ɎȿȾȿɊȺɅɖɇɈȿ ȺȽȿɇɌɋɌȼɈ ɉɈ ɈȻɊȺɁɈȼȺɇɂɘ ȽɈɋɍȾȺɊɋɌȼȿɇɇɈȿ ɈȻɊȺɁɈȼȺɌȿɅɖɇɈȿ ɍɑɊȿɀȾȿɇɂȿ ȼɕɋɒȿȽɈ ɉɊɈɎȿɋɋɂɈɇȺɅɖɇɈȽɈ ɈȻɊȺɁɈȼȺɇɂə «ȼɈɊɈɇȿɀɋɄɂɃ ȽɈɋɍȾȺɊɋɌȼȿɇɇɕɃ ɍɇɂȼȿɊɋɂɌȿɌ»
THEORETICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART 2. SYNTAX
ɍɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ ɞɥɹ ɜɭɡɨɜ
ɋɨɫɬɚɜɢɬɟɥɶ: Ɇ.ȼ. Ȼɨɱɚɪɨɜɚ
ɂɡɞɚɬɟɥɶɫɤɨ-ɩɨɥɢɝɪɚɮɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɰɟɧɬɪ ȼɨɪɨɧɟɠɫɤɨɝɨ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ 2007
ɍɬɜɟɪɠɞɟɧɨ ɧɚɭɱɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɢɦ ɫɨɜɟɬɨɦ ɮɚɤɭɥɶɬɟɬɚ ɪɨɦɚɧɨ-ɝɟɪɦɚɧɫɤɨɣ ɮɢɥɨɥɨɝɢɢ 3 ɚɩɪɟɥɹ 2007 ɝ., ɩɪɨɬɨɤɨɥ ʋ 4
ɇɚɭɱɧɵɣ ɪɟɞɚɤɬɨɪ Ʌ.ȼ. ɐɭɪɢɤɨɜɚ Ɋɟɰɟɧɡɟɧɬ Ɍ.Ɇ. Ʌɨɦɨɜɚ
ɍɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ ɩɨɞɝɨɬɨɜɥɟɧɨ ɧɚ ɤɚɮɟɞɪɟ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɣ ɮɢɥɨɥɨɝɢɢ ɮɚɤɭɥɶɬɟɬɚ ɪɨɦɚɧɨ-ɝɟɪɦɚɧɫɤɨɣ ɮɢɥɨɥɨɝɢɢ ȼɨɪɨɧɟɠɫɤɨɝɨ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ. Ɋɟɤɨɦɟɧɞɭɟɬɫɹ ɞɥɹ ɫɬɭɞɟɧɬɨɜ 3-ɝɨ ɤɭɪɫɚ ɮɚɤɭɥɶɬɟɬɚ ɊȽɎ ɞɧɟɜɧɨɝɨ ɢ ɜɟɱɟɪɧɟɝɨ ɨɬɞɟɥɟɧɢɣ. Ⱦɥɹ ɫɩɟɰɢɚɥɶɧɨɫɬɟɣ: 031000 (520300) – Ɏɢɥɨɥɨɝɢɹ, 031201 (022600) – Ɍɟɨɪɢɹ ɢ ɦɟɬɨɞɢɤɚ ɩɪɟɩɨɞɚɜɚɧɢɹ ɢɧɨɫɬɪɚɧɧɵɯ ɹɡɵɤɨɜ ɢ ɤɭɥɶɬɭɪ
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CONTENTS
PREFACE …………………………………………..…………..………….
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PART 1. PHRASE SYNTAX
1.1. TOPIC OUTLINE ………………………………………………….…. 5 1.2. TASKS FOR PRACTICAL CLASSES ……………………………….
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9 22
32 35
37
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PREFACE
The Study Guide is intended for third year students majoring in Linguistics. It aims to help them understand and use the fundamental principles of Theoretical English Grammar, as well as organize their self-study sessions in Theoretical Syntax of the English Language.
This is achieved in various ways. First, the Study Guide provides an outline of the topics discussed in lectures and those for self-study. Students are required to be able to expand on every aspect mentioned and to illustrate it with examples. Second, the Guide contains a variety of exercises to be done in practical classes. You will also find a list of the theoretical aspects of the course and a list of recommended textbooks and other reference materials.
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PART 1. PHRASE SYNTAX
1.1. TOPIC OUTLINE
SYNTAX AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS o Syntax as part of grammar. o The subject matter of Syntax. Syntax deals with combinability of words, i.e. how words are combined to make meaningful utterances, what patterns they combine on, and what abstract grammatical meaning they express. o The main objectives of Syntax are: 1) to study relations between words within word combinations; 2) to study the sentence as a structural unit which communicates a message in a definite situation. o The units of syntactic analysis are the sentence and the phrase. They represent different levels of a hierarchy. o From the constructive point of view both the sentence and the phrase are groups of elements related with each other and organised in a definite way. o In most respects, however, the sentence and the phrase differ. the sentence
the phrase – Doesn’t express a ‘complete
– expresses a ‘complete thought’
thought’ – Has a nominative function – is a
– Has a nominative function – is a
name of a type of real life situations/
complex name of discrete objects of
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reality or of elements of real life situa-
events
tions – Has a certain intonation pattern
– Does not have intonation
– Is a minimal communicative unit of
– Is part of a communicative unit of
speech
speech
– Realises Predication (Modality,
– Doesn’t realise Predication
Temporality, Personality)
PHRASE SYNTAX o Definitions of the phrase. o Traditionally the phase is defined as a group of two or more notional words functioning as a whole. Besides notional words, a phrase may contain one or more function words. o A phase is a grammatical and semantic unit. o Differences in phrase structure show up in differences of meaning. o A phrase has a grammatical structure as words in it are syntactically related. o The two basic types of syntactic relations between words in a phrase: coordination
and
subordination
Ļ
Ļ
Coordinative phrases
Subordinative phrases the main type of phrase in any language
– The elements are equal in their – The elements are not equal in their status
status: a head word + one or more adjuncts 6
– Are used to expand sentence com- – Are used to build the structure of the ponents but not to build the structure sentence of the sentence – Are built either
– Are built either
(1) with the help of conjunctions ex- (1) with the help of prepositions expressing coordination (ĺ the relation pressing subordination (ĺ the deis formally marked)
pendence is formally marked)
or (2) without conjunctions
or (2) without prepositions
o The major criteria for classifying subordinative phrases: 1) the lexical grammatical class (part of speech) of the head word ĺ noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases; 2) the degree of semantic fusion between the elements ĺ free phrases and phraseological units; 3) subtypes of syntactic relations ĺ variants of Subordination: Agreement, Government, Adjoinment. o Agreement is the morphologically marked variant of subordination, i.e. the dependent element shares the morphological categories of the head word. Agreement is not very common on the phrase level in English. o Government in English is mostly prepositionally (syntactically) marked. o Adjoinment is formally unmarked. The word position in a phrase and semantic correlation matter. The main and most common variant of subordination in English where the word order is fixed.
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o ‘Chains’ of phrases ĺ more complex constructions, where one phrase is embedded in another phase, or where multiple embedding occurs.
1.2. TASKS FOR PRACTICAL CLASSES
Task 1. Is it possible to change the position of the constituents in any of the phrases below without changing the meaning of the original phrase? What changes in meaning occur?
An exciting adventure Jogging shoes Twenty minutes A cake pan William and Mary Fish and chips To write a letter To bring Mary a cup of coffee To go by bus
Task 2. Place all the phrases you can find in the sentences below in brackets. Give detailed analysis of each phrase in terms of: (a) its type, (b) the syntactic relation and the means of its expression, and (c) its constituents’ status (e.g. the head and the adjunct).
1. He is such a sweet boy. He came to my wedding and he looked so handsome. 2. I also told him the story of my life. 3. Wisteria branches eventually grow to tree-size width and are meant for the sturdiest pergolas and arbors.
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4. David Garrow, a scholar who won a Pulitzer for his biography of King, was skeptical about the whole notion of an autobiography.
PART 2. SIMPLE SENTENCE SYNTAX
2.1. TOPIC OUTLINE
THE SENTENCE AS A LANGUAGE UNIT ITS FUNDUMENTAL PROPERTIES o The sentence is a structural and semantic unity and unit which names a real life situation and communicates a definite message. o The sentence is the primary unit of Syntax, as: 1) it is the minimal communicative language unit which expresses a ‘complete thought’, i.e. a complete description of an event or state of affairs; 2) its basic function is the communicative one (while the major function of all the other language units – phonemes, morphemes, words and phrases – is structural, i.e. to build a sentence); 3) the whole range of language phenomena – from intonation patterns to semantics and pragmatics – can be realised on the sentence level. o The sentence vs. the utterance = the potential language unit vs. the actualised speech unit. o The sentence is the most complex language unit that consists of a number of elements connected by different types of syntactic and semantic relations. It can be studied in a number of aspects, the major of which are three – structural
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(form), semantic/ nominative (meaning) and pragmatic/ communicative (function). Sentence classification can be performed in each of these three aspects.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IN THE STRUCTURAL ASPECT o Each simple sentence / clause is built on a pattern which names one of the typical situations of real life. o ĺ 1. It consists of a set of sentence constituents (parts/ elements) which in speech can be represented by either one word form or by a phrase. o ĺ 2. Sentence constituents are connected both semantically and syntactically.
SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS, THEIR SEMANTIC AND STRUCTURAL TYPES o THE SUBJECT: – denotes one of the participants of the situation which is characterized by the Predicate, – is normally placed before the Predicate, – is typically expressed by a Noun or a Pronoun, and also by a Gerund, an Infinitive or a substantivised Adjective.
o Semantic types of the Subject: – the traditional approach: 10
1. Personal S
2. Impersonal S
– names objects of reality ĺ has reference – does not name objects of reality ĺ has no reference in reality
in objective reality – is expressed by notional nominal words with a definite lexical meaning
– is expressed by only 1 form –
– has more or less definite individual se-
‘dummy’ it
mantics: 1a. Definite 1b. General 1c. Indefinite – a purely structural element Personal S – statements
Personal S
typified situations – expressed by indefinite pro- – semantically empty, no lexical
reality
meaning
nouns: one, you
NB: demon- – universal strative it
necessary to make a correct Eng-
– general statements about lish sentence
about definite objects of
Personal S
they – clichés
truths
NB: Anticipatory it
3. Interrogative S (what, who) is specific (1) semantically (asks for info, doesn’t give any), (2) structurally (word order, no auxiliary).
4. Negative S. is specific grammatically (only 1 negation in the sentence). – A modern semantic approach: o semantic roles of the nouns in the position of the Subject, i.e. info about the participants and components of the real situation: – Agentive S. names the active doer / source of the action, – Patient names the passive participant of the action affected by it, – Temporal S. indicates time, 11
– Locative S. indicates place etc. o THE PREDICATE: – gives a predicative characteristic of the Subject (i.e. one which is attributed to it at the moment of speech), – occupies the position after the Subject. – is expressed by a verb or verb group. o The verb phase in the predicative function is the central element in each sentence / clause, as its valency controls the kind of elements that co-occur in the sentence (also see below). o Structural types of the Predicate. 1. The Simple Pr
2. The Compound Pr
– is expressed by a
2a. The Compound Nominal Pr =
finite verb
Link V + Predicative (i.e. Complement = a Nominal part of speech: N/ Adj/ ProN)
2b. The Compound Verbal Pr = a Modal / Phase verb + Non-Finite verb form
3. The Double Pr = Notional verb + a nominal word: – gives 2 semantic characteristics of the S at the same time. o THE OBJECT: – denotes a (usu passive) participant of the situation other than the one named by the Subject, 12
– is placed after a Simple Verbal Predicate expressed by a Transitive Verb, – is typically expressed by a Noun, Pronoun, or Gerund. o If a Monotransitive verb is used, there is one object in the sentence, [1] direct Object: – general semantics: names a passive participant of the situation, directly involved in or affected by the action (semantics of ‘patient’). – semantic subtypes of direct Object: (1) the object of a physical action; (2) the object of perception or emotion, (3) the object which appears as a result of an action, etc. o If a Ditransitive verb is used, there are two objects in the sentence, direct Object and [2] indirect Object: – general semantics: names the third participant of the action, usually a person at whom the action is directed / for whom it is performed = a ‘recepient’ / ‘interested witness’ / ‘beneficiary’. o The order of the direct and indirect object: 1) standard, non-emphatic: SVOiOd ĺ neither takes a preposition = they are prepositionless, 2) reversed, with emphasis on Oi, which also changes its form by taking a preposition (to or for): SVOdOi.prep. (prepositional indirect Object). o Many linguists argue that Prepositional Verbs also take objects, called [3] prepositional Objects, as: – they are used when there is no direct object in the sentence, – Prepositions only mark the syntactic relation of Government between the verb and the object.
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o Summary table on types of Objects: prepositionless Objects Ļ
prepositional Objects
Ļ
Ļ
Ļ
direct Object
indirect Object
prepositional in-
prepositional Ob-
(SVOd, SVOiOd)
(SVOiOd)
direct Object
jects (SVOprep)
(SVOdOi prep) o THE ADVERBIAL ( / the Adjunct): – gives information about the circumstances of the action denoted by the Predicate: time, place, manner, degree, cause / reason, purpose, degree…, – is represented by adverbs, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases. o THE ATTRIBUTE: – is not a separate sentence constituent, it can only form part of another sentence constituent – S, O, or Predicative / Complement ĺ it’s the lowest in syntactic rank among the sentence constituents, – functionally, is used not to construct the basic pattern of the whole sentence, but to expand other sentence constituents from within.
SYNTACTIC RELATIONS ON THE SENTENCE LEVEL o A hierarchy of 3 basic types. 1. Predication, which distinguishes the sentence from the phrase: – 1 point of view: the interrelation between the Subject and the Predicate (the predicative basis of the sentence); – Another point of view: the main sentence category, which establishes a relation between the sentence and the real situation (the phenomenon of sen14
tence actualisation which makes it an utterance). The category of Predication is a combined expression of 3 sentence categories: Temporality, Modality, Personality.
2. Subordination, which has two functions: 2a. to complete the sentence by introducing other sentence constituents apart from the Subject and the Predicate (Object etc.); 2b. to give more info about other sentence constituents by expanding them from within (Attributes).
3. Coordination ĺ homogeneous (parts of) sentence constituents are formed OBLIGATORY AND OPTIONAL SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS
1) The traditional approach: o Only the Subject and the Predicate are obligatory sentence constituents while the others are optional. o The main argument here is that no English sentence is grammatically correct and complete without either the Subject (S) or the Predicate (Pr) whereas there are correct sentences without Objects (O) or Adverbials (A). o ĺ S + Pr form the predicative basis of the sentence, sometimes also called a clause. If either of them is missing in speech, the utterance is elliptical. 2) Another approach takes into account not only grammatical correctness, but also the following criteria: – if the sentence is informatively and communicatively complete, – if it makes sense 15
(ɩɪɢɧɰɢɩ ɢɧɮɨɪɦɚɬɢɜɧɨɣ, ɤɨɦɦɭɧɢɤɚɬɢɜɧɨɣ ɢ ɫɦɵɫɥɨɜɨɣ ɞɨɫɬɚɬɨɱɧɨɫɬɢ). o ĺ not only the Subject and the Predicate but also the Object in sentences with a transitive verb as the Pr are obligatory sentence constituents and form a clause. o Adverbials in sentences with Verbs of certain semantic classes (e.g. with verbs of movement or location) are also considered obligatory. o From this point of view only some Adverbials are optional – those which give additional more details, e.g. about the circumstances or manner of the action, and can be omitted without ruining the grammatical structure and affecting the meaning of the sentence.
BASIC PATTERNS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE: THEIR STRUCTURAL BASIS AND NOMINATIVE SEMANTICS o Any utterance is built on a pattern which is a structural semantic unity and unit, i.e. every sentence pattern has both its specific, individual meaning (nominative semantics) and form (structural basis). o Nominative semantics: – there is a system of a few basic types of situations into which innumerable real life situations have been arranged as a result of natural systematizing, – every sentence pattern names a typified situation of objective reality. o The form:
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= a specific combination of obligatory sentence constituents, the number and type of which vary from pattern to pattern. o The main predicating word, which is most often a verb (in a simple verbal predicate) but can also be a noun or adjective (as part of a nominal predicate), governs the sentence pattern, i.e. valency of the predicating word controls the number, type and semantics of obligatory sentence constituents which make up a sentence/ clause. o Types of verb valency: – intransitive verbs (with no obligatory element following), – monotransitive verbs (with a single direct object), – ditransitive verbs (with an indirect object and a direct object), – complex transitive verbs (followed by a direct object and either 1) an object complement or 2) an obligatory adverbial), – copular verbs (followed by either (1) a subject complement or (2) an obligatory adverbial). o There are 6 basic patterns of the English sentence which are recognized by most grammarians:
– There V S (There – Copular Verb (typically be) – Subject), which describes the situation of existence / presence;
– S V Cs
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(Subject – Copular Verb – subject Complement), (where Link Verb + subject Complement can be seen as making up the Compound Nominal Predicate), which is used for characterizing sth;
–SV (Subject – Intransitive Verb), which denotes actions / states / events which are not directed at any particular object;
– S V Od (Subject – Monotransitive Verb – direct Object), which describes a situation with two participants – an active (S) and a passive one (O), which are involved in the action;
– S V Oi Od (Subject – Ditransitive Verb – indirect Object – direct Object), which describes a situation with three participants, where an active participant performs an action directed at another participant and in which still another, passive participant is involved;
– S V Od Co (Subject – Complex Ɍransitive Verb – direct Object – object Complement), which denotes both an action directed at a passive participant and the characteristic it has or acquires as a result. o Some grammarians single out some other sentence patterns: – S V Od A *
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(Subject – Complex Ɍransitive Verb – direct Object – Adverbial) formed by a special semantic class of verbs (verbs of movement / location) and allowing only for adverbials of place;
–SVA * (Subject – intransitive / Link Verb – Adverbial) where the locative semantics is expressed by both the verb of movement / location and the adverbial of place;
* It is an arguable point whether these patters are separate ones or variants of other basic patterns. o Verbs with more than one meaning, e.g. get, make, grow, etc., can have multiple valencies ĺ build up different sentence patterns. o Basic, or unexpanded, sentence patterns are language units ĺ include only obligatory sentence constituents. When they are actualised in speech as utterances, not only syntactic positions are filled with definite words, but also optional constituents – Adverbials and Attributes (as parts of S / O / C) – are often added ĺ the sentence becomes expanded and gives more detailed information about a particular situation.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE IN THE SEMANTIC ASPECT THE SEMANTIC PATTERN OF THE SENTENCE o Language means model and represent situations of objective reality. The simplest correlation is as follows.
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A real life situation
A sentence
– An event
– the predicate (usu. V)
– Its participants
– arguments (usu. noun groups refer-
– Its circumstances
ring to the predicate)
+ interrelations between them
+ syntactic and semantic relations between them
o Arguments perform definite semantic roles according to the type of the participant of the real life situation they name. o The function of the predicate is central to the semantic structure of the sentence, as:
1) its semantics determines the whole range of semantic roles that can be expressed in the sentence (= the role structure of the verb / the frame of the verb); some roles manifested by the verb are obligatory, others are optional;
2) it reflects the relations between its arguments (ĺ between the participants of the real life situation). o The basic semantic pattern of the sentence = proposition: The meaning of action / event + the minimal set of semantic roles, which makes the sentence semantically complete.
SEMANTIC ROLES o Agent – an animate object, usu. a human being, that performs an action consciously and/ or purposefully; + an actional verb: 1a. Causative agent performs an action; 20
1b. Permissive agent lets an action be performed by removing the obstacle for the object. o Nominative / External causer / Source – an animate or inanimate object which is the ‘source’ of the action. o Patient – the animate / inanimate participant which is directly affected by the action performed by another participant (Agent) and undergoes a change as a result. o Factitive / Resultant – an inanimate object which is created/ produced as a result of the action. o Recipient / Beneficiary – an animate being that receives sth as a result of the action. o Instrument – an inanimate object which an agent uses to perform the action. o Locative – place. o Temporative – time. o Event / Action. (NB: it is NOT a semantic role if it is expressed by the verb in the predicate!) o Experiencer – an animate participant that perceives, feels or realizes sth. o Object of perception – an animate or inanimate object that is perceived (by Experiencer). 21
o Quality possessor. o Attribute etc. o The same semantic role can be realized by different sentence constituents. o The same sentence constituent can realize different semantic roles in different sentences. o The same sentence constituent can realize different semantic roles in the same sentence at the same time.
2.2. TASKS FOR PRACTICAL CLASSES
Task 3. Fill in the gaps with appropriate grammatical terms.
A simple sentence has one (1) _________. A (2) ___________ sentence has two or more main clauses which are equally important. A (3) _________ sentence contains a subordinate clause and at least one main clause. Clauses usually begin with a (4) __________ called the subject. This is followed by a (5) _________ which may be followed by another noun group, called the (6) ___________. The (7) _________ is a person or thing that the sentence is about. The (8) _________ is a person or thing affected by the action or situation. The (9) _______ is used to say what is happening in an action or situation. The predicate in an English sentence always includes a (10) ________. This can have one or two (11) ______ or a (12) ________ in front of it.
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The (13) _______ is a noun group or an adjective used after link verbs like «be», «become», «feel» or «seem». The adverbial, or (14) _______, is an adverb or a prepositional phrase that follows the verb group, the object or the complement. The complement tells you more about the (15) ________. The (16) ________ tells you more about the action or situation.
Task 4. Identify the type of Subject in the following sentences. What language means is it expressed by?
1. He likes her. 2. They’re coming over tonight. 3. They say he’s rich. 4. People say he’s rich. 5. People here are hot-tempered. 6. The rich should help the poor. 7. It’s a bird, Tommie. 8. It’s warm in here. 9. It never rains in Albuquerque. 10. It wasn’t very wise of you. 11. Why do bad things happen to good people? 12. Things have got too tough. 13. If you believe in yourself you can succeed. 14. Some like it hot. 15. Anyone could do that! 16. No one could do that. 17. Who could do that?
Task 5. Identify the type of Predicate in the following sentences. What language means is it expressed by? 23
1. She was feeling her way in the dark. 2. I felt totally terrified. 3. I have to go now. 4. Your books have sold millions of copies. 5. The picture lay hidden in archives for 40 years. 6. He was lying on the sofa. 7. She was beginning to feel irritated. 8. Why are you smelling it? 9. It smells delicious! 10. This is my favourite book.
Task 6. Identify the type of Object in the following sentences. What language means is it expressed by?
1. Everyone deserted me. 2. Are you having a good time? 3. Take it easy, Tina. 4. They gave him additional funding. 5. I was given this address by a friend of yours. 6. Pick up your pen and write me now. 7. Who did you buy it for? 8. The young should respect the old.
Task 7. Match each symbol in the basic sentence patterns on the left with the corresponding part of the sentence on the right. Why are some parts of the sentences not represented with symbols?
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ThereVS
Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess. There were lots of people going through the tills. There are frequent trains to Bordeaux.
SV
Sarah and Michael disappeared. She smiled sweetly. Do you work late?
SVOd
She changed her dress. Mum, I’m making such a big sandwich. Have you got an exam on Monday?
SVOiOd
Lizzie bought herself a mountain bike. She taught children French. They’ve been given the red-carpet treatment.
SVCs
He and Jane aren’t married. The cheese has gone bad. She sounds funny on the phone.
SVA
Marc was in the bathroom. The pleasant summer lasted well into March. She reached for the scissors.
SVOdCo
That makes me so mad. They elected him President. I like my steak well-done.
SVOdA
They are sending us to Disneyland. She placed the baby on a blanket in the living room. I’ve always treated her with respect.
Task 8. Represent the following sentences in symbols and underline the sentence constituents. Say what language means they are expressed by.
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Example: Then
they
heard
S
V
A
a loud cry and a splash.
SVOd(A)
Od
Time
personal monotrans. coordinative noun phrase
adverb
pronoun
verb
[subord. noun phrase+ a noun]
1. Carrie felt a little less bold. 2. Fred Unsworth gave her a huge note of confidence. 3. He considered it a dumb question. 4. He gave all that information to the FBI. 5. He put his hand on the child’s shoulder. 6. He really told his father the truth. 7. He didn’t get his hair wet. 8. I’ll keep in touch with you. 9. I just got really hot. 10. More people came. 11. My dislike of the man returned. 12. People called him Johnny. 13. She was carrying a long whippy willow twig. 14. So that made her popular. 15. Tako is really a smart dog. 16. Then they fell in the sea. 17. They certainly couldn’t tell her the truth. 18. There were only four of us. 19. We were in a meeting all morning with Barbara. 20. He painted the roof of the house red. 21. – Is Mike in? – No, he’s out.
Task 9. Which basic patterns are the sentences below built on? 1. Simon spoke first. 26
2. The stewards all spoke French. 3. The work changed in the post-war period. 4. You will never change the world. 5. Flying is the only way to travel! 6. The minibar was filled with candy, mineral water and soft drinks. 7. Could you open the window, please? 8. The house was built in 1965. 9. Could you stand being alone with me for five or six days? 10. Did he say ‘hi’ to you? 11. Hot, isn’t it? 12. Show the inspector your ticket, Charlie.
Task 10. Distinguish between the obligatory and optional constituents of the following sentences. Which criteria do you use?
1. During her short life, her two sisters bought her a small teddy bear. 2. He left it in the bushes. 3. He went to the corner shop. 4. Her father had called her one evening. 5. Here I find you in some dark plot against me. 6. Later, after dark, a boy brought him a plate of food. 7. She went crazy out in L.A. for a few months back in 1987. 8. The boy lives in Washington now. 9. The Portuguese named the place Bom Bahia for its harbour. 10. We got home too late. 11. London stands on the River Thames. 12. This lightly effervescent Italian white wine seemed sharp at first.
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Task 11. In the sentences below verbs with multiple valencies are used. A. Identify the valency of each verb, and the clause elements that follow each main verb. B. Compare uses of the same verb in different sentences; translate into Russian; make a list of the different valencies for each of these verbs.
1. I just stood there. 2. I really couldn’t stand him. 3. You don’t stand a chance. 4. U.S. officials considered them a serious threat to U.S. peacekeeping troops. 5. They are considering the launch of their own political party. 6. Then we’ll bring our friends. 7. She brought him a sandwich and a cup of tea. 8. Martin’s course begins on 1 November. 9. The government has begun its controversial plan to compensate the three domestic airlines. 10. We can’t promise you that. 11. Yes, I promise. 12. Your dog’s got brown teeth. 13. Why don’t you go and get us both a pie. 14. The mug of coffee had not got any hotter. 15. He got his clothes very dirty. 16. We might find a body. 17. You might find these notes useful. 18. I’ve found her a friend. 19. Malcolm made no sound. 20. The sheer intensity of the thing me nervous. 21. His wife sometimes made him curry.
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Task 12. Find / make up sentences that illustrate the fact that the verbs below have multiple valences and can build sentences based on different patterns. Translate the sentences into Russian.
Call, leave, smell, grow, turn, look, drive,
Task 13. What is wrong with the following sentences? 1. * The stream flowed. 2. * He put the book. 3. * She was sent. 4. * I’d better start growing. 5. * Mr. Scott was looking anxiously.
Task 14. Analyse the sentences on the right in terms of the semantic roles their constituents realise. Then fill the appropriate boxes in the table with the name of the semantic role for each argument. Some boxes will remain blank. Sentence
S
Oi
Od
Cs
Co
A
Ex-
–
–
Attr
–
–
Example sentence
pattern SVCs
per
She’s happy
ib He turned traitor
The Sahara is hot
Last night was warm
The show was interesting
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SVA
He was at school
She got into the car
He is lying on the floor
SV
He was working
She is standing
The wind is blowing
The curtains disappeared SVOd
He threw the ball
Lightning struck the house She has a car
He is holding a knife
The stone broke the window We paid the bus driver
They climbed the mountain 30
The bus seats thirty
I wrote a letter
They had an argument
He nodded his head
SVOiOd
I bought her a gift
She gave the door a kick
She knitted me a sweater SVOdCo
He declared her the winner The sun turned the grass yellow The revolver made him afraid I found it strange
SVOdA
He placed it on the shelf
The storm drove the ship ashore A car knocked it down
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Task 15. Identify the semantic roles of the arguments in the sentences below. e.g. He put the book on the shelf. p agent
p patient
p locative
1. He’s travelled the world. 2. The glazier cuts glass with a diamond. 3. He drew lines on the paper. 4. He struck me on the knee. 5. That was a tactical decision. 6. Did you hear what I told you? 7. London faced a severe winter last year. 8. She was given a ring for her birthday.
PART 3. COMPOSITE SENTENCE SYNTAX
3.1. TOPIC OUTLINE
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE vs. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE o A composite sentence has the following properties: – it consists of 2 or more clauses which are related both syntactically and semantically, – the syntactic relation can be (1) marked with a linker or (2) formally unmarked, – the clauses can be: (1) of equal status ĺ the relation of coordination between the clauses ĺ a compound sentence, or (2) of different status ĺ the relation of subordination between the clauses ĺ a complex sentence. 32
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE o The clauses are of equal status = at the same level of the syntactic hierarchy. o The syntactic relation of coordination between the clauses. o The syntactic relation can be either marked or unmarked. o Coordination can be marked with a linker (coordinator): a) a coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, either, neither;
b) a coordinating conjunctive adverb, which can shift its position: besides, moreover, however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, so, thus, then, consequently. o Coordination can be formally unmarked ĺ intonation, punctuation. o The order of coordinate clauses is more or less fixed. o Types of semantic relations between the clauses: – Copulative: similarity, addition, simultaneous or successive events; – Adversative: opposition, contradiction, contrast; – Disjunctive: mutually exclusive alternatives; – Cause and effect.
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THE COMPLEX SENTENCE o The syntactic status of the clauses is not equal ĺ the main / principal clause and one or more subordinate / dependent clauses which are embedded as part of the main clause. o The syntactic relation of subordination between the clauses. o Subordination can be marked with a linker (subordinator), which occurs in a fixed position at the front of its clause:
a) a subordinating conjunction: – 1-word: that, because, though, if, before, until, since, who, than…; – phrasal: in order that, so far as, as if, in case…; – paired: as…as, such…as;
b) a relative pronoun (/a connective/ a subordinating conjunctive adverb), which is part of the clause (= occupies a notional and structural position in it): who, what, whose, which, why, that, where, when, as… o Subordination can be formally unmarked ĺ intonation, punctuation. o The functional classification of subordinate clauses: – is based on the functional and semantic correlation between subordinate clauses and simple sentence constituents (S, Pr, O, A, Attr): a subject subordinate clause; a predicative subordinate clause; an object subordinate clause of the following semantics: – substantive, 34
– adverbial, – general event, – content. an adverbial subordinate clause of the following semantics: – time, – place, – manner / comparison, – circumstantial semantics (cause, reason, result, concession, purpose, condition…), etc; an attributive subordinate clause of descriptive, restrictive or appositive semantics; o types of subordination: – hierarchical (ĺ 1st, 2nd degree of subordination), – ‘parallel’ subordination.
3.2. TASKS FOR PRACTICAL CLASSES
Task 16. Which characteristics do the composite sentence and the simple sentence share? What makes them different?
Task 17. Identify the type of the linker in each sentence.
1. She told me that she was leaving. 2. Ideas that seem difficult to understand at first may appear obvious later. 3. He never knew when she would phone. 4. When the good news came, he couldn’t believe his luck.
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Task 18. Which of the following composite sentences are compound and which are complex? Why? How many clauses does each sentence consist of? What kind of syntactic relation is there between the clauses? Is it marked?
A. It is very good although it is cheap. B. It is cheap but it is very good. C. All you need is love. D. I like these foreign pictures because I can believe in them. E. Do you see what I mean? F. New clinical trials show that including garlic in the diet can reduce cholesterol. G. That it would be unpopular with students or colleges was obvious. H. They’ve given me a position I could never have got without them. I. That’s what I’ll do tomorrow. J. Well, you pay for what you want. K. I’m tense; excuse me if I talk too much. L. It must be a forgery, or it would be in a museum. M. I promise that we will take great care of him. N. He looked as if he had seen a ghost. O. What I can’t bear is her disobedience. P. The programmer can establish when a transput operation is complete. Q. When you’re young, everything seems reversible, remediable. R. At that age, which I judged to be near 50, he looked extremely young. S. I’ve no idea why she said that she couldn’t call on us at the time I had suggested. T. But all the books were so neatly arranged, they were so clean, that I had the impression that they were very seldom read. U. The golden rule is if you are reversing you must look behind you.
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THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE COURSE. SYNTAX
1. Syntax: its subject matter, types of language unit(s) studied. 2. Types of syntactic relations on the phrase level. Types of phrases 3. Types of syntactic relations in the simple sentence. 4. The phrase and the simple sentence: their comparative characteristics. 5. The Subject; its structural and/ or semantic types. 6. The Predicate; its structural and/ or semantic types. 7. The Object. Its semantic and structural types. 8. The Adverbial. Its semantic and/ or structural types. 9. Basic sentence patterns: their structural basis and nominative semantics. 10. Obligatory and optional constituents of a simple sentence; expanded and unexpanded sentences. 11. The semantic pattern of the sentence. 12. Semantic roles and their realisation in a sentence. 13. The simple sentence and the composite sentence: their comparative characteristics 14. The Compound Composite sentence. 15. The Complex Composite sentence; types of subordinate clauses. REFERENCES 1.
Ȼɥɨɯ Ɇ.ə. Ɍɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɫɨɜɪɟɦɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ / Ɇ.ə. Ȼɥɨɯ – Ɇ. : ȼɵɫɲ. ɲɤ., 2000. – 380 ɫ.
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ɂɜɚɧɨɜɚ ɂ.ɉ. Ɍɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɫɨɜɪɟɦɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ / ɂ.ɉ. ɂɜɚɧɨɜɚ, ȼ.ȼ. Ȼɭɪɥɚɤɨɜɚ, Ƚ.Ƚ. ɉɨɱɟɩɰɨɜ. – Ɇ. : ȼɵɫɲ. ɲɤ., 1981. – 285 ɫ.
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Supplementary reference materials 3.
Ⱥɪɚɤɢɧ ȼ.Ⱦ. ɋɪɚɜɧɢɬɟɥɶɧɚɹ ɬɢɩɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɢ ɪɭɫɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɨɜ : ɭɱɟɛ. ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ / ȼ.Ⱦ. Ⱥɪɚɤɢɧ. – Ɇ. : ɎɢɡɆɚɬɅɢɬ, 2000. – 256 ɫ.
4.
Ȼɥɨɯ Ɇ.ə. ɉɪɚɤɬɢɤɭɦ ɩɨ ɬɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɨɣ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɟ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ : ɭɱɟɛ. ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ / Ɇ.ə. Ȼɥɨɯ, Ɍ.ɇ. ɋɟɦɟɧɨɜɚ, ɋ.ȼ. Ɍɢɦɨɮɟɟɜɚ. – Ɇ. : ȼɵɫɲ. ɲɤ., 2004. – 471 ɫ.
5.
Ȼɥɨɯ Ɇ.ə. Ɍɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɢɟ ɨɫɧɨɜɵ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɢ: ɭɱɟɛɧɢɤ ɞɥɹ ɫɬɭɞ. ɢɧɬɨɜ ɢ ɮɚɤ. ɢɧɨɫɬɪ. ɹɡɵɤɨɜ / Ɇ.ə. Ȼɥɨɯ. – Ɇ. : ȼɵɫɲ. ɲɤ., 2002. – 160 ɫ.
6.
Ƚɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ : Ɇɨɪɮɨɥɨɝɢɹ. ɋɢɧɬɚɤɫɢɫ / ɇ.Ⱥ. Ʉɨɛɪɢɧɚ, ȿ.Ⱥ. Ʉɨɪɧɟɟɜɚ, Ɇ.ɂ. Ɉɫɨɜɫɤɚɹ, Ʉ.Ⱥ. Ƚɭɡɟɟɜɚ. – ɋɉɛ. : ɋɨɸɡ : Ʌɟɧɢɡɞɚɬ, 2000. – 496 ɫ.
7.
Ƚɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɫɨɜɪɟɦɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ ɞɥɹ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɨɜ / Ɋ. Ʉɜɟɪɤ, ɋ. Ƚɪɢɧɛɚɭɦ, Ⱦɠ. Ʌɢɱ, ə. ɋɜɚɪɬɜɢɤ ; ɩɨɞ ɪɟɞɚɤɰɢɟɣ ɂ.ɉ. ȼɟɪɯɨɜɫɤɨɣ. – Ɇ. : ȼɵɫɲ. ɲɤ., 1982 . – 391 ɫ.
8.
Ƚɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɫɨɜɪɟɦɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ = A new university English grammar : ɭɱɟɛɧɢɤ ɞɥɹ ɫɬɭɞ. ɜɭɡɨɜ / ɩɨɞ ɪɟɞ. Ⱥ.ȼ. Ɂɟɥɟɧɳɢɤɨɜɚ, ȿ.ɋ. ɉɟɬɪɨɜɨɣ. – Ɇ. ; ɋɉɛ. : Academia, 2003. – 638 ɫ.
9.
Ƚɭɪɟɜɢɱ ȼ.ȼ. Ɍɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ : ɋɪɚɜɧɢɬɟɥɶɧɚɹ ɬɢɩɨɥɨɝɢɹ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɢ ɪɭɫɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɨɜ : ɭɱɟɛ. ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ / ȼ.ȼ. Ƚɭɪɟɜɢɱ. – 2-ɟ ɢɡɞ. – Ɇ. : Ɏɥɢɧɬɚ: ɇɚɭɤɚ, 2004 . – 168 ɫ.
10. Ʌɢɧɝɜɢɫɬɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɷɧɰɢɤɥɨɩɟɞɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɫɥɨɜɚɪɶ / ɝɥ. ɪɟɞ. ȼ.ɇ. əɪɰɟɜɚ. – Ɇ. : Ȼɨɥɶɲɚɹ ɪɨɫ. ɷɧɰɢɤɥ., 2002. – 707 ɫ. 11. Ɋɨɡɟɧɬɚɥɶ Ⱦ.ɗ. ɋɥɨɜɚɪɶ-ɫɩɪɚɜɨɱɧɢɤ ɥɢɧɝɜɢɫɬɢɱɟɫɤɢɯ ɬɟɪɦɢɧɨɜ / Ⱦ.ɗ. Ɋɨɡɟɧɬɚɥɶ, Ɇ.Ⱥ. Ɍɟɥɟɧɤɨɜɚ. – Ɇ. : ɉɪɨɫɜɟɳɟɧɢɟ, 1985. – 399 ɫ. 12. Ɍɟɨɪɟɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ ɝɪɚɦɦɚɬɢɤɚ ɚɧɝɥɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɹɡɵɤɚ / ɩɨɞ ɪɟɞ. ȼ.ȼ. Ȼɭɪɥɚɤɨɜɨɣ. – Ʌ. : ɇɚɭɱ. ɥɢɬ-ɪɚ, 1983. – 354 ɫ. 13. Biber D. Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English / D. Biber, S. Conrad, G. Leech. – Harlow : Longman, 2003. – 487 p.
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14. Conrad S. Longman student grammar of spoken and written English: Workbook / S. Conrad, D. Biber, G. Leech. – Harlow : Longman, 2004. – 140 p. 15. Collins COBUILD English Grammar / ɟd. in Chief J. Sinclair. – London ; Glasgow : Collins, 1991. – 486 p.
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ɍɱɟɛɧɨɟ ɢɡɞɚɧɢɟ
THEORETICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART 2. SYNTAX ɍɱɟɛɧɨ-ɦɟɬɨɞɢɱɟɫɤɨɟ ɩɨɫɨɛɢɟ ɞɥɹ ɜɭɡɨɜ
ɋɨɫɬɚɜɢɬɟɥɶ Ȼɨɱɚɪɨɜɚ Ɇɚɪɢɧɚ ȼɥɚɞɢɦɢɪɨɜɧɚ
Ɋɟɞɚɤɬɨɪ ȿ.ɋ. Ʉɨɬɥɹɪɨɜɚ
ɉɨɞɩɢɫɚɧɨ ɜ ɩɟɱɚɬɶ 01.06.07. Ɏɨɪɦɚɬ 60×84/16. ɍɫɥ. ɩɟɱ. ɥ. 2,32. Ɍɢɪɚɠ 80 ɷɤɡ. Ɂɚɤɚɡ 1126. ɂɡɞɚɬɟɥɶɫɤɨ-ɩɨɥɢɝɪɚɮɢɱɟɫɤɢɣ ɰɟɧɬɪ ȼɨɪɨɧɟɠɫɤɨɝɨ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ. 394000, ɝ. ȼɨɪɨɧɟɠ, ɩɥ. ɢɦ. Ʌɟɧɢɧɚ, 10. Ɍɟɥ. 208-298, 598-026 (ɮɚɤɫ) http://www.ppc.vsu.ru; e-mail:
[email protected] Ɉɬɩɟɱɚɬɚɧɨ ɜ ɬɢɩɨɝɪɚɮɢɢ ɂɡɞɚɬɟɥɶɫɤɨ-ɩɨɥɢɝɪɚɮɢɱɟɫɤɨɝɨ ɰɟɧɬɪɚ ȼɨɪɨɧɟɠɫɤɨɝɨ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɭɧɢɜɟɪɫɢɬɟɬɚ. 394000, ɝ. ȼɨɪɨɧɟɠ, ɭɥ. ɉɭɲɤɢɧɫɤɚɹ, 3. Ɍɟɥ. 204-133. 40
