Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

First published 2009 by Pademelon Press 713 Packard Avenue Castle Hill, New South Wales, 2154 www.pademelonpress.com.au O Susan Edwards

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the permission of the publisher. Author: Title: ISBN: Notes:

Edwards, Susan Early childhood education and care: a sociocultural approach / Susan Edwards 978 187613830 1 (pbk.) Includes index Bibliography

Subjects: 1. Early childhood education-Australia 2. Child development-Australia 3. Child care-Australia Dewey Number: 372.2 10994 Editing and Project Management by Persimmon Press Design and Production by tania edwards design Index by IndexAT Printed by Ligare

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FOREWORD

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gotsky (1987a) argued that it is harder to think differently about a few well known ideas than it is to consider a vast new array of information. The teachers who have participated in the development of Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach have engaged in re-exploring their everyday practices and beliefs. Through the careful study of how they think about children, how they observe children and how they plan for children, they have considered what is well known to them, but have thought about it in new ways. Sociocultural or cultural-historical theory has provided a useful framework for teachers, researchers and policy developers to imagine new and different possibilities for early childhood education. As a profession, we have for too long recycled our practices and beliefs. One generation of teachers and academics has credentialed the next generation mostly through the replication of accepted practice and belief. Many of these practices and beliefs are Western in their origin. However, Australia is a culturally and linguistically diverse community and many early childhood practices may not be culturally relevant for all children and their families. The teachers who participated in the research that sits under this important book have questioned many common assumptions and practices for their cultural bias and have developed new approaches and tools.

The teachers have looked with 'cultural-historical' lenses as they examined their own beliefs and assumptions and have created many innovative ways of observing children. Rather than documenting a static snapshot of learning, the teachers captured the dynamic and participatory nature of learning across communities of practice. The examples of observations given so liberally throughout this book represent a new generation of professionals who have drawn upon different conceptual tools and analytical frameworks for informing their work. In this book, readers are also given both contemporary and foundational theoretical tools for thinking about how observations, curriculum and planning can be constructed. Importantly, what each perspective allows, or does not allow, is discussed through a series of dialogue boxes. These

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

boxes give voice to the reflection, action and new theorisation of the teachers who participated in the research that created this philosophy document. Like participants in my own research, these teachers have been positioned by Susan Edwards a s generators, rather than consumers, of research. One teacher mentions the intellectual stimulation of using culturalhistorical theory for observing children. My own research has shown that teachers who have used traditional approaches to observing children spend most of their time gathering and organising data into individual portfolios. However, when a cultural-historical approach is used for observing, fewer but richer observations are made. Teachers spend their time engaged in the intellectual task of analysing their observations and thinking about the dynamics of interaction of groups between children and institutional structures. Through examining the interplay between adults and children within the cultural and institutional contexts that they co-habit, the teachers can think differently about what these contexts and interactions mean for the learning of individuals. This type of analysis is complex and challenging but it is a very rewarding way for professionals to spend their time. The teachers who participated in the creation of this book also found that using this approach produced a positive change in how they used their time and minds! Early Childhood Education and Care: A SocioculturalApproach represents a powerful and contemporary framework for action. A s Vygotsky (1987a) argued, thinking differently about something we know well, is not easy. But, as the teachers have shown through the pages of this book, the rewards are enormous. Marilyn Fleer Professor of Early Childhood Education CeRtrefor Childhood Studies Monash University

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Project Leader: Susan Edwards Project Coordinators: Sharon Donnellan, Carol Mislicki and Tracy Wallens-Newcombe Project Participants: Lucy Barnes Tiffanee Boatwood Priscilla Boissezon J a n Bruce Rhonda Carrick Robyn Churchill Trish Davie Natalie Faulkner Meagan Gowing Belinda Hester Rosemary Hillier Michelle Hosking Bettony Keppich-Arnold Heidi Kilpatrick Sarah Liarakos Kim Lousada Kate Luxford Debbie Madden Lisa Miles Ann Murray Kylie Simioni Patricia Zahra

CONTENTS Foreword List of contributors Introduction Developing Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach Chapter 1 Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care Foundational theories and philosophies in early childhood education and care Contemporary theories and philosophies in early childhood education and care Chapter 2 Beliefs and Values in Early Childhood Education and Care Chapter 3 Principles of Practice Principle of practice one: Development and learning Principle of practice two: Observing for learning Principle of practice three: Planning, pedagogy and play Principle of practice four: Professional learning and reflection Conclusion Postscript Recommended Reading and References Recommended reading References Appendix Sample research and documentation by City of Casey educators Index

INTRODUCTION

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elcome to Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach. This book was first published a s a document aimed at supporting preschool teachers from the City of Casey (a local council area in southeast Melbourne) to reflect on their practice and understanding of young children. The universal themes associated with early education-learning, development,play and pedagogy-are re-examined from a new perspective in this book, making it suitable reading for all those interested in working with young children. Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach is not intended as a prescription or recipe for practice. Instead, this book discusses important ideas in early childhood education from a historical and contemporary perspective. It invites readers to consider how they interpret these ideas and what the ideas might mean for the decisions they make about teaching and learning within their own classrooms. This book outlines four main principles of practice relevant to early childhood education and care: 1 development and learning;

2 observing for learning; 3 planning, pedagogy and play; and 4 professional learning and reflection. The principles of practice are a way of thinking about the different aspects of early childhood education and how they relate to each other in the work of early childhood educators.' This book draws on recent research a s well as on a number of theoretical perspectives in early childhood education and care. The ideas presented in this book are illustrated by the views of children, parents and teachers. These views are found.throughout the book in the boxes titled 'Voices from the field' and are intended to highlight how the theoretical ideas presented are implemented in practice. The book also has a series of 'Reflection points' inviting educators to consider various

The term early childhood educator is used to encompass the work conducted 5y teachers, assistants and caregivers across a range of early childhood settings, :ncluding long day care, family day care, pre-school, kindergarten and pre-prep.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

aspects of the ideas presented. It is hoped that Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach will become a resource that supports educators in their work and assists them in considering the many different ideas and issues surrounding early childhood education and care.

DEVELOPING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE: A SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH arly Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach was

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developed after an extensive research process involving early childhood educators and their support staff from the City of Casey. The City of Casey is a large municipality located in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia. It has one of the largest populations of under four-year-old children in Victoria, and a n increasing number of young families are coming to the area every year. The area covered by the City of Casey is large; it includes both suburban and semi-rural populations and is characterised by a wide range of cultural and socioeconomic groups. In 2003 the City of Casey moved to a funded cluster management model for meeting the educational needs of its kindergarten children. This meant that instead of the kindergartens being run by parent volunteers, the responsibility for the management of kindergarten services was shifted to the municipality. A s a part of this process, the City of Casey was keen to engage in research that would support early childhood educators to work with young children and their families in a manner informed by contemporary perspectives about early learning and education. The City of Casey was aware of recent research highlighting limitations with traditional perspectives on learning and development (Ball and pence, 2000; Soto and Swadener, 2002) and was keen for the educators working in their kindergartens to engage with some of the newer ideas emerging from sociocultural theory. By engaging with these concepts, educators were encouraged to think through their own ideas about learning and to see how the thinking and learning of the children they worked with was situated in relation to these ideas. This book focuses not only on how children learn, but also on what educators think about learning.

Introduction

The research informing this book was conducted over a 12-month period by educators working in sessional kindergartens. A sessional kindergarten provides an educational program for four-year-old children in the year prior to school entry. Qpically, these educators see children for approximately 10 hours per week, usually aver two to three days. During the research period, the educators attended eight professional learning sessions. At each session different theories relevant to early childhood education were discussed. The educators also examined their existing beliefs and values regarding early childhood education and identified the theoretical frameworks they most commonly drew on to inform their work. These discussions were tape recorded and transcribed and used a s data to inform the development of the ideas presented in this book. The teachers also participated in a n action research project in which they maintained files of their practice and noted different ways of observing and working with young children based on their learning and reflections during the professional learning sessions. The data from these files has also been used in this book. Children and parents were also included in the research project. Group interviews were conducted with parents by the researcher and the kindergarten coordinators, whilst the educators collected data relating to the children's beliefs and attitudes about attending preschool. The project was informed by 'development work research' (DWR). This is an approach to research that draws on activity theory. Activity theory is based on the idea that the people, ideas and objects we use to represent our ideas exist in a reciprocal and dynamic relationship (Engestrom and Mettinen, 1999).From a n early childhood perspective: the people involved would include teachers, parents and children; the ideas would be, for example, theories of development and learning; and the objects would be things such as our approaches to planning, programming and documentation. %sing the project on DWR meant that the views parents, teachers and rhildren held about education could be considered in relation to historical

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

and contemporary ideas of importance to early childhood education and be expressed in the book. These views are evident throughout the book and have been used to determine its content. This means that the book is a n expression of the knowledge, practices, values and beliefs held by the participants. Many of the ideas expressed by the participants are presented throughout the text in the Voices from the field' boxes.

Chapter 1

THEORETICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL INFORMANTS TO EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE

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he education of young children has historically drawn on theories of development and a range of philosophical beliefs regarding learning and the nature of childhood. The theories and philosophies that inform early childhood education tend to influence the way teachers view young children, including the way young children learn and grow. These views in turn influence teachers' beliefs and values about how they can best meet young children's needs within a n educational context. When thinking about early childhood education and the various theoretical and philosophical orientations available to educators, it is important to remember that such informants are shaped by the particular social and political contexts in which they are developed. Consequently, any of the informants we might consider in our work as early childhood educators are reflective of particular historical periods, which in turn draw on particular views regarding the nature of childhood and how young children learn and develop. This idea is evident when we look back to medieval times, where there was no concept of childhood a s a separate time of life, or to early fifteenth century beliefs, which positioned young children as 'blank slates' upon whom life experiences needed to be written (Morrison, 2004). Over time, early childhood education has been informed by a number of philosophies and theories, many of which have been foundational to the work that is now conducted with young children. Educators are familiar with the pioneering names of Froebel, Montessori and Piaget. In more recent times, contemporary theorists and approaches to early childhood education have begun to build on the work of the pioneers, confirming some of our earlier beliefs and challenging others. The work of Vygotsky, Rogoff, and Gardner and the research and project work in Reggio Emilia, Italy, have added depth and understanding to the way teachers view and work with young children and their families. The theoretical perspectives that inform educators' work have a profound influence on how they decide to work with young children and the type of educational experiences educators

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

provide for them. This means that it is important to remember that the view educators hold of young children and their development is likely to influence the way they approach teaching and learning in early childhood contexts (Dahlberg et al., 1999, p 43):

There are many children and many childhoods, each constructed by our understandings of childhood and what children are and should be...we have choices to make about who we think the child is and these choices have enormous significance since our construction of the child and early childhood are productive-by which we mean that they determine the institutions we provide for children and the pedagogical work that adults undertake in these institutions. The foundational and contemporary theories of development and learning that inform early childhood education and care define children and influence our pedagogical practices in particular ways. Foundational theories have served to emphasise aspects of early childhood education that have long been valued, such as open-ended activities, the role of play in learning and the provision of natural materials. Contemporary theories emphasise the role that children's social and cultural experiences play in informing their development, and help teachers provide learning experiences that are sensitive to children's needs according to the community context.

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When considering the role theories play in our understandings of early childhood education, it is important to remember that theories themselves are not self evident truths. Theories are explanations for the phenomena we see in our world that attempt to explain how and why a phenomenon might work. How children learn, develop and grow is a phenomenon that has fascinated many people over time, thus there are many theories, or possible explanations, for how this process occurs. Revisiting early childhood education theories and philosophies is a useful means of understanding our work with young children. However, it is important to also remember that such theories only exist as explanations (not as definite truths) for development and learning in pedagogical practice.

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

Reflection point What do you think are the implications of holding an 'image of the child'? Do you find yourself drawing on your own childhood to inform your beliefs about what and how young children should learn; or are you more likely to draw on your understanding of particular theories of development?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship How do your responses to these questions relate to the decisions you make about children's learning?

FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE uring the early research sessions with the Casey educators, time was taken to examine the existing knowledge educators held about early childhood education. Many educators expressed value for the idea that young children should learn through play, and believed that learning is a n active, engaged and exploratory process for young children. The educators reflected on these beliefs and attempted to identify which theoretical and philosophical perspectives were informing their thinking about children's learning. Although a range of theorists and philosophers informed their ideas about early childhood education (for example, Locke, Rousseau, Dewey and Steiner),these educators identified three foundational theorists a s central to their thinking about teaching and learning:

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

1 Froebel; 2 Montessori; and 3 Piaget.

Interestingly, each of these theorists positioned participation in play-based activities a s central to children's learning. The Casey educators used many of these ideas about play and its role in children's learning and development as the basis for their practice.

Froebel Friedrich Froebel's contribution to early childhood education was embedded in his concept of the child's development occurring in a natural and unfolding process. Froebel believed that the growing child could be compared to a blooming flower, which grows from a seed to the mature plant, with the teacher taking on the role of a gardener. This gave rise to his famous description of early education as being the 'kindergarten' or the 'children's garden'. Froebel's view of the child meant that the educator's role involved supporting and nurturing children's growing developmental abilities. Froebel considered play to be the purest form of activity for young children and it was here that the notion of children learning through play first took root as a n important ideal in early childhood education (Morrison, 2004). Within Froebel's philosophy, play opportunities were provided for young children through the provision of gifts and occupations that involved children utilising and manipulating a series of materials. This enabled the children to learn about the physical properties and relationships between the objects that made up their world (Edwards and Hammer, 2006).

Montessori Maria Montessori's ideas about early learning were based on a series of principles she saw a s important in educating children. These principles are commonly reflected in many of the practices that traditionally inform early childhood education. For example, Montessori believed in respecting the child as a learner and in the idea of the 'absorbent mind'. Because Montessori believed children would absorb knowledge from their world, she also valued the idea of an educational environment that was prepared by the teacher. Setting up such an environment would enable children to self-regulate their own learning. Montessori also promoted the notion of

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

sensitive periods in children's development when they would be better able to learn specific skills than at other times. Amongst the most important of Montessori's ideas to be articulated to early childhood education were those of 'child-centred' learning and the provision of prepared environments for children to work within (Morrison, 2006).

Piaget Jean Piaget's genetic epistemology had a profound influence on twentieth century early childhood educational practice. Although most well known for his theory about ages and stages of cognitive development, Piaget never set out to define a theory of cognitive development in young children. Rather, Piaget was interested in where knowledge actually came from in children and adults and it was this interest that gave rise to the name of his theory-the genetic (meaning origins)epistemology (meaning knowledge). Piaget's early thinking was influenced by that of Imrnanuel Kant, a German philosopher, who proposed that knowledge came from the interactions that occurred between people's experiences of the world and knowledge structures that existed in their minds. Piaget agreed with Kant's views concerning knowledge development, but believed that the knowledge structures evolved from reflexes in the newborn into complex mental structures or schemes as the infant experienced more and more of the world. It was this belief that led Piaget to outline the stages of cognitive development, including the sensorimotor, preoperational, operational and formal operational periods that are so well known in early childhood education. Piaget's ideas about knowledge development were taken u p by educationalists who believed that learning experiences for young children would be most useful when they were designed to meet the child's current level or stage of development (Edwards and Hammer, 2006). This idea, combined with a continued emphasis on providing children with opportunities to interact with materials, contributed to the notion of 'developmentally appropriate practice', otherwise known as DAP (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). Piaget's beliefs about knowledge development are reflected in many of the traditional practices that are seen in early childhood classrooms, including the provision of materials and opportunities (for example sand and water play, dramatic play) that allow children to acquire knowledge of their it-orld (Seefeldt, 1990, p 21):

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Children must be able to touch, handle, move, taste, pound, see, hear and do something in order to have an experience. Activity centres arranged throughout the room are one way to provide for first hand experiences. Raw materials are featured-sand, wood, watet;paints and papet: Thesefoster children's thinking because no end has been predetermined by an adult. Children are the ones who have tofigure out what to do with the raw material, how to do it, and when they have reached the end and accomplished their own goal.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks Piaget was the theory that I remember most from university and 1 believe that the ages and stages gave me a basis of where a child should be when I needed guidance as a beginning teacher. Even though children are very different and move through the stages at different rates I found it comforting to be familiar with the stages. Things like being interactive with experiences, touching, handling, moving, tasting, seeing and hearing as involvement are important. However, I also know that some children need to have an extended period of watching and observing before they are ready for the interactive level. Providing children with open-ended activities gives children a chance to be involved at their own level of development.

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Piaget's ideas about knowledge construction and development in the young child have manifested themselves in the provision of many of the materials and practices we commonly associate with early childhood education. Whilst these materials and practices represent an important component of early childhood education, some researchers have questioned how relevant the practices are to children from a range of cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds (Lubeck, 1998).Other researchers suggested that using developmental theory as the only informant to practice can result in children being left to learn through play without the learning necessarily being made explicit (Hedges, 2000, p 17):

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

Programs in early childhood educationsettings have often been based on a developmental play curriculum following Piagetian theories of children's cognition WhilePlagetian practice emphasised a stimulating child-centred environment few would disagree with, the underlying developmental theory did not make explicit links to processes of teaching and learning that teachers and children could engage in. Meadows & Cashdan (1998) found that in such programs children were contented and busy but three things were rare: sustained conversationorplay with an adult, high complexity ofplay activities and lively, purposefil involvement leading to creative, exciting discovey. These research findings do not intend to displace the importance of understanding how children develop or the role of play and hands-on experiences in learning but, rather, they alert u s to the importance of understanding the many different ways in which learning and development can and does occur in childhood. More contemporary theories and philosophies in early childhood education have begun to examine the role and effect of social and cultural contexts on children's learning and development.

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Reflection point

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Which foundational theorists and philosophies do you think are most important to your work with young children?

What is it about these theorists and philosophies that appeals to your beliefs about children and their learning?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship When you look around your classroom, can you see certain practices that reflect aspects of the foundational theorists? How often do you stop to reflect on how and why you are drawing on foundational theorists in your work?

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE

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uring the middle stages of the research project, the Casey educators began to engage with some of the key ideas emerging from sociocultural theory. Although a range of contemporary perspectives currently inform thinking around early childhood education (for example, post-modernism and post-structuralism), the focus in this project was on .how sociocultural explanations for learning and development could inform the educators' thinking about learning. Many of the educators were aware of Vygotslq's ideas surrounding the Zone of Proximal Development (the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help), but were interested in learning more about how cultural contexts work to shape development and learning. Educators also examined Barbara Rogoffs work, which builds on Vygotsky's ideas regarding the culturally situated nature of development. The educators also expressed interest in the ideas emerging from Howard Gardner's research into multiple intelligences and drew on their knowledge of the project work emerging from Reggio Emilia to inform their discussions around contemporary perspectives in early childhood education. A s the research sessions progressed, the teachers used these more contemporary perspectives to inform the action research they were completing in their classrooms. Work by Fleer and Richardson (2004) provided guidance on how Vygotsky's and Rogoffs ideas might be used in practice and generated different approaches for thinking about children's learning and development.

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VYgotsky Vygotsky's explanation for human development and learning has attracted increased attention during recent years. Vygotsky believed that the social and cultural context in which children were born served to define how they would develop and what they would learn. According to this perspective, a child would be born into a social and cultural context that contained the knowledge and beliefs of the community that had developed over time (this is why sociocultural theory is sometimes referred to a s

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

cultural-historical theory). Psychological tools (such a s language) and social practices provided ways within the community for sharing information, ideas and beliefs with others. A young child, upon being born, would need to acquire the psychological tools and knowledge of his or her community in order to engage with other people (Edwards, 2005a). This means that sociocultural theory sees development a s dependent on the social and cultural experiences of the child, not as a universal and unvarying process. Children develop according to their experiences of the social and cultural world and in relation to what their communities see a s normal and appropriate behaviour and development.

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Sociocultural theory adds a theory to an area of learning I have always considered important. I've always felt the involvement of others, interaction with others, plays a part in terms of the learning occurring. The consideration t h ~ stheory gives to the interpersonal and intrapersonal planes seems to complete the story to some degree.

Vygotsky believed that children acquired the knowledge and tools held by their communities via an interaction between two planes of development called the intrapersonal (the individual) and the interpersonal (two or more people) planes. Fleer and Richardson (2004, p 17)dkscribe how this process works in a n early childhood setting: Interpsychological (or interpersonal) functioning is described as the context in which children participated in the cultural activities of the community. For example, children in a n early childhood centre will wash their hands before they eat their fruit. This is a common centre practice or ritual. Children function a t a n interpsychological level by performing this act in the centre. They do not necessarily understand

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

the concept of 'germ the0 y '-the existence of bacteria and viruses and the need to wash these from their hands before handling food. Latel; when they have had broader experiences a n d more time a t school, and have a concept of microscopic organisms and how they act upon the human body, they will perform the same act-hand washing, but a t intrapsychological (intrapersonal) level, because they understand why they are doing it. Vygotsky argued that, with this new knowledge of germ the0 y, children's behaviour changes as they pay more attention to how they wash their hands. This example shows how children learn or acquire knowledge by engaging in social practices. The child's movement from the interpersonal to the intrapersonal level of development is described by Vygotsky a s occurring within the zone of proximal development (ZPD).This concept is more easily understood when we consider that the term 'proximal' means 'nearest'. Development in the zone of 'nearest development' refers to what children are capable of achieving independently and what they are capable of achieving with the assistance or support of a n adult or more capable peer (see Figure 1).In other words, a s Vygotsky described it: 'what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow' (Vygotsky, 1987b, p 2 10). Like Piaget, Vygotsky valued the role of play in children's development, suggesting that play was a n experience that stretched children beyond their current developmental abilities into the ZPD (Vialle, Lysaght and Verenikina, 2005). For example, in pretend play children often take on roles with various associated rules that they may not necessarily be capable of attending to when not involved in a play situation (for example, a child will often sit still to 'eat' during a dramatic play time but may not necessarily do so during a more formal eating time). &.

Scaffolding is a n important concept associated with the ZPD. The term scaffolding was not invented by Vygotsky himself, but by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), who used it to describe how adults support children in moving through the developmental zones. The term was originally associated with a building metaphor and was used to represent the social environment provided by adults or more capable peers that d o w e d children to build new competencies (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Processes associated with 'scaffolding' include joint problem solving and intersubjectivity (where the child and adult involved in the activity reach agreement about what is to be achieved).

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

Current ability

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Assisted ability

Target ability

Figure 1 The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) illustrating what the child is able to do alone (current ability) and what he/she can achieve with assistance (assisted ability) in relation to a developmental outcome (target ability) is represented by the space between each level of ability.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks I like the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development. I think this is quite often seen with work on puzzles where a child may find the puzzle overwhelming initially 2qd the puzzle is almost constructed jointly. When the next time the child tries, --ey manage some of the puzzle before seeking assistance and then before m g they are able t o manage it independently but may seek a presence for slloport, with the final step being the puzzle is completed independently.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Adults' use of scaffolding to support children's learning may occur as often in daily life a s in educational settings. For example, a child learning to tie his or her shoelaces is often scaffolded or supported through this process when the adult assists the child with the more difficult parts of shoelace tying, leaving the child to begin or complete the more achievable parts independently. The relationships between children's social and cultural experiences, the intrapersonal and interpersonal planes of development, the ZPD and play, suggest that children develop as they learn about their world and its social and cultural practices. This learning occurs through engagement with other people (including through scaffolding) and through play designed to imitate what children see and hear occurring daily around them. Understanding development from a sociocultural perspective means seeing children's development occurring within a web of relationships comprised of other people, experiences, and their social and cultural practices and knowledge. This view differs from the developmental or Piagetian perspective, which emphasises that development occurs a s individuals construct understandings of the world. These differing views hold implications for our practice in early childhood education (Singer, 1996, p 33): Within Vygotsky's sociocultural approach, teachers are given a completely different role. They do not just follow the development of the children, but have to set socially valued goals depending on the shared values of teachers and parents. They do not just try to encourage the children indirectly by offering them the right environment; they also invite children to actively participate in their world as adults. Beside this, they will accord a great deal of importance to the cooperation of children amongst themselves. 4

Rogoff Barbara Rogoffs work builds on that of Vygotsky by acknowledging the fundamental importance of social experiences in children's development. Rogoff argues that not only does social interaction cause development, but that children's thinking is transformed as they engage in social practices. For Rogoff, engagement in social practice does not necessarily have to be an active process. Rather, she recognises that many ways of learning exist across different communities and these include observation, social engagement, experience, and/or direct teaching.

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

VOICES FROM THE FIELD -

A teacher speaks

I see Rogoff's work as adjusting the learning d~scussion to a more localised area. It seems natural to me that there would be an assumption that Learning occurs - any given setting/community that is relevant to that setting/community I-d may or may not be similar to that occurring in other places, and that I-e materials, equipment and provisions will influence what is learnt.

These forms of learning are recognised as the child's way of participating m the local community. Rogoff suggests that children's development occurs as they participate in the activities of their communities. This is where :he notion of 'transformation of participation' comes from. In other words, children's development is 'transformed' a s they participate (through observation, social interaction and direct teaching) in activities with other ~ o p l (Rogoff, e 1998, p 689. Emphasis in original):

From the transformation of participation perspective, learning from shared thinking does not involve taking or being given somethingfim a n external model. Instead, by participating in shared endeavours in sociocultural activity, the individual is continually in the process of developing and using their understandings. In the process of participation, individuals change, and their later involvement in similar events may reflect these changes. Changing or developing through participation involves three levels (or ?lanes) of development that interact with one another. These planes of development are evident when we consider what is required for children lo develop as they participate in their communities: firstly, we must have the child himlherself (which represents the intrapersonal plane of development);

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

secondly, we require other people to participate in the activity for the child to learn from this (the interpersonal plane of development); and finally we need a community for the activity to occur within, a community of which the child and other people are members (known a s the community/institutional plane of development). Rogoff argues that it is important to consider all three planes of development when looking a t children's development and that we cannot effectively understand what is happening in one plane without noting what is occurring in another (Rogoff, 1995).Figure 2 shows how the interactions between each plane impact on each other. Sociocultural theory means not just looking at how the community and interpersonal planes impact on the individual, but also acknowledging that a s the individual changes, he or she will impact on other people and the communities/institutions in which that individual participates.

Communities and their institutions: Educational, government, media, arts and sciences

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TRAPERSONA

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w

INTERPERSONAL

Figure 2 Rogoff's three interacting planes of development.

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

.In important part of Rogoffs argument is the inclusion of the community/ :nstitutional plane of development. This plane represents the place where *-heknowledge, beliefs, values and ideas of the community reside. In modernday westernised communities, these institutions include places such as schools, museums, the media and legal systems. Kindergartens, childcare settings and schools are institutions that hold knowledge, beliefs, d u e s and practices about how and what young children should learn. Fleer (2002) argues that Rogoffs three planes of development can be a aseful way of thinking about observing, programming and planning in early childhood education. In this way educators can look a t what indi~ i d u a children l are learning, how interactions (with peers and adults) are supporting learning and how the kindergarten, childcare or school environment operates in relation to learning. The following excerpt provides an example from a teacher learning to use sociocultural theory in her 9ractice. She discusses how she and her assistant reflected on a decision regarding the provision of a play material, from the perspective of the :nstitutional plane of development (Edwards, 2006, p 247):

We had an incident where children were putting dry flour into the back of a bike and the dried flour was meant to stay in the tub and we have just looked at each other and gone 'what was that institutional rule--do we put flour in our bikes or not?' So we had to make it up quickly at the time and we both agreed that 'no it was not going to be ok because if you allowed flour to go into the bike then what is left for people that are going to play with it in another way?' And so there are good reasons behind institutional rules. I think this sociocultural theory] helps us recognize what we are providing and why. 3 i s teacher was able to use her knowledge of sociocultural theory to reflect

a programming decision and articulate why the rule about flour existed and what it meant for the children's learning in her educational setting. Using sociocultural theory to inform early childhood education is a different process from drawing on developmental theory. Sociocultural -heory alerts u s to the relationships between the individual, other people ~ q the d context in which learning is occurring. This means that socior~ltural-theory-in-action focuses on the dynamic relationships between zeople and places and how learning is occurring, not just on the individual gn

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

and the learning that has already taken place (Fleer and Richardson, 2004). Reflecting on her developing understanding of sociocultural theory, a teacher (quoted by Edwards) described its role in her classroom as such (Edwards, 2006):

With the term sociocultural theory there is obviously a strong emphasis on social learning. At preschool this is quite important to recognize because we as adults are not the only teachers, children can learn from each othel: The children learn via their interactions with each other and the equipment that is available. Each child has dierent experiences they bring with them and evegone can learnfrom these. I don't know that this was my thinking after leaving university.

Gardner

: ,

-

4

Howard Gardner's research seeks to explain how intelligence operates in people rather than being a theory for understanding the processes involved in development and thinking like those proposed by Piaget, Vygotsky and Rogoff. Gardner's thinking about intelligence emerged from research he was conducting in two areas, involving the influence of the arts on thinking and the effects of brain damage on thinking (Vialle, et al., 2005). This work showed Gardner that people could still operate in some areas, even when parts of their brain had been damaged. His research into the arts suggested that how well people performed in one area of ability did not necessarily define how well they would perform in another. This led Gardner to propose the idea that people have more than one type of intelligence. Traditional definitions of intelligence had emphasised and valued logical and language abilities in people and these had been used by many researchers as a measure of intelligence. Gardner argued that it was possible that intelligence comprised many different types and that people possess a different ensemble of intelligences. The multiple intelligences proposed by Gardner include (from Vialle, et al., 2005, p 122): 1 linguistic intelligence: the ability to use language effectively in a range of contexts; 2 logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to explore patterns and to experiment in a logical manner; 3 spatial intelligence: the ability to deal with visual information;

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

musical intelligence: the ability to understand, perform or compose a musical piece; Z bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: the ability to use the body effectively; interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand others; and intrapersonal intelligence: awareness of self-of thoughts and feelings.

--

f ardner's multiple intelligences theory has been of interest to educators, = 50 have used his ideas a s a basis for working with children. Educators 1-=-;3ningon Gardner's work provide children with experiences and activities --a1 support the type of intelligence children might naturally prefer to use r :heir learning. For example, children with a preference for the inter~.rrsonalintelligence are likely to choose activities that focus on group r ~ r and k cooperative learning rather than on learning alone.

- . go

Emilia

3-.e project work in Reggio Emilia, Italy, has attracted a great deal of

-.:erest in early childhood education in recent years. Reggio Emilia itself not represent a particular theory and is not a 'model' that can be z~rectlytransposed to other settings. Rather, the work in Reggio Emilia - 3 s evolved from a particular historical and social situation that has z:jrmed the aims and the pedagogical methods of the preschools in the s-. The Reggio preschools were initially established with a guiding sense -'purpose born out of the desire parents (and the community a t large) -Afollowing the end of World War Two. The vision was for young children -: participate in educational communities that would allow them to develop sklls essential to the development of a democratic society. This vision -cant that children must be viewed a s integral members of society. In d e r to make a significant contribution to the community, children would --quire opportunities to develop critical and interpretive thinking skills, as -11 as an established ability to work collaboratively with other people Edwards, 2003). :?es

---rider the leadership of Malaguzzi, the theorist and founding director of -5e Reggio Emilia programs, this vision was brought to life in a teaching

c d learning approach that appreciated children's potential and current I-.-elopmental abilities within a context that valued community partici:.?::on. Malaguzzi drew on a range of foundational and contemporary -.--9ristsin early childhood education, including those of Piaget, Vygotsky,

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Bruner, Montessori, Steiner and Dewey, to develop his thinking. A key component of the work conducted in Reggio Emilia involves the use of research-focused relationships between children and their immediate/ extended communities to initiate and extend learning opportunities (or projects).

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks Respecting the children and respecting their work, and not just the final product but the processes involved in producing the product. Also looking at documenting the processes so that not only can they reflect back on it themselves but also the parents can be a part of that process with them.

The projects are documented for sharing between children, their parents and communities. Children are viewed as capable learners and communicators who are able to draw on a range of symbolic forms and media to express their ideas and findings. This vision gave rise to the idea that children have 'one hundred languages' for communicating their ideas in many different forms (for example, graphic, visual, auditory and sensory),whilst their language, literacy, numeracy and scientific skills unfold. Q.

The process and products arising from the children's work are documented by staff using tape recordings, transcripts of conversations, photographs of activities and samples of the children's work. The documentation serves a number of purposes, including the valuing of children's work, which, it is argued, sends the message to children that

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

'heir intellectual effortsare valued

and worthy of detailed adult attention. '-. addition, documentation provides adults and children with a record on e i c h they can base their thoughts about the learning that has occurred 2 - 4 what might happen next (Dahlberg, et al., 1999, p 153): Because documentation can be kept and returned to, and must be seen all the time as a living record of the pedagogical practice, the process of documentation can alsofinction as a way of revisiting and reviewing earlier experiences and events, and by doing so not only create memories, but also new interpretations and reconstructions of what happened in the past. Through this, active pedagogues will be able to build on and utilise well-established experiences and simultaneously take part in constructing new theories concerning children's learning and knowledge construction, with documentation a s a base. X-~rkingcollaboratively with children on projects they have initiated and -qotiated with staff,as well as documenting their learning, represents an azroach to education that emphasises the exploration of ideas that originate ?om a social context, as opposed to providing children with learning v r i e n c e s based on a pre-determined concept of what they might be xpable of learning (Malaguzzi, 1998, p 78-81): All people, who in any place have set themselves to study children

seriously-have ended up by discovering not so much the limits and weaknesses of children but rather their surprising and extraordinary strengths and capabilities linked with an inexhaustible need for expression and realisation...children are autonomously capable of making meaning from their daily lijfe experiences through mental acts involving planning, coordination of ideas and abstraction. Remember; meanings are never static, uniuocal, orfinal;they are always generative of other meanings. The central act of adults, therefore, is to activate, especially indirectly, the meaning-making competencies of children as a basis of all learning.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

@:-

Reflection point

Do you find that contemporary theories and philosophies in early childhood education reflect the way you think about young children and their learning, or do these ideas challenge your existing understandings?

How do you think working from a sociocultural perspective might differ from working from a more developmental approach to early childhood education and care?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship What aspects of sociocultural theory can you see occurring in your classroom?

Chapter 2

BELIEFS AND VALUES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE n important part of the research sessions the Casey educators participated in involved consideration of their existing beliefs and values about childhood, early education and care. During this ~ime,the educators examined what was meant by the term 'beliefs and values' and began to consider how these influenced the way they saw children's thinking and learning. Beliefs were taken to represent the opinions we hold about the world, whilst values were seen a s an expression of :he worth we attach to certain things or experiences.

A

The beliefs and values educators hold about education influence how they lnrerpret teaching and learning, which in turn defines what is seen as 'good' or 'appropriate' practice for young children (Mahlios and Maxson, 1995).

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Children speak Why do you come to kindergarten?

-

o learn new things, things we have never done before. learn, to learn to play, to learn to play properly.

-9

-

CI let my friends play with me. -

have a nice time and to get smart for when I am older. en I am hungry, to eat my banana. 3

. --.... - a child now at school and shared with a pre-service teacher on

...- .-..-- :ng rounds:

:. e ~indergartenbecause you get to choose when you have snack, and .. 121 choose if you want to play inside or outside and you can choose .~:r :> play with. 1 love kindergarten. I want to go back to kindergarten.'

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Because each individual can hold different beliefs and values, it is not always possible for people to agree on what constitutes a n appropriate education for all children. When we consider that children and parents also hold beliefs and values about education we can see that it is possible for our educational communities to be comprised of many different views regarding educational practice.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Parents speak What do you want your child to gain from attending kindergarten? Exposure to a range of experiences, learning to be a member of a group. Socialisation, mixing with peers and with other adults, friendship. To learn things from adults other than us, his parents. Learning to take responsibility for her actions, participation and interaction with other children, respecting things, respect of property and other children's belongings when you are playing. They have to be aware of other people and not just themselves. Hopefully her experience in kindergarten is going to help develop her confidence to go to school. It is all that information they learn, it is a stepping stone, it is the initial start of her learning.

Whilst individual educators may hold different views, early childhood education a s a field has tended to express a set of commonly held beliefs and values about children and learning. These beliefs and values have their roots in the foundational and contemporary philosophies and theories that inform our work a s educators, including ideas such a s the role of play in early childhood education, the notion of 'active-learning', and ideas such a s scaffolding and intersubjectivity. Beliefs and values such a s these have come to play a n important role in early childhood services. But the fact that they are important to people who work in such services does

Beliefs and Values in Early Childhood Education and Care

r-3: necessarily

mean they are important to children or parents. Being zxare of our own beliefs and values about early childhood education is a -cans of ensuring that we are sensitive to the beliefs and values held by -rents and children and can enhance our ability to respond to their needs.

a series of beliefs and values about early ::?:Idhood education when they talk about moving our conception of -2.ication from 'children's services' to thildren's spaces'. They argue that -
Children's spaces are places for provocation, and confrontation, dissensus and 'indocility', complexity and diversity, uncertainty and a.nlbivalence. For adults and children, they are places where meanings sre kept open, where there is space for critical thinking, wonder and crmazement, curiosity and fun, learning by adults as well as children, r~.J-tere questions may be asked to which answers are not known.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Teachers speak What do you belleve and value about early childhood education?

... . zctive participation, open-ended learning experiences and the option i o r e their own interests motivates children's learning. :?-son's community and cultural experiences need to be reflected in .. . educational settings. i: -g knowledge is a foundation for building knowledge in a forward ..

.I- 6

-

-

-~.- -. - - on.

continued on next page

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Parents and communities have a lot to teach the teachers about their individual cultures, views and needs. Teachers are learners too and need to value the community and culture which they work in and are therefore a part of. Balance, laughter and tears, manners, being treated equally, respect for others and ourselves, limits and consequences and the right of all to an education.

Moss and Petrie's reference to children's 'spaces' reflects many of the ideas expressed by the Casey educators, including valuing children and childhood as a particular time of life, and the role of interactions in learning. Moss and Petrie argue that an important part of thinking about children's spaces rather than children's services involves empowering children and educators to think critically about their worlds and experiences. This is important because, as Moss and Petrie (2004, p 120) said: Today, members of society have to adjust to a high degree of complexity and diversity, as well as to continuous change; the demands and requirements that the future will hold are dvficult to anticipate. 'Globalisation' means that identities and cultures are no longer as predetermined as they once were, but much more open to co-construction.

,. .Q

One teacher involved in the development of this book expressed a similar belief: 'Society is changing at such a vast pace because of technology; this means that education cannot necessarily keep u p because everything changes and becomes outdated. Therefore education needs to give children a chance to be able to adapt, be flexible and to be thinkers. We need to work towards tolerance and acceptance to all in society.'

Beliefs and Values in Early Childhood Education and Care

bout their too and n and are

VOICES FROM THE FIELD

%

A teacher speaks

espect for : of all to

Really stopping and thinking when you are interacting or making decisions or assumptions is very important. 'How much of this is my value, my thinking, and my --zestanding and how much is real or true to that child?' Like how much is -: ,:slue as opposed to what might be the values of that child and that family?

~fthe ideas and child1 learning. children's ildren and es. This is

These beliefs and values about early childhood education position children m the centre of the learning experience and emphasise the idea that children d k u l d be empowered through and by their learning. This means that =%at we believe and value about children and education will influence -%at and how we decide to teach. Not all members of a n early childhood education or care community may agree with the beliefs and values held and expressed as important to early childhood education and care. Howm.if we are able to be flexible in considering the beliefs and values held orhers, we can model to children and parents the openness and tolerance V o s and Petrie argue is necessary for providing children with educative v c e s ' rather than educative 'services'.

nplexity L ~ and S ticipate. longer open to

d a similar iology; this everything ve children We need to

Reflection point What are your beliefs and values about early childhood education?

-,

I

i 1.

Where do you think your beliefs and values come from-do they spring from your personal emeriences, your readings of foundational and contemporary theorists, Y from commonly held beliefs in early childhood education about ww young children should learn? continued on next page

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship What happens in your centre or setting when you find parents have different beliefs and values about education to those you hold? What do you think children might experience and feel if their parents and teachers hold different beliefs and values about what they should experience in education or care?

Chapter 3

PRINCIPLES OF PRACTICE

T

he principles of practice described in this book evolved from the data generated by the Casey educators. The data include transcripts of educators discussing different theoretical ideas, excerpts from their reflective journals and examples from their own practice. A key component of the project involved the educators attempting to implement observations based on a sociocultural conception of learning and development (Fleer and Richardson, 2004), rather than the more traditional developmental model they had been using. The educators shared their new approaches lo observation with each other during the last few research sessions and x e d these examples and discussions a s the basis for reflecting on their own practice in their journals. The data showed four main ideas a s central to the educators' thinking about children's learning from a sociocultural perspective. These four ideas are called the principles of practice and represent a framework for thinking about programming in early child5ood settings. The principles are not intended to be a prescription for how educators should work with young children. Instead, they offer a n gpportunity to reflect on what, how, and why educators engage in certain ?ractices when working with young children and their families. The -*nciples of practice include:

: development and learning; 2 observing for learning; -3 planning, pedagogy and play; and professional learning and reflection.

PRINCIPLES OF PRACTICE ONE: DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING

E

arly childhood education is concerned with how children develop and learn. This concern has traditionally been associated with the rate at which young children develop and learn. For this reason, -3-childhood educators have often drawn on theories about development

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

and learning to inform their work with young children (Spodek and Saracho, 199 1). When discussing theories of development and learning, it is important to remember that a theory does not represent a universal truth. This idea applies to any explanation of development, including developmental and sociocultural theory. In early childhood education, developmental theory (especially many of Piaget's ideas) has been very influential for a t least the past three decades. In more recent times, sociocultural explanations for development have increasingly interested teachers (Carr, 1998). However, it has been found that it is not always easy to learn, understand and apply a new theoretical perspective such a s sociocultural theory to work practices in early childhood settings (Edwards, 2007; Fleer and Robbins, 2004). This is not necessarily because educators do not want to understand new things, or even because they find them too difficult, but may be because traditional ways of thinking about development become the norm for thinking about children. For a long time in the early childhood profession developmental theory was used as one of the main ways of thinking about and understanding children's development (Soto, 2002, p 450): Contributions to the field of child development scholarship are abundant and signijicant; yet the century long domination of psychological and biological child development perspectives in the field has meant a lack of recognition or acceptance of alternative theoretical and methodological perspectives. Much of the contemporary early childhood literature valorises developmentally appropriate practice and the Piagetian stages of children's growth and development. Much of this discourse has become 'taken-for-granted' knowledge, and has been until recently, rarely critiqued. These ideas are reflected in one teacher's thinking (quoted by Edwards) about how she learnt to view children and childhood in her teacher training (Edwards, 2005b, p 134): For me, coming to thefield as a novice teacher so many years after it [Developmentally Appropriate Practice] had been established there w a s simply a n unquestioned acceptance of its theoretical heritage. Good early childhood education w a s based on principles of child development and amongst the most important of these were the ideas

Principles of Practice

emergingfrom Piaget's the0y. I duly learnt the stages of development and acknowledged the obvious sense in making sure I offered children learning experiences for which they were deemed developmentally ready. All this became the bedrock of my identity as a n early childhood educator: Developmental theory has emphasised the idea that learning occurs as individuals explore and engage with their worlds. This perspective suggests that development is a universal process and that children will pass through a series of qualitatively different stages of development in order ro reach their full developmental ability. Viewing development and learning as an individual process that occurs in relation to a series of stages has implications for how teachers teach. These ideas have been important to the idea of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), which argues that 'good'or 'appropriate' teaching is that which 'matches' children's ages and s7ages of development (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). The alternative argument posed by sociocultural theory emphasises the idea that children's development is determined by the contexts in which they live and by their cultural experiences (Robbins, 2005). Sociocultural theory does not mean :hat teachers no longer value progress in key developmental abilities such a s language and physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. TI does, however, mean recognising that the processes by which these a5ilities develop and the age at which they occur are not the same for all cfiildren. Children's development is determined by their experiences, the 2reractions they have with other people and the expectations held of them f?r their communities (Woodhead, Faulkner and Littleton, 1998, p 2): Developing emotional attachments, learning language and acquiring reasoning skills may be universal, but that doesn't make these human activities any less cultural, in sofar as they take place within culturally regulated social relationships and are mediated by cultural pmctices. These practices are in turn shaped by knowledge and beliefs about what is normal and desirable. ? m k i n g about learning and development from a sociocultural perspective -s us to the many different ways children have learnt-to-learn' from -.%exfamilies and communities before they attend education and care -gs. Being sensitive to the ways in which children have learnt-to-learn

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

means we are more likely to provide them with experiences and opportunities that suit their existing ways of making sense of the world. Fleer (2002) discusses how some Indigenous Australian children learn in their families and communities. She argues that preparing the learning environment from a developmental orientation assumes that all children learn by actively engaging in their environments. Some Indigenous Australian children may have learnt-to-learn in ways other than active engagement with materials prior to attending kindergarten. These children may not necessarily know what to do with the materials, how to engage with the activity and what they are meant to learn by participating (Fleer, 2002, p 13-14):

Organising the learning environment so that children may use the home corner; the construction area, the collage trolley and the painting area, is built on the assumption that children learn by doing.. .howevel; for some Indigenous Australian children, learning by observation without explanation is also ve y important. These ideas were considered by an educator and assistant who participated in the development of Early Childhood Education and Care:A Sociocultural Approach. This educator and assistant talked about how they had children come to their centre from Sri Lankan families and communities, where the adults did many things for the children, including assisting them with dressing and eating. The teacher discussed how in the past she viewed these children's development as different from the other children in terms of their self-help skills and independence. She said that she worked hard to make the Sri Lankan children more independent and would insist that they try and put their smocks on themselves before being able to paint at the easel. After participating in the project and considering what sociocultural theory suggested about development and learning, the educator and assistant reflected on how they were making decisions about what these children should do based on their interpretation of what constituted normal development. They reasoned that from a sociocultural perspective it made more sense for them to help these children put their smocks on because that is what the children knew from their home and cultural experience.

Principles of Practice

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Teachers speak I would have thought children had to participate all the time, otherwise they are not really doing anything. But now I value more the observations, the children observing that they are actually learning something. The importance of listening and observation as forms of active participation by children in their learning. Children have different learning preferences. Learning is enhanced through scaffolding. Culture and community are even bigger influences than we first thought on children's learning. I love sociocultural theory as it deals with relationships. I believe that the majority of life is about relationships. Our relationship with ourselves, celigion, family, friends, work colleagues, casual acquaintances, technology, Ideas etc. One of the reasons I like sociocultural theory is because it :akes in the context that a person grows up.

The educator and assistant found that once they stopped insisting the children dress alone (a form of independence defined by their underszandings of developmental theory) more of the children began to engage In the activity and eventually they learnt to put their smocks on anyway. To this teacher's delight she realised that she had actually enabled the children to become more productive and independent in the setting by working with their cultural experience. Fion- educators think about children's development and learning has wnsequences for how they work with them, the experiences offered and rfLat children learn. Theories of learning and development offer explanations % how children learn and grow. No one theory is necessarily 'correct' or the T!!- way of viewing learning and development. Traditionally, developmental 'Leo? was viewed a s a theory to use in early childhood education. Now, -re educators are trying to understand and use sociocultural theory in -.%r practice. The role of educators is not to value one theory or approach t'm-e all others but to remain open to new ways of thinking and to explore +m- these ways of thinking might influence how teachers work with young :':ldren, and what children might gain from their work.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Parents speak I see k~ndergartenas kind of adjacent to the fam~ly. I think they sort of complement each other. My child takes things from his family into his preschool situation and then he brings th~ngsfrom his preschool situation into his home. Open communication matters. It is important for the teachers to be listening to what is happening from the parent's or children's perspective. It is the children's interests that are acted on within the learning environment and then on the other side too-parents need to be open to what is happening at the kindergarten as well, wanting to know what is happening and how to support it.

Reflection point Which theories of development and learning do you see as important to your work with young children? Do you think it is possible t o draw on both developmental and sociocultural theory, or are these explanations too contradictory for this to be possible?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship What does the story by the teacher and assistant about the Sri Lankan children suggest to you about how sociocultural theory can be used in practice t o support children's learning?

Principles of Practice

PRINCIPLE O F PRACTICE TWO: OBSERVING FOR LEARNING bservations have always played an important role in early childhood education because they are used to make decisions about programming and planning. How educators interpret a term such as 'observation' depends on their image of the child and the theoretical views they draw on in their work. Traditional observations based on developmental theory focus on individual children and seek to determine what children can and cannot do. Such observations tend to focus on particular developmental domains such a s cognitive, language, socialemotional and physical development. Observing in this way uses techniques such a s checklists, rating scales and event samples. Individual domain-based observations require staff to be objective in recording what they see and are focused on the behaviours exhibited by individual children. Carr (2001) describes this approach to observation as a 'folk model' of assessment. A folk model of assessment draws on traditionally held beliefs and assumptions about children's development and focuses on the idea that learning is predominately individual orientated and stage-based.

0

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Teachers speak I don't think a checklist shows you all that much.

-

It might show you if they are left-handed or right handed or as an observation how they are actually using the hand and what they are doing. This sort of information is not very real. Whether they can do it or not and what page they are on does not tell much. -ie checklist makes it seem more official, what you should be doing, I gets this institutional approval by being associated with government zgencles and then it becomes standard.

continued on next page

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

What always stressed me about checklists is that they are there and I have to tick a box. You know you have to do an observation on all the children in particular areas, and I would be thinking 'they are not doing that thing, now I have to get them to that area, like to see if they can cut and they are not going near that activity'.

Traditional approaches to observation have been used in early childhood education for many years. Sometimes, educators will use developmental observations to determine areas of strength and weakness in children so they know what type of learning experiences should be offered to children to support their development. More contemporary approaches to observation are beginning to focus on sociocultural understandings of children's learning and development, which shape how and what is recorded in educators' observations. These approaches to observation are underpinned by understandings that emphasise the role that social interactions, cultural experiences and context play in development and learning. This does not mean that educators are unconcerned with individual children. Rather, it means looking at children within the social context and seeing how they are learning in relation to the environment and other people. Moss and Petrie (2002, p 133) describe this idea:

Our preferred approach does not focus on the child purely a s an individual. We are above aU interested in seeing the child as a member of society as a whole, both together with adults and in the company of other children--and to this extent the approach is not %hiid-centred'. We do not deny that people who work with children in children's spaces will often, and validly, work with children individually. But such 'individual' work itself should take account of the basis of the child's interconnectedness with the whole group, staff and children. Observing from a sociocultural perspective still allows educators to observe individual children. However, when observations are made from a sociocultural perspective, educators are looking a t the child in the environment and in relation to the people he or she is engaging with in order to understand how he or she is learning and what this means for his or her development (Carr, 2001). A n important and empowering part of

Principles of Practice

sociocultural observations is that the educator no longer has to stand back and be an objective observer of the child (Fleer and Richardson, 2004). Instead, the very interactions experienced with children that form the basis of teaching and their learning can also be included. This helps to give a richer and more detailed picture about how and what children are learning than might otherwise be achieved using a checklist that describes only what children can and cannot do according to preset criteria. Carr (2001, p 4) highlights the importance of observing learning from a sociocultural orientation. She argues that observations need to take account of the context in which learning is occurring, and suggests that such a view: 'Focuses on the relationship between the learner and the environment, and seeks ways to define and document complex reciprocal and responsive relationships in that environment.' Fleer and Richardson (2004) suggest that observations conducted from a sociocultural orientation can be considered a form of 'data-gathering', where the teacher's role is to gather evidence or 'data' about learning 'where the product and the processes are dynamic and embedded' (Fleer and Richardson, 2004, p 6). Figuring out how to observe from a sociocultural perspective requires educators to think and reflect on their understandings of development and learning and what they see occurring in their classrooms. There is no set way of conducting sociocultural observations although there are many different examples being produced (see for example, Arthur, Beecher, Death, Dockett and Farmer, 2008). Observing from a sociocultural perspective is more engaging than using set forms such a s checklists because it allows the interactions that occur between people, ideas and materials to be recorded (Hatherly and Richardson, 2007). The educators involved in the development of Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach recorded examples of their observational techniques. Some staff showed how they observed in a traditional format where they focused mostly on recording what individual children could do in relation to a specific activity. Later these educators extended their observational techniques a s they reflected on how to use contemporary rheories and philosophies in their work. Examples of their observations completed prior to participating in the project, are presented in Figure 3.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

a

i

N

7 June

'This is my house. I am building it with sticky tape. I ---

----

--

-->-

am building it tall. Now I am going next door.'

m 15 June

7 June

A s F trucks sandpit water,

-

N is using wide range of -- -

blocks on the mat. She

--

- --.

tanbark mixing. We're

--

- --

-

playing cooking now.'

-

---

goes and gets the sticky - --- ---tape from the collage area

-

and puts the sticky tape -

- - ---

--

on sides to reinforce the -.-

- --

- --

and flowers from home

I

S withsmall p u p ofchildren--

comer, then later has snack

in home corner. Pretending

in her house.

-- -

-

I

15 February

building. She has materials

-

to cook dinner. Telling " -

other children who they

(

are-Mum,

--

sister, baby. .

j

continued on next page

Principles of Practice

I

14 February

R in blocks by himself. Uses blocks to make a TV. --

*-

[

-.--

-*--

Stacks them on top of each other. 'Look, I made a TV' -

-

only verbal communication with me. -- ----

I

--

-

.

14 February

G will come to mat if sits next to me: ..- - ~

.

-

~

-

-

-

.

.

~

-

.

A

.

~

~

-.

.

~

-

.

-

has become more social, more interested in peers; --.

.

~

.

loves balls, play with me; -

--

--

.-

--

very headstrong, knows what he wants and doesn't want. -

-

-- -

-.

--

--

-

Figure 3 Sample observations taken from a traditional developmental perspective

'xusing on individual children and specific skills.

4s the educators became more familiar with understanding learning and

b e l o p m e n t from a sociocultural perspective, they tried to develop k r v a t i o n s that captured the interactions occurring between peers and . r N t s . Examples are provided in Figures 4 and 5.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Date June Participants-6 Setting-pasting

children at table table

Observation -

--

.

H is making a surfboard.

Future intentions Remind H of howwe did -

He has attached a box to a piece of card and then

person etc next time --wanting adult assistance.

-.--

-

--

asked for help to do the -4

person. 1 don't know how.' Together we draw a person --..

on paper then cut it out,

--

- -

it falls when attached. He -.

-

finds a piece of card and sticks person to it then sticks it to surfboard. -

-

Future intentions

Observation

--

-

S is making a car. She ----

watched--H do his person. -She drew a person, cut

. -

a

Have available lots of

-

-

..

card on shelf Prompt and suggest -

it out, put on card then .-

-

attached it to her car. -

-

Figure 4 Sample observation describing interactions between the teacher and child and between peers. Observation includes notes (Future intentions') to the right of the described interaction regarding what the teacher plans to do next in Light of the learning observed

Principles of Practice

1 March

Sandpit J

-

-

-

J came running to P, grabbed her hand and led her to -

--

-

the sandpit. Disappointed and said 'Oh, how come the -

--

".

-

sand keeps taking the water?'

Figure 5 Sample observation illustrating shared learning as J shows P (teacher) the water disappearing into the sand.

Some other educators tried to show how the interactions between children were supporting learning from a n intrapersonal and interpersonal perspective. Drawing on Vygotsky's ideas about the two planes of development, these educators were interested in recording how peer-to-peer interactions were resulting in children learning from each other (Figures 6 and 7). Other educators were interested in examining learning using the three planes of development described by Rogoff. One educator found that making these planes of development explicit in her observations did not necessarily contribute to her understanding of what was occurring in the classroom (Figure 8). Another teacher developed a n observation that showed how the three planes of development were interacting within the classroom context (Figure 9).

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Intrapersonal Nathan and Tan 15 June

Interpersonal

Nathan and Tan are sitting next to each other at collage table. They both have a piece of paper, are using shape hole punchers. Tan looks unsure of what he is doing.

Nathan says to him 'Here, I11 show YOU.' Nathan reaches over to Tan's work and begins showing and explaining how to do the hole punching. You put the paper in here and press', says Nathan.

Figure 6 Sample observation recording a peer interaction in which Nathan scaffolded Tan in the use of hole punchers moving Tan through his ZPD.

An example using Vygotsky's terms Tornadoes in a bottle Monday 6 April

Intrapersonal N tried unsuccessfully to create a tornado.

Interpersonal R took the bottle from N and started shaking it. It created a tornado. N tried again +. Placed his hand on the bottle + created a tornado.

Figure 7 Sample observation illustrating two children working together to complete a task. The example also shows the role observation played in N's learning.

46

Principles of Practice

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Teachers speak I now focus more on the quality of interactions between children and adults. I now believe in looking and observing children in groups rather than individually. Looking at my prior notes, I didn't really take into account how important and vital the interactions with their peers are. The interactions are important, to write down what they are doing. I am looking more at what they are doing, what the other child is doing, looking beyond the individual. The importance of interactions-adult-to-child and peer-to-peer-has really made me stop and think and take greater notice of this when observing and working with children.

Group 1 -

-- .- --- --

- -----

-

-

-

-- ---

I

..

We are sitting reading books -ina group. One of- the-- - ---

stories is about the beach-and the sea. The children -. . -- - . . -. . --- - - .- -. . ... .

.

. -

-

.

A

.-. .

.

-. .-

.

.

. -.

. .. ..

and [I] I discuss the pictures and then go looking for --

I

I /

..

..-

-

.-

~

~

more books and [C]- pictures. The children compare the ---~ .

.-

~

~ ~ , .

-

pictures with the sea creatures in -the tent. We get a roll of paper from the storeroom [C] and some pens to .

,

-

--

draw some of our own [PI. It is almost time to go home -

--

so we leave it for next time too.

---

-

-

I

[

t

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Group 2

-- --- - --

"-

-*--

The children were interested in what the big roll of

- -- --

- --

--

paper was for. We unrolled a section and [C]gathered - -- -- - -- - - - - --- -- -- - - --pens crayons as well some books about animals ---- and------ as--- ---.that live in the sea. N settled on the floor with one of - ----- -- ---.---a-.-

the books to [PI 'find some things to draw' and used ~-----the pictures in the book to direct her.-.- drawing. --.-.------------

J, J, A, N [I],B, L, I, S, T, B and B all made things to ., -hang from our net. The [I] list of items that the children -----------

--

-

want include boats, shells, buckets, sand and some animals ('just pretend ones').

- ---

-

--

It--is decided to cover the window-maybe with something - ------------ ---blue. I suggest painting it and the children laugh [C]. ----You can't do that!', says M. H giggles as the children -- -- -- - - --- ----ask me what S (other staff member) will say [I]. 'I hope

--

--

she tears strips off you', says one. We gather rollers and -

-- -- --

-

sponge brushes [C]to cover the window and find fish to stick on. *Why would you mark [PI, [I] and [C] on observations? --

-

d-

---

-

a -

It takes more time and doesn't show anything that is not already in the obs?!

-

-*---

- ----~-"-----.-..-

Figure 8 Sample observation based on the three planes of development outlined by Rogoff. This teacher recorded (P) for personal, (I) for interpersonal, and (C)for contextual in her notes to try and highlight how the three planes were present at the time of the observation. As she suggested, making these Levels explicit did not necessarily add t o what she was able to read into the observations from a sociocultural perspective anyway.

48

.

-

--

Principles of Practice

1 June Eensy Weensy Game (Rogoff)

Personal

Interpersonal

Institutional

Obs

A throw die (1) + flicks spinner (sun).She moves her spider one space up the spout.

A turns to E, hands her the spanner and says 'your turn'. E throws a 3 plus says '3'. She then spins a cloud and with sad face keeps her spider at the start. E looks at A, 'your turn'.

Puzzle/ Game/ Area Game on shelf. Girls returned game to shelf.

Plan/ Action

Interest? ? intro more games ? finger plays/ songs ? creepy crawlies ? counting

Support if nec -taking turns -explain rules --concepts of number and up/down -foster cooperation

Leave out as long as children interested --options of playing on table/ floor

F w r e 9 Sample observation conducted using Rogoffs three planes of development 's observation included an additional section where the teacher reflected on 1-2:

action would be taken in relation to the observation.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

An important aspect of sociocultural theory is the idea that children learn through their interactions with other people and the context in which they are engaged. In other words, children's development is transformed a s they participate in activities. Recording learning from a sociocultural perspective therefore needs to note how the learning was occurring, not just describe the final product or endpoint achieved during the interaction

Date: 14 May Participant: B Context: At pasting table with approx 4 other children. Using one box and other accessories to make an elephant.

Assistance

Independent Unable to complete the task.

assistance B directed the adult's assistance.

assistance Ideas there. Knowledge of how to complete the task. Difficulty managing sticky tape and objects.

adult assistance. B directed the adult's assistance.

continued on next page

~

:

Principles of Practice

Sticking pieces onto a box to make an elephant. B decided which -. .-.pieces to use and where to put them but when he went to stick

--

-

.-. . . .

--.. -.

..

-

them on (one at a time) they kept falling off because he was using .

.

-

2 hands for the tape. He directed adult to hold onto the pieces -- .

.-- - .- .

-

L

-----.A

.

and where to hold onto them. Firstly he asked for the piece to . -. -- -... be held where it was to be stuck (so fingers in the way). B then ~

~

.,

-

-~

--

suggested adult hold the piece elsewhere and stuck it on with . ----.= . . -~ . . -. this level of adult assistance. -

-

-- .. ...

-dm.

---

B made an identifiable elephant. .

-

-

..

.

B first 'proper' box construction a t home and kinder. .

- ....

Comments Maintained attention to the task (fantastic). Went to the table with an idea, thought it through, overcame obstacles in a socially acceptable manner, achieved his goal (brilliant).

Figure 10 Sample observation describing B's attempt to construct an elephant from collage materials. The arrow illustrates how B was able to construct the elephant with support from the adult. Notes near the 'Assistance' end of the arrow record 5 a t B and the adult engaged in the task together (intersubjectivity). This teacher completed the initial observation during class time on post-it notes. These were later rdded to the more formal observation when more time was available.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

(Fleer and Richardson, 2004, p 20). A s the educators became sensitive to observing from a sociocultural perspective they began to develop observations that recorded where children were operating independently or with assistance. Some educators demonstrated this by using a n arrow that showed what children were doing independently and what they were achieving with assistance. These educators added some descriptive data about the learning interaction a s well as comments regarding their plans for the children (Figures 10 and 11A/ 11B). These observational formats were adapted from those originally developed by Fleer and Richardson (2004).

Date: 20 June Context: Pasting table Participants: Child A, A + B

Assistance

questioning. Independent

continued on next page

q

Principles of Practice

Observation Children decided to make person for our mural. Child 1 + A go to pasting table. A finds small straws and cardboard circles. Child 1 uses boxes and makes person with arms, legs etc. Asked B 'How will we stick it on the mural?'. Child 1 7 don't know.' Sees A sticking her person onto mural. Copies A's person using straws and cardboard circles. Sticks it onto mural. Comments Peer-to-peer modelling + scaffolding. Child took visual cues from A's work. Adult questioning helps to focus attention on what the person is needed for-adding contextual info. Child A showed great ideas on how to make person + needed help to think about size it should be.

Figure 11A Sample observation showing children's problem solving, modelling and "reractions between each other and with the teacher's support. This observation was ::companied by a photograph taken by the teacher of the children working on the -3ral (Figure 11B).

' TJre l l B Digital - : ~ a p h accompanying :xervation presented

- :--e 11A.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Some educators were concerned that sociocultural observations were taking too much time to record. One educator found that she could record sociocultural observations on a s t i c e note by just recording the arrow and noting the interactions occurring in the learning. This proved to be just as efficient as her previous way of observing, which had used sticky notes to record individual observations (Figure 12).Other educators were not sure how to record observations using the arrow and where they should locate descriptions about the modelling a n d scaffolding. These educators found that using the picture of the zone of proximal development (ZPD)presented in Figure 1 of this book as a guide was a n efficient means of recording the children's current, supported a n d target abilities. This observational technique was nicknamed the 'target approach' by the educators because the image looked like a target. The teachers found they could use codes on the image that recorded whether the interactions were between peers (P-P = Peer to Peer), involved adults (A-C = Adult to Child) or was modelled (M). Other educators found that they could u s e this observation over a number of days by dating the marks they made on the target (Figures 13, 14 and 15). This approach to observation was valued by the educators as it allowed them to see how the learning was evolving and developing over time.

Figure 12 This teacher realised she could record sociocultural observations on a sticky note by using an arrow which showed what children were achieving individually and what they could achieve with assistance.

Principles of Practice

B painting using powder paint, applying to paper, sitting next to L Date: May Participants: 2 Setting: Painting with powder paints I

Observation B is painting with L. He says he is going to paint a person. He looks at L, 'are you going to do one too?'. She nods and continues her painting. He holds brush R hand 3/4 way up brush in loose tripod grasp. He paints a circle -'that's the head'. Then inside circle puts some dots, eyes, nose and mouth. What else does a person need?', I ask. Wm, I know, arms and legs.' Paints 2 vertical lines and 2 horizontal lines.

Figure 13 Sample observation describing the learning interaction supported with evidence from digital photographs. The teacher added a sociocultural analysis to this observation (Figure 14) using the target approach.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Future intentions Encourage correct hand grasp/grip on brush resting between index and thumb Prompting Verbal interactions if necessary Modelling/praise

Adult-child Prompting ideas for person Assisting repositioning hand grasp Verbal interactions

Peer-peer Checking/observing what C was painting

Figure 14 Sociocultural analysis of the observation recorded in Figure 13. The teacher has used the target approach to record the child's existing level of development (0) in relation to what was achieved with assistance between the adult and child (AX). Notes were also provided about planned future intentions.

Principles of Practice

18 April S was having a little difficulty balancing and walking on the stilts. I went up and stood behind him and explained how he needed to hold the ropes tight to keep the stilts underneath his feet as he walked. He managed well and after a few metres with assistance in lifting up each foot he was able to walk unaided.

Zone S S Unable to walk on stilts

Walking without any assistance With assistance supported from behind

Figure 15 Sample observation using the target approach. The initial observation was conducted during class time on a sticky note and later included in a more detailed observation in the child's records.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

The work by these educators shows that observations can take many forms. An exciting outcome of this project was that the educators developed observational formats that suited their professional needs and their understandings of sociocultural theory. This gave the educators more agency and challenge in their work, as they were interpreting what they were seeing and doing through a theoretical framework instead of responding to a prescribed list of developmental outcomes. One teacher said:

This is the most interested I have felt about observation in years. It has always been a dread of mine and fi there has been an in-service on observations I have sort of thought 'oh I should go'. You can start tofeel a bit dull and just do things and go to in-services to see qthere is some better way. But I have usually gone away from in-services thinking 'Oh well, I didn't get muchfrom that: Butfrom this experience in the project I am thinking 'Ijust want more discussion on observations and planning'.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Teachers speak I think the ZPD target approach is good. It is sort of like a mini picture and I feel that it would save an awful lot of writing. You would be able to read a lot into it. It is almost like a 'go to whoa' kind of thing. It shows you exactly what is happening in the moment. If you date the target observation and then you go back the next day, if you are particularly concerned with one or two children and you end up at the table at the same time they are there, you can put the next observation on the existing target. I thought when I saw the target example for the first time 'wow, that would save so much time'. I hate writing and I would rather be interacting and working with the children than writing.

Principles of Practice

The observational formats developed by the educators do not claim to be 'objective' in the way traditional observations are. Instead, these observations were focused on understanding the learning that was occurring for the children and finding places in the learning where the educators could support the children to move forward. These observations focused on the children's 'potential' developmental abilities by analysing learning in the ZPD (Fleer, 2006, p 166). Observing from a sociocultural framework showed many instances in which learning was co-constructed between children and adults.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD

A teacher speaks I think why I changed to focusing on group observations was that unless there is something that stands out for an individual child, you are doing the individual within the group observation anyway. For example, in the sandpit there could be several children there and that observation can cover three children. I don't focus on set children, I believe you focus on all of the children all of the time. If you do group observations you would have covered every single child over the -week.

The educators involved in the project found that their observations were telling them more about what the children were actually learning rather than focusing on individual children's skills. Many educators found that a n observation conducted around a learning experience could be photocopied and placed into the files of all the children involved in the activity. In this way, educators were able to meet institutional requirements about maintaining individual files whilst still conducting observations from a sociocultural perspective.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Teachers speak I now have a greater emphasis on understanding knowledge construction. Otherwise we just used to look at behaviour and make assumptions about it. Observing from a sociocultural perspective is richer; it tells us more about what is happening. We did not used to record the rapport between children. I never believed in checklists and had an awareness of Reggio and what children can achieve. Now I have more understanding about scaffolding, supporting learning and interactions. This has helped me to develop skills to challenge the children to keep going. I have a fuller explanation of development than I had before.

The way we choose to observe children depends on the image we hold of the learner and our beliefs about how learning and development occur. Since we cannot say one theory is more correct than another, we cannot necessarily say that one way of observing is more correct than another. Contemporary approaches to observation challenge u s to think about children's learning a s a social and cultural dynamic and empower the educators to analyse and respond to the learning that is occurring in their classroom. The more educators understand and reflect on learning, the more they are able to develop observational formats that meet their professional needs.

Principles of Practice

Reflection point What type of observations do you use in your work with young children? What theoretical beliefs and values about development and learning do you think underpin the observational techniques you are using in your work? Do you think the theoretical frameworks you use to guide your work with young children are consistent with the values you hold regarding early childhood education?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship What do the sample observations provided in this document suggest to you about children's Learning?

PRINCIPLE OF PRACTICE THREE: PLANNING, PEDAGOGY AND PLAY ollecting data about children's learning is an important part of pedagogical practice in early childhood education. Kilderry (2004, p 33) suggests that pedagogy includes all teaching and learning that occurs within a curriculum or program developed for young children. According to this definition, the observations educators make about children's learning have implications for what and how 'children learn within a given early childhood setting. Interpreting observations is therefore a pedagogical act because decisions are often made about which materials and activities are provided for children in relation to the information contained in educators' observations. Making decisions about programming and planning most often stems from observations of children in addition to understandings of how children learn and develop. Moss and Petrie (2002) argue that pedagogy should therefore be seen as a social process that involves educators and children in relationships.

C

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Pedagogy involves (Moss and Petrie, 2002, p 118):

Learning about what it is to be a human being living in society ... through the activities and relationships of daily life. It encompasses learning about the world through the activities of daily life as a social being in the company of others, discovering and exploring. Because it relates to learning and social learning in particulal; pedagogy cannot be value-free. Moss and Petrie raise an important point regarding the value-laden nature of teaching and learning. Any act conducted in a social setting is influenced by beliefs and values. In early childhood education, educators might make pedagogical decisions for, about, or with children. How and why educators make these decisions will be informed by what they have seen in their observations a s well a s their beliefs about young children and their learning. For a long time, early childhood education has been characterised by the belief that young children learn through play. Play has been used a s a pedagogical tool in early childhood education because it has been seen as the primary way children learn. Play has been described as 'children's work'. Good early childhood education has been characterised a s that which allows children to engage in freely chosen,

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks It is important to understand the complexity of the individual and the components that influence capability, language and knowledge. The exposure children have to different things with many people. What is acceptable for a child to attempt in the classroom can vary so much. I don't think I had given enough thought to this with some of the children. My attitude to their fear or lack of fear when attempting certain th~ngs has taken on a deeper thought process in learnrng more about the background of the individual. The value of having more choice, with stable areas and supplies always on offer, is so much more obvious to me now.

Principles of Practice

open-ended play experiences (Edwards, 2005b). These ideas are significant to early childhood education because they are seen a s valuing the child and the child's right to play. Whilst play remains a fundamentally important part of early childhood education it can be useful to reflect on teachers' understandings of play and how it relates to planning decisions and approaches to pedagogy. Many assumptions can be made about play in early childhood education, such a s play is fun, play helps children learn, play supports social development and play is universally enjoyed. It is important to remember that these beliefs about play may not necessarily be true for all children (Martin, 2007). If educators base their planning decisions on assumptions about play that are not necessarily true for all children, educators might make inappropriate pedagogical decisions (Rhedding-Jones, 2003). An example lies in research which found that Anglo-American mothers believed that play is important for children's learning, whilst Korean-American mothers considered play a way of escaping boredom or a form of amusement for children. The beliefs these mothers held about play meant that the Anglo-American mothers engaged in more pretend play at home than the Korean-American mothers did (Farver, Kim and Lee, 1995, cited in: Fleer, 1999, p 71).

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks Clving children time for play and t~mefor them to use their own ideas and support to move at their own pace is important. Time in particular is important, because children have little time these days because everything is very structured for them. Structured at home, structured if they are in care, they might be going and doing swimming Lessons and those sorts of things and they don't have time for just doing their own things and their own play their own way. To me that is really important.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

An early childhood setting valuing pretend play as a learning tool would benefit the Anglo-American children more than the Korean-American children because the expectations of the kindergarten would 'match' the experiences and values about play experienced by the Anglo-American children at home. Brooker (2005) had similar findings in her research with Bangladeshi and Anglo-Saxon families in the United Kingdom. In this project Brooker found that the Bangladeshi families' beliefs about play differed from those of the Anglo-Saxon families. The pre-school environment the children attended privileged the play experiences of the Anglo-Saxon community. This meant the Bangladeshi children had to spend a significant amount of their time learning a new cultural play script before they could actually engage in any of the formalised learning intended by the centre. These examples highlight the importance of meeting the needs of all children attending education and care settings, and emphasise the complex nature of early childhood educators' work. Thinknng about the assumptions held about learning and play can help address these complexities and make it easier to consider different ways of learning. Research by Wood (2004) has also shown that open-ended play experiences do not always result in children learning or engaging with important ideas. This research has shown that some children spend more time wandering from one activity to another than they do actually engaging in a task. Children might alsorequire adult assistance or scaffolding to .help them understand the concepts embedded in a task (for example the concept of volume embedded in water play) and may not necessarily discover these concepts on their own through free play (Jordan, 2004). Some researchers are now arguing that effective play-based pedagogy is characterised by interactions between children and adults that includes specific teaching techniques such as modelling, demonstration, explanation and questioning (Siraj-Blatchford, 2004, p 146). Another important point to consider is the role of power in children's play and their play relations. Children are social beings and social beings are always interested in power. If play is thought about only as fun and a social experience for children, we may not necessarily see when and how children are learning to use power through their play. MacNaughton (1999, p 82) says:

v

Principles of Practice

Power consists of, in the first instance, the ability to make things happen-and we generally exercise power to our advantage. As I watch four and five year old childrenplay, and talk with them about it, I see constant struggles between them to make things happen that are to their own advantage. The struggle forpower is infused through the vey substance of their daily play and is evident in: how children become included or excluded from play; which children have their play ideas taken up and used; who initiatesplay and how; who ends play and how; and who uses what and when. These reflections on play highlight the many issues related to the use of play a s a pedagogical tool in early childhood education. How educators think about play and interpret what is seen in observations gives rise to the pedagogical decisions made either for, or with, children. Reflecting on play does not mean that educators should not use play in early childhood education. Instead, it means thinking about the use of play in teaching and what children are gaining from participating in play-based experiences in early childhood centres (Edwards and Nuttall, 2005).

VOICES FROM THE FIELD -

A pre-service teacher speaks

Play is a word that conjures up many Images depending on who is interpreting .them. Play is a value-laden activity. Children see some play as work and some work as play. Play is not a fun-filled activity for all children; it can be distressing and debilitating to be excluded from play. Adults have different perspectives on play according to the life histories they bring with them. As pressure on educational institutions increases to produce results, early childhood teachers may also be under pressure to explain their adherence to a play-based curriculum. I believe play is an essential component of children's learning and development. Play can give children access to the tools, beliefs and practices of their community. Play also needs careful monitoring to ensure that these experiences do not empower some children at the expense of others. I believe that a play-based program is successful ~81henit builds a true community of learners.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Contemporary theories of development and learning and approaches to observation emphasise the role social and cultural experiences have in forming children's growing abilities. Thinking about play from these perspectives means educators need also to remember that 'play is not simply the child's world, but also reflects the complexities of the social and cultural worlds that children inhabit' (Wood, 2004, p 23). The type of play children engage in is likely to be a reflection of the world they experience. For children, this might include many things, such a s the value adults place on play and the play materials that are made available to them. Today's children are exposed to a range of play experiences, technologies and media that have never existed before (Marsh, 2005). These experiences form the social and cultural contexts that children live in every day. A s educators, we need to think carefully about how to approach these experiences of play and their position in planning. Should educators emphasise the traditional natural play experiences of early childhood education? Should educators try to acknowledge the information children might bring about play from their homes? Or should a n attempt be made to meld traditional experiences with children's existing play expertise? Below, some educators involved in the development of this book reflect on these ideas. Educator 1: You can't let your kid go riding up and down the street, because it is not safe. They might get run over. So the opportunities that we had, or have grown up with, in a lot of ways, children simply don't have anymore in their home environments. I think the basic things of being able to play in a garden space and get stuff out and play with things are important. We can help provide that environment for children when they may not get it at home simply because it is not there. Educator 2: Are we reliving our childhood? Maybe a childhood that we had, that we feel that the children are missing out on today? Educator 3: What about the world that they are going to grow into?

Principles of Practice

VOICES FROM THE FIELD

L

dd

A teacher speaks

I had some children bring in some Spiderman toys a couple of years ago and once upon a time I would have said 'put it in your bag'. I was in a very different place then and so by this time I was able to say 'Ok, great, so you like Spiderman, how does he move?' and started this whole conversation and by the end of the term they had made Spiderman masks, they had made him in clay, they had painted him, they had done every single possible thing that you could think of, or not think of, because they came up with amazing ideas about Spiderman. It was really eye opening to me to see how limited I had been and when we just opened the door and allowed things to occur, what could happen.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD

7

Teachers speak If the thing that is really interesting them is this McDonalds toy, you could still look at it and say 'OK, what else can you do with that toy?' Do you want to take it over and paint it, or make a replica in clay or do you want to take it to the sandpit?' Because anything that the child brings in, if it is of value to them, I think we should be allowing the child to use it appropriately. Just whizzing it around is not so good, but trying to encourage them to use that as a stimulus for something that is appropriate. But then again, maybe they might need a little bit of time to just whiz it around because Mum doesn't let them do it either, so perhaps that can be appropriate at times too.

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Principles of Practice

PRINCIPLE O F PRACTICE FOUR: PROFESSIONAL LEARNING AND REFLECTION arly childhood educators are professionals who belong to a particular community of practice. A community of practice is a community where knowledge is used by people to achieve particular outcomes. Members of a community of practice understand similar types of knowledge and have a language or lingo' for speaking about this knowledge to other practitioners in the community. New members of a community of practice need to learn the language and knowledge in order to participate and contribute to the community. The idea of communities of practice came from Wenger, who suggested (Wenger, 1999, p 4):

E

Since the beginning of history, human beings haveformed communities that accumulate cokctive knowledge into socialpractices-communities ofpractice that collectively define what counts as valid knowledge in a specijic area of investigation. Early childhood education represents a community of practice because it holds specific knowledge about children, learning and development; has specific ways of practising the act of teaching; and a particular language for talking about observing, programming and planning. Sometimes the knowledge held by a community of practice has existed for so long that

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks Sometimes we just take things for granted. We just accept developmental theory as a valid way to view children. But is it correct in its application? Is it apt for each child? Is it up to date with current understandings about development? By this I mean the world was a very different place when t h ~ stheory was developed, therefore does it reflect development in our modern and technological world?

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

people assume the knowledge must be 'right' (Fleer, 2003). In these situations it can be difficult to challenge the ideas that the community values, because the new ideas have to measure up against traditional ideas that have long been important to the community. It can also be challenging because tKe ideas a community holds influences the way it acts. This means the new ideas need to be worked through so that new ways of acting within the community can also be developed. Early childhood education has been a community of practice based on many of the ideas associated with developmental theory. In recent times, contemporary understandings regarding development and learning have challenged the community to rethink its practices and ways of working with young children and families (Yelland and Kilderry, 2005). This involves questioning entrenched 'habits of mind', an idea explored by a teacher involved in this project:

Well we are usually all taught about developmental the0y when we become teachers. But we need to think about it. Is it a the0y that still has relevance in early childhood education now? Or are we using it out of habit? Has it become institutionalised?

i

d

Recognising how a community of practice works can be a u s e h l way of challenging 'habits of mind' and considering new ideas and new ways of working (Fleer, 2003). 'Challenging habits of mind' does not necessarily mean discarding valued ways of working and thinking. It means being reflective about how and why teachers work in the ways they do. In the future, today's contemporary theories will be challenged by new ideas, and in time, again, these ideas will need to be reconsidered. A community of practice develops and evolves with time. Learning within a community of practice should therefore involve educators in active reflection and thinking about their work. This idea is different from the traditional professional development model, which tends to 'transmit' knowledge and new information to teachers and then expects them to implement it in their practice. This can be very difficult to do, unless we have had time to think through the ideas and discuss them with other people. Educators also need opportunities to implement ideas, see how they work out in

Principles of Practice

practice and reflect on what changes they might need to make. This way of working is described by Cullen (2004)as promoting the construction of knowledge amongst educators instead of the transmission of theories to educators. An opportunity to work and learn with groups of other teachers, to share ideas and to have existing ideas challenged, is a way of working that supports new learning. In this way teachers can transform their existing understandings about teaching and learning and are better able to work collectively to generate new ideas and practices in early childhood education (Moss and Petrie, 2002, p 111):

Sta-are viewed as reflective practitioners, as thinkers, as researchers, as co-constructors of knowledge-sustaining children's relationships and culture, creating challenging environments and situations, constantly questioning their own images of the child and their understandings of children's learning and other activities, supporting the learning of every child but also learning from children. This involves methods of working which emphasise and enable constant critical analysis of what is going on and of how workers see and understand the child.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A parent speaks As a parent I guess it depends on how much you know about how things change in education because of research. If you know about changes you will want your ch~ld'steacher to be engaged with research and learning the latest ideas. If you just think children are playing with play dough at preschool and learning their ABC and you think there is only one way of learning ABC you may not worry if teachers are learning or not. Maybe teachers could share the latest ideas with parents too.

CONCLUSION

T

he ideas presented in this book include those of historical and contemporary significance to early childhood education and care. These ideas were fundamental to the project work that was conducted in the City of Casey with the participating educators. An important aspect of this project was the way in which the educators examined their existing understandings of early childhood education and care, and the particular theoretical and philosophical ideas that were informing their thinking. By using sociocultural theory a s a theoretical framework for reflecting on their existing practices, these educators were able to challenge their own ideas about children's learning and development. The data generated by the educators a s they engaged in this process highlights how examining alternative approaches to understanding learning and development can lead to new insights about how to approach observation, programming and planning in early childhood settings. The data presented in this book, including the observational formats developed by the educators, and their developing ideas about the culturally situated nature of development, provides a framework for thinking about how sociocultural theory might be utilised in practice. Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach offers a way forward for early childhood educators interested in learning more about sociocultural theory during a time when many of the traditional beliefs about children's learning and development are being reconsidered across a range of early childhood education and care settings.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

POSTSCRIPT ince first implemented in 2005, the research work informing the development of Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach within the City of Casey has continued. During this time, educators have drawn on the questions, theories and reflection points presented in Early Childhood Education and Care: A SocioculturalApproach to frame investigations aimed a t challenging their thinking around the provision of early childhood education and care.

S

Some educators have researched with families to further develop their understandings about how play is perceived by parents and children. These educators have worked to make the links between children's home and kindergarten play experiences stronger. Other educators have worked to further develop sociocultural approaches to observing and documenting learning, and used these findings a s a basis for planning for learning amongst children. Another group of educators has worked with children to determine what the children believe they are learning from their participation in early learning experiences. These teachers have compared the children's responses to their own beliefs about play and learning and used these to develop a more reflective approach to their work with young children. An example of the-research and documentation produced by the City of Casey educators through their interactions with Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach is provided in the Appendix. In this example, the educators ask the question 'Do children know when they are learning?' These educators documented different examples of children's play. The documentation panels were used to compare what the educators thought the children were learning through play, and what the children believed they were learning. In a concluding statement, the educators reflected on the importance of interacting with children during play to support conceptual learning.

RECOMMENDED READING AND REFERENCES RECOMMENDED READING Arthur L, Beecher L, Death E, Dockett S and Farmer S, 2008, Programming and Planning in Early Childhood Settings, Thompson, Melbourne. Brooker L, 2005, Zearning to be a child. Cultural diversity and early years ideology' in N Yelland (Ed), Critical Issues in Early Childhood Education, Open University Press, Berkshire, UK, pp 1 15-13 1. Edwards S, 2005, Why I hated sociocultural theory: Confessions of a reformed cognitive-developmentalist', Pedagogy, Culture and Society, Vol 13, No 2, pp 133-143. Fleer M and Richardson C, 2004, Observing and Planning in Early Childhood Settings: Using a Sociocultural Approach, Early Childhood Australia, Canberra. Hatherly A and Richardson C, 2007, 'Building connections: assessment and evaluation revisited' in L Keesing-Styles and H Hedges (Eds), Theoriszng Early Childhood Practice: Emerging Dialogues, Pademelon Press, Castle Hill, NSW, pp 51-68. Jordan B, 2009, 'Scaffolding learning and co-constructing understandings' in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society and Culture, Sage Publications, London, pp 39-53. King N, 2000, The impact of context on play' in S Kessler and B Swadener (Eds), Reconceputalising the Early Childhood Curriculum. Beginning the Dialogue, Teachers College Press, New York, pp 43-6 1. MacNaughton G, 1999, 'Even pink tents have glass ceilings: crossing the gender boundaries in pretend play' in E Dau (Ed), Child's Play, MacLennan and Petty, Sydney, pp 81-94. Martin K, 2007, 'Here we go "round the broombie tree". Aboriginal early childhood reahties and experiences in early childhood services' in J Ailwood (Ed),Early Childhood in Australia: Historical and Comparative Contexts, Pearson, Sydney, pp 18-34.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Rhedding-Jones J, 2003, 'Questioning play and work: early childhood and pedagogy' in D Lytle (Ed), Play and Educational Theory and Practice, Praeger, Westport, pp 243-255. Rogoff B, 2003, 'Orienting concepts and ways of understanding the cultural nature of human development' in The Cultural Nature of Human Development, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 3-36.

REFERENCES

7. -2'

4

Arthur L, Beecher L, Death E, Dockett S and Farmer S, 2008, Programming and Planning in Early Childhood Settings, Thomson, Melbourne. Ball J and Pence A, 2000, A ' postmodernist approach to culturally grounded training in early childhood care and development', Australian Journal of Early Childhood, vol25, No 1, pp 21-25. Berk L and Winsler A, 1995, Scaffolding Children's Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education, National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington DC. Bredekamp S and Copple C, 1997, Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs. Revised edition, National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington DC. Brooker L, 2005, 'Learning to be a child. Cultural diversity and early years ideology' in N Yelland (Ed), Critical issues in early childhood education, Open University Press, Berkshire, UK, pp 1 15-13 1. Carr M, 1998, 'Project for assessing children's experiences in early childhood settings' in Learning and Teaching Stories: New Approaches to Assessment and Evaluation in relation to Te Whariki, Institute of Early Childhood Studies, Victoria University, Wellington, NZ. Carr M, 2001, Assessment in Early Childhood Settings. Learning Stories, Paul Chapman Publishing, London. Cullen J , 2004, 'Adults co-constructing professional knowledge' in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society and Culture, Sage Publications, London, pp 69-80. Dahlberg G , Moss P and Pence A, 1999, Beyond Quality in Early Childhood Education and Care. Postmodern Perspectives, Falmer Press, London.

References

Edwards S, 2003, '"The curriculum is ..." Early childhood educators' conceptions of curriculum and developmentally appropriate practice. A comparative case study across two Victorian early childhood educational settings', Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Monash University, Melbourne. Edwards S, 2005a, 'Constructivism does not only happen in the individual: sociocultural theory and early childhood education', Early Child Development and Care, Vol 175, No 1, pp 37-47. Edwards S, 2005b, Why I hated sociocultural theory: confessions of a reformed cognitive-developmentalist', Pedagogy, Culture and Society, Vol 13, No 2, pp 133-143. Edwards S, 2006, '"Stop talking about culture as geography." Early childhood teachers' conceptions of sociocultural theory as an informant to curriculum', Contempray Issues in Early Childhood, Vol7, No 3, pp 238-252. Edwards S and Hammer M, 2006, The foundations of early childhood education: historically situated practice' in M Fleer, S Edwards, M Hammer, A Kennedy, A Ridgway, J Robbins and L Surman (Eds), Early Childhood Learning Communities. Sociocultural Research in Practice, Pearson, Frenchs Forest, NSW, pp 193-209. Edwards S, 2007, 'From developmental-constructivism to sociocultural theory and practice: An expansive analysis of teachers' professional learning and development in early childhood education', Journal of Early Childhood Research, Vol 5, No 1 , pp 89-1 12. Edwards S and Nuttall J, 2005, 'Getting beyond the "what" and the "how": problematising pedagogy in early childhood education', Early Childhood Folio. A Collection of Recent Research, Vol9, pp 34-39. Engestrom Y and Miettinen R, 1999, 'Introduction. Activity theory: a well kept secret' in Y Engestom, R Miettinen, R Punarnaki (Eds), Perspectives of Activity Theoy , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1-16. Fleer M, 1999, 'Universal fantasy: The domination of Western theories of play' in E Dau (Ed), Child's Play, MacLennan and Petty, Sydney, pp 67-78. Fleer M, 2002, 'Socio-cultural theory: rebuilding the theoretical foundations of early childhood education', Policy and Practice in Education. Early Educaabn:Poky, Clmiahmand Discourse,Vol54, Nos 1 and 2, pp 105-12 1. Fleer M, 2003, 'Early childhood education as a n evolving community of practice or as lived social reproduction: researching the taken-for-granted', Contemporay Issues in Early Childhood, Vol4, No 1, pp 64-79.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

4

Fleer M, 2006, 'Potentive assessment in early childhood education' in M Fleer, S Edwards, M Hammer, A Kennedy, A Ridgway, J Robbins and L Surman (Eds), Early Childhood Learning Communities. Sociocultural Research in Practice, Pearson, Frenchs Forest, NSW, pp 161-174. Fleer M, Hammer M and Robbins J , 2006, 'Joining the academy' in M Fleer, S Edwards, M Hammer, A Kennedy, A Ridgway, J Robbins and L Surman (Eds), Early Childhood Learning Communities. Sociocultural Research in Practice, Pearson, Frenchs Forest, NSW, pp. 228-235. Fleer M and Richardson C, 2004, Observing and Planning in Early Childhood Settings: Using a Sociocultural Approach, Early Childhood Australia, Canberra. Fleer M and Robbins J, 2004, "'Yeah that's what they teach you a t Uni, it's just rubbish": the participatory appropriation of new cultural tools a s early childhood teachers move from a developmental to a sociocultural framework for observing and planning', Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education, Vol 11, No 1, pp 47-62. Hatherly A and Richardson C, 2007, Building connections: assessment and evaluation revisited' in L Keesing-Styles and H Hedges (Eds), Theorising Early Childhood Practice. Emerging Dialogues, Pademelon Press, Castle Hill, NSW, pp 51-68. Hedges H, 2000, 'Teaching in early childhood: time to merge constructivist views so learning through play equals teaching through play', Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol25, No 4, pp 16-28. Jordan B, 2004, 'Scaffolding learning and co-constructing understandings' in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society and Culture, Sage Publications, London, pp 31-43. Kilderry A, 2004, 'Critical pedagogy: a useful framework for thinking about early childhood curriculum', Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol29, No 4, pp 33-38. Lubeck S, 1998, 'Is developmentally appropriate practice for everyone?', Childhood Education, Vol 74, No 5, pp 283-298. MacNaughton G, 1999, 'Even pink tents have glass ceilings: crossing the gender boundaries in pretend play' in E Dau (Ed), Child's play, MacLennan and Petty, Sydney, pp 81-94. Mahlios M and Maxson M, 1995, Capturing pre-service teachers' beliefs about schooling, life and childhood', Journal of Teacher Education, Vol40, No 1, pp 192-199.

References

Malaguzzi L, 1998, 'History, ideas and basic philosophy: a n interview with Lella Gandini' in C Edwards, L Gandini and G Forman (Eds), The Hundred Languages of Children: The Reggio Emilia Approach-Advanced Reflections, Ablex Publishing, London. Marsh J, 2005, 'Digikids: young children, popular culture and media' in N Yelland (ed),Critical Issues in Early Childhood Education,Open University Press, Berkshire, UK, pp 181-197. Martin K, 2007, '"Here we go 'round the broombie tree". Aboriginal early childhood realities and experiences in early childhood services' in J Ailwood (Ed),Early Childhood in Australia: Historical and Comparative Contexts, Pearson, Sydney, pp 18-34. Morrison G, 2004, Early Childhood Education Today, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Morrison G, 2006, Fundamentals of Early Childhood Education, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Moss P and Petrie P, 2002, From Children's Services to Children's Spaces. Public Policy, Choidren and Childhood, Routledge Farmer, London. Rhedding-Jones J, 2003, 'Questioning play and work: early childhood and pedagogy' in D Lytle (Ed), Play and Educational Theory and Practice, Praeger, Westport, pp 243-255. Robbins J, 2005, Contexts, collaboration and cultural tools: A sociocultural perspective on researching children's thinking, Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Vol6, No 2, pp 140-149. Rogoff B, 1995, 'Cognition as a collaborative process' in W Damon (Ed), Handbook of Child Psychology, (Vol two: Cognition, Perception a n d Language), John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 678-744. Rogoff B, 1998, 'Cognition a s collaborative process' in W Damon (Ed), Handbook of Child Psychology, 5th ed, (Vol two: Cognition, Perception and Language), John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp 679-744. Seefeldt C, 1990, 'Cogmtive and appropriate: the kindergarten curriculum', Early Child Development and Care, No 61, pp 19-25. . Singer E, 1996, 'Prisoners of the method. Breaking open the child-centred pedagogy in day care centres', International Journal of Early Years Education, Vol4, No 2, pp 28-40. Siraj-Blatchford I, 2004, 'Quality teaching in the early years', in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society a n d Culture, Sage Publications, London, pp 137- 148.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Soto L and Swadener B, 2002, Toward liberatory early childhood theory, research and praxis: decolonising a field', Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, Vol3, No 1, pp 38-66. Soto L, 2002, Paper in Hatch A, Bowman B, Jor'dan J , Morgan C, Hart C , Soto L, Lubeck S and Hyson M 'Developmentally appropriate practice: continuing the dialogue', Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, V013, NO 3, pp 439-457. Spodek B and Saracho 0, 1991, The relationship between theories of child development and the early childhood cumculum', Early Childhood Development and Care, No 152, pp 1-1 5. Vialle W, Lysaght P and Verenikina I, 2005, Psychology for Educators, Thomson, Melbourne. Vygotsky LS, 1987a, The problem of speech and thinking in Piaget's theory', in LS Vygotsky, The Collected Works of L.S. Vygotsky, Vol 1, Problems of General Psychology, RW Rieber and AS Carton (Eds), N Minick (Trans), Plenum Press, New York, pp 53-93. Vygotsky LS, 1987b, 'Development of scientific concepts in childhood' in LS Vygotsky, The Collected works of L.S. Vygotsky, Vol 1, Problems of General Psychology, RW Rieber and AS Carton (Eds),N Minick (Trans), Plenum Press, New York, pp 167-243. Wenger E, 1999, 'Communities of practice: the key to knowledge strategy', Knowledge Directions: The Journal of the Institute for Knowledge Management, No 1, pp 48-63. Wood D, Bruner J and Ross G, 1976, The role of tutoring in problem solving', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, No 17, pp 89-100. Wood E, 2004, Developing a pedagogy of play' in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society and Culture, Sage Publications, London, pp 19-3 1. Woodhead M, Faulkener D and Littleton K (Eds), 1998, Cultural Worlds of Early Childhood, Routledge, London. Yelland N and Kilderry A, 2005, 'Against the tide: new ways in early childhood education' in N Yelland (Ed), Critical Issues in Early Childhood Education, Open University Press, Berkshire, UK, pp 1-15.

APPENDIX-SAMPLE RESEARCH AND DOCUMENTATION BY CITY OF CASEY EDUCATORS INTRODUCTION-DO CHILDREN KNOW WHEN THEY ARE LEARNING? What did you do at kindergarten today' is a question children are often asked by their parents at the end of a session. The reply is usually, 'nothing' or 'Ijust played'. At times a s kindergarten staff we can also be asked, What is my child learning at kindergarten?' While we know the answer to this, it can often be unclear to children and parents what learning is taking place through the children's play and work in the kindergarten. As a group we decided to look at what children feel they are learning at different experiences in the kindergarten compared to what learning we see taking place.

As a group we all took individual observations of the children in the kindergarten setting. These observations were from experiences that are set up in everyday sessions. We asked the children what they thought they had learnt a s the experience came to a n end. To help some children answer this question, it was rephrased in different ways. The question was at times rephrased to be, What can you do now that you couldn't do before?' or What do you know now that you didn't know before?'.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

DIGGING IN THE GARDEN lair was helping Kate and a small group of children to prepare the vegetable garden for planting. AU the children were involved in taking 1 out the weeds and digging the chook poo into the soil. We're sprinkling the chicken poo all over the garden.' l t makes the things grow better.' 'It's hard work.' We're all learning about chicken poo. It's all about it. We got some stuff to sprinkle over the garden. I found chicken poo a s I was digging.' We had to dig it all up-after we done all that-we had to dig it under the soil. I had to get the shovel and dig it out.'

Appendix

CONNOR, 23 APRIL 2008 onnor walked past the clay table and noticed a picture of dinosaurs made out of clay.

Ir\ b

Connor: 'I want to make one.' Bettony: Which one would you like to make?' Connor pointed to one of the pictures, 'that one' he said. Connor sat down a t the clay and found a piece of clay in the pot. Connor: 'I need some help. I don't know how to make it. I can't do it.' Bettony and Connor sat together talking about the shape of the dinosaur in the picture. Connor was unsure where to start so Bettony suggested the body of the dinosaur. Connor decided he needed a piece of clay, shaped like a rectangle to make the body. He was unsure of how to make the shape. After discussing it with Bettony, Connor decided he could either roll the clay or mould it in his hands. He decided to roll the clay on the table. He then decided to make the legs, rolling smaller amounts of clay on the table once again. Connor: 'Ineed four of them.' Connor was unsure of how to join the legs to the body. Bettony showed Connor how he could do this with one of .the legs. He then joined the other three legs independently. Connor then looked a t the picture of the dinosaur again. Connor: 'I'm going to do the neck now.'

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

He rolled the clay between his hands, and joined this to the body of his dinosaur, doing the same for the face and tail. Connor: Bettony: Connor: Bettony: Connor:

?'m nearly done now.' Would you like to give your dinosaur a face?' Yes. ..how do I do that?' You could use a match stick or a piece of wire.' 'Ill use a match stick.'

Connor then used the wire to make his face. He noticed quickly that the wire wasn't working so decided to use the match stick to mark the eyes and mouth of the dinosaur.

What Connor felt he had learnt working at the clay table today Wmmmmm I don't know ....how to roll the clay and make a dinosaur.' What I felt Connor had learnt today working at the clay table Connor has developed his ability to persist a t a n experience when he is unsure of how to do something. He has learnt different ways that the clay can be manipulated to make something and how to join the clay together. He also learnt that you don't always have to get things right the first time and you can make mistakes when attempting something.

Appendix

COLLAGE CREATIONHAVING FUN WHILST REFINING AND DEVELOPING SKILLS, 2 5 FEBRUARY 2 0 0 8 Collage creation-Learning What Ethan thought he had learnt? 'Nothing.' Whilst creating a boat a t the collage table, Ethan refined and developed the following skills: problem solving; fine motor shlls; using scissors; communication; concentration; team work; and imagination. Ethan also explored how to: create a boat using collage materials; stick a tube vertically to a n egg carton; stick two tubes together; and cut masking tape when unable to rip it off in the traditional way. During this time Ethan also helped his peers with the creations.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

RILEY'S CLOCK, 8 APRIL 2008 iley approached Heidi and asked her to write the letters in his name that he couldn't write. When Heidi started to recite the letters 'n Riley's name, because it looked like he had already written a little r', Riley stated, ?Vo not those letters, I can write them, I mean the number letters.'

R

Heidi realised Riley was making a clock and needed assistance to write the numbers so Heidi got the wall clock down for Riley to copy. When Riley went to write the '3'he stated, 7 can write that, it's like a "Cn.'To the 4 he said, 'I can write that, 'cause that's how old I was.' Before writing the 7, Riley declared, 'Ican write that, 'cause that's my house number.' After writing the numbers u p to twelve and counting them on the wall clock and his clock, Riley realised he had more room, so he said he could write the number 13. As the number 13 was not on the wall clock, Riley asked Heidi how to write it. '13 is made u p of two numbers, a 1 and a 3', Heidi said. Riley accurately wrote 13. He then proceeded to write the numbers u p to 16 because they could fit on his clock. Each time, he asked how to write the number, Heidi would verbally explain each number to him and he would write it correctly. After completing his clock, Riley smiled and said he could make more clocks to fill the room.

Wha? the teaching team thought Riley learnt thC: difference between numbers and letters; how to write numbers he could not write previously; problem solving-using the wall clock to copy from; identifying that numbers on a clock typically go u p to 12; concentration; and fine motor skills.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

THE WASHING LINE

T

he washing line had often been set u p with dolls clothes to wash and was a popular experience with the children enjoying the role play and social interaction.

Staff noticed that often children would hang all the unwrung washing on one side of the clothes line and once it got too heavy the washing line would fall over. When the washing line fell over the children would try to pick it u p once or twice and when it didn't work the children lost interest in the activity or gave up and left.

What the teacher thought the children were learning The teacher believed the children had the opportunity to learn the following during this experience: to develop sharing, team work and cooperative play skills; to use language and social skills; and to gain scientific knowledge-evaporation of water, balance of clothes on line to make it stable, weight of water, why the clothes were heavy, etc.

What the children thought they had learnt The children had difficulty stating specifically what they had learnt; most saying 1 learnt' or 1learnt washing'. The following is one interaction between the staff and two children: Child 1 is doing the washing, later Child 2 arrives Teacher: Child 1: Teacher to Child 2: Child 2: Child 1: Assistant: Child 1:

What are you learning? Nothing. What are you learning? Hanging u p washing. I'm nearly finished, there's no more soap. What happens when you mix it round and round? Bubbles.

Appendix

Child 1: Teacher: Child 1:

(picks u p dolls dressing gown full of water) It's heavy. Why is it heavy? 'Cause there's a lot of water in it.

(All the washing is hung u p all on one side, the clothes line falls over) Child 1: Teacher: Child 1: Teacher: Child 1: Teacher: Child 1: Teacher: Child 1:

(Laughter) What made it tip over? It's too heavy. What can we do? Make it stand u p . Come and stand over here and have a look a t it. It's heavy on one side. What can we do? (wearily) There's nothing really I can do. You could put some clothes on that side and see what happens. I should, but I'm not going to.

A few days later Child 1 was shown some photographs of her at the experience Child: Teacher: Child: Teacher: Child: Teacher: Child:

That's me, I'm doing the washing. What happened in this picture? I hung it all up to dry. Did it dry? It all fell over (laughter) and I picked it u p and it just fell over again. What did you learn? It was too heavy.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

TYSYN, 16 APRIL 2008 syn worked quietly a t the woodwork table. After choosing a piece of wood he held the hammer in his right hand and the nail in his left. Tysyn started to hit the nail very softly. Bettony suggested to Tysyn he hit the nail a little harder. Tysyn attempted to do this, missing the nail and hitting the wood and his finger. Bettony asked Tysyn if he would like some help, he nodded, and said Yes please'. Bettony assisted Tysyn by holding the hammer and nad with him. Together they slowly hit the nail far enough in for it to. stand u p on its own. Tysyn then continued to hit the nail into the wood independently. Tysyn decided to attach some paper circles to the wood using the nails, and once again attempted to independently hit this nail into the wood. This time Tysyn was successful, he continued to do this until he had attached 5 circles to the wood, one on each side of the wood.

What Tysyn felt he had learnt a t the wood work table today 'Slowly.. .I learnt to hammer slowly. '

What I felt Tysyn had learnt working a t the wood work table today Tysyn had further developed his fine motor control, being able to hit the nail into the wood independently. He also learnt to persist and keep trying when he was unable to do something.

Appendix

CONCLUSION-DO CHILDREN KNOW WHEN THEY ARE LEARNING? s it important for children to know that they are learning and do they need to articulate that learning to adults? This was the question that baffled us. As we each asked some children if in fact they knew they were learning, the responses were mixed. Some said they were learning and could name the skill, whilst others denied there was any learning going on. 'Iam just playing' was a common response.

I

We agreed that our roles were that of facilitators, not merely passive observers. We agreed that children learn over time and they need lots of opportunities to revisit their learning. Further, we can subtly introduce the concept of what knowledge they have gained by prompting questions such a s 'Isee that you have learned to...'. By introducing children to the concept of learning through our interactions with them we can empower children to take ownership of their learning. In one observation that a teacher made, it was not until the child looked back on some photographs taken that she could recall to the teacher what she had learned. This again highlights the importance of taking time to revisit experiences. In a time of information overload, it is no longer meaningful or realistic to require rote memorisation of specific facts. Not only are these facts meaningless to the child unless they happen to coincide with their own current and unique interests, such facts are simply distracting to the play. But if a child learns how to obtain information, he or she can apply that skill throughout their lives. Although 'play remains the dominant pedagogy of choice in early childhood education, children may not gain conceptual knowledge via participation in open ended play based experiences'.' They also need 'opportunities to interact with adults' 2 . A more active role by the teacher during conceptual development in play

appears to be more satisfying for the teacher and valued by the child.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

'

Cutter Mackenzie A, Edwards S and Fleer M (under review), Tnvestigating the environmental scientific concepts in children's play: How do children and teachers interpret play-based learning?', Australian Journal of Research in Early Childhood Education Jordan B, 2004, 'Scaffolding learning and co-constructing understandings' in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society and Culture, (pp 3 1-43), Sage Publications, London; and Wood E, 2004, Developing a pedagogy of play', in A Anning, J Cullen and M Fleer (Eds), Early Childhood Education. Society and Culture (pp 19-31), Sage Publications, London.

INDEX A absorbent mind, 8 action research project, 3 activity theory, 3 B

Ball, J, 2 belefs, 27,28,60,62 Berk, L, 14 bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, 2 1 Bredekamp, S,9,35 Brooker, L, 64 Bruner, J, 14,22 C Carr, M, 34,39,40,41 checklist, 39,40,41,60 child development a s natural process, 8 children's garden (education concept), 8 children's spaces (education concept), 29,30,31 children's views of kindergarten, 27 City of Casey early childhood educators beliefs and values, 27,

Rogoff s 'social experiences theory, 16-18 role of theories, 6,3 3 4 sociocultural perspective, 16,354 teacher's perception of developmental theory, 345, 69 Vygotsky's explanation, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 development work research (DWR),3-4 developmental theory, 34 observing for learning, 39 teacher's perception of developmental theory, 345, 69 developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), 9,24-5,34,35 Dewey, J, 7,22 documentation, 22-3 domain-based observations, 39

E early childhood education commonly held beliefs and values, 28-9 a s community of practice, 69 30.60 influence of theories and foundational theorists, philosophies on, 5 7-8 perceived a s c h i l h ' s services, sociocultural theory, 29 12,74 perceived a s children's spaces, funded cluster 29,30,31 management model, 2 promoting, 72 teachers' beliefs and values, research, 33,76 research documentation, 29, 30,31,60 83-93 Early Childhood Education and cognitive development stages, 9 Care: A Socioculhval Approach community/ institutional plane background, 2 of development, 19 research, 3 research participants, 3 community of practice, 69,70,72 community participation, 2 1 early chiidhood educators construction of knowledge, 71 a s children's spokespeople, 72 construction of knowledge, 71 Copple, C, 9,35 Cullen, J, 71 empowerment, 72 meaning of term, 1 D perspectives of other educators, 73 Dahlberg, G, 6,23 development and learning theoretical perspectives informing, 5-6 contemporary theories, 5, 6, 70 Edwards, S, 8,9,13, 19,20, foundational theories, 5,6 2 1, 24.34.63 play see play Engestrom, Y, 3

F Faulkner, D, 35 Fleer, M, 12, 13, 19,20,33.34, 36,41,52,59,70,72 folk model of assessment. 39 Froebel, F, 5,8 G Gardner, H, 5, 12,20-1 genetic epistemology (meaning knowledge), 9 germ theory, 14 group observations, 59

H Hammer, M, 8,9, 24,72 Hatherly, A, 4 1 Hedges, H, 10 I Indigenous Australian children, 36 individual complexity, 62 intelligence. see multiple intelligences interpersonal development, 13, 16 interpersonal intelligence, 2 1 interpsychological functioning, 13-14 intersubjectivity, 14. 28,51 intrapersonal development, 13, 16 intrapersonal intelligence, 21

J joint problem solving, 14 Jordan, B, 64

K Kant, 1, 9 Kilderry, A, 6 1,70 knowledge development influence of Piaget's theory, 9-10

L learning child-centred, 9 children self-regulating, 8 social and cultural contexts, 11 through play, 62,63 linguistic intelligence, 20 Littleton, K, 35

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Locke, J, 7 logical-mathematical intelligence, 20 Lubeck, S, 10 Lysaght, P, 14

M MacNaughton, G, 64-5 Mahlios, M. 27 Malaguzzi, L, 2 1-2, 23 Marsh, J, 66 Martin, K, 63 Maxson, M, 27 Miettinen, R,3 Montessori, M, 5, 8-9, 22 Momson, G,5, 8, 9 Moss, P, 29, 30.31, 40, 61, 62, 71, 72 multiple intelligences theory, 12,20-1 musical intelligence, 2 1 N Nuttall. J, 65

. .>

0 observations decision making based on, 61, 62 a s pedagogical act, 6 1 observing for learning developmental theory, 39, 40 examples of observations (sociocultural),4345,46-53, 55-7 examples of observations (traditional). 4 1-3 interactions between children and parents, 47-8 intrapemma1 and interpersonal observations, 45, 46.47, 48 observational formats. 59, 60 planes of development observations, 45, 46, 48, 49 role of observation, 39 sociocultural perspective. 40-1, 50-4, 59.60 teachers' perceptions, 39-40, 47, 58, 59, 60 teachers' role in gathering data, 41 traditional approaches, 40 ZPD target approach, 54, 58, 59 open-ended play experiences, 64

P parents perceptions of kindergarten, 28.38

perceptions of teachers, 71 pedagogical practice and cultural differences, 63, 64 definition, 61 effective play-based, 64 relationship to teachers' understandings of play, 63 a s social process, 61-2 Pence, A, 2 Petrie, P, 29.30, 31, 40, 61, 62, 71,72 Piaget, J, 5, 8, 9-10, 14, 16, 20, 21,25.34 relevancy of theories questioned, 10-1 1 planes of development (Rogoff), 17-19 planning and observations of children, 62 relationship to teachers' understandings of play, 63.67 play assumptions about, 6 3 lack of experiences at home, 66 a s pedagogical tool, 62, 65,68 a s reflection of children's world, 66 role in learning, 6, 7, 62, 63 role of power, 64 teachers' understandings, 62, 63, 65, 67 play-based activities central to foundational theories, 8, 16 prepared environments for children, 9 pretend play, 14, 63, 64 principles of practice purpose, 1, 33 professional learning and reflection, 69 psychological tools, 13 puzzles, 15 Reggio Emilia, Italy, 5, 12, 21-5, 60 influence on teacher's practice,25 perception of children, 23 research-focused relationships. 22, 24 theoretical base, 21-2 vision, 2 1 Rhedding-Jones, J , 63 Richardson, C, 12, 13, 20, 33, 52 Robbins, J, 34, 35, 72

Rogoff, 8,5, 12, 16-19. 20.45, 48,49 Ross, G, 14 Rousseau, J , 7 8

Saracho, 0, 34 scaffolding, 14, 16, 54, 64 Seefeldt, C,9 sessional kindergartens, 3 Singer, E, 16 Siraj-Blatchford, I, 64 social experiences, 16 changing children's thinking, 16 sociocultural theory. 12, 34, 75. see also planes of development (Rogofl);Vygotsky, LS benefits seen at practical levels, 19-20 child development, 13,50 in teachers' practice, 19, 20, 36-7 teachers' response to, 35 sociohistorical theory, 13 Soto, L, 2, 34 spatial intelligence, 20 Spodek, B, 33 Steiner, R, 7, 22 Swadener, B, 2

T theories application to work practices, 34 definition, 6 transformation of participation, 17

v values, 27,28,62,70 Verenikina, 1, 14 Vialle, W, 14, 20 Vygotsky, LS,5, 12-13, 14, 16, 20, 2 1, 45, 46 W Wenger, E, 69 Winsler, A, 14 Wood, D, 14 Wood, E, 64, 66,68 Woodhead, M,35

Z

Zone of Proximal Development, 12, 14, 15, 16, 54