvements are speCifically intended to allow the reader and painter a more clear and concise formula for effiCiently and successfully creating impressive projects. This edition, with its clarity and appeal, was created in the hope of inspiring further explorations into the magical illusions unique to the art of theatrical scene painting.

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Preface to the First Edition

All stage scenery strives for a textural quality, a surface smoothness or roughness that will provoke a particular, albeit subconscious, emotional reaction in the spectator. One does not react or relate equally to textures of coarse stucco, plush velvet, aged wood, or polished chrome. lluough the setting, the scenic designer uses, among other tools, textures and dimensions to support the emotional qualities inherent in tbe play. Appropriate to the ex tent of the production budget, those textures may be three-dimensionally duplicated or achieved through the artistry of the scene painter. The following work takes a very traditional and singular line. The techniques that form the foundation of traditional scene painting are what will be examined here, techniques employed to fool the eye into believing that twodimensional surfaces possess a third dimension. M any devices and materials can be used to supplement the illusion of scene painting. Exciting and creative developments have been made with an aggregate of materials and textural aides. But this book is geared to the creative artist who, for lack of additional tools or for personal preference, must work with merely canvas and color. Everything discussed and illustrated on the following pages is directed toward techniques employed in the realistic style ofscene painting. But attempting to teach or learn and recognize realism is merely a starting point. Although realism and attempts to "mirror the real world" may be the foundation of one of the largest walls in the theater, they do not necessarily provide the most enjoyable entertainment. Realism may, conversely, serve as a model from which we derive our own interpretations and create individual styles of expression. Of course, scenery and its accompanying scene painting must blend into the style and interpretation of the production. And more often than not, a play

will demand a realistic locale for the passage of its events. Accordingly, the painter must apply his knowledge of realistic impressions. But it is important that each and every painter in doing so not preoccupy him or herself with a quest for realistic duplication. Style must be encouraged. For with the development of style, self-assessments of aptitude and strong and weak points will occur. With the strong points will come the confidence needed to expand and experiment. With the weak points, ideally, efforts will be made to overcome shortcomings or find alternate approaches. What will result will be the individual painter-a painter who, through experimentation, has developed a uniqueness of expression unlike any other painter. And, after all, is that not what the theater is about: to develop an abi lity to perceive, evaluate, and create an expression that is d istinctly individual, meaningful, and entertaining? Scene painting can be pleasurable or a devastatingly arduous and tedious experience. l 11e hours can be long, and your wardrobe will take a good beating if you are not suitably dressed. The importance of preplanning and organization cannot be minimized . Preparation is the key. Carefully plot what has to be done, and verify the sequence of painting steps that best suit your working habits. Make sure the scenery has been fully prepared for painting and is securely in position. Is there enough floor space for safe mobility? There is nothing worse than having to walk uphill no matter which direction you head. H ave extra surfaces been set aside for testing paint samples? Finally, are there enough buckets, containers, and stir sticks available to mix your colors? The next morning you will thank yourself for quitting earlier the day before so the painting area could be cleaned and reorganized. Most importantly, make every effort to keep your work enjoyable. Take a break when you need it. D on't push for the marathon sessions. Remember that your painting is making a valuable contribution to the production and is no less important and integral [0 its success than any other element. Your role is an expressive one, but unlike any other in the theater, it can only be achieved by the sympat hetic stroke of the painter's brush.

Acknowledgments

The design and painting process is constantly one of creative self-ed ucation coupled with the tutelage given by respected and trusted mentors. Much of this book is evidence of the talented instruction given me by Professor Emeritus Russell E. Smith of Wayne State University and scenic artists Vern Smith and James Miller. Special thanks are extended to the following: Rick Banville, production manager of Opera Atelier in Toronto, Ontario, for his kind permission to feature many examples taken from the Opera's productions; to Gerard Gauci, resident designer for Opera Atelier, for his breathtaking desig ns and color plates he generously allowed me to USC; to R ichard Mongiat from Scenic D rop Studios in Toronto, who, on behalf of his late business partner and fr iend Jules Tonus, painted the designs commissioned by Opera Atelier; and to David Court, whose ever-growing talent is evidenced through his kind contribut ions. With Richard Mongiat, 1 also gratefully recognize the artistry of any additional painters whose specific contributions could not be identified . Much apprcciation is extended for the generous assistance of the technical theater staff at the University of Windsor, in particular Nancy and Tedfred Myers, Nicola Oi Risio, and D aniellc Mac Kinnon . Finally, I will forever deeply appreciate the support and patience of Kelly and my mother and father, without whose love, advice, and encouragement this book and its revision would never have been written.

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Theatrical Scene Painting

Part 1

Materials and Techniques of Texture

Scholars and historians have debated for centuries as to how, when, and by whom scene painting came into being. The debate has raged because most of what is known is relatively scant, upon which conjecture has been based. What can be cited arc the writings of Roman historian Vitruvius, who, writ~ ing in the first century H.C.E., made mention of a painter who worked with the Creek playwright Aeschylus. As many of toclay's theatrical conventions found their beginnings in ancient Greece, it is hardly ullsurprising, and quite likely, that the first person to use some semblance of theatrical painting was this first of all great Greek playwrights. The painter with whom he worked-and on what play or how many is unknown-was a gifted and inventive painter by the name of Agatharchus. H is bag of tricks may have contained a technique the Greeks called skiagraphia, or "shadow painting." This is most interesting, as the mere hint of a shadow in a painted illusion leads to the assumption that the paintings created by Agatharchus likely possessed some semblance of depth, plane variation, or three-dimensional illusion. To what extent the fo rms of scene painting used now were in practice then is totally without evidence. It is assumed that a type of scenic surface-or pinake (a precursor of the scenic Rat), which scholars believe was inserted in entrance doorways of the skene or scene house (see fig. l)-was painted upon, thus giving an impression of the genre or theme of the play being presented. D espite the historical references to shadow paiming, however convincing or tangible the images may have been, is, unfortunately, in the hands of the wishful dreamer; and what could have been an interesting illusion to the eye of the ancient Greek was probably achieved by accident or keen observation on the part of the painter. It is safe to say that practitioners in antiqu ity possessed no

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a pinoke ( P) in a doorway of an ancient Greek skene. or 5CCne house

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knowledge oflinear-pcrspectivc formulae or what the art world has come to rely on as the most powerful and expressive tools: line, mass, color, and texture. The appreciation and potency of texture for scenic reality came into prominence in the twentieth century. Texture remains an invaluable tool and has received nearly as much scientific investigations on the subconscious as have the psychology of colors and aroma therapy. And t he term lexture, in the visual arena, is not meant to just be applicable to a flat surface that possesses a tactile illusion. Multiplaned surfaces (actually replete with sculpted moldings) recessions, and architectural protrusions can also said to be visibly textural. Texture on stage scenery may be achieved in two ways : aetna/or simulated. Actual textures assume a three-dimensional fo rm and may be constructed by using dimensional replicas or by building up the scenic surface with substitutes, such as resins, Styrofoam, carpeting, and plastics. The list of materials for application is practically endless and can be as simple and ingenious as using painted bubble wrap for chain mail. Simulated textures are achieved through the techniques and talents of scene painting in which the audience is fooled into believing that a surface is actually textured or multilevcled. Not only can the scene painter produce a wide variety of textures but also create amazing illusions of depth and protrusion. The scene painter employs a number of tools to achieve texture: varying shapes and sizes of brushes, sponges, fabric, sprayers, rollers, feathe r dusters, and string. One need only look around, fo r there is really no limit to what can be used. The utensils coveted in this book are time tested; they may, however,

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be abandoned or substituted according to the preference or style of the individual painter. But before further discussions on texture as simulated through scene painting, it is necessary to outline the working requirements of space and materials one will need before this art of illusion can begin.

1. Space A good working area is essential. A warm, dry atmosphere is a distinct asset. The consistencies of most paints and dyes react unfavorably to cold, and the drying time will be markedly and inconveniently retarded. Conversely, painting in a warm room or in sunlight will speed up the drying times.

Paint Frame Many professional scene shops and theaters have large, wooden paint frames, hung vertically, to which drops, scrims, and other forms of two-dim ensional scenery may be attached. The frame is usually permanently attached to the back walJ of the theater or paint shop, but it may be of such a nature that it can be raised or lowered through a slit in the floor, allowing the scenic artist to remain on one level without climbing ladders (see fig. 2).

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Figure 2

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Boomerang If the paint frame is stationary, the scene painter may either work on a movable bridge or use a boomerang. A boomerang is a construction on casters much resembling a flight of steps with convenient land ings so the scene painter can change his or her elevation and paint the scenery with ease (see fig. 3).

Figure 3

A BOOMERANG

Continental System Should a paint frame not be available and large drops or scrims have to be painted, a room with adequate floo r space is necessary. Individual flats can be painted on their sides or, if ceiling space allows, may be stood upright. Should the room's available height be a restriction, the scenery must be placed flat on the Roar. The method of painting scenery wh ile it is lying faceup on the floor is called the (ontinental system. 1his system originated in Europe and received its moniker by Westerners in referring to Europe as "the continent." Painting continentally is also commonly referred to as horizontal painting, painting jlat, or painting down. Most scene painters prefer the continental method for painting much of their scenery, regardless of the space and f..1.cilities available.

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This preference is largely related to the number of painting effects that can be achieved when the forces of gravity are not in play. Blending and man ling col~ ors into soft, ethereal fusions are all but impossible on a vertical surface. And when one works with dyes, which are generally much thinner in consistency than paints, the control of color and line is much easier to accomplish continentally. Upright painting, where gravity can be the enemy, may result in the unwanted and frustrating dripping of color. Painting a small piece of scenery that is lying faceup and resting on sawhorses is a convenient arrangement in that the painter may comfortably stand and work with the same proximity to the painting surf.'lce as if it were placed vertically. The adjustment from the vertical to the horizontal approach when the scenery is lying on the floor does require practice. In vertical painting, the bristles of the brush are within inches of the motor control of the fingers and wrist. In horizontal painting, small areas can be painted by the painter kneeling; however, to avoid back strain and give the painter a broader visual scope of the work being done, brushes are common ly attached to boards and bamboo sticks so the painter can remain in a standing position (see figs. 4a and 4b) . With patience and practice, one can develop the same sense of motor control with the bristles that are now three feet away. Not only will the painter work with ease but the paint is, by gravity, always running downward to the tip of the brush, thereby lessening

Figure 4a.}ules Tonus, scenic artist

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C ONTINENTAL PA INTING - STANDING

Figure 4b

the number of times the brush must be recharged. An additional advantage to the continental method rests in the retarded drying time of the paints and dyes. Because air cannot readily circulate bet ween the scenery and the floor, paints will remain wetter longer and allow additional time for the wet mixing of colors if desired.

Floor Paper When continentally painting flats, t he floor should be covered with brown kraft paper to catch spilled or refuse paint. When painting drops or scrims on the floor, gray bogus paper as an undercovering should be used to allow evenness in drying. (The rough side of the bogus paper should be facing up to allow maximum absorption.) Kraft paper, on the other hand, should not be used under drops and scrims, as it does not absorb water well and wilJ buckJe when wet. Commercially available waxed paper should be used when gluing appliques or reinforcing cut drops with scrim or scenic netting. The waxed paper will peel away from the rear of the drops and scrims, whereas gray bogus paper will stick.

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2. Equipment Buckets and Containers Even fo r paiming small, simple pieces of scenery, buckets and containers in which to mix paint are needed. The obvious containers are the ones in which the paint is shipped. Most commonly, manufacturers package theif products in either of two types of containers: 1.

convenient 1- or S-gaJlon plastic bucket that has its own snap-on lids to keep the color fresh. These may be cleaned and used for years, will stack neatly together, and are very light and portable.

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I-gallon metal or plastic paint cans with lids. Those of metal will not stack, and the lids, when firmly sealed, must be pried open with a paint key or slot screwdriver. Plastic cans are available with snap-on and screw-on lids and stack when empty.

l he main drawback of these cans occurs when paint is allowed to collect in the top groove of the can in which the lid goes. Taking a few moments to hammer nails to make holes through this groove will allow collecting paint to drip into the can, keeping the groove clear and allowing the lid to be resealed with ease. Both of these containers types are fairly easy to clean ifhot water is allowed to soak in them soon after the paint has been exhausted. It is wise to save the 5-gallon containers that white or black paint come in when large quantities are ordered . These containers are rugged plastic, with sturdy handles and heavy-duty lids with pour spouts perfect for mixing large quantities of a color and storing unused quantities. Plastic buckets (2- to 3gallon capacity) with shaped pour spouts are a must. The only draw back is that many available in hardware and dO-it-yourself centers may not come with lids. For the durat ion of the painting period, 1,4 inch plyvvood disks may be placed on the top of the bucket, with a weight of some sort resting upon it. This will keep most of the air out and hclp paint retain freshness for a couple of weeks . Aluminum cans, commercial ly referred to as number 10 size, will prove very handy for smaller quantities of special colors (dozens of these cans arc thrown out daily by restaurants and cafeterias) as are coffee cans with plastic lids. For smaller quantities of brilliant colors, metallic paints, and the like, maintain a generous supply of plastic, lidded containers from margarine, yogurt, dessert topping, and sim ilar items (see fig. 5).

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Figure 5

5 gallon

2·3 gallon

No. 10 can

(coffee can)

Paint Carriers Paint carriers are a must for the painter who has to move from area to area in the shop (sec fig. 6). These not only provide for the easy mobility of the paint but helps prevent the spilling of it and includes a storage area for extra brushes, charcoal sticks, and fclt-tip markers. Under the rolling carrier are casters for roUing the unit around, while furniture pads tacked on the underside of the base of the pick-up-and-carry type minimize the possibility of damage to the horizontal painting surface when the carrier is moved .

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PICK·UP & CARRY

Figure 6

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Brushes The brush is the painter's most prized possession. To the sensitive painter, each brush in his or her collection has a unique feel and special purpose. 1he more superstitious of painters will only work with their own brushes (much the way a ballplayer uses only his or her own bat) and claim that borrowed brushes are unsuitable, inferior, and simply don't feel right. Regardless ofindividual preferences, eccentricities, or superstitions, every painter is aware that no one brush will serve all painting needs and that a repertoire of shapes and sizes is required to fulfill painting stroke requirements. Figure 7 illustrates the components of the paintbrush. The shapes of the bristle and ferrule and the length and shape of the handle determine the type of brush and its recommended usage. 1be foUowing brushes common to scene painting arc displayed in figure 8: 1. A large brush called a primer is 5 to 6 inches in width and, as its name would suggest, is used to treat newly covered flats with a scaling coat of paint. Its bristles are soft and should not be confused with a whitewashing brush, which has stiffer bristles. The larger the brush the marc smoothly and quickly large areas can be covered. The primer brush may also be used for applying base coats of paint. This brush is usually ordered through a theatrical supplier, although some home centers do carry wide brushes with fairly supple bristles. 2. Lay-in brushes come in 3 inch, 4 inch, and 5 inch widths. They cover rapidly and cut sharp edges when twisted. Brushes of this nature can be pu rchased in any paint or hardware store and home center, but be sure to choose ones with relatively soft bristles. (Those referred to as "latex brushes" will work well, as many brands of scenic paint come in latex form .) Bristle length is also important. Avoid stubby brushes, as the longer the bristle, the more paint the brush will hold . 3. Foliage brushes, sometimes called jantai/s, range from Ph to 3'h inches in width at the ferrule. 1beir unique bristle shape allows for graceful imprints when the edge of the bristles' length is pressed against the painting surface. Fantails arc purchased through theatrical painting and supply houses. 4. Small, long-handled brushes arc called liner brushes (or, more commonly years ago, fitches) and will range from a 1J4 inch cutting brush to 2 inches in width . These brushes possess a sharp chisel point, generally made from Chinese bristles, and are used primarily for lining, tapering strokes, and endless detail work and touch-ups. 1he ends of the bristles may be parallel to

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.;. DIAGRAM OF THE PAINT BR USH .;.

Figure 7

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Trim EJrush

Fig ure 8

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the bottom edge of the ferrule or shaped at an angle, resembling a standard trim brush (see the trim brush in fig. 8). They are available through theatrical suppliers. 5. Stencil brushes and round brushes have a round ferrule and are used to pound paint through stencils. Not as long as a stencil brush, round brushes come in varieties of diameters and bristle qualities and may also be used for detail work. They are available through theatrical supply, arts supply, craft stores, and similar places. Trim brushes are favored by house and interior painters because their angled bristles allow easy painting into corners, at wall-ceitingjunctures, and around moldings and trim. They can be used for variety of utility purposes in scene painting and are available at hardware stores and home centers. 6. Spuialty brushes are those adapted from new brushes or from older or worn brushes. One common example is the cut-bristle brush, which is used for graining, cloth-fiber appearances, and general linear texturing. Clumps of bristles have either fallen out or been removed . Any brush could become a specialty brush if one is ingenious enough. Hardware and paint stores also feature semidisposable, black, foam-rubbe r brushes with wooden handles. These brushes come in va rious widths and have a preformed chisel point but are not suited to large-scale tasks. TIle foam brush can be effective in painting props, set dressing, and smaller units of hard scenery. They can be used to cut in detail lines and arc sweeps. Notching the chisel end can produce interesting wood graining (see fig. 40b). But the foam itself is shorr-lived, crumbles easily, and never holds a great deal of paint. There are no rules as to what to use to get the job done: whatever works well and can be llsed repeatedly should qualify. Push brushes or brooms are ordinary long-handled janitor's brooms with softened bristles. Used for continental painting techniques, they can be found in hardware stores and home centers. With the possible exception of push brushes and brooms, all ot her paintbrushes have one t hing in common: each can be used in a variety of ways. Using a lay-in brush for the following examples, one may stroke on the paint in the usual fashion or imprint paint in three different ways : 1. jlat print. The broad face of the brush is pressed against the surface

(see fig. 9a). A variation on this is thejlick, which somewhat resembles a scumble stroke. 2. jlat-twist print. The broad bristle t:'lce is placed flat against the surface, and the brush is gently twisted or flipped over (see fig. 9b).

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(a) Flat Print

Figure 9

3.

side print. The side edge of the brush lies on the paint surface as the handle begins a rolling up motion (sec fig. 9c).

Another attack is the end print, which, essentially, is a stippling motion in that just the ends of the bristles make contact. It behooves one to practice these st rokes and possible combinations and variations with all different types of brushes as mastery will create a valuable arsenal. If one is serious about scene painting, it is worthwhile to buy best-quality brushes. Brushes resembling some of those described above might be found in cavernous home centers, but for scene-painting needs, it is best to shop through a theatrical supplier where one can be sure the brushes purchased suit theatrical needs. European white bristle liner and f.1.ntail brushes are extremely durable if properly used, cleaned, and stored. Artist easel brushes may find a calling for special painting needs but are generally of too hard or soft a bristle texture for scene-painting needs.

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Though certainly not a brush, having a supply of painter's tape on hand is important. Resembling masking tape, though not as strong and stubborn, painter's tape is intended to mask off areas and is much more easily removed than masking tape. It comes in a variety of widths, is foun d in the painting supply area of almost any hardware store or home center, and is conveniently recognized by its green or blue color (for additional scene painting aids, please see part 2, section 7, "Lining,~ and section 9, "Wallpaper").

Paint and Dye Many types of paints and dyes are used in painting scenery. Paints, in their opaque form, are used to provide a color that will mask over a previous color. When t hinned to a wash, also called glaze, consistency, they work much in the same way as a dye by casting a transparent or semi-transparent color over an existing one. (The terms wash and glaze arc synonymous and may be used interchangeably.) The original colorwiU show through to the extent it has been enhanced or masked by the thinned paint or dye-aver-color. All paints, whether used straight from containers, watered down, or mixed with other colors, are classified as a suspension, rather than a solution. A solution is a combination ofingredients that when mixed will not separate; in a suspension, the ingredients separate. Paints are composed of a coloring agent mixed with a liqu id binding agent. This binding agent is made from water and another substance that will cause the paint to stick to the painting surface after the water in the binding agent evaporates. The color property in t he paint is almost excluSively heav ier than its binding agent, which is why paints need to be stirred often . The coloring agent or agents are floating, that is, suspended, in the liquid binding agent. And the more paint is t hinned down, the more likely the color will sink to the bottom if the paint is not repeatedly stirred. l hose coloring mediums that have historical significance and those in common use today, which may be of historical significance, are (though not in any significant order) : dry pigments caselO vinyl paint latex paint dyes bronze powders

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From the above, many derivatives are available, and the combined usage of several on one painting project is not uncommon. Each is described below fo r its singular characteristics and individual usage. Dry pigments are the oldest and most "traditional~ form of scene paint. 1heir use, in primitive form, predates not only the theater but the civilized world. Paleolithic artists whose cave paintings were discovered quite by accident by amateur spelunkers in southeastern France created colored images that have been carbon-dated to thirty thousand years. The age of the paintings is under somewhat of a controversy as some of the paints used were created from iron oxides. As only those drawings and paintings whose colors were mixed with bone, wood, or plant fibers (i.e ., from once-living organisms) can be dated using carbon 14 dating, a scholarly squabble to do with the exact dating of the cave paintings will continue until other empirical evidence, if any, surfaces. It does appear that the most prevalent color used in ancient paintings was a red derived from what is now classified as hematite. The word hematite is derived from the Greek word hema or haima, meaning blood . Although hematite can be found in two forms, either in black, lustrous crystals or red powder, it was the red that was most used by Paleolithic peoples. The color red was associated with blood, the most vital of fluids. It came to dramatically symbolize life's very beginning and end. Although the Paleolithic color spectrum was but a flicker of the unlimited one in use today, they used red, black, and yellow to create impressive and often magnificent sweeps of line that majestically captured their prey and beasts of prey. Their coloring pigments of ground rock, bits of clay, limestone, charcoal, ground bone, roots, and berries were mixed into a paste that served as a binding agent that would make the paints adhere to the cave's walls. The binding liquids were made from rendered fat and bone marrow, sinew, saliva, vegetable ju ices, urine, or egg whites. The extent to wh ich the ancient colors were liquefied would have had a direct bearing on their methods of application. While the cave paintings may be spectacular in appearance and sophisticated in scope, there is no evidence to suggest that the colors were employed other than in a crayon-stick type of consistency. Perhaps brushing, as now thought of, was not even used. Historians can only speculate on how the paints were applied by observing the final product. The very pock-marked surface of the cave walls could lead to speculation that the paints were either dabbed or smeared on, perhaps by using the fingertips. Large areas could have been covered by using animals skins damp with paint. To suggest primitive people invented the paintbrush is wishful speculation. It is, however, reasonable to assume that commensurate with the extent of the artistry found on the cave

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walls could have been the creative technology capable of binding hair to a stick or bone, thus resembling the beginnings of a paintbrush. As the consistency of the paint medium became thinner, one might jump to the notion that its application could have become more graceful and refined. Could feathers have come into play? The Yanomami peoples, living an almost preh istoric ex istence in remote areas ofVenezue1a and Brazil, blow thinned colors through hollow bones, thus creating an air-brushed appearance to their paintings. Could their global ancestors have done likewise? Regardless as to debamble methods of application, primitive paints have much in common even with roday's media, in that every form of modern paint contains a binding agent; and as was the case in the dawn of humankind, once the water in the binding agent evaporates the adherent property-whether animal sinew or acrylic-allows the paint to stick to a surface. And although the basic formula of color plus binding agent has not changed since prehistoric times, its processing has evolved light-years in terms of synthetic substitutions and color variations. Despite their color range, which is broad and often brilliantly rich, dry pigments are not in common use today largely because of two f.'lctors: (1) the inconveniences of preparation and maintenance and (2) health concerns. Dry pigments are finely ground; although heavier in volume than talcum powder, particles, when sifted and measured, may go into the air and may be ingested. Although more difficult to purchase now, dry pigments are available by the pound in powder fo rm, and later mixed with a separate binder, or glue solution. If mixed only with water, the paint will dry back to its original powdered smte and not adhere to the scenery. Though almost any type of binder could be used with this kind of scene paint, the one type that will not dull the Vibrancy of the powder pigments and is the most economical in the long run is called size water. Although size water may apply to any glue solution that has been cut with water, ground, or flaked, animal glue and hot water are the ingredients of traditional size water. Using animal glue has become both an environmental and political powder keg, greatly discouraging its use . As to the maintenance of liquefied dry pigments, all binding solutions have a tendency to separate with the gluing agent, which, being heavier than water, will settle to the bottom. This can cause quite the sludge at the bucket's base, which must be stirred until the paint is mixed thoroughly again. (When using the old animal glue, the binder would coagulate and harden when cool. The bucket needed to be reheated in a double-boiler arrangement to soften it, and the resulting smell could be putrid !)

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When dry pigments have d ried, they may often lack the permanence of other media, such as, casein, vinyl, or latex, and may need to be "sealed," or covered, by a waterproof glaze (Le., latex or vinyl) to prevent the pigments from rubbing off. Whiting is used to stretch the quantity of the paint, which is then tinted to the appropriate color with other more expensive and exotic dry-pigment colors. On the cheaper end of the price scale is the whiting; the price of pigments per pound increases as the colors become more brilliant. Dry pigments are at least three times darker when wet, so some painters mix their colors fi rst in powder form, thus approximating the value of t he paint after it has dried, and then add the binder, and mix to the desired consistency. Couin, along with vinyl colors, is a very popular medium because of its ease of workability. Casein contains its own binder and stems from protein found in milk. It can be poured in its thin paste form from the can and conveniently mixed with warm water. D yes may be added to casein to deepen and strengthen its tone. Completely waterproof when dry, casein can be washed with a light solution of soap and water. Offering good hiding power, it may also be thinned to a wash and will mix read ily with other water-based med ia. Because ofits durabi lity, casein may be covered with glazes of dyes or thinncd paints without being rubbed up. Its Rat drying finish is slightly lighter when dry, and its rich colors maintain most of their wet-state vibrancy. Shelf life is excellent if tightly scaled. A small amount of water can be added to the top of the paint to keep it moist. Vinyl paint comes in liquid form, contains its own binder, and is thinned with water. Like casein and latex colors, its principal attributes lie in its permanence and the convenience of preparation and workability. It docs, however, lack the brilliance of dry-pigment colors and is not as vivid as casein, but it can be heightened (or enriched) by adding dye or casein paint. Vinyl paint is available in flat or semigloss and when applied straight from the can is very durable fo r painting floors and platforms. Th inned to a normal paint consistency, it can be used on muslin or canvas; further t hinning will produce an excellent wash. Clear liquid vinyl can be used to waterproof dry-pigment colors, while clear gloss vinyl adds an extra dimension of richness to wood graining, a luster to marbleized units, and the like. Although latex paint is available in wide ranges of colors, it has a tendency to gray very slightly when dry. Alkyd-latex (its form al name) comes in consistencies ranging between thin paste and hcavy cream, with a base containing synthctic rubber. Readily thinned with water, latex dries to permanency. Latex contains its own binder and can be scrubbed clean when applied to porous and semiporous surfaces {e.g., canvas and wood).lt forms its own resilient surf.'lce

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that accepts glazes of cascin, vinyl, or dye. Latex does not adhere well, if at all, to nonporous surf.'lces, such as plastic or glass. It adheres to Plexiglass if first thinned to a wash; thick and paste-like consistencies peel away. Latex is available in flat, semigloss, and clear varieties. Clear latex, which somewhat resembles heavy cream when wet, dries completely transparent and is available in gloss and mane finishes. I n the glossy variety, the degree of sheen is controlled by the amount of water used to thin the mixture (the more water, the less sheen). Working straight from the original container will result in a highly polished look. Clear latex is excellent for increasing surface richness and as a "fixative" for all dry pigments. including dry tempera. As with clear liquid vinyls, expect a darkening of the painted surface . Color may be added to clear finishes if one wishes to alter the tone of a painted surface. This provides not only an excellent corrective tool should the finished product be too bright but can also lend a sense of age or the appearance of built-up grime to a surface . Dyes come in both powder and crystal forms . Most are soluble in hot water; some are alcohol soluble. Household laundry dyes may be purchased at any grocery, hardware store, and pharmacy; more potent and large-case orders are available from theatrical supply. All dry dyes will mix readily with one another, allowing for an infinite spectrum of possible colors. Even some readily available dyes claiming to be water-soluble may float on the surface of even the hottest of water; a small amount of isopropyl alcohol added sparingly will break down any resistance. Salt added to the hot-water solution wilJ increase the dye's permanence. The type of dye traditionally used in the theater has been aniline dye. It comes in powder form with a shelflife that is exceptional. Its richness of color will not fade with age if the container (preferably a metal can) is kept tightly scaled. Although many theaters may still have a supply of aniline dyes, its use could pose serious health and environmental consequences. Aniline dyes (ontain an extract ojbenzene, a poisonous liquid obtainedfrom coal tar. Ifone must work with aniline, one iJ adviJed to do so in a well-ventilated area while wearing a maJk and by taking frequent breaks to minimize continuous exposure to its fumes. Painters are advised to find alternatives to aniline dye, including using the commercially available household varieties and increasing their strength and depth of color by cutting back on the amount of water added . Watering down a scenic paint to a thin wash, or glaze, consistency actually creates a dye, although most paints cannot be removed with bleach once they have set. One of the strongest and most permanent of dyes can be made by boiling red or yellow onion skins; costumers and property makers often use tea as an aging or "breaking down" element.

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As the name of the medium suggests, a dye enhances or alters the color upon which it is applied. 1t can be used to bleed or puddle on fabric backdrops, augment the beauty of a velour's texture, pull out the grain of raw wood, create a dreamlike mist on a scrim, or cast superb shadows. Dyes must be used and prepared with care. The general rule is to prepare a dye that is a little weak rather than one that is too strong. The darker the desired effect, the more applications of dye should be used. D ye only works one way: it darkem. To lighten is to bleach. Dye that has been mixed too strongly (i.e., with very little water) will crystallize and rub off. To be safe and to assure permanence, even the most inexpensive of dyes can be made permanent by mixing them with binders of size water, white glue, or clear vinyl. Bronze powders are not exclusively bronze-colored but are metallic in nature. The title brol1ze is a generic one, and the powders come in a wide range of colors. These metallic pigments are not readily available and arc expensive but, in terms of traditional scene painting, were once indispensable for scenic use . Like dry pigments and aniline dyes, bronze powders have fallen out of favor for health and contaminant reasons. The powders arc incredibly light in weight and seem to float out of the can when opcned . Thcy can be easily inhaled and spread through the air by the slightest breeze. When mixed with a reliable binder, however, they adhere nicely to a surface. Tn their heyday, they were ideal for gilding architectural ornaments, picture frames, set and hand props; highlighting decorative filigree and drapery tassels; denoting veining in stonework; or stenciling on drops and flats. Metallic powders can be used on wood, plastic, metal, or fabric. Frugally added to paint, they will float to the surface of the painting as it dries to lend a metall ic glaze. Though bronze powders can be mixed with many types of binders, almost all forms will dull the metallic pigment to varying degrees. For minimal discoloration, mix with clear gloss vinyl (2 parts vinyl to 1 part water). Stir often . Convenient alternatives to bronze powders are available in ready-touse metallic coiors, thanks to the blossoming popularity of custom-interior painters, home decorators, and their loyal legions of home dO-it-yourselfers . Some of these metallics arc water based and may be mixed with a variety of scene paints. Many can be ordered f.'lctory-direct in large quantities. For finishing touches, enamel and water-based metallic spray paints may be used. It is advisable to work il1 weI/-ventilated areas and wear a mask whenever using any type of spray paint. 1n a pinch, a spray can may be upended and sprayed into its own cap, creating a puddle of paint, which then can be applied with a brush.

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3. Color Color psychology The psychology ofcolor is a fascinating subject, one that has been researched extensively. D ocumented findings receive increasing importance and impact on daily lives. Scientists studying chromadynamics have to an extent proven the effects colors have on vision, respiratory rhythm, heart rate, rhe endocrine system, diet, mood, and the like. Such studies and subsequently published findings have led to a method of t herapy called chromatherapy, whereby patients with certain d isorders arc exposed to various colors and color combinations in an effort to m inimize o r eradicate side effects associated with the disorder. The degrees to which muscular tcnsion, tremors, and relaxat ion increase or abate can be measured and, often, are overtly noticeable. Some patients afflicted with Parkinson's disease have been observed with increases in tremors when exposed to red and yellow. Equipping these same patients with greentinted eye lenses avoided tremor increase when exposed to these colors. StilJ other colors may, in some cases, affect judgment. There is a tendency for those exposed to red (possibly denoting heat) over an extended period to overestimate the amount of time that had elapsed, while those exposed to blue (denoting cold) underestim ated how much time passed. Although numerous and highly interesting examples may be given as to the varying effects colors have on individuals, one must not lose sight of the subjective side of color stimulation and reaction. Some people, perhaps due to personal association, may react in opposite ways to a color. A child who stuffed himself with banana cream pic to the point of vomiting may fo rever have an aversion to light, creamy yellow. The color that may provoke nausea in one person may lead to tranqUility in another. Globally, various cultures put opposing weight on their Significance of color communication: white may suggest purity and virginity in many Western cult ures, whereas it may be symbolic of deat h in others. According to chromadynamics, colors are absorbed by the eye and the body. Red radiates waves oflight that are closer toget her than blue, thus bombarding, perhaps, the eye and body more quickly and intensely. We are constantly influenced, even on the minutest of subconscious levels, by the colors surrounding us. Therefore, the colors of the environments in which we work and live need serious consideration. From young children who need the stimuli of primary colors to the sick and aged who require pale blues and greens to relieve tension and despair, color can intensify or relax the h uman condition.

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The theater uses color as one of its strongest tools but usually in ways that are not meant to assault or bombard the spectator. Many colors on the stage are used in muted form so as to not take their taU on the audience over a two- to three-hour period of exposure. Stage lighting plays an enormous role on the impact of colors by either increasing or decreasing the proximity of visual waves being emitted. 1l1e waves are controlled by enhancing or neutralizing paint colors through the color oflight and by the degree ofillumination (bright light bouncing off even a pale gray wall can be absolutely confrontational to the viewer.) Primary colors and "first" secondaries (true orange, purple, and green) are rarely used in large quantities as they are very rich and cause more distraction than support. While individuals may have hugely diverse and subjective reactions to various colors in isolation, those same colors used in little bits here and there on the stage have little effect on the spectator. A scenic, costume, or lighting deSigner simply cannot be overly concerned with how individuals may react to color, other than to make strong and selective statements on occasion for dramatic impact. Dressing the conniving woman in scarlet is apropos and supports the nature of her character. Bathing the romantic scene in moonlight rather than noon sunshine only en hances the mood . Painting the set for the hospital corridor in a soothing light mint green instead of nauseating malaria yellow just makes sense! As such, designers know that certain colors when supported by appropriate uses of line, texture, and mass work appropriately to enhance the genre of the play: light, frothy colors fo r comedy; intense pastels fo r fa rce; primaries for extreme stylizations and cartoon-like skits; earthen tones for drama; deep rich, heavy tones for tragedy. Bur even these have exceptions.

Basic Color Mixing For the beginning painter, the mixing of t he paint sometimes takes longer than the actual scene painting. It is worthwh ile to go to the precautions necessary to ensure the colors and consistencies are exactly right before the paint is applied to the scenery. The scene painter must have a thorough understanding of the harmony, balance, and sequence of colors as they vary in value and intensity. If the scenic designer and scene painter are not the same person, then the role of the painter is one of duplicator of colors. lherefore, the designer must provide the painter with an accurate sample of the finished painting. A painter's elevation is produced by the designer, whereby, unless a full drop or scrim is to be painted, only select portions of the set are usually pictured (see figs . lOa . lOb, and 10c).

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Figure: lOa

, Figure lOb

21

Figure lOe

Color Wheel The first step facing the painter is to identify the position that each of the colors occupies on the color wheel. The color wheel is the most familiar graphic arrangement of color relationships in use. Although the wheel may come in a variety of formats, the circular sequence is universal and shows the step-tostep formation and sequencing of colors that eventually end at the point where the flow began. Observe the color wheel in figure 11. While some color wheels may contain several variations in color, the simplicity of this wheel indicates color relationships found in their purist form. Within the circle is a six-pointed dotted figure, overlapped by a striped triangle that in turn is overlapped by a solid t riangle.

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• COLOR WHEEL.

Figure 11

Primaries, Secondaries, and Complementaries The solid triangle points to three colors : yellow, red, and blue . These are called primaries because they cannot be mixed from other colors. Thei r pigments must be obtained from natural elements or plants containing those colors. The striped triangle points to the three colors created by the mixing of two equal quantities of primaries. The resulting orange, purple, and green arc cal led the secondaries. (Colors made from combining a primary with a secondary or two secondaries combined together may be called tertiary, when, tech nically, all colors other than the three primaries arc secondary colors.) The initial secondaries of orange, purple, and green arc said to be the principal or central secondaries because of t he equal ratio of their primary components. L astly, the dotted figure points to six additional secondaries that are the results of the proportions of the hvo primary colors that are mixed to create them. This color wheel, then, contains the twelve principal hues that make up the scene painter's palette. One might recognize colors similar to t hose on the wheel in the average paint store. No doubt the yellow orange will not be called

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as such because the name is unexciting albeit true to its base formula . Instead it might be labeled Santa Fe Sunset, for example, to increase its appeal. TIle very complex nomenclature of color is a problem in and of itself, even when ordering from theatrical suppliers, because there is a great discrepancy in the way the terms are used. Unfortunately, individual terminology and definition are subject to particular tastes, preferences, convenience, or popular trends. As an example, one company may offer a primary red pigment, while another company counters with the supposed equivalent-spectrum red. By definition, a primary is an original hue in the light spectrum of color. D o not be surprised if the corresponding reds are very different in value. One may be a bluish red , that is, a red with blue cast; t he other may have touches of yellow. Any time the primary is not a trut primary (and, surprisingly, that is most of the time), the color is said to have contaminatiorl. Commercial colors usually have some degree of color contamination . Most have additives of white or black. The problem is that contamination is not uniform.lf one were to be able to count on a certain degree of white contamination, say, in all of one's colors, one would be able to account for the contam inations during mixing. However, the degree and colors of contaminants vary largely from color to color and company to company. One must be on guard for such variances and through experience learn to counteract their effect. If one were to procure absolute primaries, equal quantities of the three mixed together would create black. Most commercial colors claiming to be primary or spectrum colors when mixed equalJy will produce either a deep gray or deep brown, depending on the contaminants used, instead of black. Any pairs of colors when mixed to produce black are called compltmentaries. An easy way to discover a color's complement is to match that color with the one directly across the color wheel. For example, green and red are complementary colors. Mixing these together will create black only if combined in equal quantities ifall colors involved.

1 quart of RED

Combining with 2 quarts of GREEN (1 quart YE l. LOW and 1 quart BLUE) is the same as an equal mixture of the three primaries ~ and equals Bl.ACK ....

An example that proves the same principle but is visually more interesting is this demonstration: To 2 cups of the relatively dark color that is purple

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(made from 1 cup of red and 1 cup of blue), add 1 cup of the lighter color of yellow. Stir, and the result will again be black. Hard to believe adding a light color to a dark color can produce an even darker one. Suppose 1 quart of red and 1 quart of green arc added together. Break the colors down into sma ller parts. The red accounts for 2 pims of tile primary color red. The true or central green is made of1 pint each of the primary colors yellow and blue. The 2 pints total of yellow and blue combine with 1 pint of red to produce black (for a total of3 pints mixed together). Leftover will be 1 pint of red. The final mix, which is 3 pints black plus 1 pint red, will be a black red, or more likely a black that has the faintest cast of red . Changing the ratios of any of the contributors will alter the value of the eventual hue. Black was used in the past example to illustrate two points: (1) absolute primaries combined in equal proportion, or any complementaries combined in equal color-component proportion, will produce black, and (2) black is integral in the mixing of colors when variation in color value-thc quality or richness of color--is needed. The absence of black in the scheme of color mixing could be a detriment. Why, then, is black not included on the color wheel? It certainly does not fall into the category of a primary because it can be mixed from other colors. Neither is white found on the color wheel, yet it is like the primaries in that it cannot be mixed from other colors. Some proponents of color theory refer to black as the combination of all colors and refer to white as the absence of color. What is important to note is that black and white can tint or shade with similar results as the colors on the color wheel. In the practical mixing of color, the use of primaries and secondaries to create various hues can be costiy, particularly when large quantities are called for. At the risk of diluting or dulling a color's strength, the experienced painter can cut many a corner and save quantities of the more valuable color by using black andlor white in appropriate measures.

Using Black and White Colors may be described not only to their relative placement on the color wheel but also by the amount of white or black they may contain. White can be combined with any color and what will result is a tint of the original color. The white will soften the original color or render it increasingly paler as the amount of added white increases. Black added to a color will create a darker version of the color, or a shade. Darkening a color with black erodes away the color's richness, making the color duller and more "lifeless" as the amount of added black increases. H owever, with judicious use of black (perhaps the least

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expensive color) and white, an extensive array of tints and shades of anyone color is possible. To create a shade that retains more ofthe richness ofthe base color than an additive of black would aI/ow, add to the base color its complement (found on the color wheel): that is, add some orange to some base blue to arrive at a shade ofblue. This principal can get quite confusing when a base color starts off as a mixture of several other colors. To avoid an unintentional muddy appearance, mix as few colors together as possible to create the base. The painter will eventually acqu ire a feci for how colors interact. As a shade is usually associated with a cool tone, and a tint with a warmer glow, experiment with adding deep blues or purples to create a rich shade . For example, a powerfully rich shade of burnt umber can be made by adding purple to it.

Table of Nine Mixtures Black and white can be mixed together in countless proportions. What has become standard for a beginner's scene-painting needs is the Table of Nine Mixtures. 1110ugh black and white are used below, the Table of Nine Mixtures can be applied to any two root-color combinations, using the following formula. Table of Nine M ixtures (The number is any unit of measure, such as a cup.) white 0 black 8 white 1 black 7 white 2 black 6 white 3 black 5 white 4 black 4 white 5 black 3 white 6 black 2

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white 7 black 1 white 8 black 0 This column is a scale of mixture from black to white. The top combination represents a pure black and the bottom a pure white; those in between represent varying values of gray. Begin to imagine, for example, the virtually limitless possibilities of color with mixing the medium (4 to 4) gray with pu rple. Create an entirely new scale wit h the ratios of the black-white Table of Nine Mixtures: mix 8 parts purple with 0 parts medium gray, and continue through to t he end of the table, o to 8. If this series is continued with all values of gray from the black-white table, the result is for ty-nine different values of purple, excluding the pure purple and original values of gray resulting from 0-to-8 and 0-to-8 ratios. Values of gray can be used to neutralize bright colors and lessen their vibrancy. The procedure is called graying down a color. l he usc of white alone with purple in the nine-mixture table produces seven different tints of purple. Using black will create seven shades. Because many of the black pigments available are contaminated, shades appear muddy. A lways purchase t he purist of blacks and the most brilliant of whites.

C lassic Scene-Painting Palette (Traditional Terminology) While it is theoretically true that a painter could get by with uncontam inated quantities of the three primaries plus black and white, convenience dictates that at least those colors found on an expanded version of the basic color wheel should be on hand to f,'lcilitate mixing. The following palette lists the twelve principal hues of the expanded wheel and names the colors closest to those hues. lhese colors represent a respectable palette to have in inventory. Paint distributors may classify the paints by the traditional names, but the individual paint shop may va ry its palette structure according to its own preference. light chrome yellow medium chrome yellow ORANGE: American vermilion ORANGE RED: flame red RED: turkey red lake REO PURPLE: magenta lake Y ELLOW:

YELLOW ORANGE:

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royal purple violet lake BLU E: cobalt blue BLUE GREEN: celestial blue or teal GREEN: emerald green YELLOW GREEN: primrose yellow or cadmium yellow PURPLE:

PURPLE BLUE:

I n addition, careful selections of white, black, and earth colors are important to complete the palette. They are less expensive than the colors listed above.

burnt sienna, burnt umber, raw sienna, golden ochre permanent white BLACK : ivory drop black BROWNS :

WHITE:

Colors may roughly be divided into two categories: warm or cool. Those colors possessing predominant proportions of blue, purple, or green arc soothing to t he eye and are referred to as cool. Colors having a predominance of red, orange, or yellow are striking and energetic, arouse emotion, and arc warm . Taking these categories to extreme will render them cold or hot. Cool and cold colors have a tendency to lie dormant or lend an illusion of distance to objects. They may seem to recede from the observer and, thus, are passive in nature. W arm and hot colors are energetic and create an excitement that can be forceful and seem to approach the observer. As such, they are active in nature. It is nO[ unusual in scene painting to add blotches of a warm or cool color to a colored surf.1ce. Not only will visual variety and interest be enhanced but the temperature of the surface may be strengthened or altered . The painting surface "temperature," combined with supporting texture, will aid the scenery in the establ ishment of mood for the environment. Although elements ofline, mass, and color are standard tools of expression for the artist, the scene painter docs not have control of the uses of line and mass within his or her area of responsibility, unless, of cou rse, the scene painter is the designer as well . The painter must combine color and texture on the confines of a two-dimensional surface to create illusions, using ranges of color and texture appropriate to everyday existence or, if required, taking the tools to extreme . All effects arc gauged in relation to the actor or what has popularly become known as the human condition. We cannot help but associate visual elements with our own frameworks of existence. Should a hospital be a deep yellow-green stucco environment or a soothing light mint green with smooth walls? Should one create a sense of serenity or ill at ease? ]s a fireplace to be made of crisp, aqua ceramic

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tiles or seasoned orange-brown bricks? Decisions of visual expression and observer impression are fundamental to the overall conception of the designer, but the matter of execution and knowledge of color and texture must finally be assumed by the painter.1he use of temperature in color and the illusions of texture are the keys to the visual expression entrusted to and controlled by the scene painter. I n its simplest form, all illusionary painting requires the mixing of three hues of the predominant color: a base, a tint, and a shade.

4. Mixing the Base, Tint, and Shade To produce almost all types of scene-painting techniques, from texturing to detail work and regardless of the type of paint used, a minimum of three hues of a color are used. Before beginning, one cardinal rule of color mixing must be recognized: It is a/ways easier to mak.e a color darker than it is to mak.e it lighter. Surprisingly large amounts of white are needed to lighten a color that accidentally was mixed too dark. Many times itwiU behoove the painter to empty the ill-mixed or too- dark a color into an "ends" bucket for use as a back- painting color than to waste voluminous quantities of white in attempts to lighten a dark color. The three hues of color to prepare are labeled according to their purpose. The first color to mix will represent the predominant color the scenic unit is to be painted. It is called the base color. From th is are created the two remaining colors: the tint and the shade. In synonymous painting terms, the tint may also be called a highlight, and the shade a lowlight. In the Table of Nine MiJ.:tures, t he middle of t he scale, or the 4-to-4 ratio, represents the medium or base gray (although the black will exert more visual strength than the white .) Those colors approaching the absolute white arc tints or high(er) lights of the base; working toward absolute black finds the shades or low(er) lights of the base color. An average tint and shade, according to the table, could be made using the middles hues, that is, tint := 6 white + 2 black, shade:= 2 white + 6 black. Mixing the base, tint, and shade by way of the nincmixture table is no more than a simple cookbook recipe for the inexperienced painter, but practice wiIl provide shortcuts to the measuring process. It is wise for the novice painter to begin early to develop and strengthen an ability to match sample colors. A simple beginning would be to miJ.: the base, tim, and shade grays according to the table and then abandon all tools of measurement other than the judgment of the eye and attempt to visually match the three values made by t he table formula.

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Procedure The steps below encourage mixing by eye rather than recipe (see fig. ] 2): Step 1: Line up three buckets. To make t he base gray, into the center bucket add 4 equal parts each of black and white, and stir. This color will have to be made in a large enough quantity as it will be used to create the tint and the shade. Step 2: Into the right bucket add 2 parts of white . To this white, slowly add some of the base color while sti rring to make t he tint. Arriving at t he desired tint will take some practice. It may be best to work in teaspoon quantities of white and base to get a feel for how quickly hues change. Step 3: Use the bucket on the left to mix the shade. Pour in 2 parts base color. Slowly add black to this, while stirring, unti l the desired shade is reached .

r-- - ---------, ADD ".

l . . yr ----

---- -- ~

TO M A KE

THE TI NT : WI·IlTE

TO M A KE

TH E

5 1-l A D E: Figure 12

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BLACK.

!. BASE

Note that both the tint and shade are made by dark.ening lighter colors. Using the base color to make the tint and shade is easier than relying on the table~ mixture method. Remember that when creating a shade for anything but a base gray, use the base color's complement on the color wheel to create the shade. As an example, if the base color is blue, usc its complement (orange) to darken the base color to the desired depth of shade. The extent to which the tint and shade arc removed in hue from the value of the base color will have a definite relationship to the degree of texture, or three~dimensional illusion, created. In other words, the more textural desired for, say, a wall to look, the brighter the tint and the darker the shade should be. Conversely, if a subtle textural illusion is required, mix the tint and the shade in hues close to the base color. Avoid mix extremes fo r the tint and shade as these will appear unnatural for realistic scenery, and create a cartooned look (unless, of course, that is the look designed) . For most painting projects, the paint shou ld be mixed to a cons istency simi~ lar to whole milk. When the stir stick is lifted from the bucket, the paint should run from the stick smoothly, not in little drops. Beware of adding too much water to the mixture. Translucency will result. Too little water will prevent the paint from flowing off the brush. The paint should be opaque, spread easi ly, and not be sticky or difficult to spread and blend. Being a suspension, all mixed paints should be stirred frequently when in usc. If allowed to set, the paintsedi~ ment must be dug up from the bottom of the bucket before the color is appHed. Failure to maintain a well-mixed solution will result in an uneven application consisting of thin spots, and some colors may tend to separate slightly. Imagine the base color is not a simple medium gray but a complex greenblue green (an expansion of the twelve principal hues located between green and blue green on the color wheel). One can, of course, pull out the table-mixture recipe or proceed using t he base-color pigment as the common ingredient in the tint and shade.

Analogous Colors and the Common Denominator This common ingredient or root-color principle can be extended to allow two colors that would normally be combative side by side to compatibly coexist. Suppose that green and purple are reqUired to appear onstage in proxi mity. The duo can be rendered analogolls if an identical additive is introduced to each of them. Examining the properties of purple and green shows that blue is a color found in each. M ix up a batch of white tinted with blue, and add equal quantities to equal amounts of purple and green . What occurs is that the

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blue white acts as a (ommon denominator and renders the two extreme colors analogous. Carrying this theory further, virtually any color can exist with any other color provided they have been neutralized by a like root. In essence, the formulation of tints and shades derived directly from a base color is basically the same theoretical procedure. All of the above examples of color mixing have been illustrated because of their simplicity. The theories are quite simple, provided the colors arc kept relatively uncomplicated. Sophistication and expertise come with practice, observation, and patience.

5. Preparing the Surface to Be Painted Few things arc more annoying for the scene painter than to be confronted with scenery that has not been properly prepared for painting. When first built, framed scenery, such as the common scenic Rat, must be covered with a decent-weight muslin or canvas and evenly stretched, glued, and stapled to the outer frame. The material must then be sized (with glue and water, or size water) so that the fabric shrinks and becomes taut.

Flameproofing As required by fire codes, any cloth material used on the stage must be Rameproofed. Flamcproofing the muslin and canvas can be done in the paint shop, or the material can be ordered from the supplier already flame proofed . Some Rameproofing solutions will not react well to different size waters or primer paints, in that the canvas or muslin may actually begin to stretch after it is attached to its wooden frame . Experimenting by applying liquid starch to the material after Rameproofing shou ld prevent the subsequent sizing and priming from causing the material to sag. Any protruding staples must be thoroughly pounded into the wooden frame because protruding staples will catch the brush.

Primer Coat Before the actual scene pa inting may begin, painting surfaces may often need a primereont. The paint used as the primer should match the type of paint to be used for the actual scene painting and can be any color or a combination of leftover quantities (often referred to as slop paint). However, the pri mer

32

should normally be as light a color as possible so that a lightly colored base color wiJi cover it easily. Priming is best defined by listing its purposes: 1. On newly built or covered flats, priming seals the weave in the fabric, thus creating an even surface and eliminating the possibility of backlighting bleeding through to the su rface of the flat (also called light leaks). 2. Pri ming seals raw or unpainted wood surfaces. Untreated or unsealed surfaces absorb more paint than a primed surf.'lce. 3. On older scenic units and flats, priming with a medium-neutral color will help cover previous coats of paint. If stubborn or tenacious previous coats tend to bleed through the primer, a water-soluble sealant may have to be applied, and then the unit is reprimed. Mix the priming paint as one would normally mix an opaque paint consistency. If using white paint for priming, add some color to it so that it will stand out against the white canvas or muslin of newly covered scenery. As the water in the primer paint can cause wood fibers to expand, thus pushing outward toward the surface, recheck for any staples that have risen up, as these will need to get pounded in again. Exposed wooden areas willlikcly Ileed to be sanded down, coated with a sealant, and reprimed. Be sure that any sanding normally occurring as part of the bui lding stage has been completed and no unintentionally uneven joinery planes or rough ends and edges ex ist. On scenery that has been joined togcther, such as two or more flats that need to fold togcther, assure that all dutchmans (the material that covers the hinges and scams between the Rats) have been glued down with no protruding or lifting edges. (New dutchmans that cover the scams between older, heavily painted flats will need several coats of primer to smooth out their surface textu re so as to match the surfaces of the older flats . Th is step will be necessary regardless of the nature of the dutchman. Even cloth tape, which makes for a qUick and serviceablc dutchman, will need several primer coats in order to match the flats' surf.'lces.) Using a primer brush or the widest lay-in brush available, work the mixture well into the material. l be brush strokes should go in many directions (as in cross-hatching), somewhat resembling a crude figure-cight pattern (see fig. 13). When painting a large area, solicit help. If painting alone, work in rough squares, and work continuously. Do not work in haphazard patches and have to go back and fill in spaces. On newly covered units, the idea is to paint quickly to allow the entire surface to dry in unison. Failure to do so will cause unevcn tightcning and shrinkage of the fabric. If possible, allow the scenery to dry continentally for the even distribution and absorption of the primer paint. A slightly thicker mixture should be used on coarse, heavier weights of canvas.

33

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Figure 13

6. Basic Scene Painting and Texture After the primer coat has dried thoroughly and no thin spots or painter's holidays remain, the actual scene painting may begin. Some painters prefer to take t heif base color and apply a base coat as a further sealant. This step is an optional one and is dependent upon the condition of the painting surface and the covering power of the primer coat. Applying just the base also relates to the methods of preference employed by the individual painter, particularly in situations when subsequent colors are applied over a dried base color.

34

Figure 14 The first step in the painting of scenery is to do the lay-in work. Covering the surface with the base color alone or with its corresponding tint, shade, or temperature color, constitutes the lay-in stage. Several techniques of texture may be performed during this initial step, or the painter may restrict his or her application to simple background toning. Scenery is rarely, if ever, painted using only one hue of one color on a given surface . Nuances in tone or brightness must be incorporated not only to approach a realistic appearance but also to lend visual interest. I n addition, stage lighting is generally strong in intensity and often coming from so many different directions that it has a tendency to Ratten out even three-dimensional objects and will cause large, Rat surfaces to look dull and uninteresting and, occasionally, reRective. When a plain, one-colored surface, such as a wall, is studied in daylight or under artificial light, the unevenness of interior light causes subtle variations in tone often near the edges and corners. While such delicate shadings arc greatly minimized outdoors, owing to reflected sunlight, interior shadowy areas are intensified, conversely, because of the lack of ambient light. TIle room in figure 14 is depicted under daylight conditions with bright sunlight streaming through the window. Notice the wall with the window is the darkest and the wall opposite the lightest.1he source of light is singular and illuminates an enclosure. TIle shadings that appear in the corners and near the ceiling create shape and visual interest. As stage lighting cannot solely duplicate these varia-

35

tions in tone, the effects must be applied with paint. Even in stage settings depicting an exterior scene, some degrees of toning must be applied to break up the static appearance oflarge surfaces.

Focus and Toning Complicated theories of light source and reflection aside, the common practice in painting scenery, be it for interior or ex terior settings, is to paint the top if the scU/ery darker than the bottom. I n interior settings, the gradation of tones from dark to light is more in evidence than its exterior counterpart. This is done primarily to prevent the eye of the spectator from being drawn away from primary focus : the actor. As the eye is drawn to light rather than dark, the bottom areas of the scenery, that is, where the actor is likely to stand, are painted lighter than the top areas . The darker upper reaches help prevent the eye from drifting upward and pulling focus away from the players. As the stage lights can flatten three-dimensional shapes, recessed corners of the interior setting are also painted with darker tones so as to reinforce the setti ng's shape. This theory is not at all unlike one of the main reasons an actor applies make-up: to accentuate facial shape and features so as to be read as being dimensional under the effects of stage lighting. Unimportant areas of scenery should be made to fade away into shadows, particularly those areas high above the actors' heads. Extensive, brightly lit detail in insignificant places is most distracting and does not adhere to the fundamental purpose of scenery: to focus on the action, not d istract from it. The scene pa inter must be aware of this general rule: "darker at the top, lighter at the bottom.~ Many stage settings, regardless of the quality of the deSign, may be made or broken by the merit of its scene painting and adherence to its role of a supporting, albeit important, element in the production . The initial step of painting is the laying in of color to tone or texture the scenery. Tonillg is the process of applying a base color with its correspond ing shade and tint in order to reinforce the shape of the scenic unit and maintain focus to a specified area. Moreover, toning is a term used synonymously with breaking dlJWn, or taming a visually distracting clement or characteristic of the scenery. Texturing shares the responsibilities of focus and combating of light glare with toning but takes a step further to simulate three-dimensionally textured surfaces. While individual painters discard, adapt, or conceive numerous methods of rendering texture on scenery, twelve common methods of painting texture serve as the foundation for all variations.

36

graded wet blend scumbling spattering (and spatter and drag) sponging stippling rag rolling rolling flogging puddling dry brushing (also graining and combing) stenci ling (and stamping) spraying As illustrated in part 2 of this book, it is certainly not uncommon to employ more than one, if not several, of the above techniques on the same scenic unit. Even t he names of some of the following examples may change, depending on the exposure of the painter to various theater companies, counnics, or methods of practice; for example, 5eumbling is sometimes referred to as 5crumbling. Study and observation will prove that some techniques arc enhanced when used in combination. Observing the work of other painters is invaluable. When seeing a show painted by someone else, it is invaluable for the beginning painter if he or she can view that same scenery under work lights. Often, one may be pleasantly surprised and enHghtened by how a compelling illusion seen under stage lighting has been achieved by a relatively simple painting method . Pro cedura l~ethod s

Before embarking on t he following techniques of texture, a word about painting method is in order. Although all of the methods illustrated below use simply a base, tint, and shade, the three colors are opaque in nature, meaning the paint is intended as a covering agent and cannot be seen through . lhe painting of scenery from initial lay-in stages to final touch-ups may be performed in what can be distinguished as three different procedural methods: (1) opaque; (2) wash; and (3) textural. Experienced painters are not likely to think of these approaches as separate entities, as the th ree constitute standard tools that are combined, discarded, or used alone as the finished product will demand. For the novice paimer, however, it is wise to be aware of these three

37

approaches and appreciate theif individual pros and cons. 111erefore, although the following are illustrated only using opaque paims, all examples can be successfully performed using wash or textural approaches. It is simply a matter of painting style, preference, and the painter's decision to elect the most appropriate procedure according to the designer's image as provided on the painter's elevation (see also part 2, section 10, "Rendering Methods"). Lastly, another important consideration is holding the paintbrush. Most people will paint with the same grip that tenn is players use for a forehand shot. Young players are taught how to hold a racket by first placing it flat on the floo r and then picking it up. Accordingly, place the paintbrush fiat on the floor. Wrap the fingers around the handle and lift up the brush.1ts handle will fit diagonally across the palm of the hand (see fig.15a).

Figure 15a

38

Figure 15b

While this grip is common, it is also limiting, and the wrist may get tired quickly. An alternate grip that allows for more pivoting of the wrist and will not tire as easily is one with the brush handle outside of the palm grip. The fingers are almost Rat and rest diagonally across the fer rule, with the thumb supporting from the other side (see fig. I5b). (The textural technique of scu mbling is much easier to accomplish with this grip.) Both grips should be tried and alternated if need be.

Graded Wet Blend This method accomplishes a soft, linear blend ing ofcolor values. Although the term wet blend may refer to any number or method of brush-stroke proce-

39

dures, the intention with the graded wet blend is to produce an even progression of tone from light to dark. The tones should progress in a seamless fash ion without distinction or a strata separating them. Although this procedure can be achieved with a brush, using a sprayer and applying the paint continentally may be easier if available space permits. Roughly divide the area to be painted into three horizontal sections, the middle of which is slightly la rger than the other two. L ay in a top band of shade fairly heavily and quickly. Be generous with the amount of paint applied, as it will be blended later and must still be wet. Below this, lay in the larger band of base color, again quickly and heavily. FinaUy, paint in the remaining band with the tint color (see fig. 16).

Figure 16

40

Go back with a clean, moist brush, and gently feather the edges of one color band into another (see fig. 17). With a wide lay~in or primer brush slightly charged with water and pressing firmly, start at the shade end, and paint strokes in a horizontal direction. Proceed quickJy through the base area with continuous strokes, not lifting the brush from the surface until you work your way off the tint color of the flat (see fig. 18). If necessary, repeat this procedure with a clean brush and work from the opposite direction of the flat. Never work from the middle band out. A slight variation would be to paint the shade band, then the base band, and immediately feather and blend the co n ~ necting edges together. Recharge the bottom area of the uncontaminated base band with the base color, and proceed with the tint band, followed by its feath~

Figure 17

41

Figure 18 ering and blending. When working on a very wide fiat, it may prove easier to grade two colors at a time rather than three. To paint a flat whose edge will form a recessed corner, simply vary t he shape of the top band of shade and arc the following bands of color (see fig. 19). The common follow-up texturc for the graded wct blend is normally a fine spattering or spraying.

Scumbling Scumbling is used to simulate rough textures, such as plaster or stucco. With less gradation between the hues of the base, tim, and shade, an attractive and lightly textured background for wallpaper stencil ing may be ach ieved . With scumbling especia lly, the extent of the textural illusion is

42

Figure 19 directly related to the contrast in hue of the three colors and the amount of blending performed. That is, if one mixes the tint and shade colors toward their respective extreme ends of the mixture table, the impression of rough texture is intensified . (Interior decorators and painters use this and many of the following techniques with semi-transparent and transparent glazes, sometimes referred to as wall washes. The use of washes/glazes is more appropriate to homes and businesses as the nature of a transparent medium creates a softer ambience than opaque counterparts. And, the lighting is softer and often indirect in nature.) Though the rule "dark at the top, lighter at the bottom~ still applies, the scu mbling painting stroke varies greatly from the long, continuous strokes of the graded wet blend . Using a brush fo r each of the three colors is a necessity to

43

) Figure 20

assure clarity of color hue. Lay in the shade area, leaving an irregularly shaped edge toward the base color area (sec fig. 20). With another brush, immediately lay in the base color area without overlapping the two colors; leave the bottom of the base color section irregular toward the tint color area. Next, paint strokes of the shade into the base and the base into the shade (see fig. 21). ll1cse strokes are achieved by quickly twisting the wrist and flicking the brush while lifting it ojfthc painting surface between every stroke. Leaving the brush on the surface between strokes will not produce the crisp stroke pattern indicative of this painting method. Do 1101 overwork this mingling ofcolor as the effect will only turn muddy. A somewhat splotchy, irregular appearance is the goal.

44

) Figure 21

Next, lay in the tint color. For added contrast, bring a few strokes of shade into the tint area, and a lillIe tint into the shade (see fig. 22). Be careful not to bring too much tint up top as the completed scumblc should still be darker at top. A fourth color, or temperature color, can be introduced to heighten the textural effect and add a degree of coolness or warmth. The temperature color has as its common denominator a bit of the base color to which has been added a temperature-producing color. Scumbling. like the graded wet blend, is usually a foundation technique upon which further methods arc applied.

45

Figure 22

Spattering (and Spatter and Drag) Perhaps the most widely used method of texturing scenery, particularly by amateurs, is spattering. Some incorrectly refer to the technique as splattering, which carries with it a rather uncontrolled and sloppy connotation. Spattering is the act of flicking droplets of paint from a brush onto the painting surface. The brush may be struck against the palm of the hand or piece of wood or be snapped by sharply flicking the forearm and wrist as a unit. This method can cover vast areas quickly. When performed correctly by snapping the forea rm, beginning painters, after spattering the firs t few times, will notice soreness or

46

a tenderness on the outside of the forearm, just below the elbow, in a muscle called the carpi radialis. l1)is soreness is si milar to a minor form of the pain experienced from carpal-tun nel syndrome, although carpal tunnel is more likely to affect the opposite side of the forearm and radiate down toward the wrist. Most painters find that the initial tenderness fro m spattering is temporary until the musele becomes accustomed to the stroke. ]f discomfort continues, try spattering continentally, which, due to gravity, will greatly reduce the intensity of movement needed. ]f this fails to prevent soreness, avoid spattering altogether as a technique, and replace it with sponging or stippling (see next two technique sect ions). Beginningpainters can reduce or prevent discomfort to the arm or shoulder if they use the body with the forearm. Effective spattering uses the body's torso much in the same way a tennis players swings a forehand stroke or a pitcher throws a baseball (see figs. 23a and 23b). Neither of these players begins their stroke or throw by facing the target. Instead, their dormant shou lder is in the lead, pointing toward the target, while their active shoulder points away from it. If one imagines the athlete as right-handed, an initial clockwise rotation or wind-up begins the action, followed by the torso pivoting in a cou nter-clockwise rotation toward the target as the power of the stroke is put in motion. Lastly, the racket head or pitch follows the arc of the body, and the baU is unleashed .

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Figure 23

47

Replace the racket or baseball with a brush, and this is the essence of the spatter action. As in sports, for stability keep the feet wider apart than shoulder width, and let the body work in concert with the arm in a flowing action. Spattering can be heavy, medium, or fine, depending on the size of droplets distributed (see fig. 24, heavy, medium, and fine). Droplet size and shape may be controlled by the amount of paint on the brush but can also be greatly affected by t he distance of the brush from the painting surface and the angle of the stroke. Spatter droplets need to fly in order to fo rm. Standing too close to the flat will prevent droplets from forming and cause stringy patterns. Although there is no prescribed distance a painter needs to be from the surface, an average of about five feet away should be adequate. For most spattering jobs, which are intended to be nonpatterned and result in an overall r: _ -

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Figure 24. Metlillm coverage by droplets, the broad side of the brush's ferrule should be parallel to the surface of the flat, which will allow for the widest dispersion of droplets. Pivoting the fe rrule to 90 degrees to the painting surface will cause a linear pattern of droplets to hit the Rat. It is also advisable to consistently change the direction of spattering to avoid discernable patterns. An inexperienced painter must first test his or her ability on an extra Rat or, if painting continentally, a section of the paint-room Roor covered with paper. Spattering uses the base, tint, and shade, and the entire surface is covered with each color. Agai n, to help prevent the viewer's eye from wandering upward, be careful not to overly spatter with tint on the upper areas of the Rat. A fourth, temperature color is optional at this point. For example, picture a Rat scumbled and spattered with blues. 1t can be lit quite effect ively with cool

49

Figure 24. Fille lighti ng to create an aura of moonlight. Now, if this same Rat also had to be used for a sunset scene, the painter could spatter with an orange mixed with a little of the base or tint to render it analogous with the blues. When the lighting color changes to suggest the sunset, the warm gels (the orange ones) in the lighting instrument pick up the orange-spatter droplets on the Rat and completely alter its visual surface temperature. To achieve a smoothly textured surface, all spattering shou ld be even and fine. Figure 2S illustrates a Aat that has been scumbled and finely spattered. To simulate a rougher surface, medium and heavy spatteri ng are applied in uneven patterns. The degree of contrast in the scumble hues will dictate the nature of the spattering employed.

50

Figure 25

Should scenery appear to be too bright or too static under the lighting, spattering is an excel lent toning device, particularly with transparent colors (glazes/washes) or dyes. A variation of conventional spattering is the spatter and drag, which can be performed whether the scenery is vertical or horizontal. Fine spatter a small section at a time, about four by four feet. Before the droplets dry, drag them in one direction with a piece of muslin. A larger area can be covered using the continental method, then dragging or pushing the droplets with a clean dust mop or soft push broom. Because a definite linear pattern is created, this technique works well to enhance wood graining where a linear look is desirable (see fig. 26).

51

Figure 26

Sponging Sponging is used for duplicating plaster, stucco, and rough stones and perfo rming neccssary toning or touch-ups after the sct is installed . Work with a large, natural sea sponge because of its unusual, interesting shape and irregularly sized pores. Artificial sponges are hand ier where definite shapes or patterns are needed. What is commonly desired through this technique is an overall feeling of texture void of overly distinct characteristics. Immerse the sponge in a bucket of color, squeeze out excess pa int, and gently pat the sponge against the surf."lce, continuously changing the position of the sponge to avoid patterns (see fig. 27). Sponging makes use ofbase, ti nt, and shade colors with a fairly even d istribution of each over the enti re surface.

52

Figure 27 To avoid color contamination, use a different sponge for each color. For maximum texture and visual interest, sponge a scumbled surface for an interesting alternative to, or replacement for, spattering (see fig. 28). Sponging need not be restricted to texturing. Figure 29 shows a section of painted wallpaper. The lay-in work is a light scumble with an arrangement applied on top with sponges. Artificial, household sponges cut into specific shapes create the pattern. Although somewhat time-consuming, this method is very effective on smaller scenic units. Shaped sponges or any paint-retaining shape that applies a painted pattern to the scenic surface is called stamping. A pplications can be free-form or in structured arrangements, and leaf-shaped sponges can be employed for painting foliage (see part 3). With sponging and stamping, the possibilities for imprinting objects and patterns on scenery are endless (see part 2, section 9, "Stamping").

53

Figure 28

Figure 29

54

Stippling Stippling is the act of pressing or dabbing something charged with paint against the painting surf.1.ce. Ordinarily, stippling is done with either a feather duster or a crumpled rag. The feather-duste r method is easy, and areas can be covered rather quickly. A duster with turkey feathers works best, but if this is beyond budget, buy cheap plastic-handled ones at the d iscount store. Dip only the feather tips into the paint, squeeze off the excess, and press the feather t ips lightly against the surface (see fig. 30). Lift and rotate the duster's position, and overlap prev ious prints. The method is especiaUy convenient for conti nental texturing, though avoiding repetitive patterns may be challenging for the beginner.

Figure30

55

To use a rag, crunch an 18 inch square of canvas or muslin into a loose ball (do not roll it into a ball). Dip the ball into the paint bucket, and squeeze out the excess using a dabbing motion. Gently apply the paint. Vary the positioning of the rag while keeping the angle of approach constant (see fig. 31).

Rag Rolling Similar to stippling with a rag, this very attractive technique is done by rolling the rag into a cylinder and rolling it against the scenery. Like sponging and rag stippling, this technique is very hands-on and can be inconvenient for large areas. Dip an 18 inch square of canvas, muslin, or burlap into a color.

Figure3 1

56

Squeeze out, form it into a loose cylinder, and roll it over t he painting surface using the palms of the hands while varying the rolling direction (see fig. 32). Repeat with other texturing colors and fresh pieces of f:'lbric. Rag rolling cre~ ates a close, cluttered effect and can be used as a base texture. Depending on how large the painting imprints turn out, a fine spattering of another hue may be required as a toning device.

Figure 32

Rolling As the term rolling implies, a paint roller is the tool used. Rollers are available in a variety of widths and shapes, while the roller covers come in several degrees of~fur," or nap. RoUer handles, whether wood, plastic, or metal, can be screwed onto threaded extension poles or the standard push-broom handle. I n addition, paint-roller trays and metal grids for skimming off excess paint are available and essential for rolling (see fig. 33). Rolling is an easy and efficient way to paint platform tops and ramps or any large, flat area. The speed with which surfaces can be covered is unbeatable. But one can also produce many effects by using a variety of roller widths and surface naps and by varying the angle of stroke or nvisting the roller (see fig. 34).

57

Figu re 33

TwiSTING the PAINT ROLLERS

Fig ure 34

58

Moreover, discernible or amorphous patterns of texture may be achieved by wrapping wire or wire mesh tightly around roller covers in different configurations. Also try cutting away sections of roller fur or covering areas with painter's tape (sec fig. 35).

Figure 35

Flogging Though used primarily for creating veining effects in marble and strata in stonework, jlogging sometimes uses dyes to effect a stylized treatment for foliage and nondescript backgrounds. It is a technique, however, that requires energy to perform. Secure several canvas or muslin strips approximately three feet long to a wooden handle. This is called ajlogger. Soak the strips in a color, remove the excess, and, holding the handle, "whip" the strands against the scenery. Vary the force of the impacts (see fig. 36). By flogging a second time with water continentally, a soft, bleeding effect will result. The flogger can also be used to remove chalk snap lines or charcoal sketching that may be left when a painting is complete. H itting the strands against the dried painting surface, the flogger will beat charcoal and chalk off the surt:'lce without pounding it in.

59

Figure 36 For heavily veined stonework (see part 2, section 8, ~Ma rb l e"), tie three to four, 36 inch lengths of muslin strips, crochet yarn, or soft twine in an arbitrary arrangement called a veining net. Hold onto the end of the veining with one hand (usually not the dominant hand; this end will not be let go) and with the other hand, toss the strands gently and randomly agai nst the surface. As the paint is discharged, a variety of veining occurs (see fig. 37).

Puddling Puddling, which must be performed continentally, is a wet-blend exercise in which spanering of contrasting colors is discharged onto a base coat. The base may be wet or dry. Further variety may be achieved by spattering the

60

Figure 37

base coat with water before or after the spattering of colors or by spattering holding two brushes in the same hand while each brush is heavily charged with its own color. Soft and bleeding pools of color will be produced (see fig. 38). Puddling is an especially effective technique to use for producing marble (see part 2, section 8, "Marble"). The only drawback to puddling occurs when painting framed scenery, such as a standard scenic Rat. Because a Rat is made with a perimeter of wood (rails and stiles) and middle joining braces (toggles), the canvas or muslin covering spans large areas between the wooden members. When the Rat is lying face up on the Roor, these canvas expanses have a tendency to sag. The weight of paint and water causes them to accumulate in the areas, causing all liquid to Row to the center of the unsupported material. H uge puddles-no pun intended-are created where liqUids merge. Not only

61

is the painting effect ruined but the accumulated paint and water but it will take hours to dry. Ifframed scenery is to be puddled, pieces of plywood or 1 inch Styrofoam are placed under the Aat frame's negative areas to keep the covering from sagging.

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Dry Brll,rung Dry brushing has many uses but is commonly done to give an impression of wood. The brush, lightly charged with paint or dye, is skimmed across the dry painting surface, thus the name drybrushing.1l1is involves using the entire arm and wrist as one unit. The wrist should not bend, Imagine the brush to be a plane gently landing-as we all wish would happen- and coasting down the runway. Avoid the bumpy landing as this will produce heavy scuff marks on the Aat.lluough an evenly pressured stroke, lines result; twisting the brush slightly will provide interesting variations (see fig. 39). These actions can be used to simulate stra ight wood grain. If more texture is desired, more contrast in the hues is needed, and the paint should be thicker. Th ick paint causes more frict ion between the brush and surface, and the bristles will tend to drag.

62

Figure 39

Dry brushing with washes or dyes minimizes fric tion, is morc fluid, and appears less coarsc than with thicker paint. When dry brush ing over a moist surface, a softcningofthe graining characteristics occurs, although dipping the same brush repeatedly into the dry-brush color will contaminate the color. Using the cut-bristle brush illustrated earlier in figure 8 (sec part 1, section 2, "Brushes"), a form of dry brush ing known as combing can be achieved. Strokes may be one-directional or perpendicular to each other to produce a woven, clothlike appearance (see fig. 40a). A suitable alternative to producing dry brushing or combing on smaller scenic units is to substitute the cut-bristle brush with a foam-rubber brush whose chisel-point end has been notched (see fig. 4Gb).

63

Figure 40a

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64

A DISPOSAULE FOAM BRUSII

Though certainly not a brush stroke, one might elect to use agrainillg tool. Small ones can be bought at any hardware or paint store and have become irre~ placeable in furniture-antiquing kits. A thick glaze the color of the intended grain is liberally brushed over a dry background wood color. While the glaze is still wet, the graining tool's handle is tipped toward the user and slowly pulled in a straight line. During the stroke, the tool's handle is rocked 90 degrees so that it points away from the user by the end of the stroke. Larger graining tools are available through specialty supply outlets; a suitable homemade one can be fabricated using a large cylinder, such as a coffee can, with glued-on "grain lines" made with Ethafoam™ (see fig. 41). The graining tool is a very quick way to wood-grain large scenic areas. Grain variations are poss ible by controlling how much, if at all, the tool is rocked during the pull stroke.

Figure 41

Stenciling and Stamping Stenciling can be listed as a method of texturing because it breaks up large expanses of scenery by providing visual interest and a dimension of depth through the nature of its patterns' colors. l he most frequent use for stenciling is in the reproduction of wallpaper patterns and Roor mosaics, though any repetitive entity, such as a brick wall, may successfully find its beginnings

65

with a stencil. The purpose of a stencil is to impart a pattern by forcing color through the negative spaces of the design (the exact counterpart to stamping, which imparts the design through the imprint of its positive shape; see "Sponging" technique section). T raditionally, stenciling employed oiled stencil paper, which is still available in craft stores and some paint stores. It resembles a sturdy wax paper that will not wrinkle and whose front and back are impervious to moisture. Easily cut with scissors, the paper is surprisingly durable. Almost anything else can serve as a stencil, such as sheet plastic, metal grillwork, plastic lace, or any article whose negative spaces (cut-out areas) form a design. Excellent stencils can also be made from any piece of paper laminated with plastic. Realistically, one may have to be content with what is at hand. If only Bristol board or illustration board is available, once the stencil pattern is cut out, the board must be treated with shellac, enamel spray paint, acrylic glaze, or the like so as to seal the paper and help repel moisture (see fig. 42). Paint may be rolled, stippled, dry brushed, sprayed, sponged, or spattered through the holes according to the effects desired, time permitting, and method of painting (vertical or continental). When painting wallpaper, the stenciled pattern will be a color that contrasts with the background painting. It will be necessary to mix a base, tint, and shade for the pattern. Separating the degrees of value brings a thickly textured look to the pattern (e.g., flocking). 1he design is never painted solidly

Figure 42

66

through the stencil, as it would become "heavy" and distracting and thus need further texturing or toning. An evidence of wallpaper is all that is necessary (see part 2, section 9, "Wallpaper").

Spraying Spraying is very useful for rendering clouds, duplicating fine spatter, and in painting for a feeling of airiness or subtle gradation and blending of colors. Stenciling and general toning and shading may easily and effectively be done by spraying. One may usc electric air compressors that come in large and powerful , wheel-around setups or smaller, handheld and self-conta ined models. Both can be purchased at paint and hardware stores and can be set to produce a range from a fine mist to a shower (sec fig. 43a). Pump sprayers (as used in lawn and garden maintenance) work well but cannot be relied upon to provide a consistent fine spray or mist (sec fig. 43b) . Aerosol sprayers, available at artist-supply shops, feature a disposable, pressurized propellant and sprayer head screwed to a handy removable jar that houses the paint or medium of choice (sec fig. 43c). This sprayer is not intended for large jobs but works very well for toning and duplicating graffiti on stage. The com mercial spray-can market has expanded hugely in product variety over recent years. Once normally the container for enamel spray paints alone, spray cans now feature water-based paints, dyes, clear glosses, acrylics, adhesives, floral sprays, textured paint, stained glass paint, and on and on. Even the spectrum of available paint colors has blossomed . The main drawbacks to the pressurized sprays are their expense and health and environmental problems. Health concerns over inhaling fumes and environmental concerns over escaping propellants and pollutants deter many away from the products. These real concerns aside, one must be cautious in chOOSing wh ich spray paint to usc, particularly glossy enamel. It dries to a hard, dense fin ish, which is di fficult to paint over with anything but more enamel . Most water-based paints bead up when applied over it. Regardless of the medium or the appl icator, spraying is most effectively applied finely in mist form, and layers are built up if a heaviness, or opacity, is required. The amount of paint applied by spraying is deceiving, however, and it is wise to perform it continentally whenever possible to avoid sagging and dripping. The preceding techniques are fundamental approaches to scene painting and will be abandoned, modified, or even renamed by the individual painter as he or she moves on to more advanced work. Only through experience and practice can one develop a keen awareness of color and subtlety of stroke.

67

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Brush Care Just as the diligent painter must patiently refine a technique, so must the painting utensils be encouraged to last. Before quitting work, take care to thoroughly clean all brushes and tools. N ever leave a brush soaking, as the wood will eventually swell, subsequently crack and rot, and result in a 1005-

68

ened ferrule. There is also the likelihood the bristles will become permanently bent or curled. Should the ferrule become loose through normal wear-and~ tear, try securing it to the brush handle by wrapping them together tightly with clear packing tape. Wash brushes in warm water with a gentle soap (dish liquid soap works weU) until there is no paint clogged where the bristles connect to the ferrule. Water should run clear when the brush is held handle up under running water. Shake out all excess water, and shape the bristles. If bristles have become a bit unruly, apply a little dish detergent, and reshape them. The soap will harden but easily wash out. If a brush was not properly cleaned and has become stiff, try soaking it in a mixture of warm water and vinegar. This may soften the bristles. Store all brushes handle up (see fig. 44). Many years of satisfactory service can result from the proper treatment of all brushes and scene-painting aides.

Figure 44

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Part 2

Basic Lessons

All scenery must be textured or toned in some way to counteract the Aattening effect and glare of stage lights. And while scenery should also provide visual interest, it must, as well, furnish information unobtrusively in regard to the locale, era, or economic level around which the play revolves. Though it is not th is writer's intention to expound on the purposes or requirements of scenery. the manner in which the scene painting is handled will make a definite statement either in support of or against the play's framework. The scenic designer and the play's director must as carefully as possible select and agree upon those visual elements that best support the action as envisaged by the playwright. Eventually, specifically in regard to coloration, implied texture, and revelation of form, finishing the life-size renderings of these visual elements williargely become the province and responsibility of the scene painter. And the painter's job is not an easy one, sometimes befitting more the work of a magician: wood turns to stone, f.1.bric becomes wood, and flat surfaces magically protrude or recede. l he goal of part 2 is to illuminate the wizardry of scene painting and illustrate how the eye can be fooled when a two-dimensional surface turns into a three-dimensional illusion .

7. The Three-Dimensional Illusion and the Light Source The fundamental p rinciple in creating a three-dimensional illusion is that a light source must illuminate the three-dimensional object or arrangement of varied surf,1.ce planes. This light source, de pending on its location and prox-

71

imity to the object or arrangement, casts degrees of brightness or shade and shadow. The angle of a light source has a bearing on the degree to which a three-dimensional object is revealed. Painters and architects are aware that subjects appear the most real and lifelike if the light source, be it the sun or artificially produced, comes from both vertical and horizontal pl acements at 45 degrees, which is the basis of the McCandless theory of lighting design (see fig. 45). This concept means that most light sources will be placed slightly above and to the side of the object that the scene painter will render and that the sides of the object facing the light source will have brighter casts than those sides not facing the light source.

Figure 45

Highlights and Lowlights To understand the principles of light source and overlapping planes, look at the raised, or protruding, panel shown in figure 46, A and B. 'The smaller rectangle is labeled a in view A, which is a side elevation. ]n view B, a is on top of and protrudes from the larger rectangle b, which represents the background

72

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area. If, as in vicw B, the light (perhaps an electric wall fixture) emanates from the top right-hand corner and slightly to the front, as indicated by the arrow, the edges of a f.'lcing the light source (the top and right)arc the brightest and, therefore, pick up a highlight (i), Those edges facing away from the light source arc darker and receive a lowlight (ii). lhe left and bottom lowlight edges cast shadows (iii) of the proportionate thickness of a onto the surface of b. I f a recessed panel is used, figure 46, C, illustrates the changes in highlight (i), lowlight (ji), and shadow (iii), with the d irection of the light source the same as figure 46, B. Note that whether an object is recessed or protruding, a shadow always accompa~

nics a low/ighl and is beside Ihe /owlighl's edge Ibal isjflrlherfrom lhe light source. The illusion of three-dimensional pieces can be reproduced quite successfully on a two-dimensional su rt:"lce through appro priate scene-painting techniques. Until attempting to render curved, angled, or reflecting surt:"lces, the principles and placements of highlights, lowlights, and shadows arc relatively simple oncs. Placement of a light source is often a tricky problem . It is very unlikely that a room or sctting will be designed without at least one light source (see fig. 47, which depicts a room with protruding panels). When that light source is assigned, the distribution of highlights, 10wUghts, and shadows is an easier and more straightforward task than dealing with a setting lacking one. Unless a designated light source is part of an interior setting (e.g., a fire place, lamp, or window), the light shou ld be designed so as to appear to emanate from center stage. The highlighted sides of objects will differ: an object stage right,

73

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Figure 47 such as a protruding panel, has its top and right edges highlighted, while a stage-left panel has its highlighting on the top and left edges. Also, horizontal highlights and lowlights reverse at approximately six feet high and above. H aving the light source come from below when an object is placed high on a wall reinforces the realistic attempt at suggesting that a ceiling exists that would prevent the emanation of tight from a higher source. This means that those objects above six feet from the floor need to be painted as if the light were coming from below rather than above. These highlights and lowlights, both vertical and horizontal, occur in an interior setting where the light source has been designated as emanatiTlgfrom center stage. Usually, a stage setting has several light sources, some equal, some varying in intensity. The scenic designer may need to be consulted in order to assign a dominant or "key" light source. (If the designer provides detail painting elevations andlor a colored rendering of the set that stipulates highlights and shadows, the painter would follow those indications.) Although secondary light sources may be included on stage, the beginning scene painter should not confuse the issue; he or she should assign one light source that convincingly renders the object(s). As an example, imagine that the designer calls for a window and a roaring firep lace at opposite ends of the setting, with the three-dimensional painting illusion located upstage center. The painter decides which of the two light sources (the window or the fireplace) is dominant and uses that source in creating the three-dimensional illusion. As the ability of the scene

74

painter grows, subtleties and nuances will creep into his or her work t hat will allow for more sophisticated and realistic treatments of objects affected by multidirectional light sources. The colors used for highlights and lowlights are simply a tint and shade, respectively, as derived from the base color for the object. The tim may conta in an additive color reRecting the nature of the light source (e.g., blue for moonlight or an orange yellow cast from a lampshade) as needed to enhance temperature or mood.

Shadows, Glazes/Washes 'lhe shadow color, unlike the tint and shade colors, should be transparent and allow the surface underneath to show through. Because of its non-opaque nature, such a color is called a glaze or a wash. Either term is appropriate and interchangeable. The result and purpose of either arc identical. A shadQW wash is made by darkening the lowlight color and thinning it to a transparency. Many times, black is also used to create a shadow wash . In instances where the color temperature of a wash is to be evident, use either a blue-black or brown-black thinned to the desired consistency. The shadow wash should be tested on an extra surface that has been painted with the base color. Be sure the test surface is of the same material as the scenic surface. The degree to which a wash is thinned depends on the effect required. When paint is thinned enough for the underpainting to be in evidence but not clearly so, the wash is translucent. A t ranslucency allows one to see vague, filmy shapes through it. Washes used to create shadows must be transparent in nature. A transparency acts like colored clear glass. Objects on the other side of the transparency can be seen clearly, albeit bathed by the color of the transparency. Therefore, a translucent wash must be further thinned so as to arrive at a transparent state . Because the wash is tinted water (as in the case of water-based paints), it will be soaked up almost immediately by the previous dry coats of paints upon which it is applied . lhe danger of applying a shadow wash, regardless of its root medium, is that overlapping strokes will create lines of darker value. That is, each time a wash is applied over itself, irs darkness will double and, finally, an opaque, dark smudge will ex ist where the appearance of a shadow should be. Therefore, when very wide shadows must be applied, a painter needs to either use a brush whose width approximates the width of the shadow's band or use extra caution to place bands of wash directly alongside and not overlapping one another. Some painters prefer using dye, aniline or otherwise, as a shadow wash because of its inherent transparent nature.

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Lining Lining is the aspect of detail painting that adds shape, contour, and thickness to painted objects. Tt may be done freehand or with a straightedge as a guide in the same way one would use a pencil and drafting triangle to outline or illustrate component parts. Although more advanced painting often necessitates discarding a lining guide and working freehanded, most other forms of scene-painting lining will make use of some type of guide, whether it be a triangle, French cu rve, template, stencil, or straightedge. The tools required for lining are liner brushes (or filches) of varying widths commonly ranging from 1,4 in. to Ph in., pai nter's straightedge, carpenter's compass, measuring tapes, charcoal and chalk, a bow line or snap line, and, occasionally, a plumb line (see fig. 48) . The tapes, snap lines, and chalk/charcoal arc used for the measuring, placement, and initial sketching of the object.

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Liner Brushes

Using the Straightedge For the geometric painting of straight lines and angles, the liner brush and straightedge are used for the application of detail lines. The straightedge is substituted with other templates and such as the needs arise. The liner brush's bristles form a very definite chisel point. Hold ing the point horizontally while painting with a horizontal stroke results in a thin line. Changing the brush to a vertical chisel point produces a markedly f.·mer line, and the amount of paint in the bristles is exhausted more qU ickly. Sweeping the arm and hand as a unit (not unlike a dry-brushing stroke) and keeping the ch isel point at one constant angle without turning the wrist effect attractive variations in thickness and are very suitable fo r script lettering, sign painting, and objects with irregular surfaces (see fig. 49) .

,/ Figure 49 The straightedge should have a handle attached to its center. Normally made of pine for lightweight ease in handling, its bottom edges have channel grooves to catch excess paint and prevent blotting against the painting surf.'lce (see fig. 50, a). If the painter is right-handed, holding the handle of the straightedge in the left hand while making sure that its top edge is unobstructed by the fingers allows for the free passage of the brush. Lining should be a rather graceful movement of the entire arm from shoulder to wrist. Keep the wrist firm. Hold-

77

ing the brush lightly ben vcen the thumb and forefinger while resting the brush across the edge of the middle finger for balance, let the chisel point of the bristle rest parallel to the surface of the straightedge (see fig. 50, b). To paint vertical lines, adjust the procedure 90 degrees, using the edge of the straightedge closest to the brush hand. Practice painting downward and upward. Some beginning painters may find it helpful to fi rst master strokes from the bottom up, so as to minimize the possible dripping of an overloaded brush (see fig. 50, c).

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Keep the handle of the brush at slightly less than a right angle to t he scenery. That is, gently angle the handle end of the brush in the direction the brush is to move (see fig. 51a). The brush bristle shou ld lead the stroke with the end of its chisel point. 1he extent to which the brush is angled and/or the pressure put upon it by the painter has a direct bearing on how thin or thick the painted line becomes. Now glide the brush, nonstop, along the straightedge allowing the tips of the bristles to touch the painting surf..ce. Become accustomed to workjng the brush effectively from left to right and from right to left. This wilJ ensure an accurate starting and stopping of the painted line. A good way to practice a line that needs to have a crisp beginning and end is to work away from one end (e.g., the left corner, when working left to right) and stop the stroke before reaching its completion (right corner). Now place the brush at the intended completed end (right corner), slightly angle the brush

78

handle toward the original starting point (left corner), and stroke the brush in the opposite direction (right to left; see fig. 51b). This allows the painter to hit the beginning and end points of the line without overrunning. A little practice is necessary to exert even pressure along the entire run of the brush. When strokes of even pressure are applied, lines of uniform thickness result. Conversely, uneven pressure results in lines of uneven thickness. When Top VIEW

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79

having run out of paint on a long. straight line, recharge the brush, and overlap the end of the previous stroke to assure fluidity of direction and pressure. Now the pa inter is ready to tackle the procedures for painting what may be considered core examples of three-dimensional work. From the following examples, techniques and steps may be augmented or omitted to produce innumerous variations, all of which are impossible to cover here. The painting lessons are divided into three categories: stonework (bricks, rough stones, cut stones, marble), wallpaper, and woodwork (rendering methods, wai nscoting, and recessed and protruding panels).

8. Stonework Bricks From the very start, the important thing to remember about bricks is to iJlustrate some bricks more clearly than others. To iUustrate every brick equally on a building or wall provides too busy or distracting an image. An overall impression of bricks is all that is necessary, with some areas far more distinct than others. For instance, in painting an aged, red-brick wall, the painter will want to stay away from the vibrant and dominant reds yet still capture some sense of warmth. To accomplish this, the lay-in colors will be "browneddown" by adding amounts of burnt umber (blue is substituted for the brown if a cooler effect is desired). Although bricks are commercially available in colors ranging from deep gray to sparkling white, the following example attempts to replicate a traditional, aged wall, a structure made of those bricks that now have become known as "reclaimed" because they originate from leveled buildings and houses. The lay-in colors of red, deep purple, and orange are now analogous as they all contain a touch of burnt umber and will be used to create both definite and vague areas of brick. Step 1. Lay- in (Fig. 52) This lesson on ly shows a relatively small portion of a brick wall; on larger expanses, select and roughly sketch in with charcoal those areas of the wall where bricks should be the most evident. A common practice is to fade in the darkest areas (purple) toward the top and side edges of the fl at, thus leaving a nice glow of richer bricks somewhere near the center and lower center of the painting surface. Add areas of red and small contrasting blotches of orange here and there. As the three-dimensional illusion

80

Figure 52 of the protruding bricks is largely communicated by the red bricks, make the red area larger than either ofthe purple or orange. Accordingly, a tint and shade are made only for the red, not the purple and orange. The specific arrangement of the three lay-in colors is not regulated by realism or art, and their proportionate areas vary on any two given examples. Use purple to lay in the nonessential areas at the top of the wall. Considering t hat all the ingredients could eventually create black, overdoing t he scumble can get t hings very muddy in a hurry. There should be areas on the flat that are only red, only orange, and only purple in this beginning step. The edges of these colors arc where the scumbling occurs. Gently scumble t he edges of the three colors without overworking. An occasional Rick of the brush from the heart of one color into another may be done, but these strokes should be limited, or muddiness will result. Step 2 . Spatter ( Fig. 53) When the previous step has dried, a fine to medium spatter is applied using all three base colors. Be careful not to spatter too much orange, particularly in the purple areas, as this attracts focus by the extreme contrast and thus defeats the purpose of the purple color, which is ro denote faded-away areas.

81

Figure 53

Step 3. Mortar (Fig. 54) In a sense, what has been created to this point is one very large brick! To make the brick wall, begin by doing horizontal lining to delineate the bricks by chalking or snapping the rows of bricks, keeping the widths of the rows uniform and level. Use a plywood or cardboard rectangle the size of the intended brick to eliminate a lot of measuring. Paint the cement lines, or mortar, by applying the mortar color, which is a medium g ray containing an additive of burnt umber for warmth. 7he mortar lines should be about in. wide because a shadow from the protruding brick will eventually overlap part of the mortar but not all of it. When working on the dark arcas (the purple) of a larger example, lessen the pressure of the liner brush, to the point of dry brushing. This creates a f.'lding away of the mortar color into the unobtrusive brick sections. Apply the vertical mortar lines, and phase out appropriate strokes in the purple areas.

*

Step 4. Brick Lining (High- and Lowlighting; Fig. 55) As the bricks should protrude from the surface of the mortar, it is necessary to lend a dimension of thickness to the bricks. Think of the brick as a

82

Figure 54

Figure 55

83

protruding panel . Mix a tint and shade of the base red. Mixingwhite with a little orange and then adding some base color to it creates a nice tint, or highlight color. the shade can be arrived at by adding to a bit of the base red some burnt umber and purple. For practical purposes of instruction, again assume the light source to be coming from the same direction as in the illustration of the protruding panel: above and to the right. Therefore, line the top and right edges of the bricks with the tint for the highlight, while the opposite edges are lined with the shade for the lowlight. The highlights and /owlights each should overlap the edges of the brick, not be placed a/ongside it. D o not highlight and lowlight every brick, but do highlight an occasional brick in the dark area. Randomly vary the thickness of highlight and lowlight lines, as the intention is to suggest an aged wall that has character and whose edges and corners of several of the bricks have become chipped and abraded. Step 5. Brick Dry Brush (Fig. 56) Masons and bricklayers are artisans whose crafts date back millennia. As all bricks are never the same color, artisans will disperse and mingle various brick tones in esthetically pleasing patterns. To affect this, using a 2

Figure 56

84

in. brush or a fantail, lightly dry brush a few random bricks singularly with wash consistencies of the base red, orange, and purple. Some semblance of the textural spatter should be seen through the wash. Use only one dry brush color on any given brick. Step 6. Shadow Wash (Fig. 57) As the bricks are like protruding panels, add cast shadows that accompany the edges of the shade (lowlight) lines that face away from the light source. These shadow wash lines should slightly overlap the shade lines and ex tend over onto the mortar without covering the entire width of the mortar lines. As an additional option, some shadow wash may be applied to the faces of some bricks to suggest their uneven surfaces and used to completely darken a few bricks .

Figure 57

Step 7. Final Toning (Fig. 58) Lightly spatter with purple any mortar [jnes t hat sharply contrast with an underlying purple-based area. Follow this with a final light spattering of the entire surface with shadow wash to lend texture to the highlight lines and mortar lines.

85

Figure 58

Alternative M ethods for BrieRs As is prevalent in technical theater, there arc usually several means by which to achieve a goal, and methods of scene painting are no exception. For the follow ing two alternatives, think of painting one huge cement slab onto wh ich will be implanted the bricks. 1. The laying in of the mortar color is the first step. Base the surface with a gray that has been toned with either blue or brown for temperature. When dry, the mortar is spattered with shadow wash or a proximity tint and shade of the mortar color to lend texture to the cement. When dry, place down 1h in. wide painter's tape in the pattern the mortar will assume (sec fig. 59). Next, spatter, seumble, roll, spray, or dry brush on the brick colors. Depending on the intended appearance of the bricks, almost any method(s) of application will work. Further texture as desired, and then remove the tape (see fig. 60). Finish with steps 4 through 7 above. 2. Perhaps the most popular method of painting bricks and preferred by painters particularly when large areas are to be covered is the painting of bricks using a stencil (see figs. 61a and 61b). This method is most easily performed continentally, though may be successfully done vertically. Apply the

86

Fig ure 59

Figure 60

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Fig ure 61a

88

paint through spattering, spraying, sponging, or rolling. Using a thick shag paint roller and applying varying degrees of pressure will result in interesting textural variations. Individual bricks are selected for highlighting, lowlighting, and dry brushing. For the next steps, refer to steps 4 through 7 above. For a very stylized ("heightened" or cartoonli ke) treatment, paint the cement first, and then follow up with brick shapes cut from synthetic sponges and stamp on the bricks (see fig. 62). Finish the illusion as befits the style of the production.

Figure 62

Rough Stones The term rough stones refers to those stones that have been removed from the ground and are used in their original and irregular sizes and shapes to build walls, houses, welJs, and other structures. Both a brush and natural sponge will be used to create them. Step 1. Mortar Base (Fig. 63) Mix a mortar color, and cover the entire surface. When dry, spatter with a tint and shade of the mortar color.

89

•

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Figure 63

Step 2. Stone Lay-In (Fig. 64) Draw the stones with chalk or charcoal pencil. Using two base colors for visual interest, lay in all stones with a brush.

Step 3. Stone Detail (Fig. 65) Randomly sponge with a temperature color. Keeping in mind the direction ofthe light source, sponge on the highllghts and lowlights with the tint and shade, respectively. Alternate the positioning of the sponge, and vary the shape and size of the tint and shade applications, thereby reinforcing the irregularity of each stone. As it is difficult using a sponge to create a crisp perimeters for the stones, it may be necessary to clean up the tint and shade edges with a liner brush, being careful not to paint lines of uniform width.

90

•

Figure 64

Step 4. Shadow Wash (Fig. 66) Usi ng a liner brush, follow with the shadow wash, and accentuate thicknesses and shapes of stones with shadows cast on the mortar. Finally, spatter the entire work with shadow wash. Refrain from medium or heavy spattering, as this will on ly flatten t he stones' appearance.

Cut Stones Cut stones are those stones frequently found on royal buildings, monuments, banks, churches, and other impressive structures. They differ from rough stones in that they have been shaped by masons or mechanically cut. Each stone has chiseled edges. Consider a cross-sectional view of a cut stonc.

91

Figu re 65

Note the obvious bevel that occurs on the four sides and its sloping distance from the flat face of the stone to the mortar (see fig. 67). Cut stones arc most commonly made of granite, limestone, or marble, which come in a variety of colors. For this demonstration, a reddish-brown granite will be painted. Step 1. Scumble Lay-In Mix up a base of burnt sienna. From this base, mix a tint and shade. (As burnt sienna is a reddish-brown, combining it with white alone can lead to a pink tint. To offset this, add a little orange or yellow to the siennaand-white mixture to create the tint.) To slightly offset the warmth of the

92

Fig ure 66

brown and for visual interest, mix a small quantity of mint green, made analogous by adding a little base color to it. Scumble in only the siennas, leaving some areas brighter and more prominent than others. Step 2 . W et Spatter (Optional; Fig. 68) While the scumbling of step 1 is still wet, do a medium spatter with the base, tint, and shade and sparingly with the mint green. The wet scumble mingles with the spatter droplets, and a slight puddling of the colors occu rs. If the scumble has dried, place the surf.'lce continentally, spatter with some water, and follow with the above spatter colors. Be particularly

93

FroO! view

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Figure 68

careful if painting vertically. As dripping is not desirable, th is step may have to be avoided altogether. In this event, skip to the next step, and spatter finely. An optional flogging may be introduced here to ach ieve a veined look to the granite (see "Marble .~ below) .

94

Step 3. Dry Spa,,« (Fig. 69) When step 2 has dried , fine spatter lightly with all four colors. A medium spatter of the shade can be done on the darker areas. This dry spattering as a follow-up to the wet spattering of step 2 is done to duplicate the muted, yet coarse, textural appearance of granite. This step may be avoided if a smoother appearance is called for.

Figure 69

Step 4. M ortar (F ig. 70) Using a deep brown-black as the mortar color, thinly line in the individual stones (sec fig. 70). Note the width of the mortar is considerably narrower than that used for bricks. A lighter mortar color can be used, although w ith dark granites and marbles, a dark mortar is advised . A light mortar with dark stones allows the mO rtar to be dominant and appear to jump to the foreground, thereby counteracting the illusion of the protruding, chisel-edged stones. Step 5 . Highlig ht a nd Lowlight (Figs. 71 a nd 72) Note on the diagram of the cut stone (see fig. 67) that the inner rectangle on the face of the stones is indented the same d istance from the mortar on all four sides. This indentation should approximate the width of the bristle

95

Figure 70 span on a -% inch liner brush. 1t is advisable to measure this indentation and mark it with chalked reference dots on areas of the painting surface. Or, a template made from cardboard that fits into the corner created by the joining of vertical and horizontal mortar lines may be used to strike reference dots (see fig. 71). Determine the light source and, using the tint color, highlight the indented, perpendicular edges of the ('lce of the stone. Repeat with the lowlighting on the opposite edges using the shade color (see fig. 72) . Step 6. G lazes (Washes; F ig. 73) Between the highlight and mortar lines, apply a transparent tin! glaze (wash) made by thinning the tint color. Mixing the tint glaze can be tricky. The last thing wanted here is a tint glaze that, when dry, turns opaque. It is always better to have a tint glaze that is mixed too weak. Try the glaze out on a test area painted with burnt sienna. Though it may appear more like clear water when brushed on, as it dries, a film occurs. This tint glaze should dry to a t ransparency like the shadow glaze. To apply the tint glaze, turn the chisel point of the liner brush to a 45 degree angle when painting outward from the beginning corner.

96

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97

Figure 73

Stop the stroke before reaching the end corner, pivot the brush to t he opposite 45 degree angle, place the brush at the end corner, and work out from it. Apply the shadow glaze on the opposite bevels of each stone. It is the meeting of the two different washes at the diagonally opposed corners that really gives the stone its strikingly beveled appea rance. Be careful so as not to overlap the morta r lines with the tint glaze . Using a shadow wash, paint in a wide shadow between the lowl ight lines and mortar lines. The wash may overlap both the lowlight and mortar lines . Additional applications of the tint glaze and shadow wash may intensify the illusion but also destroy it if one or both of the washes begins to turn opaque. Step 7. Eng raving (Optional) and Toning (Fig . 74) If engraving is needed, simply take the tint and shade colors and with the chisel point of a narrow liner brush adhere to the pri nciples of highlights and lowlights as dictated by t he light source to produce the carved, recessed grooves (see fig. 74). F inish with a fine spattering of shadow wash to lend texture to the highlight lines.

98

Figure 74

Marble Marble can be found in a wide and spectacular range of color. Of all forms of stonework, it is by far the most exotically elegant, and its opulence speaks of money and power. While some may visualize marble as a shiny off-white rock, variations of green, ebony, pink, azure, and brown have been used for centuries to enhance architecture and provide attractive and allu ring decor. For example, the study of pink marble may reveal shades of brown, blue, and purple as enchanting pools or vei ns within the stone . To keep such a range of possible colors analogous, first mix some white with a little burnt sienna or burnt umber depending on how rosy the marble is to look. The outcome should be an off-white possessing a degree of warmth. Using this as a common denominator, mix with red to create the desired base, and from th is make a fairly light tim with white and drops of orange and a somewhat dark shade with brown and some purple. To the side, neutralize some brown with a little of the base pink, and, likewise, mix a Iinle base pink with some purple. What should result are a base of pinkish red, its tint and shade fairly removed away in hue and temperature colors of brown and purple. 1n addition, keep some

99

of the original off-white, and make a dark-brown shadow wash. Once again, these particular colors are not regulated. One need only study the particular marble to be produced or experiment to substitute appropriate colors as necessary. Marble is most successfully rendered when painted continentally. Remember, when painting marble continentally on framed scenery, those areas benveen the framing boards must be backed, or filled in from the rear, to prevent the canvas from sagging and causing the gathering of pools of paint and water. Step 1. Lay-in ~ickly lay in the area with the pinkish red base. With a lay-in brush or a narrow roller, apply irregular striations of tint, shade, brown and purple. Do not continue to blend. Step 2 . Water Spatter or Spray Immediately follow with a fine spattering, or spraying (misting), of water. A mottled effect wiU result. Do not overdo. Step 3. Color Spatter Puddle the colors further by spattering sparingly on top of the water with all colors. Vary the spatter from heavy to fine, but do not cover the entire surt:'lce equally with every color. A judiciOUS spatter again with water may be needed, perhaps slashing across the painting surface with each snap. NOTE: While all of t he above are drying, cut four to five pieces of heavy twine, yarn, or thin muslin strips to approXimately 36 inches . T ie the ends and middles of the lengths arbitrarily together to resemble a loosely woven net. Some long ends should be left untied and hanging free. This dev ice is a veining net and is used particularly when large areas have to resemble marble. When step 3 is dry or slightly tacky, dip the net into water to soften it. OPTION: Add a little bronze (metallic) powder to the veining color(s). If added sparingly, t he effect can be quite opulent. Step 4. Veining (Fig. 75) Next comes the veining (see fig. 75). 111is step may be performed horizontally or vertically. D ip the dampened veining net into t he shade, squeeze out the excess color, and toss or flog the net gently onto the painted surface. The strands will discha rge paint as they strike the surface and produce rhe veining common to marble. Repeat once or twice, and proceed to other colors as desired. Be certain to slightly alter the angle of Ragging,

100

; /

Figure 75

but be careful not to create veining lines that fight, or oppose, one another. It is best to produce a unifying, predominant angle for all of the veining, rather than winding up with a mishmash of crisscrossing lines. 1he resultant veining should never be the same twice. On smaller scenic units, substitute the veining net with a feather or small brush . Be careful not [0 fall into repetitive veining parterns. An optional fine spattering or spraying with water will soften t he vein ing.

Step 5. Detail (Fig. 76) Thin some of the tint and shade down a little so the colors glide off the brush. The dimensional lines should not be too heavy in appearance (sec fig. 76), Usc the shadow wash in the usual manner. NOTE:: Rich marble and fine woodwork arc often given a subtle gloss to increase their luxuriance. To achieve this gloss glaze, a transparent glaze of a glossy nature, is applied. Virtually every paint medium has a clear matte or glossy product available (except dry pigments, for which size water may be used as a handy gloss glaze). Most products are water soluble to allow for the control of gloss desired. H owever, as all gloss glazes will darken the scene painting, experiment with an extra painted surface before glazing to get

101

Figure 76 an idea of the resultant finish. Consequently, areas requiring a gloss glaze may have to be painted with lighter values of color to allow for the darkening when glazed. Step 6. G loss G laze (Fig. 77, A , B) Apply the gloss glaze. Be sure to give the painting just a hint of luster. Too much glare will destroy any attempts at dimension detailing. ]ft he finished, preglossed marbling appears too bright, a pinch of color may be added to the gloss glaze as a toning device . Accordingly, the finished colors of the marble can be drastically altered by adding colors to the glaze. ]f, for example, a pink marble appears too rich in value, adding some brown to the gloss glaze will subdue the quality of the pink and lend an appearance of aging to the stonework, B (sec fig. 77, B). (Adding color to a finishing gloss glaze for woodwork can also be an effective altering or toning step.) Be careful, however, when brushing on the glaze to avoid an appearance of streaking, unless such an effect is desirable. Tilting the Rat by picking up different corners will allow the glaze to streak or puddle and create variations in the extent of glossiness. The dripping and streaking of glazes or washes is not restricted to marble and stonework. Called a "Bergman Bath" after its inventor, scene painter Robert Bergman, this technique may be integrated into the painting stages of various exercises, including wallpaper, bricks, and stonework. Adding amounts of silver metallic powder lend more of a sheen to the

102

Figure 77

glaze solution, and allowing it to run down the painting surf:'lce produces an illusion of dampness and trickling moisture, so suitable for dungeons, dank caverns, and mildewed walls.

9. Wallpaper Painting Considerations Unless in an intimate t heater setting where the audience is quite close to the action and realistic accuracy is stressed, real wallpaper is rarely used on stage settings. Its use is avoided largely because of the following comideratiom, without any particular importance to the order:

Artistic 1. The scenic designer must choose from those patterns available. Also, the colors of wallpaper are predetermined, and an appropriate, commerciallyavailable pattern may not come in colors matching those predetermined on the designer's palette. Some designers may wish to create their own wallpaper designs, as the ir only limitations regarding style and color may be t heir own imaginations. 2. Many wallpapers exhibit a slightly finished sheen. This sheen primarily allows for cleaning with a damp sponge shou ld spills or minor soiling occur. 103

But the resultant sheen causes a reRection that when viewed from off to one side can literally obscure the design and its colors. As the audience may see several walls from an angle, such a sheen can be a visual nuisance. Attempting to dull this sheen through overlay washes wi11likely succeed in only making the wallpaper appear dingy, wh ich mayor may not be the intention. Unless otherwise preplanned, painted wallpaper-as rendered with most scenic paints-will dry to a matte quality, and its finished appearance wiJI be expressive no matter where an audience member may sit.

Budgetary 1. Wallpaper can be quite expensive, often far exceeding the cost of paint. 2 . Wallpaper will not attach well to canvas-and-frame scenery. It is far better to cover "hard" Rats (e.g., those Rats covered by skin plywood rather than muslin or canvas) with wallpaper as the surface will be rigid and more like an actual walL Building hard Rats may pose considerable budgetary, scene shifting, and storage implications for some theater companies. Conversely, almost any surface can be used when the ilJusion of wallpaper is painted on . 3. As many theater companies-particularly universities, smaller professional groups, and most amateur groups- rely on the reuse of stock scenery, those Rats covered with wallpaper must be stripped and sometimes recovered. 1he additional cost could be prohibitive or put economic constraints on other production elements. Painted-on wallpaper designs can be painted over, as simple as that. E xpertise Hanging wallpaper is a far different task t han painting. Although certain corners can be cut or fudged through painting illusions, slapping real wallpaper into and around corners, windows, and doors with attempts at alignment accuracy can stretch even the most serene of temperaments. (Wallpapering a room with a spouse, some contend, may initiate a quick trip to divorce court.) Duplicating wallpaper through painting is a relatively simple procedure, and almost any painting helpers can be taught to master the steps.

Time When one factors in the sealant and other surface-preparation [ime needed to prepare the scenic surface for the wallpaper and then attaching the paper itself, many painters could have already finis hed painting the illusion. In light of the above considerations, it behooves many an organization to elect the painted illusion over the real thing.

104

Pounce Method Few wallpaper patterns are random in nature (or perhaps they would not be called patterns). ll)ere is commonly a rhyme or reason to their design that creates not only an individual but a collective interest. Although the individual design may be striking or evocative, it is often also the combinations created by the repetitive placement of the pattern that lends [0 its overall visual statement. To assure symmetry of pattern, the use of a stencil or similar device is compulsory when wallpaper is painted on a setting. At one time, a poutlce wheel, pounce bag, and paper were the tools used to transfer wallpaper patterns to the painted surface . A design was drawn out on the paper, and the pounce wheel was used to make perforations along the lines of the design . This stencil of sorts was then placed on the painting surface, and the pounce bag full of ground charcoal was pounded on the perforated lines. Lifting off the paper revealed a dotted replica of the wallpaper design (see fig. 78) . It was then hand painted . The procedure is an arduous one that requires steady hands and voluminous quantities of patience.

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105

Stenciling More recently, the art of stenciling has become more sophisticated. To describe the procedure simply, the paint is now commonly applied directly onto tbe scenery through the stencil's negative spaces, which form the shape of the wallpaper design.

D esigning the Negative Stencil Countless variations of single and combination stencils can be employed fo r scene painting. For research and quick access, it is wise to stock the paint shop with wallpaper catalogues and to keep an extra copy fo r reuse or reference of each stencil constructed . A fe w hints may prove worthwhile when selecting (or for the deSigner, designing) a stencil pattern . 1. Never choose too large or too small a pattern . Either is annoying. Dependent, of course, on the size of the theater and audience proximity, the small pattern wiU general ly read like indiscernible mush, and the large stenci l will appear large and overbearing and will, therefore, take focus . 2. Be sure the stencil is not terribly busy. This carries the same consequence as an overly large stencil. l £, however, an intricate pattern is the preference, try creating the pattern in overlay form. That is, break the stencil down into two or three stencils that when placed one on top of the other will complete the design. D o the initial shape in one color, and use analogous colors for the subsequent stencil intricacies. 3. Make the pattern durable. It might be used a few hundred times on one setting. Between all cutout sections are the bridges, or ties, that hold t he stencil together. Making these ties too narrow may result in the stencil falling apart. Leave at least a 1/4 in . width for the ties. Accordingly, be careful that there are enough ties and that no long or floppy sections exist. Figure 79 illustrates a weU-designed stencil, A, versus one that does not have enough ties, B. M aking the Negative Stencil Stenci ls can be cut out with mat knives. Should several copies of the stencil be required, sandwich and clamp sheets of stencil paper between two pieces of~ in. plywood. Trace the original stenci l onto the top piece of plywood, and cut out the holes with a power saber saw. For those painters with access to a more thoroughly equipped scene shop, a Cutawl mach ine is unsurpassable for cutting out complex negative shapes (see fig. 80). The resultant multicopies can then be placed on continentally arranged scenery, and the many repeating patterns can be Simultaneously applied.

106

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107

NOTE: Be sure to make a few extra stenci ls. When a set is painted vertically in its assembled fo rm , the extra stencils may be cut in half or in sections fo r painting the pattern into and around corners of the walls. When the painting is to be done vertically, and only one stencil is used at a time, it may prove handy if tbe stencil is framed. Framing not only ma intains rigidity but also proves a convenient way to pick up the stencil and hold it when in use. To frame a stencil. The average individual stencil design will cover a gross area of approximately 10 inches x 12-14 inches. Cut four pieces of:J.4 inch x :J.4 inch pine to the lengths required by the dimensions of the stencil. Remember to allow in the calculations for the width of the wood. Arrange the pieces as shown in figure 813. P lace the stencil facedown onto the wood pieces, and staple through the paper into the wood using 'A inch staples (fig. 81b). Carefully nail the frame together with I1f.z inch finishing nails. ] f the stencil is not made of stencil paper or paper that has been laminated with plastic, seal the stencil front and back against moisture absorption with shel lac or enamel spray paint. Note that the centering guidelines that have been notched into the top, bottom, and side edges of the stencil (see also figllre 42) mllst be visible inside the frame. 1hese notches will be aligned with the horizontal and vertical chalk lines normally snapped onto the painting surface to serve as guides for the placement and positioning of the stencil. Before applying the stencil, the background should be textured to provide an interesting contrast to the stencil. The background may be lightly scumbled, sponged, stippled, or combed. However, the background texture should be done with washes or opaque colors close together ill value and hue. The purpose of the background is [0 contrast and enhance the stencil without detracting from it. H aVing prepa red the background, decide the direction or layout of the overall pattern.

Applying the Stencil Step 1. G uidelines (Fig. 82) Choose how the stencil is to be placed, that is, side by side, offset, in vertical columns, in diagonal columns, or other ways. Although this demonstration focuses on only a few stencil applications rather than an entire wall, use a chalk snap line to strike vertical and horizontal gU idelines (see fig. 82). These will assure the alignment of the stencil's perimeter vertical and horizontal notches.

108

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Figure SIb

109

Figure 82 Step 2. Stencil Base (Fig. 83) The stencil base color may be appl ied in any number of ways. Dabbing the ends of a brush rather forcefully in a stippling manner will pound the paint through the holes quite nicely. It may be surprising how many times the stencil can be painted through and moved before having to recharge the brush. Work on the brighter, lower background areas of the scenery first, and gradually fa de out the stencil pattern when approaching the upper reaches of the scenic unit and its darker background (see fig. 83). A pattern applied opaquely in the top areas d raws the eye upward. Step 3. Stencil Contrast (Fig. 84) Apply the stenci l tint and shade colors using the same or contrasting method employed for the base color. Use the tint and shade lightly so as

110

Fig ure 83

to not totally cover the base color. Vary the placements of the tint and shade colors to avoid static repetition and to create stencil texture (see fig. 84). Step 4 . Final Tone (Optional; F igs. 85 and 86) Finish with a light application of one of the background colors over the finished stenciling by combing, fine spatter, using a cut roller, or other method. This not only provides further texture but serves as a toning device for too dominant a pattern. Producing wallpaper that is to have a tapestry appearance is relatively easy. After the stencil has been applied with the required colors, drag a combing brush vertically over the pattern with various washes (see fig. 85). A patterned paint roller, such as one wrapped with several rubber bands, may also be used (see fig. 86).

111

Figure 84

Pattern Arrangements As mentioned earlier, the repetitive placement of the wallpaper pattern can also ('lctor into its design and overall collective interest. 1l1e four standard arrangements are diaper, scale, ogee, and vertical stripes (see fig. 87, a through d, respectively). In addition, singular stencils may be placed in sequences of repetition, inversion, opposition, or alternation (see fig. 87, e through h, respectively). Each arrangement has its own significance, and one may be more appropriate to another when supporting architectural periods.

Spattering or Spraying A quick and easy way to create striped wallpaper is with spattering or spraying, done either vertically or continentally. Make a template: Nail at 6 inch intervals and perpend icular to a 6 foot piece of 1 inch x 3 inch pine, 6

112

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inch wide x 8 foot pieces ofl,4 inch plywood (see fig. 88, a). H aving completed the background paiming, lay the template on the continental scenery, or in the case of vertical scenery, rest the 1 inch x 3 inch piece on the top of the flat and allow the strips to hang down. Spatter or spray with the base, tint, and shade wallpaper colors. Remove the template, and move to [he next section of scenery. Further, optional treatments might be the application of a second different template over the background or applied stripes, framing of the stripes with a wash or opaque color, among others (see fig. 88, b).

Stamping a Pattern Alternatively, using a stencil may be substituted by "stamping" the paint onto the scenery. Synthetic sponges, cut into shapes, are pressed onto the scenery to cast an imprint; or shapes of sponge or thick carpet are glued to a board with handles, dipped into pan of color, and stamped against the scenery (sec fig. 89) . 'This latter method is extremely effective fo r fast application. The sponge and carpet can be cut with scissors, mat knives, or a band saw. Remember that unless designed or specified otherwise, all painted areas on the stage will need some degree of paimed or applied texturing to absorb stage lighting. Wallpaper is no exception. Whether stenciled or stamped, t he design pattern must be treated with contrasting tones, be they merely tints and shades, [0 create texture.

114

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11 5

10. Woodwork Graining Before attempting to paint any type of woodwork, research the exact wood Study its graining patterns and changes in color. Soft woods are less expensive than hard woods, and its t rees (pine, poplar, cedar, spruce) tend to be tall and straight. Wood grains are linear and free flowing. H ard woods arc slower-growi ng trees (such as, oak, cherry, walnut, and mahogany) and often gnarled and twisting in nature, whose growth rings and consequently grain lines are close together and oftcn quite intricate. Hard wood is dense and morc challenging to work with but, due to its tighter graining, will not split or splinter as easily as softer woods. H ard woods are commonly associated with fine furniture and paneled interiors that bespcak the economic affiuence of the owners. Softer woods freque ntly carry a rustic connotation, a more bucolic and frugal charm. Soft woods tend to be £'1.[ more textural in nature. Although the examples in the following painting lessons are of a wide-grained nature (such as poplar or pine), variations in color, blending, and graining can be su ited to the particular characteristics of the type of wood desired. The following demonstrations are divided into three categories: rendering methods (descriptions of the three common methods of reproducing a wood effect), wainscoting (the most basic of all interior treatments for decor), and paneling (in which multi leveled decor is illustrated). to be reproduced.

Rendering M ethods Regardless of the complexity of the assignment , reproducing woodwork on the stage maytakc the form of any onc or more ofthe following three approaches: (1) the wash method, (2) opaque method, or (3) dry-brush method. Although it is common to use a combination of methods on anyone painting project, dividing and illustrating the techniques into three separate approaches will simplifY the procedures for the beginning painter and possibly encourage the adoption of an individual format that has proven comfortable and workable.

Wash Method Step 1. N eutral B ase (Fig. 90) Base in the entire woodwork area with a light background color appro priate to the temperature of the wood to be produced . When dry, use a black

11 6

Figure 90 indelible marker to delineate the divisions of boards (see fig. 90) . Boards do not have to be of uniform width. Step 2. Graini ng (Figs. 91 and 92) Regardless of the type of graining (wood) to be replicated, there will be no obvious symmetry or balance to the lines. In figure 91 , a and b illustrate how and why graining lines appear as they do. The extent to which grain lines are linear or loop back in the opposite direction has to do not only with the type of tree and how straight, crooked, or gnarled it is but also the manner in which it is cut at the sawmill. In a process called quartersawing, the lumber is produced by first quartering the log and then sawing perpendicular to the growth rings (fig. 91, a). Boards are produced that are

117

(a) Q UART ERSAWING

(b) PLA1NSAW1NG

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relatively narrow in width, but the grains are fairly straight. There can be considerable waste through this sawing method. The most common and economical of cuts, plain-sawn, occurs when a whole or half-round log is passed through the saw blade, and the growth rings are cut across. The grain contains considerably more variation as the grow th rings are more prominent. The graining parterns will resemble elliptical loops, or cups (fig. 91, b) . A cluster ofloops or cups is referred to as a heart grain. The replication of heart g rains through painting should not receive a hasty attention to detail, as there are general characteristics (~No's and Yeses"; see figure 91c) that should be studied if the wood is to appear realistic and credible . The tapering characteristics of t he g rain are controlled by the liner brush's chisel point. the ferrule ofthe brush should not be turned but kept at a comtant angle. Add the appropriate graining (based upon research and/or commerc ially available swatches) with a combing brush and liner brush, using a fairly dark wash (see fig. 92). Note that some boards are grained solely through combing, while other graining patterns are in combination with the liner brush or with the liner alone. As the ultimate goal of realistic scene painting is to capture the essence of an object, rather than total-and, perhaps, distracting-photographic duplication, take care not to "overgrain" the wood to the point of busyness.

118

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119

Figure 92 Optional Step. Dry Brush with Backg round C olor ( Fig. 93) Should the grain lines appear too dark at this stage or certain linear wood characteristics are required, one might elect to dry brush over the graining lines with a wash of the beginning light background color. This stroke should be fluid and work from one end of the board to the other, and the assistance of a straightedge is encouraged. An alternative to dry brushing would be to use the spaner-and-drag techn ique (see below, step 4.) Step 3. Washes (Fig. 94) As befining the type of wood being replicated, brush on appropriate washes of color in the same direction as the graining, and lightly blend

120

Figure 93

with water. The graining should show through . If the graini ng appears too prevalent, repeat applications of wash{es}. Step 4 . Spatter and Drag (Fig. 95) Finely spatter with the shadow wash, and drag immediately in the direc~ tion of the graining. Do not overly spatter and drag, as this step can muddy the wood. Step 5. Highlight and Lowlight (Fig. 96) Add highlights and lowlights to the edges of each board to clarify the arrangement and lend a thin beveling.

121

Figure 94 Step 6. G loss G laze (Fig. 97) Finish with a gloss glaze to deepen the tones and add richness. NOTE : Painters may prefer reversing steps 2 and 3, as the blending will provide a more varied foundation for interesting and nonrepetitive graining patterns. However, the graining wash will now have to be weaker in strength as it will sit on top of the color washes. And, although reversing steps 2 and 3 may frec up the style of the painter, such an approach may be more suitable to the creation of a woody "look" than a realistic one. Opaqlle Method This second rendering method will be illustrated by creating aged barn wood because of its many subtle colors and coarse texture. Close inspection of the unpainted barn wood reveals both warm and cool tones, however slight,

122

Figure 95 t hat have resulted from the exposure of the wood's natural moisture patterns to weathering. Mix up a base of medium gray and a corresponding tint and shade . For variety and temperature, also mix a reddish brown and a gray blue, using the base color as a common denominator additive. Step 1. Base D ab and Streak (Fig. 98) Base in the entire area quickly and heavily with the base gray. While the base is still wet, dab and streak the tint, shade, brown, and blue in the direction ofthe boards (see fig. 98). Step 2. Wet Blend (Fig. 99) With a wide lay-in brush partially charged with water, blend with the board di rection while pushing with some fo rce against the surface.

123

Figure 96

Step 3. Inking and Grain ing (Fig. 100) After step 2 has dried, ink in with a narrow, black indelible marker the divisions separating the individual boards. With a shadow wash, sparingly add some graining lines. lhe effects of weathering will have greatly diminished a lot of graining contrast. (The sidings on barns were constructed of the softer woods, such as poplar, pine, and spruce; the graining is free-flow ing and loose but, like the rest of the barn, has faded.lhe g rain should not be very contrasting.) Step 4. Texture Dry brush sparingly with the tint, base, and shade colo rs.

124

Figure 97

Step 5. Spatter and Drag (Fig. 101) Fi ne spatter with the shade and drag most areas while leaving what will appear to be nail and worm holes.

Step 6. Highlight and Lowlight (Fig. 102) Using the tint and shade colors, line in the highlights and lowlights to distinguish edges of boards, and shadow wash for cracks and splits. (Do not apply a gloss glaze, as it would work against the natural and exposed appeal of this type of wood.) 1he use of opaque colors can provide a rich appea rance but also one that may seem visualJy "heavy." Certain colors carry more visual weight

125

Figure 98

than others . Grays and earth tones-particularly browns-do not confront the observer with the same degree of visual excitement as many of the other warm and cool tones. The grays and earth tones are reserved in nature and suit well those settings steeped in formal and staid tradition. Using browns and grays in opaque fo rm, especially when combined in a wet state, creates a far-heavier impression than the same colors utilized as washes over a predried base color.

Dry-Brush M ethod An advantage this method has over the previous two is that its procedufC may be followed as available time permits. There isn't t he Tush to complete wet

126

Figure 99

blending or the dragging of colors before they dry. Because dry brushing is largely associated with wood and texture, t his relatively simple third method is well suited to illustrate coarse, exposed wood . Moreover, in an attempt to capture nature's raw beauty, the following example makes use of rather romantic temperature colors of a complementary nature. As the color of a stage light will pick up and accentuate its like color in the painting, treating this wood with a blue wash allows the wood to appear cool when lit under moonlight {typically, blue} conditions.1l1e orange wash, conversely, turns the wood warm when lit by a warm-colored light for a scene during the day. A section of cut-out scenery is being painted for this lesson, and although the scenery is still two-dimensional, the perimeter shape will reinforce the nature of the painting technique.

127

I

~

Figure 100

Step 1. Base and C ool Dry Brush or C omb (Fig. 103) Base t he entire unit with a beige or gray color, and allow to dry. Then d ry brush or comb a gray blue following the directions of the boards. Step 2. Warm T exture Fol low with the gray orange. Work in sections, and do not completely cover the gray blue. Keep the gray orange predominantly but not absolutely near those edges facing the light source. Step 3. Tint and Shade (Fig. 104) After determ ini ng the light sou rce, apply a light, warm gray tint and a deep brown- or purple-gray shade to add dimension. D o not use a straightedge.

128

Figure 101

These lines should be free hand and have va rying t hicknesses to capture the nature of the roughly hewn profile cutout. Step 4. Shadow Wash (Figs. 105 and 106) Paint on the shadow wash to indicate the overlapping construction, and finish with a fine -to-medium spattering of shadow wash to give the highlights texture (see fig. 105). It is often necessary to portray wooden units (moldings, door and window un its, railings) that have been painted with a decorator color. They may be color-coordinated and complement the wallpaper or offset dark walls by providing a lighter tri m. However, though covered with a particular color, such architectural fe atures are li kely constructed of wood.

129

F igure 102

In such cases where the woodwork has to appear as if painted over, first base paint the wood with the chosen color. Now create a sense of the material, that is, suggest that an architectural feature is made of wood, without heavily illustrating its obvious characteristics. The audience members will likely have made their own association. They know a door is commonly made of wood, so it won't take going overboard to convince them. Mix tim, shade, and an (optional) temperature color fairly close in value to the wood's base color. D ry brush or comb with all three over the base color. Use the tint and shade with subtlety to reinforce any actual three-dimensional facets (e.g., recessed door panels) according to the dominant light source. Employing washes will create a soft look, while

130

Figure 103

Figure 104

Figure 105

131

dry bushing with opaques will give the unit more texture. Do not attempt graining lines, as they have supposedly been painted over (see fig. 106). Optionally, finish with a gentle gloss glaze.

Figure 106

Wainscoting Wainscoting refers to the wood paneling on an interior setting that is located on the lower sections of walls and comprises a chair rail molding, middle section, and baseboard molding at the bottom (see fig. 107). Notice that both the chair rail and baseboard are applied onto the surface of the paneled area, and their grains run predominately in a horizontal direc-

132

CHAIR RA IL

Ton gue & Groo\'e

BASEBOARD

Figure 107 tion. While the wainscoting, chair raU, and baseboard may assume a highly decorative fo rm, their initial purpose is to protect the wall from the gouging and chipping caused by chair backs and legs. Wainscoting may be quite opulent in its design, but as illustrations of more intricate paneling are soon to follow, this painting series will showcase the traditional tongue-and-groove type . The tongue-and-groove form of wainscoting with its verrical graining was a popular and modest style of paneling employed as a staple of interior decor dating to the seventeenth century. Its clean lines and sturdy workmansh ip reflect a simplicity and lack of pretension that graced town halls, church basements, saloons, and simple parlors. Step 1. Base Blend and Ink (Fig, 108) On the side vertical edges of the painting surface, place marks to indicate the widths and positions of the chair rail, tongue- and-groove, and baseboard sections. Base and blend all areas according to grain direction, W ith a felt tip marker, ink in the borders of the chair rail and baseboard, and delineate the individual tongue-and-groove boards. Step 2, Graining (Fig. 109) Apply the shadow-wash grain ing.

133

Figure 108

Figure 109

Figure 110

Figure 111

134

Step 3. T exture (Fig. 110) Dry brush or comb with washes of base, tim, and shade. Step 4. Horizontal Lining (Fig. 111) Referring [0 the cross-sectional view in figure 107, line the horizomal highlights and lowliglm of the chair rail and baseboard. Step 5. Tong ue- and- Groove Lining ( F ig. 112) Determine the light source. Apply the tongue-and-groove highlight and lowlight lines. (The edges of these boa rds have a very slight beveled, or milled, edge, thus creating a recessed groove between the boards. Therefore, use a liner brush with a very crisp chisel point.) Step 6. Spatter and Drag (Optional) a nd C ast Shadows (Fig. 113) Optionally, apply a fine spatter and drag w ith the shadow wash (the spatter and drag may occur after step 3, if preferred). Apply the cast shadows caused by the horizontal moldings and their facets. 'There are no vertical shadow wash lines.

Figure 11 2

Figure 113

135

Step 7. G loss G laze (Optional) Brush on a weak gloss glaze if desired. Non:: It is essential that all paneling, moldings, and wainscoting arc applied onto the surf.'lce of any given wall. Because one should always paint what is farthest awayfirst (e.g., stucco, wallpaper), any wood treatments must be perjOrmedafter the other background areas if the wall are painted.

Recessed and Protruding Panels Creating paneling more intricate than the conservative tongue-andgroove wainscoting is in act uality no more difficult than painting cut stones. Where the assignment begins to take on more complexity is when curved or multi-angled surfaces must be rendered (see part 3, "Advanced Lessons," ~Cornice Moldings"). A review of the painting exercises thus far will reveal projects of simple geometric lines that were strictly horizontal or vertical in nature and met at 90 degree corners. The only true deviation has been the cut stone where rather wide beveled surfaces came into play. Because such surfaces did not directly confront the light source, attempts to render them utilized washes of tints and shades that produced medium-range tints and shades, or half-tones. In essence, middle grounds between the tint and base or shade and base were achieved by singular or repeated applications of the transparent washes. Painting some 90 degree-oriented paneling of a more intricate nature may also make use of washes simply made from the tint and shade colors. The recessed and protruding panels in figure 114 illustrate highlight (1), lowlight (2), and shadow wash (3). The procedures used were a combination of the wash and opaque methods. Note the distinct variations in thickness of the tint, shade, wash, and shadow wash lines so as to enhance the illusions of depth and protrusion. Also, the innermost panels have been given added interest and distinct ion through the use of diagonal blending.

Additional Examples Additional examples of woodwork-lanice (fig. 115), clapboard siding (fig. 116), and board and batten (fig. 117)-are fundamental treatments found in innumerable settings depicting wooden exteriors of houses, cottages, and rural structures.

136

,

,

F ig ure 114

Fig ure 115

137

Fig ure 116

Fig ure 117

138

Part 3

Advanced Lessons

Pan 1 of this hook discussed the materials and tools of the scene painter and primary methods of texturing scenery. Part 2 dealt more specifically with basic demonstrations on painting stonework, wallpaper, and woodwork. Part 3 introduces more advanced work, with painting cornices, draperies, foliage, reflecrive metallic objects, scale transfers, perspective vistas, drops and scrims; and it will take a freer and bolder approach to scene painting than parts 1 and 2. lhc emphasis in part 3 is away from geometrically oriented and right-angle adjoining of highlight and lowlight lines and toward a more sophisticated employment of tapering detail lines, halftones, and flash colors. At times, the straightedge will be all but thrown away, and the artist and brush will be free to explore on their own.

11. Cornice Moldings Moldings serve both functional and aesthetic needs. Generally thought of as a fancy trim at the tops of walls or around panels and picture frames, moldings can refer to any strip of wood, plaster, stone, and the like that is used for architectural finishing or ornamentation . So, a strip of wood, for instance, can be classified as a molding whether it be straight-faced or shaped . As a functional feature, moldings can assume the form of a jamb (or casing) around windows, doors, and fire places to seal out drafts. A baseboard can also help insulate and cover up uneven ends of Aoorboards. Placed as a chair rail, molding can prevent chair backs from marring wall surfaces, while placing it higher can serve as a picture rail, from which frames may be hung (fig. 118).

139

CORNICE

PICTURE RAIL

@

@

CHAIR RAIL

BASEBOARD

D~

oD~

~ F=

Figure 118

It is interesting when sitting in a hospital examination room to look at any molding that may be there. WhiJe waiting for the doctor, see if any molding possesses a decorative attribute . Probably not, as the purpose of any visible molding wiJi likely be onc of function . So, in a stage setting, onc of the first barometers the audience has is the manner in which the molding is treated. I s it exclusively or primarily functional, or does it possess decorative clements? The degree to whic h the molding becomes decorative has a direct relationship to the economic status of the people living or working there. D ecorative molding may be minimalist in design or intricate. It may even be composed of nothing but a series of Rat planes arranged in a step-down format. Most decorative moldings incorporate at least one curve into their structure, whether convex or concave; and all moldings with curves will be variations of four different shapes: (1) protruding half-round, (2) protruding quarter-round, (3) receding half-round, or (4) receding quarter-round (fig. 119, a through e). Even complex curves are nothing more than a variety of these shapes used in sequences.

140

protruding protruding receding half· round quarter-round half-round (bead)

~

t a

~

[:

b

c

e

receding quarter-round (cove)

r' ~ d

Figure 119

Roman Ogee and Cove In order to properly duplicate a particular shape, one must thoroughly understand its relationships of planes and curves. It may be necessary to cut into an actual molding or draw a cross-sectional view of it. The Roman ogee is perhaps as widely used for decorative cornices as any other design and is by far the most recognizable (fig. 120, a) . It is an example of a corniu molding, which is located where a wall meets the ceiling. In actuality this popular molding is a combination of three primary shapes: the vertical plane (flat), S-curve (quarter-round recessive followed by a quarter-round protruding), and cove (quarter-round receding). Further delineation is provided to isolate the "undercuts~ and an arrow to indicate the light source. (At the very bottom of the molding in the following lesson, a dentil-like a projection of spaced-apart teeth-has been attached for added decoration.)

141

• Roman Ogee wI Cove •

a

b

VERTICAL PLANE

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lINDERC\ITS

Figure 120

As is the case with painting almost anything for the theater, different methods or approaches may be used. To paint this first molding example, we will use the opaque method and six colors are mixed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

tint wash tint base, or local color half-tone, or middle shade shade shadow wash

These numbers will also apply to their placements on the molding as indicated in figure 120, b. To enhance the completed illusion of the following demonstration, a profile of the molding shape has been attached to the edge of the painting surface .

Step 1. Inking (Fig. 121) Extend ink lines, using indelible black marker, from the attached profile across the painting surface to show the horizontal delineation of its facets .

142

Figure 121

Step 2. Lay-I n (Fig. 122) The painting is a rather simple blending procedure, provided the colors have not been mixed too far apart in hue. Use a straightedge when blending and, if possible, a separate brush for each color, though this is not essential. Start from the top of the molding, and work down in horizontal bands. The first section is the top vertical plane, which is done with the base color (#3) . One should wait fo r the plane to dry before continuing. The next color-shade, #5-denotes the beginning of the S curve. Note that it is placed against the vertical base color but is not blended with it as they shou ld depict the crisp undercut where the top vertical band and S curve meet. The shade is put on liberally, by way of a sharp line at its top and a slightly irregu lar one at its bottom.

Step 3. Add and Blend (F;g. 123) Liberally add a band of the medium shade (#4) just below but not touching the bottom of the shade band . Now blend with ShOft, 45 degree strokes (like "feathering" them together) the edges of the two bands, and finish with horizontal strokes as needed. At this point, what should

143

Figure 122

Figure 123

144

have resulted is a jOined band of two colors, a color gradation, which has uncontaminated versions of each hue at its top and bottom extremities. Note that the bottom of the middle shade band is irregular and still wet. Continue, according to the numbered diagram, the remainder of the S curve. Step 4. Blend (May Not Be Necessary) W ith a clean brush slightly moist with water, horizontally blend the Scurve section with the aid of a straightedge. Be careful to keep the strokes horizontal and not use any diagonal ones . What yOll are doing through the blending is creating a series of gentle half and quarter tones. The blending should resemble a gradation as much as possible without evident striations.

Step 5. Bottom Blend (Fig. 124) Following the reference diagram, complete the remainder of the molding, carefully blending the cove section. Use appropriate tint and shade to delineate the dentil.

Figure 124

145

Step 6. D ry Brush with Tint Wash (Fig. 125) When the painting is dry, use a straightedge to gently and judiciously dry brush the tint wash on the top vertical band. Facilitate with water, if necessary, if any of the dry brushing appears too textural. This application of the wash will visually pull the plane forward, as it, in actuality, would jut out the farthest of any other molding facet toward the observer. Add a little tint wash to the bulge of the S curve, that is, the point where its two quarter-round components meet. Also paint a small tint wash line at the bottom of the cove, and lightly brush some on the protruding dentil blocks. Be careful not to add too much tint wash to the S curve, cove, and dentil as the tint will make them appear to jut too far forward.

Figure 125

Step 7. Shadow Wash (Figs. 126, 127, and 128) Now, time to break what has up to now been a rule of scene painting: a shadow will always accompany a lowlight and be placed beside the Iowlight's edge that is forther from the light source. When one looks at the molding's cross-section diagram and notes the di rection of the light source, it only makes sense that a wide shadow will be thrown from the top vertical plane onto the S curve. However, doing so will have a tendency to flatten the S. Likewise, casting a shadow from where the middle vertical plane over-

146

hangs onto t he cove will flatten the cove's illusion. Use the shadow wash

only where indicated on the diagram, remembering to reinforce the dentil (see fig. 126). A simple rule that might apply to the use of cast shadows when painting curvatures is: allow protrudillgfocets to cast shadows Olltoflat

areas, but avoid castillg shadows Ollto curved surfaces.

Figure 126

One may duplicate this same molding using the wash method. The entire molding area is painted with the base color and allowed to dry, followed by the ink lines. The middle shade color (#4) may be d isregarded for this example. At the top of the S curve, lay in a band of shade. {2yickly come back with water, and blend the bottom of the band into the base color. Repeat the procedure in the opposite direction at the bottom of the S curve (see fig. 127). It may take some practice before this looks as clean as one would like. Using a straightedge will help regulate the blend ing. M any painters agree this method is fa r easier to do than its opaque counterpart, particularly when performed continentally. When using the wash method on vertical scenery, it is often difficult to blend upward, or against the flow of gravity. I f possible, lay the scenery on its side, so that the molding is run ni ng vertically. Th is w ill allow blendi ng from left to right and right to left.

147

Figure 127 Another alternative is to paint the molding with the dry brush method, which is particularly useful when a textural look is needed. This begins as did the wash method with the laying in of t he base, followed by inking lines. From here, either opaque or wash versions of the original colo rs may be used . The colors are applied in the order as specified on the diagram. Use a straightedge for assistance as, despite the textural feel, there should be a crisp orderliness to the exercise (see fig. 128). Of the t hree alternative approaches, the wash method would be used when painting molding that has evident wood graining or is made of marble (sec fig. 129; a color version is in the gallery). r or wood, perform all of the initial color toning and graining first, and then proceed to the use of washes to create the molding's shape. Painting a molding out of marble where the compelling characteristics of the stone must be in evidence requires the painter paint the marble as if it were a flat slab lacking a light source and, consequently, without any evidence of depth or protrusion. Allow the paint to dry, and do not gloss glaze. Using a tint and shade of the dominant color in the marble, thin them to wash transparencies. If necessary, make a cross-sectional

148

Figure 128

Figure 129

149

sketch of the cross-section of the molding, and determine the light sou rce. Remember that to approach opacity with a wash, apply additional coats. When working both the tint and shade washes, have an extra, clean brush ready and charged with water in order to blend areas of the washes into the background painting. Non:: If a gloss glaze must be used on any molding, keep it weak. Any reflections resulting from overt glossiness will most surely destroy the illusions of protrusion and recession created. The molding depicted in figure 130 makes use of a large concave (or cove) pattern with a half-round section toward the bottom edge. The same colors used for the Roman agee were used here. The widths and placements of the color bands produced the alternative shape.

Figure 130

Reversing the Light Source Although cornice moldings are traditionally located at the tops of wall sections where the wall and ceiling meet, it is not always possible-due to srage-lighting concerns-to put ceilings on stage settings. In most rooms with ceilings, the light sources emanate from below unless, of course, there is a skylight or some form of indirect ~cove" Hghting. Therefore, real istically, light source(s) will be shooting upward, not downward as in the preceding

150

examples. The agee and large cove moldings in figure 131 have been painted as if the Ught source was coming from below. The chair rails painted below each of the cornices would normally be located below the six-foot level on a setting and therefore adhere to the basic principle of interior light-source placement and are painted accordingly to reflect their placement as being below the source ofillumination. When painting faux moldings on a setting whose action takes place both at night and during the day, it may be easiest to render the molding as ifl it from above. Conversely, if most of the play takes place at night, paint cornices as iflit from below.

Figure 131

12. Panels and Posts This section showcases the painting of multifaceted wooden decor, using mostly tbinned down colors and washes. Of secondary focus is any attempt to replicate a specific type of wood, which can be achieved primarily through specific color choices, graining characteristics, and the subsequent inclusion of additional painting steps. As such, for these examples we will use colors associated with golden oak without busying the illusion with attempts at a strict adherence to grain duplication. The colors employed are

151

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

base-opaque (orange added to raw sienna) "pseudo-graining" wash (burnt sienna) highlight wash (base + yellow + white) flash wash (highlight + orange + white) middle shade wash (burnt sienna + purple) deep shade wash (burnt umber) shadow wash (burnt umber + purple + black)

Note the front view drawing of the panel and post, as accompanied by their cross-sections (fig. 132, a and b). While the poSt, or more accurately bas-relief baluster, comprises a series of rounded protrusions and recessions, the panel is somewhat simpler by comparison. It resembles a cut stone surrounded by a protruding half-round molding, which is further distinguished by a peripheral groove. The two lower motifs arc slightly protruding pyramids, gently recessed from the surrounding wooden surface. The first step is to replicate the facets of the front-v iew drawing.

•

b

Figure 132

Step 1. Base and Ink (Fig. 133) Base in the entire area. After it dries, pencil in all facets , and veri fy with a thin, black indelible marker. Step 2. Graining and Wood "Character" Wash (Fig. 134) Brush clean water over the area(s) to be worked. Using a cut-bristle brush or a lay-in brush, stroke the bu rnt sienna wash in the intended grain dircc-

152

Figure 133

1

Figure 134

153

tion. Do nOt twist the brush or get overly fancy, but the amount of graining wash should be applied in varying amounts, that is, some areas heavier than others. D o not overly mix, but let it work against the background water. While the graining wash is still wet or tacky, hold the edge of a small block of foam rubber perpendicular to the direction of the graining wash, and skip it quickly over the painting surface. This will affect an appearance of aged shellac and/or a cross-cut appearance made by the saw blade when the wood was milled. Experiment with the various prints that are possible with the foam rubber. As the post and corner pyramids do not contain the broad expanses as found on the panel, avoid using the foam-rubber step on them. Step 3. H alf- Rou nd Molding Highlig ht W ash (Fig. 135) One may begin with any of the four sides. For the purpose of instruction, let us begin with the left-hand vertical piece. The light source will be

Figure 135

154

emanating from the top right. As we will learn further on when painting a reflective object, or that object possessing a surf..-tce sheen, placing a highlight (or lowlight) at the very edge of a protrusion- as in the case of a brick- has a tendency to make it appear raised but also denotes a raised flat surface. The round moldi ng in this exercise is just that: rounded. Its cross-sectional view bears this our, as no parr of its protrusion is flat. So, in order to make the molding seem round, place a vertical highlight line slightly in from the molding's outer edge. G o back immediately with brush containing clean water, and lighrly soften the edges of t he highlight line by overlapping it with the brush. P roceed with the remaining three sides. Step 4. Half- Round Molding Middle Shade Wash (Fig. 136) Following the same procedure as with the highlight wash in step 3, add the middle shade (burnt sienna + purple) wash on the parts of the halfround moldings facing away from the light sou rce .

Figure 136

155

Step 5. "Cut Stone" Washes (Figs. 137 and 138) High- and lowlight washes will wrap around the beveled sections of the wooden panel much as they did in the stone version. The difference here lies in a decision concerning the strength and specific angle of the light source. To truly give this panel a convincing sense of protrusion, the two beveled sides facing the light source-the top and right bevels-must be painted as if one is being hit a litde more direcdy than the other (see fig. 137). In other words, if the light is hitting the top bevel a bit more direcdy (closer to 90 degrees) than the right bevel, the top bevel will appear as the brighter of the two. Using the h ighlight wash, paint in the top bevel, and facilitate its coverage with an extra brush containing clear water (Option: use the edge of the foam-rubber block here to match the overall wood characteristics.) Diluting a wash with water will gready lessen its strength. Now use the highlight wash on the right bevel, using more water than was used on the

Figure 137

156

top bevel. The right bevel should still have enough of a gentle glow as to distinguish it from the central flat surf."lce of the panel's cut-stone shape (see fig. 138). Note that there must be a discernible difference in the two highlight washes where they join each other at the top-right beveled corner. Proceed accordingly using the middle shade wash and water on the left and bottom bevels. The bottom bevel, as directly opposite from the top and brightest bevel, w iU receive the darkest cast. Once again, the foam-rubber sponge may used for pattern consistency, and the bottom-left beveled corner wiU indicate a difference in value of the two shade washes. Step 6. Cut Stone Indented and H alf-Rou nd Peripheral Edges (Fig. 139) Using the highlight and middle shade washes without additional water, crisply paint on the inner cut-stone raised section and the recessed groove that su rrounds the half-round molding.

Figure 138

157

Figure 139 Step 7. Flash es and Deep Shade (Fig. 140) Facilitating with water if needed, add sciective strokes of the flash wash (#4) in the center of some highlight lines. l hese flashes can be quite dramatic, so do not overuse. Mixed with some water, the flash can also be used, if necessary, to further brighten the top bevel. Use the deep shade in contrast to the flash color. When all has dried, try using some of the highlight wash and water on the shaded sides of the panel f.'lcets. This will lend a sense of reflection, or sheen, to the wooden surf.'lce (see section 13, "Reflective Metallic Obj ects~). Step 8. Cast Shadows (Fig. 141) Using the shadow wash , cast shadows from the inner cut-stone rectangle onto the left and bottom bevels. Also, paint in shadows as cast from the half-round moldings onto the top and right bevels.

158

Figure 140

Step 9. Cutting Lines Carefully, using a very thin, black marker, delineate the perimeters of the half-round molding. These lines are referred to as cu//ing lines. 1bey will dean and crisp up the exercise, if performed lightly. Avoid making the lines too heavy, as a coloring-book appearance will result. Completed Example. Post and Pyramids (Fig. 142) The bas-relief post and pyramids are completed. (A color version of fig. 142 is in the gallery.) Note. however, that the post has been painted to indicate more of a shiny finish. This difrerence will serve as a segue to the next topic.

159

Figure 141

Figure 142

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13. Reflective M etallic Objects Metallic objects may seem difficult to render because of their reflective quality. Th is need not be the case, for creating the illusion of a shiny surf.'lce is relatively simple and can be quite fun to do. And, the objects do not have to appear to be made of metal but rather any sh iny materiaL The word metallic is used as it applies to typical scenic needs, such as an ornate picture frame, candelabra, gilded architectural piece, that are commonly either made of metal or covered with lam ina, as in gold leaf. The key is to captu re the essence of reflection or sheen, stopping short in the pursuit of total (d istracting) conviction . The one pitfall in painting a shiny object (other than a mirror or other flat surface) is allowing the attempts at reflection to overwhelm the revelation of the object's form . It is helpful to think of the overall procedure as being divided into two stages: first, render the object so that it looks three-dimensional, and, second, create the essence of reflection or sheen. To draw a further distinction, there is a difference between reflection and sheen. A painter may likely be called upon more often to the paint an object as being shiny rather than reflective. A shiny surf.'lce glimmers and reflects lighl. A reflecting surf.'lce (mirror-like) will refl ect more light and also images. Take the old example of the sh iny apple, the one in which a four-pane window is reflected on it. Technically, because the object (the window) is reflected on the apple's shiny skin, the apple should rightfully be labeled "the reflecting apple," not the shiny o ne. So being reflective, as in reflecting what surrounds one, is really a step beyond shiny, which only reflects light. Therefore, when one must truly paint an object as being reflective, three overall stages come into play: make it look 3-D, give it a shine, and then reflect something on it. It is much easier to stop short of the third step, because painting reflections can be replete with infinite variables. What color is the object being reflected? Is it dark or light in tone? To what degree will its shape be distorted? How close is the object to the reflecting surface? I s the object being reflected also reflective? And on and on almost to the point where principles of light and shadow are all but thrown out the window. The painter will discover a hazard in misconstruing this type of painting for which there is really only one rule : that there arc no rules. 111e painter cou ld, to a certain degree, become befuddled in an arena where the placements of tints, flashes, and shades can be juxtaposed to the point of becoming almost absurd usages of light and shadow. Better to untangle the visual puzzle, and discard what is extraneous and what, in the end, obfuscates form and character by way of overembellishment and subsequent visual distraction.

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In painting reflective metallic objects, the scene painter should take a cue from the cartoonist. That is, be bold in technique: slash on staccato bursts of flash colors and shade; keep experimenting until the essence of a shiny surface is captured. Viable research is literally at one's fingertips. Because of advancements in color scanning, newspapers and magazines have become g reat places to study photographs of new cars on slick pavement, chromed appliances, gra nite counter tops, windows, mirror-clad buildi ngs, cellular phones, lipstick containers, and the list is endless. Another good source is the packaging for a variety of toys, such as ones featuring metallic robots, high-tech elect ronic games, and many others. Study how configurations of line, simply and magically, yet far beyond the window on the apple, create a shiny or reflecrive illusion . Painting shiny/reflective objects will be broken down into two d ifferent procedures : the graphic-arts approach and the scene-paint ing approach . The graphic-arts approach is labeled as such because graphic artists tend to work on a much-smaller scale than their scene-pai nting cou nterparts and create many of their illusions using airbrushing techniques. And while the effects of airbrushing can be achieved on a larger scale through adept spraying, the size of shiny and reflecting objects for t he stage tend to a smaller size on which accurate spraying could be unwieldy. As an airbrush- and spraying- are fre quently used to create a misty gradation of colors, one can approximate t he graphic-arts approach through the careful wet blending of colors, like that process done for the graded wet blend. The scene-painting approach is considerably easier to perform as it, like foliage, relies more on a wet-upon-dry procedure, rather than a blending of wet colors. For the upcoming lessons, bronze powders may be added to the paint colors. Prepare the powders to a paste consistency by combining them with a little alcohol and a double-strength binder. A clear vinyl binder is the best to use as it least affects the clarity and brilliance of the powders, as compared with other binders that may dull or change the initial colors. Little by little. add more water until the desired wash consistency is attained . (Ifused alone. the powders should be brought to the consistency of working paint. When used as a glaze or mixed with paint, a wash consistency is best.) Add the prepared bronze-powder solution a very little at a time to the already mixed paints. It may be added to all of the colors, but very little powder solution is needed. T ryout the mixture on a spare painting surface. 'The metaUic powders shou ld float to the su rf.--tce as the painting dries without obscuring the (olor of the paint. Adjust the ratio of bronze powder to paint, if necessary. or avoid its addition altogether.

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The painting objects found in the following two lessons can be produced using any f.'lmily of colors, such as, yellows for gold and brass, grays for silver, brown-oranges for copper. As there is an often blurred distinction between shiny and reflective using any grouping of colors, whether blues, greens, pur~ pies, or reds, the following generic list of opaque colors should be made to render any object, metal or not, that possesses a sheen. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

base color middle shade deep shade tint flash light off-white (white with slight addition of tint) shadow wash (no bronze powder)

Graphic-Arts Approach (Mostly Wet-upon-Wet) The drawing of the rectangular ingot in figure 143 will illustrate this approach. It has a predominantly fla t, reflective surface with angled corners and surrounded enti rely by an edge that has a stepped-down groove. Through observation, one can discover that a feature common to capturing the essence of a reflecting surface involves nothing more than an illusion of an horizon line that is silhouetted somewhat, as ifby a setting sun. The shape of the hori-

o INGOT 0

Figure 143

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zan line may be almost straight or gently curved, as this wou ld be determined not only by the degree of flatness of the reAecting surf:'lce but also by the shape n of the object, or "horizon that is being reAected. Step 1. Ink Perimeter (Fig. 144) Prepare a template of the object, and transfer it to the painting surt:'lce by inking in its perimeter shape. Choose a light source (top right, in this case), as it will come into play to a degree when the grooved perimeter edge is indicated. Step 2. Wet Blending the "Sky" (Fig. 145) l he "sky" will occupy one-half to three-fifths of the surt:'lce area. Using the middle shade, paint in a top band of the ingot. Leave the bottom of this band quite wet and somewhat irregular. Immediately proceed with the base color, applying it slightly below the bottom of the midd le-shade band. Assuring that the bottom of this base color band is wet, feather! blend the two bands together. Th is procedure is like that used when wet blending the cornice-molding colors using the opaque method. Bring a daub of base color up to an upper portion of the still-wet middle shade.

--~) Figure 144

Figure 145

Step 3. Complete t he Sky (Fig. 146) Just below the bottom edge of the base color band, generously apply a tint band, blending its top edge with the bottom of the base-color band.

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Finish the "sky" at the horizon by adding in, then blending, a band of flash light. What should result is a gradation of colors working from the middle shade down to the flash light. /II/ow the flash-light band to dry before proceeding to the horizon line. The gradation of the sky can be misty and visually fluid, or there may be some h ints at striations of color, provided the striations are very subtle and mostly blended. If a striated look is intended, attempt to give a unifying line motif, such as a gentle curve, to the striations. Step 4. H orizon (Fig. 147) Once the flash-light band has dried, create the horizon line using the deep shade color. The ends of the horizon can curve up or down, while the overall line should have a slight irregularity. (If the sky features striations, the line of the horizon should pick up their motif.) Also note that the horizon might possess a double silhouette line. This can suggest the irregularity of the unknown shape being reflected. As with the sky procedure, be sure to leave the bottom of the deep shade band wet.

l~_~) Figure 146

Figure 147

Step 5. "G round " (Fig. 148) Continue the color-band-and-blending procedure using in order: the middle shade, base, and tint. As with the top of the sky, bring a little of the base and middle shade into the still-wet tint area. Do not overdo this intermingling of colors, as the result shou ld not be busy.

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Step 6. Edging (Fig. 149) To suggest the grooved perimeter edging, use the tint and flash light on the top and right areas where the groove f.,ces the light source. D o the same with darker colors on the left and bottom edges.

Figure 148

Figure 149

Figure 150

Steps 7 and 8. Contrasts and Off-White (Fig.1S0) The contrast step, if done minimally and selectively, will enhance t he appearance of reflection. Juxtapose a few strokes of highlights onto t he left and bottom grooved edges and some low lights onto the top and right edges. A dd a few soft blotches of opposing colors to the flat surface areas

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of the ingot. Then, use small dabs and lines of the off-white sparingly to point up bright areas. As the off-white can be quite potent, it is best to use it only where there already exists some of the flash light, rather than as an opposing color to the darker areas. (See also the color version of figure 150 in the gallery.) Step 9. Shadow Wash (Optional) The only reason to incorporate this step is to remove the plane of the ingot from its su rrounding area, as ifi[ were protruding.

Scene-Painting Approach (Mostly Wet-upon-Dry) This approach takes a somewhat less-literal interpretation of shiny and reflective surfaces. And while its graphic-arts counterpart is dependent more on the wet blending of colors, here we will rely on bolder contrasts that are largely achieved through staccato and energetic sweeps of the brush. The firs t intention is to give the object a three-dimensional/ook. Step 1. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 151) Sketch, then ink in the object. It is important that all detail facets be inked in so that they lightly show through the base-paint application. (This object was first drawn on brown paper and then transferred by charcoal using the pounce method, although the painting area can be gridded and transferred to scale by freehan d draWing. It must still be ink-verified in order to begin painting.) Step 2. Base Lay-In (Fig. 152) Slightly thin down the base color to allow the inking to show through, and base in the entire object. Step 3. Highlight (Tint; F ig. 153) Be sure to thoroughly understand the shapes of the object before proceeding. Determine a light source. (For continuity of instruction, the light source is assigned as emanating from top right.) Select the protruding surf.'lce edges of the object that face the light source, and quickly paint on the tint on the appropriate sides of the ra ised edges (sec fig. 153). Strokes and lines should not be of uniform length or width but should taper or blossom accordingly as a curve is approached or worked away from, respectively. Note that placements of the tint, as when painting the

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Figure 151

Figure 152

shiny wooden post (see fig. 142), are not necessarily located at the object's edge but often indented from it. And, because of their refl ective quaUty, shiny objects may exhibit a variety of tones that stop and start abruptly, leave gaps between sweeps ofline, or produce dots and dashes of brilliant highlight next to deepest shade. Step 4. Middle Sh ade (Fig. 154) With the middle shade, color those areas sloping away from the light source. Step 5. F lash L ight and D eep Shade (Fig. 155) The flash-light color may now be applied to heighten thc brilliance of the light source. With quick, graceful sweeps, apply the flash on top of portions of the tint areas. Do not regulate the sizes of these strokes. Follow by enriching the shaded areas with the deep shade. Steps 6 and 7. Reflective Contrasts and Accents (Fig. 156) These next steps move the object further into an illusion of super sheen or reflection. Using t he tint, flash, middle shade, deep shade, and base colors, oppose the dictations called for with a top-right light source, and place

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Figure 153

Figure 154

Fig ure 155

Fig ure 156

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some of these colors in the areas that would usually be opposite. Note, for example, the effect of simply placing opposing dots on the lower, barber pole-shaped area of the object in figure 156. Do no! overdo this step with detailed images of reflection. Lastly, use a small, round brush or finge rtip dipped in the off-white, and apply selective bright accents to the higher points. As the brightest color is always the most potent and has a tendency to "pop," use it sparingly. This can be opposed with small dots of the deep shade. (See also the color version of figure 156 in the gallery.) Step 8. Shadow W ash (Optional) The object itself, due to its sh iny nature, will not normally show within its shape evidence of shadows cast.. Therefore, only cast shadows of t he object onto the background paint ing. (Although optional, applying a very finely spatter with shadow wash antiques the finish.) Individual talents and personal preferences vary from painter to painter. Some have a flair for painting fol iage, others for drapery or marble. But by and large, the most difficult surface to render for the average painter is the reflective surface. The painter needs to tell him- or herself simply, "Just do it!" Don't overanalyze the job, and, like many an actor learns, there is a time to "get out of your head." Each reflective objecr one paints may have drastically different placements of color, caused simply by variations in the surface shapes and contours. There is no fundamental rule to follow when painting these surfaces, except perhaps the rule common to all forms of scene painting: Do not overwork the job. D eveloping the skill to effectively paint reflective surf.'lces may take some time, and ongoing observation of real and painted shiny objects is essential for SllCcess. But eventually, the invested time will payoff, and the painter knows the point at which t he painting begins to work.

14. Draperies Painting drapery can be somewhat challenging because the bold wetblending strokes involved normally cannot be duplicated with the safety and security of the painter's straightedge as a guide. Painting drapery requires t he rendering of irregular surface contours-gende folds and artistically gathered pleats-that must appear soft and inviting, not stiff, austere, and rigid. As scene painting is an overlapping process, progressing from the background to the foreground, painted draperies are some of the last things added

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to the interior setting. Consequently, if draperies are to cover a French door or window through which is seen a yard or hillside, the drapery is the last to be painted because it overlays all exterior views and window panes. Painting draperies, as opposed to hanging real ones, creates its own dilemma regard~ ing style. If working on a truly realistic show, it behooves tbe designer to use real draperies and/or place painted draperies far enough upstage so as to be convincing from a distance. Painted draperies in proximity to the front of the stage asks the audience to suspend their disbelief regarding the drapes when all else on the stage may be realistic. For more "magical" genres like musicals or opera, a suspension of d isbelief is not required, and t he draperies can be as fancifu l or stylized as the rest of the production. As is the case in painting woodwork, moldings, and numerous other objects, wash, opaque, or combination methods may be used to pa int draperies, depending on the extent and richness of background areas that must be overlapped or opaquely covered . The following lesson uses drapery colors thinned a little (not quite a wash, still basically opaque) to aid in blending and allow the initial inking to show through . The fringe colors remain opaque. (Bronze powders may be added to the fringe colors.) The use of a "flash" color translates as a tint made for a tint. In the following list of colors, #3 is a tint of #1, #4 is a tintof#3, and #9 is a tint of#8. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

drapery base color drapery shade drapery tint drapery flash fringe base fringe texture fringe shade fringe tint fri nge flash off-white shadow wash

Step I. Ch,]k ,nd Ve
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Figure 157 suggest one piece of fabric that has been gathered and hung at two points called hubs. Featured is a large, hanging center swag. which sags typically like a valance. To each side hang vertical folds. The basic arrangement of these vertical folds is the way many draperies fall . Providing the drapery with some tassels and fringe not only add to its luxurious appearance but also help reinforce the shapes of its vertically hanging folds. Step 2. L ay In Base (F ig. 158) NOT E: Step 2 may work better for some painters and than others. Beginning by coating the area with water may create more problems than intended. One might wish to follO'W an initial application of base color with water. Whichever the procedure, it is necessary to have a bucket of clean water handy to facilitate some instances of color integration. Begin by lightly coating the large horizontal swag area with water. Mask off any prepainted background areas as needed to avoid accidental running and drips. L ay in some d rapery-base color (see fig. 158). Cover a protruding fold and a recessing one. As the drapery may be broken down into a series of folds and recessions, it might prove advantageous to base in the entire horizontal swag at once. The use of water with the colors is

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Figure 158 essentially working with washes, and the arsenal of colors will increase. For example, an opaque color is more vibrant and rich than its wash counterpart. Therefore, laying on a wash of the base, allowing it to dry, and then applying to it the opaque base will result in two different values of the same color, simply because one was watered down (i.e., uwashed out~) more than the other. When one appreciates this possibility with all colors used in a project, the painter's palette expands considerably.

Step 3. Dcape,y Shade (Fig. 159) Follow immediately with the drapery shade and paint in the background, or recessed, folds. This color is not so much a traditional shade as a fairly dark, rich color somewhat loosely associated with the base color. The shade will blend a little with the wet base but the idea is not to overwork any blending. Use water, if needed, to facilitate. Steps 4 and 5. Highlight and Cast Shadows (Fig. 160) While the base color is still moist and tacky, brush on the drapery-tint color on those sections of the protruding folds that face the light source.

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Figure 159

Figure 160

174

Blend some strokes more thoroughly into the base color than others, and f.1.cilitate the blending with a little water. C ast shadows from protruding folds downward onto the fo lds below. Remember to shape a shadow according to both the fold that caused it and the shape of what it strikes. Step 6. Base, Shade, and HighLg hts of Vertical Folds (Fig. 161) Apply a Httle water, and strike in the drapery base color on protruding and receding folds of the vertical folds in the same manner as the horizontal swag was performed. Add the shade in the recessed areas between t he folds. Apply highlights, and blend accordingly. Vary the width of st rokes, as this free -hanging, vertical counterpart to the swag should not appear tubular or rigid.

Figure 161

Step 7. Drapery Flash (Fig. 162) Once all drapery sections have dried, certain areas will receive the flash. Choose these areas as t hey relate to the light source, and add a little water. Boldly but not overwhelming, brush on the flash, blending furt her with water if the appearance is too intense. The flash, when added judiciously, lives up to its name and even provides a sense of sheen to the fabric.

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Figure 162 Step 8 . Fringe and Tassel Base (Fig. 163) Lay in the base color on the fringe and tassel. Note the tapering of the fringe where it gathers up at the right and left ends of the horizontal swag. Step 9. Fringe and Tassel Texture (Fig. 164) Using a liner brush's crisp chisel point, jot in f.1.irly uneven clusters while being careful not to cover up too much of the base color. The stroke uses the wrist in quick, downward flicks. 1he fringe is made up of individually pleated threads, all of which hang straight down. Therefore, the strokes should notfoll at an angle but as close as possible to true vertical. With this step and step 10, the strokes should extend slightly below the bottom edges of the base-color band of the fringe and tassel. Step 10. F ringe and Tassel Shade and Highlights (Fig. 165) Working in uneven clusters, paint on the fringe and tassel shades. To a certain degree, keep in mind the light source, but do not be dictated by it. Having the shade strokes on the fringe areas closest to the light source is desirable, as are some highlight stroke on sides away from the light. Uniform shading and highHghting flatten out the folded look of the drapery and make the fringe appear stiff.

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Figure 163

Fig ure 164

177

Figure 165 NOTE: This partial juxtaposing of dark paint into lighter areas and vice versa carries the same purpose when painring reflective metallic objects: to lend a shiny appearance to the tassels and fringe (see section 13, "Reflective Metallic Objects") .

Step 11. F lash and Off-White Accents (Fig. 166) Use the fringe flash mostly on areas containing the tint to heighten their sheen. A few strokes with flash in darker sections are encouraged. Further, selectively highlight some flash areas with the off-white. The brighter the color, such as, flash to off-white, the less it is used. Applying toO much of either color or too much of both colors at the same time quickly destroys their intended effect. Keep the use of these two colors to an absolute minimum, and be discerning as to the areas en hanced. Step 12 . Sh adow W ash (Fig. 167) Complete the draperies by using the shadow wash from the tassels and fringe .

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to

paint shadows cast

Figure 166

Figure 167

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To give a nap or surface texture to the drapery material, gently scumble the strokes during steps 3 and 4 with a wide liner or f.'lntail brush. For patterned material, avoid using a stencil in its entirety because it will only flatten out the fabric. Use only pieces of a stencil (perhaps an extra one that has been cut up), and apply the brocade design in sections with washes. Should the use of a stencil be impractical because of the tightness or intricacies of the folds, use a small detail brush with varied washes to capture the essence of the fabric's print (see fig. 168; a color version is in the gallery).

Fig ure 168

15. Foliage Because foliage is a product of nature and not made by humans, it is very difficult to render convincingly. TIle big question is, "Should one even try?" Probably not, as there is nothing more distracting to an audience than something on the stage that is supposed to be alive, other than the actor. Animals steal focus. How about a tree that looks real? Can't one imagine the audience wondering, "How in the world do they keep that tree alive in here?" Fortunately, the audience is forgiving-but on ly up to a point. They will accept something in pretense as being real simply because they know it is not. Patrons go to

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the theater to sec and hear an actor pretend in the hopes they will vicariously be affected by the plight of the character. The moment something on the stage becomes too real, distraction creeps in. If, for one moment, the audience feels the actor-person is suffering instead of the character he or she is playing, concern and discomfort spread like wild fire, and the play, as they say, is done. What is the alternative? Only present plays that take place indoors? Board up the windows in the set so the trees outside are not seen? Certainly not. However, the old saying "Only God can make a tree" is a creed that should be followed by the wise designer when creating the scenery for a realistic play. Nonrealistic plays, vis-a-vis foliage, can indicate countless, even other-worldly, manifestations of foliage and are a piece of cake to create as compared to a realistic portrayal. It is often more convincing on the stage to show the eJfocts of foliage on the locale rather than the foliage itself. The use oflighting projections and leaf gobos-perforated metal plates that light passes through (see fig. 169)-can be used to simulate sunlight and moonlight passing through foliage that can be, from the audience's perspective, out of sight lines. Couple this dappling oflight with the sound of birds, frogs, and crickets, and an environment is suggested far more successfully than it can be duplicated.

•:. GOBOS .:.

Figure 169

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Should the appearance of realistic trees be necessary, t hey should be assigned, much like drapery, to an area far upstage, or they can be diffused through a visual filter. The use of scrims and cut drops are tremendously helpful in creating a wooded scene, as they effect a haze before the more distant trees, add to the illusion of depth, and thus render the pa inted fol iage more convincing (see section 19, "Drops and Scrims"). D espite, however, the aid of a diffusing layer of gauze, one should first learn how to paint the essence of fo liage and trees efficiently in a realistic manner. Th is skill, even if never used in a realistic setting, will better equip the painter with a starting point from which to embellish foliage characteristics and alter the procedure so as to be proficient at nonrealistic treatments. Painting foliage employs any number of earth colors and brush strokes, depending on the type of tree to be reproduced. Varying shades of green, in addition to purple, come into play to lend layers to the overlapping blocks of green . Once a verdant tree is successfully painted, simply change its colors to reds and oranges to render that same tree for an autumn scene. Several treebark colors arc also used. Devote some time to researching the characteristics of different trees. Study outdoor magazines, children's books, calendars, animated Walt Disney movies, and real foliage . These are the colors to be used for the following lesson, though not necessarily in numerical order: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

purple wash (translucent) dark green middle green {predominant leaf color} light green flash light green bark base color bark temperature color bark shade bark tint bark flash bark reflection wash (or cool tint) shadow wash

E ach painting step involves a wet-on-dry approach and so is performed only aftera previous step has dried. Painting foliage requi res a freedom of stroke. This freedom will come only with confidence, which is born from practice. Even painters whose forte is foliage may have to "get into the rhythm" of

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painting first. Because foliage demands freedom of stroke, it is challenging to paint well without limbering up and going through some brush warm-ups, such as, reacquainting oneself with the varied strokes possible by using flat, side, and end prints, and doing some flicking strokes to create tapering. 'These variations in the profile shapes can convey quite effectively the essence ofleaf shapes (see fig. 170).

Figure 170

T rees of all types can be duplicated by varying the leaf and bark colors, angle of the brush print, the positioning and shape of leaves, and the characteristics of the trunk and branches. Always experiment with a technique on a spare surface before attacking the actual painting surface.

Step 1. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 171) The background painting {colors for the background are not listed above} has been laid in using a graded wet blend that approaches its lightest hue at the chosen horizon. Sketch and ink in the tree(s), and label with chalk the foliage areas (Le., background foliage, middle foliage, and the like). Note that islands ofleaves are created rather than an amorphous scattering. These islands appear to gently hang and to varying degrees overlap one another, and any distant trees should be painted using only the pu rple and the dark green thinned to translucent washes.

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'\

Figure 171

Notice there has not been an attempt to render the entire treetop. l11c area to be painted was isolated, based on the relative size of t he painting surface. Attempting to capture the entire tree on such a relatively small area would dwarf its effect, tighten its airiness, and clutter the painting stroke. Because of the enormity of trees in relation to human size, a tree's full scope is rarely depicted on the stage unless the entire tree is seen in the distance. Non :: All objects in the outdoors, regardless of their acrual surface colors, gradually assume a purplish gray overtone as they appear closer to the horizon. They become fainter and fainter, and so a wash is often used to achieve an illusion of objects in the distance. 1 he wash allows a glow of sky to show through. Using an opaque color for faraway objects-depending on the richness of the color-looks heavy and pulls the distant object toward the foreground, thus negating the iUusion of distance.

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Step 2. Purple Wash (Fig. 172) With a wide liner, fantail, or lay-in brush (depending on the relative size of the tree to be painted), use splashes of the purple wash to lay in the background foliage located on the f.'lr side of the tree. Tree branches are not painted in this step. Allow to dry. Permit bits of sky and background foliage to show through during this and the following steps as you work toward the foreground of the tree. Blocking out too much sky lends a heaviness to the tree and renders it cluttered and artificial. Too little color is f.'lr better than too much. D o not overwork the amount or shapes of leaves, bur note a few float on their own and are not connected to an island or clump ofleaves.

Fig ure 172

Step 3. Dark G reen Background (Fig. 173) Apply blotches of background foliage with the dark green. As with the purple wash, tree branches are d isregarded; be careful not to paint over

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Figure 173 them but also don't be overly concerned if you do in areas. If you have trouble seeing the ink lines, re-ink now and/or slightly thin down the dark green color. As with the purple, a few dark green ufl.oaters~ may be seen. Step 4. Bark Lay-In Lay in the trunk base color, letting the branches overlap the green and purple masses. Step 5. Bark Temperat ure ( Fig. 174) Dry brush the bark temperature color on all areas of the limbs and trunk. This step is done very qu ickly, with strokes being quite bold .

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Figure 174 Step 6. Bark H ighlights and Lowlights (Fig. 175) After choosing a light source (l ikely the sun), use a medium-loaded liner brush to paint on irregular trunk-branch highl ights and lowlights, often drifting into a dry brush stroke. Note the varying widths of application. Step 7. Middle Green (Fig. 176) Lay in the middle green color, in some areas overlapping the previous green and again leaving bits of sky to show through. Use middle green the most, as it represents the basic leaf color. Be sure to cover sections of the branches and trunk with this green. D abbing at t he surface with the sides and end of the brush while changing direction with the wrist produces a nice variety of leaf contours.

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Figure 175 Step 8 . Light Green Dab the light green on various clumps of middle green while slightly covering more of the branches and here and there on the t runk. Keep t he light green toward the tOp half of the middle green dusters in an effort to reinforce the (sun)light coming from above and to one side. NOTE : Reinforcing the light source (in most cases the sun) on foliage is not a straightforward task because of the high degree of ambient, or reflected, light outdoors. One can, however, shift the majority of light green and flash-light greens toward a particular side of the tree. H ighlights and lowlights on the branches and trunk greatly assist in establishing the direction of the light source.

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Figure 176 Steps 9 and 10. Leaf Flashes, Sprigs, Bark F lash Tint, Cool Highlight, and Cast Shadows ( Fig. 177) Flick on leafy accents with the Rash-light green . Be selective, as this color should be used sparingly. Each stroke is done very quickly. With a small brush, use the bark base, shade, and tint to create sprigs emanating from the trunk and branch areas. These three colors are nor necessarily used on the same sprig but, rather, to paim a sprig a singular color located in shaded or brighter lit areas of the tree. Add the bark flash tint to the t runk and branch areas to suggest sunlight dappling certa in areas. On some shaded areas of the bark, sparingly dry brush on some cool tint wash to indicate the ambient, or reflected, light prevalent outdoors. Lastly, and optionally, add shadow wash to any bark areas di rectly affected by an overhanging dump ofleaves (see fig. 177; a color version is in the gallery) .

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Figure 177

Alternative Methodsfor Foliage Foliage with recognizable leaves can be painted by stamping. C ut several leaves of a specific design Ollt of synthetic sponges. Follow the painting steps outlined above . When applying the middle green (step 7), use the stamp sparingly on the edges of its masses of color. As the foliage tones lighten toward the foreground, use the stamp more frequently while turning its positioning for variation. Occasionally, do a partial print so the leaves will not look as if they are pressed against an invisible glass shield (see fig. 178). Adding Rowers to trees and shrubs can also involve using a stamp. The painting of recognizable blossoms will take place when the application of the middle green and latter stages of overlap occur (see fig. 179). For a more stylized or ethereal leafy appearance, spraying foliage with a template can be very effective (see fig. 180). Flip the template over, and vary its position for each spraying; also, change paint colors (see fig. 181).

190

Fig ure 178

16. Clouds, Mountains, and Water Along with painting foliage, the scene painter may frequently be called upon to paint exterior views that contain clouds, mountains, lakes, and othcr large bodies of water. While none of these is particularly difficult to render, keep in mind that the painter wou ld be following specific pictures or images provided by the scenic designer (sec section 17, "Scale Transfers"), A fter all, the scene paintcr is one who realizes an image furn ished to him or her but does not initially create the image. Therefore, the painter is always follOWing a completed example and must, therefore, elect the procedures by which to replicate the example to a specified size.

191

Fig ure 179

Figure 180

192

Figure 181

C louds Regardless of their nature or the weather they may portend, clouds appear other-worldly. Whether cumulus, cirrus, stratus, or nimbus and regard less of thei r color, clouds should never have a texture imposed upon them. And although brush strokes can be used carefully to stretch the edges of wind-blown clouds, spraying on the paints is the quickest and generally most successful way to render clouds on a large scale. 1he spraying can be very frce-form and wispy or hard-edged and stylized as seen in figure 182 . When not using a sprayer to create clouds, it is generally best to work wet-uponwet. 'That is, the sky color should be wet when the cloud (olors are applied. Very wet scu mbling, performed continentally, can work nicely to create the edging of cloud banks. 1f clouds can only be painted in a vertica l position, mix the clouds' peripheral colors in tones t hat are not far removed in hue from any background sky color. Such a closeness in hue will help soften the appearance of clouds against the sky by cutti ng down on the extent of color contrast (see fig. 183). ]f too sharp a distinction still ex ists between cloud and sky, perform a final fine spraying or spattering of the predominant sky color over the clouds.

193

Figure 182

Figure 183

194

Cornice molding made of marble

Panels and post

Reflective meta llic object (graphic-a rts approach)

Reflective metallic o bject (scene- painting approach)

Drapery

Foliage

Mountains under moonlight

Perspective vista

Mountain and wate r exercise. Scenic artist a nd photographer, David Court

Perspective exercise. Scenic artist and photographer, David Court

Painter's e1evafion, ~Triumph al A rch,~ for a production of Midie, by MarcAntoine C harpentier, at O pera Ate lier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud. Image courtesy of Toronto Reference Library; used with perm ission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud

Paimer's elevation, ~Temple Drop," for Iphigillie til Tauride, by Christopher Willibald Gluck, atOperaAtelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud. Imagecou rtesyofforomo Reference Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud

Paimer's elevation, ~ Flower Tree Drops," for Armide, by Jean Baptiste Lu lly, at Opera Atelier, Toromo. Designer, Gerard Gaud. lmagecourtesyofToroll to Reference Library; used with perm ission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud

Painter's elevation , "Desert Drop," for Armide, by Jean Baptiste Lully, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud . Image courtesy of Toronto Reference Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gauci

Painter's elevation, "Fountain Flat," for Acfifon, by Marc-Antoine C har pentier, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud. Image courtesy of Toronto Reference Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud

Painter's elevation, "Queen of the N ight's Pagoda," for '!he Magic Flute, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, at Opera Atelier Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci. Image courtesy of Toronto Reference Library; used with permission of Opera Atelier and Gerard Gaud

D erail of cut-d rop, "Qyeen ofrhe Night's Pagoda," fo r 7ht Magi( Flult, by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, at O pera A telier, Toronto. Designer, Gera rd Gaud; scenic ar tists, Elizabeth Bailey and D avid Rayfi eld; photographer, Richard M ongiat. Image used with permission of O pera A telier, Ge rard Gaud, and Richard Mongiat

Foliage border for Pinit, by Jean Baptiste Lully, at Opera Atelier, Toro nto. D esig ner, Gerard Gaud; scenic artists, J ules Tonus and Richard Mong iat; photographer, Jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard Gaud, and Richard Mong iat

Continental paintingof(;urta in drop for Coronation r.ifPoppea, byClaudio Monreverdi, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci; s(;enk anists, Jules Tonus and Rkhard Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard Gauci, and Richard Mongiat

Detail of (;urtain drop for Coronation of Poppen, by C laudio Monteverdi, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gauci; scenic artists, Jules Tonus and Richard Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard Gauci, and Richard Mongiat

D etail ofbaroqueshow leg for Pygmalion , by j ean Philippe Rameau, atO peraAte1ier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud ; scenic ar tists, jules Tonus and Richard Mo ngiat; photographer, jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard Gauci, and Richard M ongiat

Pyramid temple for The Magic Flu/e, by Wolfgang A madeus Mozart, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. D esigner, Gerard Gaud; scenic artists, jules Tonus and Richard Mongiat; photograp her, jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard Gauci, and Richard Mongiat

Marriage trophy flat for Pirsle, by Jean Baptiste Lully. at Opera Atelier, Toronto. D esigner, Gerard Gauci; scenic art ist , Richard Mo ngiat; photographer,Jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gera rd Gauci, and Richard Mongiat

Canopy fl at fo r Pirsic, by Jean Baptiste Lully, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. Designer, Gerard Gaud; scenic artist, Elizabeth Bailey; photographer, Richard Mongiat. Image used with perm ission of O pera Atelier, Gera rd Gaud, and Richard Mongiat

Detail of temple interior for 1he Magic Flute, by Wolfgang A madeus Mozart, at Opera Atelier, Toronto. D esigner, Gerard Gauci; scenic artists, Jules Tonus and Richard Mongiat; photographer,Jules Tonus. Image used with permission of Opera Atelier, Gerard Gaud, and Richard Mongiat

Wings and borders for '!he Way if the World, by William Congreve, at University of Windsor. Designer, William Pinnell; scen ic artists, David Court and Craig Guthrie; photographer, Nora Munro

Act 3 cutout for '!he Way ifthe World, by W illiam Congreve, at University of Windsor. Designer, William Pinnell; scenic art ists, David Cou rt and Craig Guth rie; photographer, Nora M unro

Mountains Due to their gargantuan size, mountains are almost exclusively pictured as if being seen from miles away. Certain factors result from this lack of proximity: Finite detail is nonexistent although, unless obscured by clouds or lack of daylight, distinct shapes are evident. l he bottoms of mountains are rarely seen . Almost always they are overlapped by a series of foreground layers, that is, lower mountains, foothills, tree lines, and the like. Colors are muted and often assume a grayish-purple tone the farther away the mountain is. There is an abundance of reflected (ambient) light. 1hat is, while the effects of the sun-bright or clouded over-are evident so as to reveal shape, the dark side of the mountain is Ut almost as consistently with daylight that is atmospherically reflected. Although [he mountains would be painted in the exact shape and configurat ion as indicated on the example provided by the designer, the following arrangement is not mandated but indicates a generic procedure by which snow-covered mountains may be rendered simply and convincingly. Step 1. Mountain Profile (Fig. 184) After the sky is completed and dry, the mountain is plotted . Note that the sky color has been extended well below the profile ridge. The profile ridge of the mountain is painted on with its base color. Step2. F ill-In and Blend (Fig. 185) Continue painting downward with the base color to the desired mass of the mountain that is to be seen the most clearly. At the bottom of this mass, blend the base into the background color. This is achieved by either watering down the base so it fuses with the dry background or by blending the base with some wet background color. The lower section of the mountain disappears as if in a mist. When this dries, subsequent foreground layering can be applied. Step 3. Sun and Snow (Fig. 186) Choose the direction fro m which the sun lights the mountain. Using the snow color, etch in those faces of the mountain facing the light source.

195

Figure 184

Figure 185

196

Figure 186

Note how the irregularity of t hese areas creates the three-dimensional characteristics of the mountain. While the snow color can be applied opaquely near the ridges of the profiles, allow the paint to assume a drybrush application as it works downward . This will provide a nice rocky and textural look. Also note that the direction of the stroke on a facet is consistent, thereby supporting the slope of the rock.

Step 4. Refl ectively Lit Snow (Fig. 187) The sides of the mountain not faCing the sun are also painted as if snowcovered. A cooled-down version of the snow is mixed (e.g., a white treated with blue + a little mountain base color). This color is applied only in a dry-brush state. Not only is texture important here but the reRected snow should not totally cover the mountain's base color. Although not all mountains will be snow-covered, the procedure of indicating the effects of both direct and indirect light sources remains consistent. The variables are in the shape characteristics of the mountain and its colors, the color and degree of brightness of t he light source (the sun), and the level from which it originates:

197

Figure 187

sunrise'" low angle with bright lemon-yeUow cast midday'" 45 degree angle with white/yeUow cast sunset", low angle or silhouette with orange cast Painting mountains as iflit by moonlight poses little variation in procedure other than, as it occurs at night, the painring is more monochromatic in nature. Often, the moon is seen with its immediately surrounding sky enhanced by its glow (see fig. 188; a color version is in the gallery).

Water On realistic sets, water (lakes and oceans) is painted as if in a placid state. Rough seas and waves are dynamic and ever-changing and are relegated to those stage sets that depart from strict realism. Choppy seas may be seen on realistic drops, but traditionally the water is peppered with whitecaps and portrayed far enough in the distance so that the supposed movement of the water is not discernable. Also, the shore and any suggestion of its breaking waves are commonly obscured by foreground overlaps of raised beach, cliff edges, and SO forth . Assuming the color of the body of water is not altered by industriallcakage and contamination, the colors of oceans, lakes, and ponds are affected

198

Figure 188

by their reflections of the color of the sky. An ocean only looks blue or bluegreen when the sky is clear. Cloudy skies create gray-looking water. When painting water, three f.'lctors arc consistent, albeit to varying individual degrees: 1. The color of the sky is incorporated in the water's base color. 2. There is some evidence of reflection, ranging from almost nonexistent to mirrorlike. 3. A su rface activity (or lack of, in the case of ice) is alluded to. The following procedure demonstrates the painting of a large pond that gently reflects some background characteristics and that possesses some degree of surface movement in an otherwise-serene setting.

199

Step 1. Base-in the Water (Fig. 189) Wherever the water is to occur on the painting, paint in that area with the predominant sky color. If the area of the water is large, and the sky possesses an obvious color gradation, make sure this gradation occurs in the opposite direction in the water area.

Figure 189 Step 2. Paint the Background (Fig. 190) After the water has dried, paint in the background, including t he far shore of the pond. Step 3. Reflect the Backg round (F ig. 191) From some of t he predominant color of what is behind the lake, make a wash. Paint in the approximate shape of the background, being careful to paint the shape in a mirror, or reversed, image. With water, blend the bottom peripheral edge of the reflected image downward. The extent to which this edge is blended downward or left unblended helps determine the surface activity of the water. ]f the reflected image is blended little, if any, the water's surf.'lce appears glass-like. Conversely, blurring and diffUSing the reflection's precise definition allude to more su rf.'lce activity.

200

Fig ure 190

Fig ure 191

201

Optional Step. LinearTreatment Thin some sky color to a transparent wash, and, using a straightedge, finely dry brush the wash horizontally. Do not overdo this optional step as it is intended to merely suggest a horizontal movement to the water. Step 4. Shore Definition and Surface C haracteristics (Fig. 192) M ix white with a little sky color. Using a fine brush, create irregular horizontallines and gentle jags. This will give the water's surface some movement characteristics resembling ripples. To sharpen the shoreline, darken the ripple color a bit with more sky color, and cut in some very thin ripple lines where the water meets the shore. By lim iting color g radations as reflected from the sky, which elim inates all but the vaguest illusion of background reflections, or by increasing the horizontal brushing of washes on the water's surface, one can easily create the impression of water that has frozen over (see fig. 193). Thick icc may tend to have a linear textural quality, which can be either vertical or horizontal in appearance. Adding the moon over water can be painstaking but is weU worth the trouble. A night sky is painted with a distinct glow surrounding the moon. The water is based in with a dark blue-gray, using a slight gradation from lighter at the horizon to a deepening of hue toward the bottom. 1he moon's rays hitting the \vater involve painting numerous dashes, which conveys the moonlight striking the waves. 1hls illusion, as seen in figure 194, was particularly successful in that the shape of the moon was a cutout hole backed with dyed material. The moon was lit at an angle from behind; the paint used for the moonlight on the \vaves \vas off-white and lit from the bottom front with blue lights. The moon acrually glowed as did its reflection on the water.

17. Scale Transfers A scale transfer is a process by wh ich any drawing, painting, or photograph is proportionately enlarged or reduced and reproduced with accurate spatial fidelity onto another surface. I n the theater, where scale is usually larger than life, the original picture or scene is most often transferred to a larger scale, such as would occur on a scrim, drop, or large expanse of hard scenery. The act of enlarging remains constant regardless of the scope of increase. To inflate a 3 inch x 5 inch image to cover a warrior's shield is no different in principle than enlarging the same drawing to cover an enormous tapestry.

202

Fig ure 192

Fig ure 193

203

Figure 194. SaltWater Moon, by David French; actor, Mike Shara; directed, designed, and painted by William PinnelL

Painter's E levation A rendering of the scenic area to be painted, or a painters elevation, is customarily prepared by the scenic designer and is drawn and painted to scale, traditionally 1h inch'" 1 foot 0 inch. That is, each Y.! inch on the painter's elevation translates to exactly 1 foot 0 inch on the actual scenery. Commonly the painter's elevation is covered w ith clear plastic, such as acetate. ll)is overlay protects the designer's work by repelling dirt, moisture, and paint droplets. It has proven very convenient to laminate several colored laser-print copies of the elevation.1l1e only drawback with this convenience is the laser copier can alter the specific colors the designer originally chose. 1n stich instances, access to the original is necessary when the pa int colors are mixed.

204

Gridding Assuming the painter's elevation is to a \.l inch scale, it thcn becomes necessary to grid the elevation by covering it with 1h inch squares. (Some designers may provide a pregriddcd elevation.) As one works with either the original elevation as covered with plastic or a laminated laser copy, using a thin, black marker specifically designed fo r marking transparencies and glossy photographs works the best to strike the grid lines.1he plastic sheet or laminate repels pencil and regular ink lines, and the painter will not want the grid to smear or rub off. Spaced 16 inch apart, lines are inked parallel ro the vertical and horizontal center lines un til the entire elevation is squared off (see fig. 195). A 1,1 inch x 1h inch square on the elevation equals a 1 foot 0 inch x 1 foot 0 inch square on the scenic surface.

Figure 195

205

Opaque and Overhead Projectors A speedy and reliable alternative to the grid method of scale transfer is to project the drawing onto the scenery using an opaque projector. Figure 196 shows a traditional opaque projector alongside its more modern counterpart. While the modern version is lighter and more easily portable, it can only throw smaller images relatively short distances, as its wattage and subsequent illumin ation are weaker than the older machine. (The projectors are used only to project images onto scenery that is painted vertically, i.e., standing up.) The painter's elevation or other design to be replicated is placed in the projector. The projector is placed at the distance from the scenery at which the image is projected to scale onto the scenery. Ensure that the plane of the projected image is parallel to the plane of the projection surface, that is, the scenery. This alignment will help prevent any keystoning, or image distortion, that results when a projection strikes a surface from an angle (see fig. 197) . •:. OPAQUE PROJECTORS .:.

TRADIT IONAL

MODERN

Figure 196

On large pieces of scenery, such as a full-stage drop attached to a paint frame, the projector and/or the scenery may have to be moved a few times because the projected image covers just part of an area at a time. The design or portions thereof are then chalked onto the scenery. One drawback to this

206

KEyS]"ONING D ISTORTIONS

T o PREVENT

Image projCC\Cd Ilighlly from lbe 'ide

KEYSTONING ~ THE PLANE OF TI lE PROJECTOR (\tic Ie",) SHOULD BE PU.CED PARALlEl. TO TI lE PROJECllON SURFACE (\tic sccr>ay)

Image proJCC\Cd shglllly from belo ....·

Figure 197 method may lie in the availability of an opaque projector. Once a commonplace machine in schools and various multimedia businesses, it is now somewhat of a dinosaur and has been replaced by more sophisticated projectors. To timeconscious scene painters, the opaque projector will never become obsolete, but the machines are getting more difficult to find. If one can be acquired, never part with it! Overhead prqjectors are still readily available and may be used as a substitute to the opaque onc. However, the painting elevation must first bc lascr copied and thcn madc into a transparcncy. Thc colors will wash out a littlc as the light passcs through the transparency, but as long as therc is enough of an enlarged image to outline on the scenery, it will work. As a great deal of scenery is painted continentally, sections of the design can projected onto brown paper and pounced onto the scenery. For varying reasons, however, the use of a projector may be impossible. Therefore, scene painters must hone their freehand drawing talents, and becoming adept at transferring a design to the painting surface by gridding is absolutely essential.

207

Step 1. G ridding. or Squaring (Fig. 198) Mark off 1 foot intervals on all four sides of the larger surface, again using the center vertical and horizontal points on the larger surface as initial reference guides. With a chalked snap line or bow line, grid the larger surface. (I f much of the sketch contains an expanse of sky, lay in all of the sky colors first, then grid over it when dry. In this case, notice that prior to the gridding, the flat has been painted with the background sky colors.) 7he grid lines on this example are darkened more than usualfor visual clarity.

Fig ure 198

Step 2. Sketch and Ink (Fig. 199) The design is sketched with charcoal sticks or chalk so that mistakes can be dusted or flogged off. The sketch is verified either with pencil or ink marker.

208

Figure 199 Step 3. P ainting (Fig. 200) Lay in the specified areas; complete the detail painting. To make the scene appear hazy and distant, the sky base color is very finely spattered over the entire surface.

18. Perspective and the Vista Perspective Although perspect ive vistas can be transferred and drawn by using the grid method of transfer, knowledge of the basic principles of perspective is imperative. Perspective is the art of rendering an object on a two-dimensional

209

Figure 200 plane-say, a sheet of paper--in such a way as to give the impression that the object is three-dimensional; an appearance of depth or protrusion is created that increases or decreases in size according to its relative positioning between the observer and the far-off horizon. Perhaps the simplest and most rudimenta ry example of the effect of perspective is to envision a set of railroad tracks . 'The observer stands between the tracks. Because the two rails are parallel to one another and are on flat ground, as they move away from the observer, they appear to converge at a spot on the horizon, which, phenomenally, will always occur at the eye level of the observer. 1his point at which the rails converge is called the vanishing point (v.p.), as the rails literally vanish over the horizon. Anyone can scratch the horizon line across a piece of paper, draw the crudest of converging ra ilroad tracks, and achieve some degree of an ilJusion of distance and depth on a two-dimensional plane. The t wo initial lines, here

210

symbolized by railroad tracks, must, however, in real life have a parallel relationship in order to converge at the same vanishing point. All lines that arc parallel to Rat ground and placed above eye level (the horizon line) slope down to the vanishing point, while all lines below eve level will slope up to it (see fig. 201, a). 1hese parallel lines, such as those indicating the top and bottom of a building, will meet at the horizon line and establish their own vanish ing point. The tops and bottoms of doors and windows, if also parallel with the flat ground or floor on which the building rests also converge at this same vanish ing point (see fig. 201, b).

a Horizon Line: (eye: leve:l)

b Vanishing Point

(v.p.)

Figure 201 Moreover, two buildings placed on opposite sides of a street bur facing and parallel to one another share the same vanishing point (see fig. 202). The height of the horizon as drawn on paper or canvas may be artificially raised or lowered

211

Figure 202

for artistic reasons, perhaps to place the observer in a position of subservience or superiority. As mentioned earlier, in real life, the horizon always coincides with the eye level of the observer. A test of this phenomenon can be tried out at the beach. Lie flat on the sand with chin resting on hands, and stare out at where the water meets the sky. The horizon will be at eye level. Sit up, stand, climb a tree or lifeguard tower, and the horizon will still be at eye level! Scene painters must be aware of these principles and trust in them. Locating a vanishing point from which to scribe and eventually paint defining and detail lines not only assure the rendering of convincing illusions but speed up the layout and painting process far more than relying on a grid-transfer method . D uring the Renaissance, when the science of perspective diminution and foreshortening were markedly advanced and refined, perspective vistas were elaborated to sometimes include three or more vanishing points. Often, points were located far off the picture plane, or parameters of view. To reproduce such a sophisticated illusion involving distant vanishing points when scene painting, one would have to rely on the grid method of transfer, as locating such removed vanishing points on a large scale might be next to impossible.lhere simply may not be space in the paint shop to locate the points, let alone accurately align with them.

212

Vanishing Points However, very convincing examples of distance and diminishing proportion can be illustrated when only one vanishing point is used. The works ofCanaletto (Giovanni Antonio Canal, 1697-1768), to name but one artist, can serve as inspiration for those who might fear one-point perspectives will appear static and lacking in interest. Canaletto's drawings took on startling complexities because of his use of overlapping objects. Often, h is vanishing points seem nonexistent for they were most often either eclipsed by fo reground and middle-ground features that virtually block clean views of the horizon or occur severely off to one side of the center line, as illustrated in the simplified perspectives seen in figure 203 .

Figure 203

213

The one-vanishing-point-pcrspcctivc illusion that is created solely 011 ajlat mrfoce containing no actual dimensional relief appears the most convincingly whcn thc obscrver's vicw is directly in front of the middle ofthc picture. 1n a typical theater, not many members of the audience will have seats in the centcr of the auditorium, and it is true that viewing a painted three-dimensional from an angle oft- to one side or another of the central line of sight tends to lessen the illusionary effect of perspective. Perhaps the designer should create a three-poi nt-perspective illusion? 1his way, all seating sections might get an equal shot at being conv inced. But convinced of what? All the audience really needs to (momenta rily) be convinced about is that they are observing a series of events located somewhere, in some ti meframe in which the rea/here-and-now has been suspended . And so, again, scenery should never strive for total realism. For, in a truly realistic perspective vista, should not the branches of crees sway? Should not there be some distant activity at the end of enormous palace courtyards? In actuality, ycs; in theater, no. Robert Edmund Jones labeled sccnery "an environmcnt of the action." In an attempt to satisfy every audicncc mcmber's conceivable scrutiny of the scenery, the deSigner (and painter) will have ovcrstcpped the bounds of scenic propriety and given thc setting extensive dimensions of importance and focus. A working sink with running water on the set impresses or matters littlc to an audience because the sink fits within the prosaic scope of daily lives. Feature what is not banal or commonplace, and it is a venture into the arena of hopes, dreams, magic, and wonder. Perhaps Anton Chekhov stated his views of writing and the play most aptly in '!he Seagull, when T rigorin states, "L ife should not be portrayed as it is, nor as it ought to be. But as it appears in our dreams.~ Consequently, to avoid an artistic temptation to achieve convincing realism, which in turn may lead to scenic d istraction, it is quite common to see the perspective vista rendered in a semi-realistic form, perhaps viewed as if through a slight haze or mist. Tintype sepia washes, bleeding strokes of dye, and muted scratchings of pen-and-ink lines may all be uscd in an attempt to capture the distinctive and styl ish elegance of a historical period and thus achieve a romantic-and removed-ambience. Usually, the laying out of the vista onto the painting surfacc takes longer than the phases of actually painting it. The first step is to grid out a copy of the designer's rendering or elevation .

214

Step 1. Grid the Rendering, Elevation, or Sketch (Fig. 204) Customarily, 1 foot )( 1 foot squares arc drawn to a scale of1f.z inch = 1 foot o inch. (Note that, in this example, the entire sur£:'lce was based earlier with a sky color and that the clouds were completed and once again, the

grid lilUS appear darker than normalfor visual darity.)

Figure 204

Step 2. Locate th e Rendering's Vanishing Point ( Fig. 205) Next, locate the van ishing point (sec fig. 205). To do this, align a drafting triangle or other straight edge with any major building facet that appears to slope upward as it moves into the distance. Draw in a light ink line, extending it as far as needed . Next, choose on the same building a m,yor line that appears to get lower as it travels away from the observer, and extend it with a marker. Where t he two extended lines meet and cross is the vanishing point. This intersection also indicates the picture's horizon line should it not already be in view. In one-point perspective, usually all other buildings on the street arc extended to converge at this same spot. Again, this assumes a vista that (1) features a street that is perfectly horizontal in nature (i.e., no hills or slopes) and (2) features a majority of buildings whose tops are parallel with their bottoms.

215

Figure 205

Step 3. Grid Out the Pa inting Surface, and Locate the Vanishing Point

(F;g.206) Grid the painting surface with lines made from a charcoal stick or, preferably, ones snapped on with blue chalk using a standard carpenter's snap line (or a bowline, as seen in figure 48, charged with blue chalk may also be used, but a snap line is quicker). After having located the v. p. on the painting surface (see fig. 206), back the area of the surface on soft scenery with a piece of wood that will not shift. A nail will be driven into the scenery at this v.p. On hard scenery, drive a nail through the wooden painting surface. Do not drive the nail in all the way, but leave about an inch sticking out from the face of the painting surface. As most of the perspective lines will converge at the nail, its protrusion will come in handy. Step 4. Locating t he Rendering's Major Perspective Lines (Fig. 207) On the rendering or elevation, extend as many perspective reference lines as needed (see fig. 207}. Note that the lines will emanate outward from the vanishing point and extend until they conveniently cross vertical or horizontal grid lines. The points at which the elongated lines intersect with a grid line receive a hash mark and may be measured on the ren-

216

Figure 206

Fig ure 207

217

deri ng. These same intersections are transferred to the painting surf..-.ce's respective grid lines where each is noted with a hash mark. Step 5. Transferring the Major Perspective Lines ( Fig. 208) Once all of the hash marks are transferred to the painting surface's grid lines, it is time to draw in the major perspective lines. Loop the end of the chalk-charged snap line over the protruding nail (step 3 above), which denotes the vanishing point, extend and tighten the other end of the snap line to overlap the grid reference points, and snap the chalk line. Continue this procedure to snap in all of the major perspective lines (see fig. 208). All lines can, of course, be dusted off should mistakes occur. NOT E: When painting scenery that can not have wooden supports, use either a chalked bowline or another person to help with the snap line.

Figure 208

Step 6. Sketch and 1nk (Fig. 209) Sketch and then ink in all details.

Step 7. Painting (Figs. 210, 211, and 212) As the vibrancy of colors tends to progressively fa de as objects become more distant, painting a perspective vista or any exterior scene with deep, rich colors only destroys the illusion of distance. Pale tones, pastels, and 218

I

~

219

dyes are frequently used for outdoor scenes. To maintain the period flavor associated with this particular vista, only sepia washes of varying hues are used. Fi rst, lay in all areas with the pale color (see fig. 210). Non: : When working exclusively with washes and dyes, one must remember that areas and features can only be made darker. To correct mistakes later, one must use a different medium, that is, opaque colors for covering purposes, or bleach for highlighting. Therefore, care must be taken to prevent painting the designated lighter areas with the darker dyes. A good rule to follow is to always begin with the palest wash or dye and work progressively through the values to the darkest ones. Apply the middle tone (sec fig. 211), and proceed to the darkest (see fig. 212).

Figure 211 Step 8. Highlight and Shadow Wash (Fig. 213) Finish sparingly with opaque and translucent highlight washes to complete architectural details. Cast shadows. (See also the color version of fig. 213 in the gallery.) Non:: D o not be reticent to effect textures by the appropriate method(s) of choice using a color mixed between the middle and darkest tones as the texturing color.

220

Figure 212

Figure 213

221

19. Drops and Scrims Many amateur and educational theaters are forced by budgetary restraints to reuse a scenic drop or a repertoire of scenic drops year after year. Iflucky, the

same drop won't be needed in shows mounted back-to-back. But even the most magical of painted illusions lose their alJure, and with frequency and overuse become an inside joke, if not downright boring. The time will come to either pack it in mothballs or try to paim over it. Most drops are not left to hang between uses but are rolled for more compact storage. In order to allow the drop to be rolled, it likely is painted with dyes or washes of color, as opaque paints can clog the fabric weave and prevent the drop from roll ing without cracking. Attempting to "erase" previously dyed backdrops is a futile endeavor. Even the most vigorous cleaning and mild bleaching wiU fail to erase the majority of details and colors. Floating images wiU remain, as if a ghost of what once was. So, the obvious follow-up for the dyed backdrop is to paint over it with opaque colors. Even then, some of the more tenacious dyes might ghost through the dried paint. If a drop was first painted with opaque paints, it was likely stored hanging or lying Rat; all subsequent designs must be repeatedly layered with opaque colors, and the reused drop will eventually weigh as much as a threestory building. But for those fortunate enough to attack brand new drops, a basic step must be taken to prepare the fresh fabric for dyeing or painting. I nexperienced painters may become frustrated by the uncontrollable bleeding of dyes and washes that occurs and spreads throughout the weave of the drop. Although designers sometimes call for such a bleeding of color, such an effect is always a preplanned notion involVing a well-monitored technique. Painters can encourage the spreading of color by wetting the dro p with water before, during, and after the applications of the actual colors. Regardless of the painting technique employed, however, all new scenic drops shou ld be glazed with a primer ofliqllid starch. 1his will not only prevent the running of colors but also provide a tightly stretched and fi rm surface on which to paint.

Laying Out Lay Ollt the drop 011 the floor. Sweep clear the paint-shop Roor, and place lengths of gray bogus paper over an area a bit larger than the drop itself. Overlap the side edges of the lengths of paper as they are being positioned,

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and tape the ends to the Roar to avoid the paper from shifting. Then, on the paper, snap a chalk line indicating where the top of the drop is to be placed. Parallel to this line, snap a second line at a distance from the first line that equals the height of the drop. Th is second tine serves as a guide for the bot~ tom of the drop. Placing a large right t riangle (painter's Roar triangle) or reliable scenery jack at the left end of the top line, extend the perpendicular edge until it crosses the bottom parallel line (see fig. 214). Mark the top and bottom lines at these points, remove the perpendicular gu ide(s), and snap a line to connect t he top and bottom guidelines. This third line indicates the left end of the drop as seen from the front. Measure from this third line along the top and bottom lines the same d istance as the length of the drop, and make hash marks. Connect these two points by snap line, and the guidelines fo r the placement of the drop are complete. Check the accuracy of the box by measuring from corner to corner. The distance between the lower-left and upper-right corners should equal the distance between the upper-left and lower-right corners. P lace the drop on the gray paper, adjust to match the snap lines and, at intervals of 6 to 9 inches, tack through the hems into the paint-shop Roar. If the Roar is not made of wood, construct a wooden frame the exact size of the drop.

Figure 214

Make theframe. Use lengths of 1 inch x 3 inch pine scarf-jointed or butted together with keystones to form the four long-running lengths required and place on the Roar as ifbuilding a large scenic Rat. Use a standard corner-block assembly to attach the four 90 degree corners, but substitute the corner block nails with screws for easy disassembling and storage of the frame (see fig. 215). Tack the drop to the face of the wood by first aligning the perimeter of the drop with the outer edges of the frame .

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NOTE: This .... ~n:: construction a,rcatly /'C:SIffl\bles that "r a ceil i,,!! nat. I)ra" ing IS silo .." must b¢ ni~ t() race ""..". The: rrame ",II 'cst on key>tones ttnd comoer blocl<.

I

t

---

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Figure 215

Starch Priming Make the starch primer. Mix 1 pound of gloss laundry starch (it dries to a clear matte) into a ~ gallon of cold water. the starch must thoroughly dissolve. 1l1en stir this mix ture a little at a time into 2Y.! to 3 gallons ofboiJing water. Allow to cool. (To assess the amount of liquid starch needed, 1 gallon of the primer effectively treats 100 to 144 square feet.) Apply the starch primer. Strain the starch primer into a sprayer. Use a Hudson or large-capacity garden sprayer.]n addition, one will need a soft-bristled push broom and another person to help. Starting at a top corner of the drop, work in bands 4 to 5 feet wide across the length. One person operates the sprayer (on a medium setting); the second person follow s with t he broom and gently spreads the starch evenly O'IJer the fabric. Try not [0 push the starch into the fabric, as this may cause the solution to pass through the material and be absorbed into the paper. Ot may also cause the paper to stick to the rear of the drop. Ordering a premade or building a drop from heavy-weight muslin minimizes any mishaps.) Continue working in horizontal bands until the drop is completed. A uniform drying time for the entire surface is necessary to ensure the even tightening of the fabric. lne amount of drying time required is proportionate to the temperature and humidity of the work area. A warm, dry atmosphere provides the optimum condition. Depending on the manner in which the drop is to be painted, it is possible to add a little color to the starch primer so as to arrive at the lightest background color specified on the painter's elevation. AU subsequent steps of applying color, whether a dye or paint, should follow the tenet of overlapping scene painting: paint first what is in the distance, and work toward the foreground. If possible, apply the base coat and then background colors, and blend (e.g., sky, combing, textural pattern) before the gridding and charcoal sketching are performed.

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Although the drop may be gridded with continuous, overlapping lines, some paimers may find it easier to sketch in the design if merely the poims where the vertical and horizontal grid lines cross arc indicated rather than the complete lengths of lines (sec fig. 216). For quick reference, code by number or letter all vertical and horizontal grid lines on both the painter's elevation and the drop. The charcoal sketching can then be achieved by free-banding the shapes, using the grid lines for reference, using scaled templates transferred by the pounce method, or setting up a projector in order to shine images onto the drop for sketching.

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Figure 216

P

Storing Drops W hether for storage, transport, or scenery sh ifts, all scenic drops wiU, at one time or another, have to be rolled, folded, or tripped. It is quite rare that a drop is painted on the stage floor or paint frame, rigged into position, and then either left there for eternity or destroyed when the production has closed. Most drops arc painted in a separate area and rolled or folded, sometimes being stored for days before making it to the theater. Stages lacking fly lofts necessitate the rigging of roll drops or traverse tracks to operate the drops during scene shifts or to simply clear them for scenery setups and technical rehearsals. Limited storage facilities may cause drops to be improperly folded and bound with string. (Experienced technical directors either roll the drop around a wooden batten and wrap it in brown paper or plastic if stored in a linear space, or they properly fold and place the drop in a piece of polyethylene for protection.)

Flexible G lue Although painting with dyes will allow drops to be rolled or folded, using the correct type o/scenic paint is essential to allow for these types 0/handling. Casein paints arc perhaps the most preferred for painting backdrops. Their colors arc vivid, will dry without noticeable paling or dulling, and may be thinned witb-

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out sacrificing much covering power. Al most all other forms of scenic paint, from latex to vinyl to the old dry pigments, rely on binding agents, which will prohibit or greatly resist the malleable use of soft scenery. 11)e only even remote substit ute for the benefits of liquid casein paint is the use ofjlexibleg/ue, but even this has limited pliability and is meant to be mixed with powdered paints. Casein paint may stU] be found in powdered form (not as readily available as it was thi rty years ago), and this may be liquefied with flexible glue, as per the follow ing standard recipe. Prepare theg/ue. In a large double-boiler-type arrangement, soak 8 pounds of flexible glue in 2 quarts of water for 1 hour. (This will soften and slightly expand the slab or slabs of glue.) On a medium-low setting, heat and stir until dissolved . This will produce the liquid flexible glue. Make the working size. Mix 1 part liquid flexible glue with 8 parts hot water. This binder should be used to liquefy the dry colors (both powdered casein and traditional powder pigments, among others) .

Painting the Drop The below steps may be followed whether the drop is to be painted continentally or vertically. Step 1. Background If applicable, lay in the farthest background colors, patterns, or textures (sky, distant landscapes, and the like). Step 2. Sketch Chalk in all reference gridding and space notations for the scale transfer, and cartoon all detail work. Use pounce patterns, templates, and projections as necessary. Step 3. In king Ink in all detail lines; this may take a form anywhere from indelible markers and dyes to water-soluble colors that deliberately bleed when coming in contact with another liquid. Step 4. Mask Off Areas and Details (Optional, Dependent on the Desig n) This step is necessa ry if certain areas of the drop are to remain color-free (see below, the second method for applying paraffin in "Translucencies").

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Step 5 . Base C olors (Plus Dimensional C olors as Related to the D esig n) Apply the base colors assigned to specified areas. 11lese colors, even if intended to dry in opaque form, are traditionally thinned down so as to be as workable as possible for a variety of techniques: puddling, dribbling, gradations, general wet blending, and the like. Sections of the drop may be sprayed with water to facilitate a desired effect. Also, at this time, dimensional colors (highlights, low lights, deep shades, and flashes) can be integrated into the base-coloring technique. The extent to which these colors are added or avoided depends on the nature of the painting effects required by the designer. Step 6. Texturing (as N ecessary, If Applicable) Tones above and below the value of the base colors, temperature colors, and texturing are performed with paints in wash and/or opaque consistencies. The texturing may involve masking off certain areas, using stencils, sponge stamps, and other methods. Step 7. Highlight and LowJjght T ints and shades are applied for highlighting and lowlighting; they may be of wash or opaque consistencies. Shade washes will darken and contour efficiently, whereas bright tints or fl ashes may need to be reinforced by using considerably bright opaque colors. Bronze powders may be added now. as appropriate to the design. Step 8. Final Toning (If Required) A scenic drop on a stage with a 35 foot wide )( 20 foot high proscenium opening covers approximately 700 square feet of vertical and horizontal space. Regardless of its size, one can be sure that, in juxtaposition with the size of an actor, the d rop will attract a lot of attention . Lighting can help create mood and direct focus to the action, but as a precaution, some degree of final texturing on the drop is often desirable and essential to simply tone down the painting and allow the focus to be on the performers. The toning may assume forms of dribbling, spattering, or spraying of dyes or paint washes.

Translucencies Some drops may conta in t ranslucent sections as a part of thei r deSign. D irectly upstage of the drop may be hung a neutral backdrop. or cyclorama .

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When lights arc foc used on the neutral drop, a glow bleeds through designated areas of the painted drop. Marquees, signs, lighted wi ndows, and foliage aTe just a few examples in which a translucency can be effectively used. There are nvo reliable ways to create a translucency. After the drop has been starched, and the inking of detail work is complete: 1. Paint the translucent area with a chosen color of dye. For example, if the translucency is to suggest a lighted interior as seen through a window, the window panes may be treated with a light-lemon-yellow dye. After the dye has dried, the areas surrounding the window-pane translucency (e.g., mullions, sash) are painted with opaque colors. One must be careful, however, not to spiU any opaques on the dyed window panes. 2 . This second method may prove to be more workable. Lay in the translucent sections with dyes, and after drying, cover the dyed, that is, translucent, areas by brushing on hot paraffin wax with a utility brush . (A convenient container for the wax may be an old electric coffeepot or a crock pot, as both have hidden heating elcments. A long extension cord will keep the paraffin heated and liquefied and allow the painter to walk to any area on the drop and brush on the hot wax.) After the wax has hardened, paint the drop as planned . As the dried paraffin is impervious to paints, there is no risk of ruining dyed sections by spiUing paint upon them. Upon completion of the painting, the wax is scraped off with a putty knife (see fig. 217). Regardless of which of the above methods is performed, drops requiring translucent treatment usually need back-painting. As the neutral drop placed behind the translucent drop is lit, many of the opaque areas-likely painted with thinned-down colors-will allow varying degrees of light to ghost through, thereby weakening the strength of the translucent illusion . So, as a final step, the translucent drop is flipped over, and the backs of the opaque sections arc coated with a dark color, as darker colors absorb more light than lighter ones. For back-painting either drops or framed scenery, a rubber-based paint (e.g., latex) should be used . It will stay on the back surface of the material and will not soak through to the front of the scenery. However, the back-paint must be applied quickly and should not be worked into the surface. Some permeation to the front surf...ce may result if the back-painting is done too forcefully; this destroys the illusion from the front. Although the starch primer initially applied to drops also helps prevent the bleeding through of the back-painting color, care should be taken not to overwork this step.

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USING HOT PARAFFIN TO MASK OFF TRANS LUCENT A REAS

Figure 217

Cut Drops and Scrim s A cut drop is a drop that has had certain negative space areas of its design removed in order to allow for a partial transparency or translucency. Areas to be cut out are outlined with dye-preferably aniline-that has been mixed with alcohol (the alcohol penetrates the starch primer coat, and the inking shows through on the back of the drop). After the front surf..ce painting is completed, the drop is turned over, and the designated openings are cut out. For best results, dyed pieces of shark's-tooth scrim are attached to the back of the cutout sections with flexible glue (see fig. 218). 1he scrim, a close, rectangular weave; acts as support for the drop while permitting transparencies to occur through the negative spaces. Bobbinet scrim, scenic netting, or cheesecloth may be used as a substitute, but all are inferior in strength and cannot

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SHARKSTOOTH SCRIM

Figure 21 8

compare to the opaqueltransparent capabilities of shark's-tooth. Cut drops are ideal for an overlapping scenic effect and creating illusions of distance. A variation on the cut drop occurs when the entire drop or portion ofit is glued to a full-s ize, prepainted scrim. The prepainted cut drop is laid facedown on the floor, all edges arc squared, and the perimeter of the drop is sparingly stapled to the floor. The scrim is t hen laid face down over the cut drop, aligned, and tacked into place. Flexible glue is applied through the scrim along the cutout edges of the drop. Extra portions of the glue shou ld be applied to any perimeter edges of t he cut drop to form a firm adhesion to t he scrim. Alternatively, cut drops or sections thereof may be applied to the face of the scrim. In t his situation, waxed paper is first lain down so the scrim will not later stick to the floor. The scrim is placed face up upon the waxed paper and stapled or tacked down to prevent shifting. The cut drop or sections of the drop arc arranged on top of the scrim. When all positioning is correct, the outside edges of all cut drop areas arc traced with marker onto the scrim. Sections of the drop arc removed, flexible glue is brushed within the inked outlines on the scrim, and the drop sections are pressed into place, being careful to align with all ink lines. An alternative to fully-s ized cut drops or scrims is the use of sections of canvas or muslin, which when combined with pieces of scrim add up to numerous possibilities for use as border and profile pieces (see fig. 219).

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BORDER & PROFILE PI ECES

Figure 219

When painting or dyeing a scrim, one may notice that due to the opcnweave construction, scrims may have tendency to stretch a bit when attacked with a charcoal stick or paintbrush . Perhaps the dearest way to layout a design on a scrim is to first g rid, sketch, m/dink the verified design on the floor paper. The scrim, which should have been starched and possibly prcdycd or treated with the background specifications, is lain faeeup over the floor paper, aligned, and tacked or stapled to the floor. The inked design clearly shows through the scrim and allows for the colorations and illusions to begin. The procedure of scene painting remains constant whether working on opaque, translucent, or transparent surfaces: apply the background colors, and work toward the foreground. Almost any medium may be used depending on the effect(s), that is, degrees of transparency or brilliance of color desired. D etail lines needing to be completely opaque can be achieved by combining flexible glue or latex with wet pulp or paste fo rms of color. Metallic powders can be added to the color if a metal look is required . the mixture should be kept

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quite thick and may effectively be applied using plastic squeeze bottles or disposable cake-decorator cones. To avoid sticking to the floor paper when dry, be sure those areas receiving opaque treatments are backed with waxed paper. Tf soft highlighting is to occur on a scrim or drop that has been dyed, 1 part liquid bleach mixed with 4 parts water can be used to lift off the dye. As even watered-down bleach can take its toll on brushes, lISe disposable foam-rubber brushes when using bleach. Should brighter highlights or flash accents be needed, oil paints are the best to use, as dyes-even aniline-will not penetrate the oil paint and bleed through to the surface.

20. A Final Word Just as the world continues to revolve, technology, in all of its many forms, continues to evolve. With the push of a button or a voice-activated command, minicomputers generate virtual, vividly colored images that are so astounding and yet now so commonplace that we have come to expect their realistically portrayed perfection without a moment's thought. Whether representations of f:'lntasy or of worlds beyond, anything rendered in less than the most evocative and striking of artistic images may seem dated, passe, incomplete, perhaps even amateurish. The technology of the theater has not been exempt from progress. Various software programs ranging from house management to lighting to costum ing and to scenery are readily available. Computer-aided design (CAD ) has made many a designer's and draftsperson's job easier. The amou nt of time that the computer saves now allows artists to take on simultaneous contracts or has, at the very least, facilitated multitasking. Once, deSigners sat for days at drafting boards creating working drawings or found themselves tethered to tables painting colored renderings, whereas now, computer-assisted designing and painting programs free up copious amounts of time for those deSigners who can either afford, or wish, to pursue other challenges. Even the realm of the scene painter has been touched (some may say invaded) by technology. Software programs are available that can interf:'lce with long, rolling paint sprayers that effortlessly glide over drops and other forms of scenery, leaving amazing illusions in their wake. What, then, is the future of the scenic artist? Will he or she be pushed aside by technology? Will their numbers be greatly reduced; will only one "artist" be needed to program and monitor the machines as they do their work? Such questions date back in one form or another to the 1ndustrial Revolution, and the theme of man-versus-machine has been fodder for the writings

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of everyone from Jules Verne and H . G . Wells to playwrights of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The fear of human beings overtaken by their inanimate creations pose nightmares of both outlandish and frighteningly realistic proportions. Certainly, the most common counterpoint to the fear of humanreplacing technology is the question: Why should I spend all of this time when a machine can perform the same tasks so much more quickly and repeat it more reliably? And when one contemplates becoming a scene painter, many more ques[jons may arise: Why am] in th is dirty shop, hands and face covered with droplets, dressed like an urchin from OIi'Uerand lugging all these brushes and buckets around . .. when, ] could be out in the sea's breeze, wearing tropical linen, sipping a cold one, and interfacing from my laptop? The answer is simple, and, yet, the solution may not be. First, a painter must have a passion for the tbeater. One must want to participate in its creation and not be afraid of the ideas it can enlighten and the emotions it can stir in the heart. Having a love for t he t heater is a gift that can neither be planned nor programmed . As Shakespeare wrote, "Who ever lov'd that lov'd not a firs t sight?" 1he appeal, the allure of the theater often come without warning, and those lucky enough to be involved for a living in its many worlds and forms arc gratefully along for the journey because they would not choose to be anywhere else. Remember the old joke about the circus worker whose job it was to clean out the elephant cage? When overheard complaining about the mess, a coworker asked why he didn't just pack up and leave. The cage cleaner replied, "What?! And give up show business?" Although there may be times of extremely hard and dirty work, the personal satisfaction one feels by creating from scratch someth ing special with one's hands and talent is, as t hey say, "priceless." Secondly, one must to be willing to work at getting better, at enabling one's abilities to grow. Whoever says "] could never do that" hasn't a hope of ever being able to. The human mind and body contain infinite potential, and the levels that one may achieve are incalculable. And those attained levels will never fail to be gratifying and worth the while. But the true artist is ever self-critical and must want and strive to continue to develop. The gallery of t his volume has impressive examples of some artists well along on the journey, while others arc at journey's end . Unlike the computer, on this and all matters of the heart, there is simply no short cut or fast-forward .

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Glossary

While the following terms are fairly standardized, some of theif definitions and related applications may vary from theater company to theater company or paint shop to pa int shop. For example, some painters refer [0 a "glaze" singularly as a final overcoating that lends a sheen to the painted surface; while

others may recognize a glaze as being interchangeable in terminology with a wash. I hope that the list below creates more clarity than confusion. Aeschylus. Ancient Greek poetic dramatist (ca. 525-456 H.C .E.) who is thought

to be the first to integrate some form of scene painting into play performance.

Agatharc1lUs. Ancient Greek pai nter who is thought to be t he first to paint theatrical scenery.

analogous colors. I n paiming, differemcolors rendered similar in value because of a common root (denominator) additive. aniline dye. 1he premiere dyes llsed in the theater for scene painting; poisonOllS, containing extracts of benzene. animal glue. [colloq.] G elatin glue, found in slab or flake form, containing animal derivatives that when heated, melted, and diluted with water to form a "working size," form a tenacious binder for powder pigments. back-paint. The painting of the rear side of scenery with opaque paints in order to eliminate light leaks. baseboard (molding). Molding located where a wall meets the floor. base (local) color. The predominant color a piece of scenery is painted; that color from which the tint and shade colors are derived.

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Bergman Bath. Named after twentieth-century scen ic artist Robert Bergman, a procedure by which paints (particu larly washes) arc allowed to deliberately dribble and cascade down a flat's surface by raising one end or a corner. binder. A substance that adheres the paint to the scenery; any form of glue used with scene paint. bobbinet. A lightweight scenic netting with an open, hexagonal weave. bogus paper (gray paper). A highly absorbent, inexpensive, unbleached paper used primarily as a protective layer between continentally painted soft scenery and the floor. boomerang. A muhileveled, rolling unit upon which a painter stands when painting tall, vertical scenery. bow line. A chalk line tightly strung on a bowlike piece of wood . The line must be charged with chalk pieces or chalk bag; use according to snappainting guidelines. bronze powder. Ground metalJic powders used widely for ornamental painting; they do not have binder. brown paper. See kraft paper. brush prints. The manner or angle by which a brush applies paint; flat, flattwist, or side prints. butt joint. Standard arrangement of two pieces oflumber that are blunt cut for the purpose ofjoining; most commonly, a board's end butts against another board's edge or end to end. CAD. Computer-assisted (or aided) design; also CADD, computer-assisted drafting and design. carbon 14. A method used to date archeological or geological specimens. casein. A type of scene paint loosely derived from milk protein; durable, in paste and liqUid form containing its own binder. chair rail (molding). Molding located at the approximate height of the back of a chair. chromatherapy. The use of color for therapeutic reasons. colorcontamination. A primary color that is no longer true, as contaminated by an additive; the unintentional combining of one color with another. color wheel. 1 he traditional minimum grouping of the three primaries and immediate three secondary colors on a wheel-shaped diagram . combing. A method of texturing using a wide brush missing clumps of bristles so as to resemble the teeth of a comb; an even, linear textural pattern . common denominator. A root color that is added to all other mixed colors so as to render them analogous; the base color becomes the common denominator when creating the tint and shade .

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complementary color. Any two colors directly across from one another on the color wheel. concave. A recessed bowl or curved shape. continental system. 1he act of painting scenery that is f.'lceup on the floor. convex. A protruding bowl or curved shape. cool. Referring to an emotional mood quality derived from the temperature value of color; any soothing, complacent color, such as blue or green. corner-block assembly. Element of standard flat construction. Rail and style arc butted at ninety degrees, and a right triangle piece of plywood is lapped over the joint and nailed or screwed into place to secure the joint. cornice (molding) . M olding located where a wall and ceiling meet. cove molding. A shape dominated by a large concave quarter circle. cross-hatching. A figure-eight-oriented painting stroke, commonly used when sizing or priming a paint surface. e utawl machine. A horizontally-operated machine able to cut very tight and intricate curves by means of a jigsaw-type mechanism . cut-bristle brush . A form of specialty brush; some bristles have been removed to produce a comb-like appearance; used for wood graining and combing. cut drop. A scenic drop featuring cutout sections that serve as translucencies or transparencies. cut stone. A raised rectangle centered within a larger rectangle; the two rectangles are joined by angled planes. deep shade. A shade far removed in hue from the base color; a shade of the middle shade. drop. A rectangular-shaped clement of soft scenery usually made of muslin and that hangs vertically. dry powder pigment. Oldest and traditional medium of scene paint; needs a separate binder. dutchman . 1he material that covers the hinges and scams between the Rats. eye level. Same as horizon line . See horizon line. fantail brush . Scene-painting brush whose ferrule forces the bristles out in a fan shape; used to paint foliage and ornament because of its cutting edge. ferrule. The metal part of the brush located between the bristles and handle; holds bristles in place and reinforces their shape. fitch . A liner brush. Rash color. A brilliantly bright tint used for special accenting; a highlight of a highlight.

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flat (scenic). The most basic element offramed scenery, covered by muslin or canvas; that piece of scenery that is commonly used to form walls on the stage. flexible glue. A glue that when dry remains somewhat pliable and resists cracking; commonly plastic-based, such as a polyvinyl. flogger. D evice used to remove chalk and dust from the painting surface or to impart a painted texture. flogging. A method of textu ring in which paint is applied using strands of material or heavy twine whipped against the scenery. floor triangle. A form of painter's straightedge, used continentally to locate and strike perpendicular lines. flying. Raising scenery upward and out of Sight behind the top of the proscenium arch; flown scenery stores in the fly gallery. gelatin glue. The premier glue of scene painting; excellent when used with dry-powder pigments and as a strong and working size; in g round, slab, and flake form . glaze. Same as a wash. See wnsh. gloss glaze. A transparent glaze that leaves a surface sheen when dry. glue pot. Used to heat and melt gelatin glue; double-boiler or electric types. gobo. A stainless-steel or glass disc placed in the gate of an ER S (ellipsoidal reflector spotlight); it features a patterned or amorphous arrangement of negative spaces that when light rays shine through, projects an image onto the scenery or stage floor. graded wet blend. A blending of colors using a gradation of colors; usually an even, linear pattern of bands of color wet blended together. See also wet blend. graining. Texture by dry brushing or combing to achieve a wood-grain appearance. graphic-arts approach. As applying to painting metal or reflective surfaces, a procedure using a wet-on-wet technique and/or the use of sprayers or air brushes; the scene-painting approach implies a wet-an-dry approach using brush strokes. gray paper. Sec bogus paper. grid or gridding. Overlaying a drawing or scenic surf:'lce with squares for the purpose of a scaled transfer. half-tone. A hue located halfway between the base color and its corresponding tint or shade. heart grain. A wood-grai ning pattern that results from a tree being cut through diagonally and whereby individual grain lines loop back in t he opposite d irection; the loop in the grain is also called the cup.

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hematite. As derived from the Greek word bema or baima, meaning blood, an ore of reddish color. highlight. 11)e application of the tint color to create an illusion of protrusion. horizon line. The borizontalline where earth and sky meet; the extent of one's visibil ity of distance, un iformly on the same level as the eye of the observer; eye level. hub. A point from which gathered drapery is gathered and suspended; from this point, tension lines in the fab ric radiate downward, thus causing the drapery to form a swag and pleated arrangement. Hudson sprayer. Commercial hand-pump sprayer best suited to priming and unsubde texturing; large and rather heavy, though portable. Hudson, though originally applying to the manufacturer's name, may refer to any pump-type (Iawn-and-garden) sprayer used in theatrical painting. hue. A quality of color; a particular shade or tint of a color. inking. The verification of a chalk-sketched drawing by using aniline dye or ink markers. jack. A wooden brace resembling a large right triangle; most commonly used for unseen stability on door and window units. keystone. Origina lly resembling the trapezoid-shaped center stone on a classic Roman arch, now commonly a rectangular piece ofJ.,4 inch plrvood lapped over a butt joint of framed scenery and attached to ensure stability. keystoning. The distortion of a projected image caused by the projection striking the surface from an angle. kraft paper (brown paper). Commercially available, nonabsorbent paper used to safeguard against paint spills or mishaps; excellent with the pounce method for t ransferring detail work. latex . A rubber-based binder and fo rm of scene paint widely used in the theater. lay in. The application of background or predominant colors prior to formal texturing and detail painting. lay-in brush. A brush four to six inches wide used to quickly apply color. light leak. Thinly painted areas revealed by backlighting; usually unintentional. light source. An actual or invented source from which light is emitted so as to create three-dimensional scene-painting effects; that which illuminates thickness and contour. liner brush. A chisel-ended brush used to produce thin, crisp lines and sweeps of varying thickness; commonly used for detail painting and available in widths ranging from % to 21,7 inch.

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lining. The act of detai l painting that reveals shape, contour, and thickness. lowlight. The application of the shade color to create an illusion of depth. luminosity (of color). The extent of a color's brightness. McCandless Method (McCandless 111eory). Named after stage-lighting innovator Stanley McCand less, one principle involves the use of warm and cool cross-lights striking the stage at a forty-five-degree angle from both the vertical and horizontal axes. middle shade. A hue between the base color and deep shade. opaque. A fabric or consistency of paint that cannot be seen through; any paint that covers and hides what is underneath; opposite of a wash or glaze. opaque projector. A projector that can project opaque images, such as a page from a book. overhead projector. A projector whose images fo r projection must be in transparent fo rm. packing tape. A strong cellophane tape used for scaling cardboard boxes for shipping. paint carrier. Ascene-painting aid ; a type of box and vertical-handle arrangement used to carry paint containers and brushes so as to self-contain painting supplies and increase the mobi lity of the painter; also, a large rolling paint cart. painter's elevation. A sample drawing provided by the scenic designer of each setting detailing painting techniques and colors. painter's holiday. [colloq.] Any oversight or incomplete paint job resulting from the painter's carelessness or negligence. painter's tape. A green or blue tape resembling masking tape but less sticky in nature; will mask off areas without removing previous coats of paint when removed . paint frame. A wide vertical frame to wh ich two-dimensional scenery is attached for vertical painting. paraffin (wax). A mixture of hydrocarbons used in t he making of candles; appl ied with a brush for scene painting whi le in a warm, liquefied state to mask areas from painting. perspective. P ictu ring objects on a two-d imensional surf.1.ce so as to show distance or depth. picture rail (molding). M olding located below a corn ice molding from which framed pictures may be hung. pinake. A covered frame upon which paint is applied; allegedly used in ancient Creek theater.

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plain-sawn, plain-sawing. A wood-cutting process by which the saw blade cuts across the tree's grow th rings, revealing a heart grain. plumb line. A symmetrically balanced weight attached to string and used to show a perfectly vertical line. polyethylene. Commercially available clear plastic frequently used by paimers as a drop cloth. pounce. A method whereby a perforated design is transferred to another surface using chalk; the act of pounding chalk dust through a perforated pattern. pounce bag. A cheesecloth bag containing charcoal o r indigo chalk dust used for pouncing. pounce wheel. A spiked wheel device that perforates pape r. primary color. A color that cannot be made by combining any other colors; namely, red, yellow, and blue as roots of the color wheel. primer brush. Any w ide, soft, long-bristled brush used for priming scenery. primer coat (priming). The initial coat of paint on any new piece of scenery; deSigned to tighten and seal the weave in the fabric and limit the porosity of wooden su rfaces; on used scenery, the covering over of previous images with paint. puddling. A method of texturing whereby two or more colors are dribbled or spattered onto scenery and allowed to run together. quarte rsawing. A wood-cutting process by which the saw blade cuts perpendicular to the t ree's growth rings; a straight g rain results. rag rolling. Texturing scenery with a rolled rag dipped into a color; technique resembles use of a rolling pin. rolling. The application of color by a paint roller. Roman ogee molding. A classic architectural shape dominated by a central S curve. scale transfer. Proportionally enlarging or redUCing a draw ing, pa inting, or photograph and reproducing it on another surface. scarf joint. A type oflumber joinery in which the ends of each board are Cllt in a long, tapering angle rather than a blunt cut. scrim. A scenic drop constructed in a wide enough weave that allows it to be seen through under appropriate stage-lighting conditions. scumble. A mottled form of textural painting created by sharply changing the positioning of the wrist and lifting the brush off the painting surface between strokes. secondary color. A color resulting from the mixture of two primary colors.

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sh ade. A darker variation of the base color; that color that is often used as a 10wUght. sh adow wash. A transparent dark color used to suggest the shadow of one object cast upon another. shark 's-tooth scrim. A netting with a close, rectangular weave; stronger than bobbinet and with a greater capacity for opacity. size. Synonymous with glue and "strong size"; thinning wiU create the working size or size water. size water. Sometimes called ~wo rki ng size," a thinned binder used to "size" (shrink and tighten) the material on newly covered flats, and as the liquefying and binder agent for d ry-powder pigments. skiagraphia. T ranslated as "shadow painting," a suspected quality of painting that, through the implied use of shadows, conveys a 3-D illusion; its invention credited to Agatharchus. snap line. A retractable st ring linc wound in a chalk-filled container; when stretched ovcr a surface the line is snapped to furnish a perfectly straight chalk line. solution. The mixture quality of a paint or wash whereby the coloring medium is permanently dissolved and will not separate from its liquefying agent. spatter. Texture achieved by flicking droplets of paint from a brush onto the painting surface, covering it with paint droplets. spatter and drag. The method of dragging spatter droplets with a cloth or push broom in order to produce a texture that is linear and like wood-grain. sponging. Achieving texture by applying color with a sponge. spraying. A texturing method using an aerosol, electric, or manual apparatus. stamping. A method of applying designs by pressing pattern-shaped sponges, thick carpet, or any paint-retaining article against the painting surface. starch primer. A starch solmion applied to all new, unpainted drops and scrims that tightens the fabric and retards the bleeding of colors. stencil or stenciling. A method of texturing whereby color is applied through holes in a pattern, resulting in a repetitive design on the painting surface. stencil brush. A round-shaped bristle arrangement with a blunt end that is used to push color through stencils in a stippling fas hion. stippling. A textu ral effect produced by pushing the end of a brush, rag, or feather duster against the painting surface. straightedge. A notched painting aid that assures the painting of a straight line.

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suspension. The mixture quality of a paint or wash whereby the color sediment or pulp is temporarily suspended in the liquefying agent (e.g., water) but will eventually settle to the container's bottom if not shaken or stirred. temperature color. A color that affects the warmth or coolness of the painting surface. tertiary color. Third in a rank of color, that is, referring to that color resulting from the mixture of a primary and a secondary. In true color theory, all colors, except for the three primaries, classify as secondary colors. texturing. Whether actual (three-dimensional) or as a painted effect, creating the appearance of a surf..1.ce quaHty to the scenery. tint. A lighter variation of the base color; that color that is often used as a highlight. toning. Applying the base color with its corresponding tint and shade so as to reinforce the shape of a scenic unit and di rect focus to a specific area. toning down. As in a fina l spattering and other steps, reducing the luminosity of a color so as to prevent it from "popping" under stage lighting. translucency. An clement of scenery or a wash t hrough which can be seen a vague and barely discernible image; light may pass through but t he scenery is not transparent. transparency. An element of scenery or a wash through which can dearly be seen an underlying image or feature. tripped or tripping. When the fly gallery above the stage is not tall enough to fly a drop out of sight, the horizontal middle of the d rop wilJ have a secondary set of fly lines attached to it, thus allowing the drop to fold up into the fly gallery as it is raised. valance. An uppermost, horizontal arrangement of drapery that customarily overhangs decoratively alone or in front of the upper part of a vertical counterpart. value. A quality or richness of color. vanishing point (v.p.). l bat point on t he horizon line at which parallel lines converge, as in perspective drawing. veining net. A loose arrangement made of twine, crochet yarn, or muslin strips used as a tool for flogging, particularly for creating vein ing in stonework. vinyl. Compound of plastic derivatives used as a basc for scene paint and glazes. wainscoting. Paneling of wood and the like on the lower section of walls in a room.

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warm. Referring to an emotional mood quality derived from the temperature value of color; any exciting, energetic color, such as yellow, orange, or red. wash. 1he thinning of a paint so as to lose its opacity; a dye or glaze. wet blend or wet-on-wet. Two or more colors intermingled when wet. See also graded wet blend. wet-on-dry. Painting on top of a previous painting step that has d ried. whiting. I nexpensive, nonopaque powder pigment used in prim ing and to stretch the mixtures of powdered colors. working size. See size water.

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William H. Pinnell has designed and painted more than 140 productions in C anada and the United States and has toured with the U.S .O . from Italy to the Arctic C ircle as a performer. He has also directed several award-nom inated productions that played to critical acclaim at the Edinburgh International Festival Fringe. A graduate of the H ilberry Classic Repertory program at W ayne State University, Pinnell is a professor of dramatic art at the University of Windsor in Ontario, Canada. Among his awards for teaching excellence is, most recently, the 2005 Education Ach ievement Award by the Canadian Institute for Theatre Technology in recognition of his longstanding career as an educator. Pinnell is also the author of Perspective Renderingfor the Theatre.

Theater 7healrical Scene Painting: A Lmon Guide, second edition, is a practical guide to scene painting for students and novices, as well as a reference for intermediate scene painters who wish to refresh or supplement their basic skiUs. Drawing on his extensive teaching and scene-painting experience, William H . Pinnell clarifies and expands on the lessons of the first edition, providing a detailed overview of the fundamental s of traditional scene painting. Th is guide not only covers the basic tools ofthe trade and various methods of creating texture on scenery but also includes advanced techniques fo r scene making, beginning with stonework, woodwork, and wallpaper before moving on to the more intricate techniques of moldings, paneling, drapery, foliage, shiny metal, perspective illusions, scale transfers, scenic drops, and scrims. Pinnell also includes refinements and embellishments that can lead to the development of personal style without sacrificing realism. Useful to both self-taught artists and students, each lesson in the gu ide can be a stand-alone topic orcan form the foundation for a student to bui ld skills for increasingly complex techniques.

William H. Pinnell is a professor at the School of Dramatic Art at the University of Windsor in Ontario. H e has deSigned and painted for more than one hundred major theatrical productions and is the author of Perspective Renderingfor the 7heatre. published by SIU Press in 1996. In 2005, he received the Education Achievement Award from the Canadian Institute fo r Theatre Technology.

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Southern Illinoi s University Press 1915 UniverSity Press Drive

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ISBN 0-8093-2765- 1 ISBN 978-0· 8093-2765-2

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M,il Code 6806

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Carbondale, IL 62901 www.siu.edui-siupress

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Cover illustrations: "Perspective vista," by Wi.lliam H. Pinnell

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