Encounter with God

ENCOUNTER WITH GO D

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ENCOUNTER WITH GO D An Introductio n t o Christian Worship an d Practic e

DUNCAN B . FORRESTE R

J. IAN H . McDONALD GIAN TELLIN I

Second Edition

T& T CLAR K INTERNATIONA L A Continuum imprint LONDON

•

NEW YORK

Published b y T&T Clar k Internationa l A Continuum imprint The Tower Building , 1 1 York Road , Londo n SE 1 7N X 15 East 26t h Street , Suit e 1703 , Ne w York , N Y 1001 0 www.tandtclark.com First editio n copyrigh t © T& T Clark Lt d 198 3 Second editio n copyrigh t © T& T Clar k Lt d 199 6 First publishe d 198 3 Second editio n 199 6 Reprinted 199 9 This editio n 200 4 All rights reserved. No part o f this publication ma y be reproduced o r transmitte d in any for m o r by any means, electronic o r mechanical, includin g photocopying , recording o r an y informatio n storag e o r retrieva l system, withou t permissio n in writing fro m th e publishers . British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Dat a A catalogu e recor d fo r thi s boo k i s available fro m th e Britis h Library ISBN 056708258 X (paperback ) Typeset b y Waverley Typesetters , Galashiel s Printed o n acid-fre e pape r i n Grea t Britai n b y Th e Cromwel l Pres s Limited , Wiltshire, U K

CONTENTS Preface t o the First Edition vi

i

Preface t o the Second Edition x

i

Chapter 1 WORSHI Chapter 2 TH Chapter 3 I

P AND CHRISTIAN PRACTIC E 1

E ROOT S OF CHRISTIAN WORSHI P 1 N SPIRIT AND IN TRUTH 3

Chapter 4 WOR

D AND SACRAMENT 5

6 6 3

Chapter 5 TH E WOR D AND THE WORDS IN WORSHIP - PREACHIN G 7

6

Chapter 6 TH E WOR D AND THE WORD S IN WORSHIP - PRAYE R 10

2

Chapter 7 BECOMIN

G A CHRISTIAN 12

1

Chapter 8 CHRISTIA N FORMATION 14

3

Chapter 9 TH E MEA L FOR THE LIF E OF TH E WORLD 16

8

Chapter 1 0 WORSHI P AND PASTORA L CAR E 19

0

Chapter 1 1 WORSHI P IN THE MODER N WORLD 21

2

Index of Proper Names

235

Index of Subjects

239

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PREFACE TO TH E FIRST EDITIO N 'Are you interested in Liturgy?' an old woman asked Dean Inge. 'No, Madam, neither do I collect butterflies,' the Gloomy Dean replied. Bu t if liturgy properly understood focuses and interact s with th e whole of life i t cannot be onl y the esoteric hobb y of a few, an d i f worship indeed i s a central activit y o f th e Church , the study of worship shoul d hav e a significant place i n depart ments and facultie s of theology an d i n seminaries and centre s of ministerial formation. Since theology, like worship, is a func tion o f the whole Church rathe r tha n th e preserv e of an elite, Christians who take their faith an d it s practice seriously should constantly be reviewing and discussin g their worship as part of the ongoing interactio n between theolog y an d practic e which is integral t o the Christia n Faith . This introductory textboo k is offered i n the hope that it will stimulate, provoke and encour age profitable study and reflectio n on worship, rooted both i n theology an d practice , o n th e part of theological students and seminarians, clergy and la y people o f various traditions. The writin g of this book wa s stimulated b y the experienc e o f teaching worshi p t o lively , responsiv e an d varie d group s o f students in th e ecumenica l contex t o f Edinburgh University's Faculty of Divinity. Most, but not all, of these students were preparing fo r th e ministr y of Presbyteria n o r Anglica n churches , but student s fro m othe r tradition s an d wit h different motiva tions leading them t o the study of worship also made distinctive and valuable contributions t o the discussions out o f which this book has arisen. We wish to thank our student s fo r comments , challenges, question s an d suggestion s whic h hav e playe d n o little par t i n carryin g forwar d ou r thinkin g on worshi p an d shaping thi s book. vii

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Encounter with God has three particula r emphases. I n th e first place, i t is written with the conviction tha t th e study of worship today mus t be ecumenical . The moder n convergenc e i n th e theology and practice of worship is based on the realization that the majo r ecclesiastica l tradition s shar e mor e i n term s o f th e principles and structure of worship than was commonly realized when the various traditions were studied and practised in virtual isolation fro m on e another . No w we can , an d must , tak e a broader vie w whic h i s full o f possibilitie s fo r th e renewa l o f worship and th e restoration o f Christian unity. Secondly, w e hav e mad e th e complementarit y o f Wor d and Sacramen t th e pivo t o f ou r argument . I n th e pas t eve n when th e theologica l principl e wa s affirmed, practic e ofte n denied it . Fo r example , i n churche s whic h gav e t o thei r ministers grea t freedo m i n th e conduc t o f worship , muc h attention wa s devoted i n theologica l educatio n t o homiletic s while th e principle s o f worship were ofte n give n perfunctor y treatment. A s a consequence worship sometimes degenerate d into nothin g bu t th e preliminarie s t o th e sermon , an d sacramental lif e becam e impoverished . I n churche s o f th e 'catholic' tradition , o n th e othe r hand , i t wa s no t un common fo r seminarie s t o devot e a majo r par t of thei r tim e to liturg y bu t t o inculcat e th e vie w tha t preachin g an d th e ministry of th e Wor d wer e little more tha n appendages . Thi s unhealthy polarizatio n i s clearly reflected i n man y textbooks . We have tried to do something to redress the balance and hope we hav e suggeste d som e way s i n whic h thi s fundamenta l principle o f th e theolog y o f worshi p ma y b e adequatel y expressed i n practice . In th e third place, we believe that worship should b e studie d primarily theologically. Kar l Barth was right to say of the adage Lex orandi, lex credendi, 'this saying is not simpl y a pious dictum, but on e o f the mos t intelligen t thing s that ha s ever bee n sai d about method in theology'. It is as important fo r theology tha t it takes seriously both worshi p and th e questions i t generates as it i s that th e stud y o f worshi p shoul d understan d itsel f a s a theological discipline . Som e ma y feel tha t we have give n to o little attentio n t o th e histor y of liturgy, but w e have restricte d the spac e devote d t o historica l matter s advisedly , because we feel it necessary t o stress that the study of worship is not a form of antiquarianis m - and , besides , th e necessar y historica l information i s easy to come by elsewhere.

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The thre e author s brough t varie d experienc e an d back ground t o teaching in Edinburgh an d th e writing of this book. Tellini was a Roman Catholic priest working on Eastern liturgies in Rome before becomin g a n Anglican and teachin g in various theological colleges. He now divides his time between teaching , in Edinburgh University, serving as a parish priest, and working on th e Scottis h Episcopa l Church' s Liturgica l Commission. McDonald wa s a paris h ministe r o f th e Churc h o f Scotlan d before teachin g Religious Education i n a college o f educatio n and developin g special expertis e i n the Ne w Testament an d i n homiletics. Forreste r was ordained in the Church o f South India where a n interes t i n worshi p wa s aroused whic h h e furthe r developed while chaplain of a new English university. It should not be beyond th e capacit y of a moderately competen t textua l critic t o work out whic h autho r ha s had primar y responsibilit y for which parts of the book. Eac h section ha s been revise d after discussion, bu t w e hav e no t sough t uniformit y of styl e an d although w e have substantia l agreement o n ou r approac h t o the theolog y of worship, we are stil l debating vigorously among ourselves som e o f th e position s presente d i n thes e pages . W e hope tha t thos e wh o rea d an d us e thi s book wil l join i n th e debate, recognizin g its importance fo r th e futur e vitalit y of the worship and theolog y of the Church. DUNCAN FORRESTE R J. IA N H. MCDONALD GIAN TELLINI

New College University of Edinburg h Easter, 1983

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PREFACE TO TH E SECOND EDITIO N The author s ar e deepl y gratifie d tha t th e firs t editio n o f this book ha s bee n foun d helpfu l b y so man y an d tha t a secon d edition has been called for. They have taken the opportunity to add thre e ne w chapters: o n 'Worshi p an d Christia n Practice ' (Duncan Forrester), 'Becoming a Christian' (Gian Tellini) and 'Christian Formation ' (Ia n McDonald) . Other chapter s hav e been revised , som e o f the m quit e radically . Gia n ha s adde d some stirrin g thought s o n th e theolog y o f worship , an d w e are happ y t o includ e a sectio n o n 'Ne w Development s i n Homiletics' b y Jolyon Mitchell , who lectures on th e Theolog y and Ethic s of Communication at Edinburgh University. A fellow of th e Colleg e o f Preachers , h e ha s worke d a s a BB C World Service and Radi o 4 producer an d journalist. It is our hope that this enhanced volum e will meet th e need s o f students studying the worship and theolog y of the Church, including preaching and Christia n formation. W e also hop e tha t i t will commen d the stud y of this vital area o f ministry to a wider readership. The author s ar e gratefu l fo r th e hel p receive d i n th e preparation o f this edition o f the book : particularly to Jolyon and Clar e Mitchel l and t o Jenny McDonal d fo r readin g th e proofs and makin g helpfu l suggestions ; and als o to the editor s of T&T Clark for thei r interest, skill and guidance .

IAN MCDONAL D

(on behalf of all the contributors)

New College University of Edinburgh November, 1995 XI

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CHAPTER 1

WORSHIP AND CHRISTIA N PRACTICE People worship. For most peopl e ritua l in some for m or othe r has importanc e i n thei r lives . The y ma y no t recogniz e tha t worship expresse s th e meanin g the y fin d i n life , an d offer s consolation, encouragement an d challenge . Bu t the ritual s of everyday life, th e ceremonies at marriage o r at a death, o r th e observances o f civi l society , lik e Remembranc e Sunday , o r university graduations, mea n a great dea l t o people. Worshi p relates to belief an d meaning , and als o t o practice an d socia l order. I t i s this interaction betwee n worship , which i s itself a form o f practice, and Christia n belief and practic e which is the central concern o f this book . The oldes t archaeologica l evidenc e suggest s tha t worship in some for m or othe r occupie d a central place i n th e activit y of people from th e daw n of history, and th e moder n world i s full of shrines, temples, mosques, churches , gospe l halls , meeting houses: places where activity relating to the holy, what Rudolph Otto spoke of as the mysterium tremendum et facinans, take s place. But i s it not tru e tha t in th e West , at least , society has becom e secular, worship ha s les s an d les s o f a recognize d place , an d fewer an d fewe r peopl e tak e par t i n worship , a t leas t a s traditionally understood? Ye t although th e formal expressions of Christia n worship ma y pla y a les s significan t rol e i n mos t Western societie s tha n onc e the y did, thes e ver y societies ar e not as free fro m worship as might appear a t first glance. There are, o f course , nation s i n th e Wes t wher e Christia n worship continues to hold a central place, as if to mock the sociologists ' generalizations about secularizatio n - Polan d an d the United States ar e case s i n point . An d eve n whe n fe w seem t o atten d worship frequently, larg e number s o f people feel th e nee d t o mark the great turning points of life - birth, maturity, marriage, 1

2 Encounter

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death - wit h Christia n rituals or 'rite s of passage', whic h give meaning to these transitions and allo w them t o be understoo d in th e contex t o f eternity. The ritual s of civil religio n ar e als o alive and well. Worship continues, in a multitude of forms, some of the m bizarre , others bu t vai n repetition s o f ritual s whic h seem t o hav e los t thei r significanc e long ago . Worshi p i s no t just a hobby of a few, like squash or model railways : an astonishingly large proportion o f humankind takes part in worship with at least some glimmering awareness of its significance. And this despite th e fac t tha t worship in modern societie s often seem s strangely anomalous - a quaint museum-piece, or a furtive and surreptitious activit y indulge d i n b y littl e curiou s clique s o f cranks and 'cognitiv e dissidents'. It is not easy to suggest an adequate definition o f worship, or of Christian worship . On e descriptio n o f Christia n worshi p might b e th e answe r t o th e firs t questio n i n th e Westminste r Shorter Catechis m (1648) : 'Man' s chie f en d i s to glorif y Go d and enjo y Hi m fo r ever. ' Thi s speak s of Christia n worshi p as ascribing to God the glory that is properly his and delighting in encountering God . I t als o suggest s tha t worshi p is a central , characteristically human , an d virtuall y universa l activity . Worship, encountering God , fo r Christian s is the pivota l an d most importan t thin g i n huma n life , tha t whic h focuses an d enriches th e whole of life, th e givin g of meaning t o existence, the purpos e fo r which people were made. The ver y word 'worship' i n English is odd. Basicall y it means the recognitio n an d celebratio n o f worth , value , goodness, holiness, wherever such qualitie s are t o be found. I n Englan d they still retain th e archai c usage o f referring t o 'Hi s Worship the Mayor' . And in the 166 2 Anglica n Prayer Book th e groo m says to the bride, 'With my body I thee worship' - he recognizes and celebrate s he r wort h and value , her lovableness . And this he does not only in words - th e words of lovers are sometime s pretty incoherent, but words are still important - bu t also with the body , i n action . Th e lov e tha t thi s worship celebrate s i s expressed an d strengthene d i n bodily acts; it is something tha t involves th e whol e personality . Th e kiss , th e cuddle , gazin g silently into one another's eyes , coitus - thes e are just some of the bodil y way s i n whic h lov e show s itself . An d lovers , lik e worshippers (indee d th e argumen t i s that the y are ver y much the same), use symbols that are charged with rich meaning: the bunch of flowers, the ring, the gift of perfume. In such symbolic

Worship and Christian Practice 3 acts a lover recognizes and celebrates the love and worth of the partner. They communicat e with one anothe r i n verbal, bodily and symbolic ways, and thei r communication bot h show s that love i s there, an d deepens , enlarge s and strengthen s th e lov e between them . But the English word 'worship ' has been narrowe d in meaning down the years, so that today it is rarely used excep t to refer to se t time s of forma l ritual . This i s misleading, in a s far a s it suggests that worship is a distinct, specialized part of life; just as medical care take s place i n clinics and surgerie s and hospitals , so worship takes place i n churches an d mosque s an d temples . At on e leve l this is quite true . Ther e ar e time s and place s fo r public worship, and most people draw a pretty clear distinction between what goes on in these times and places , and th e rest of life. Bu t thi s narro w sens e need s t o b e complemente d b y a broader understandin g o f worship . Christia n worship i s th e offering o f the whole of life; our relationshi p to God cannot be confined i n one compartmen t of our lives . Times of service are important if we are t o offer th e servic e o f our lives ; the specia l times sustain and deepen th e constant relationship .

Worship as Practice That strang e activit y calle d 'worship ' stand s a t th e hear t o f Christian practice . Yo u cannot understan d th e Christia n lif e without referenc e t o worship, and Christia n worship must b e understood a s a form of practice, an activit y in which one par ticipates rather tha n something on e observes o r contemplates . Worship i s th e distinctiv e activit y of th e peopl e o f God . I n worship God is encountered an d glorified, God's purposes ar e discerned, howeve r faintly , an d God' s peopl e ar e nourishe d and strengthene d fo r service . Worshi p i s no t jus t par t o f Christian practice, but it is the centre without which everything else fall s apart , th e plac e fro m whic h we may extrapolate th e other dimension s o f Christian practice , th e par t tha t clarifie s and sustain s the rest. In worship we are in touch with the lif e of heaven, an d despit e th e incompletenes s an d imperfectio n o f earthly worship, God can and does use for God's glory and th e good of humankind ou r frai l an d stumblin g efforts t o worship God. Worship, then , i s something tha t we do. 'Religion , like art, lives in so far as it is performed', wrote the anthropologist Victor

Encounter with God

4

Turner. 1 Christia n fait h ca n onl y liv e i f i t i s enacted bot h i n times of worship and i n life. It is a doing that involves the whole person, th e hea d just a s much a s the heart . I n worship we use symbols, an d words , an d gesture s i n comple x pattern s o f behaviour whic h communicat e meaning . Th e philosophe r Wittgenstein wrote that 'Language di d not emerg e fro m som e kind of ratiocination ... Childre n do not learn that books exist, that armchairs exist, etc. - the y learn t o fetch books , t o sit in armchairs, etc.'2 S o in worship we learn b y doing, by acting, by re-enacting th e stor y of the community . The pionee r anthro pologist, R. R. Marrett, said that what he called 'savage religion' was 'something not so much though t ou t as danced out'. 3 How religion i s 'dance d out ' i n worship , an d ho w thi s relate s t o thought abou t God , theology , an d th e practic e o f th e com munity of faith an d individua l believers ar e mai n concerns of this book.

Worship as Relationship One o f th e commones t misunderstanding s o f worshi p i s t o regard i t in a n impersona l way . When thi s happens worship is seen a s a mechanical or magica l process i n which worshippers ensure thei r salvatio n o r happines s b y manipulating super natural forces. But Christian worship, as Edward Schillebeeckx has so strikingly affirmed, i s an encounter , a meeting: Religion i s ... essentiall y a persona l relation o f ma n t o God , of person to person; a personal encounter or a personal communing with God. It is precisely in this that the essential condition for a life truly centred on Go d consists. It is because God lovingly takes th e initiative and comes down to meet man in grace that man lives in a condition o f active an d immediat e communicatio n wit h th e on e who, in this relationship, becomes the 'livin g God'. The act itself of this encounter of God and man, which on earth can only take place in faith , i s what w e call salvation . O n God' s part thi s encounter involves a disclosure o f himself b y revelation, and o n th e par t of man it involves devotion to God's service - tha t is religion.4 1

Victor Turner, Th e Anthropology o f Performance, Ne w Yor k 1986 , p. 48 . L. Wittgenstein, On Certainty, G. E. M. Anscombe and G . H. von Wright (eds.), New York 1969 , p. 62e . * R. R. Marrett, The Threshold o f Religion (1909), p . xxxi, quoted in Tom F . Driver, The Magic o f Ritual, San Francisc o 1991, p. 84 . 4 Edward Schillebeeckx, Christ the Sacrament of the Encounter with God, London 1963, p . 4. 2

Worship and Christian Practice 5

If worshi p i s a n encounte r betwee n Go d an d people , thi s must b e reflecte d i n th e qualit y of relationship s betwee n th e worshippers and thei r attitude to thei r neighbours . I t i s right and prope r t o emphasize tha t worship i s the recognitio n an d celebration o f the glor y and wort h of God. Thi s should hav e a priority in our understandin g o f worship a s a human activity. But it is also true that worshippers experience a n affirmation o f their own worth and value to God. They come to worship aware of thei r sins ; they confess the m an d experienc e th e forgivin g grace and love of God, the divine confirmation that, despite all, they are loved with an infinite love, and ar e of incalculable value to God . Worship, then , shoul d b e a n encounte r wit h Go d i n whic h we enjoy him. It shows, even in the midst of oppression, poverty and th e bleakes t o f circumstances , th e deligh t o f keepin g company with God, i n whom all true joys are to be found. This applies, o f course , t o th e whol e o f th e Christia n life . Bu t worship, if it percolates throug h th e whole of life as it should, is still the tim e set aside for loving attention to God. I n the best of families tim e need s t o be kep t fo r doin g thing s together , fo r enjoying on e another , fo r talking , for playin g together . O f course, thes e time s are no t th e whole of th e famil y relationship, but withou t them th e relationshi p may wither. We need , i n other words, to make time for God, jealously guarded time , in which w e give loving attention t o God , tha t th e whol e of ou r lives may be live d as a loving encounter wit h God . Worship i s enjoyin g God. We d o no t 'enjo y ourselves ' i n worship, indeed th e very opposite, for in worship our attention is directed awa y from ourselves , t o God an d t o our neighbour . In worship we look a t ourselve s honestly and confes s our sins ; then as forgiven sinners we can cease to be absorbed b y self and open ou t t o God an d God' s glory , and t o the neighbou r an d that neighbour' s needs . C . S . Lewi s i n hi s autobiography , Surprised b y Joy, describes how as a young man h e was engrosse d with hi s ow n inne r workings . H e constantl y an d morbidl y scrutinized hi s motivation, his attitudes, his feelings as if these were matters of supreme moment . Conversio n drew him out of himself; h e becam e fa r more ope n t o other people , far mor e sensitive t o thei r feelings , because h e wa s now open t o God . Worship shoul d encourag e th e capacit y fo r open , mature , confident an d hones t relationship . Sin, according t o a phras e beloved b y Augustine an d Luther , i s bein g incurvatus i n se,

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turned i n o n oneself . C . S. Lewis, like many others, foun d a n amazing release from this obsession wit h self when he was given the capacity of enjoying God and his neighbour. Understandin g worship as an encounter wit h God should sav e us from the traps of over-concentratio n o n ou r ow n inwardness , an d o f bein g obsessed wit h the minutiae of liturgy and th e details of worship as if these things were important i n themselves. They are simply aids, which ought t o b e unobtrusive , t o th e glorificatio n an d enjoyment of God by his people . In the encounter, God takes the initiative. God has promise d to b e wit h peopl e wheneve r tw o o r thre e ar e gathere d i n God's name . Go d keep s promises ! Encounte r involve s th e whole person, body , mind and spirit . And i n encounter lov e is expressed, sustaine d an d nurtured .

Worship and Faith It i s frequently hel d tha t a n articulat e belief , o r th e abilit y t o subscribe t o a creed o r confession, is in some way the necessar y qualification fo r takin g part in worship. The cree d is felt t o be like an entrance exam ; onl y those who pas s can belong in th e worshipping community . T o worshi p withou t havin g worke d out exactly what you believe, to this way of thinking, is dishonest and lackin g in integrity. This positio n depend s o n a typicall y moder n confusio n between fait h an d belief , as Wilfred Cantwel l Smith suggests , arguing that fait h is an orientation of the personality, to oneself, to one's neighbour, to the universe; a total response; away of seeing whatever one sees and o f handling whatever one handles; a capacity to live at a more than mundane level; to see, to feel, to act in terms of a transcendent dimension. Belief , o n th e othe r hand, is the holdin g o f certai n ideas.5 But i t is not enoug h t o sa y that whil e a n intellectuall y formulated belief i s not a requirement fo r worship, faith i n Cantwell Smith's sense is. For worship is radically misunderstood i f it is seen as the joyful expression o f the confident , unclouded fait h of th e communit y and al l its members. Th e sol e requiremen t for takin g part in worship is some element o f hunger, of desir e for trut h and for reality. For faith and belie f as well are nurture d 5

Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Faith and Belief, Princeton 1979, p. 12.

Worship and Christian Practice 1

and shaped i n worship, and find their expression an d fulfilmen t in worship. And often enoug h it is in worship tha t faith i s born, so tha t i n certai n tradition s peopl e wil l spea k o f th e Lord' s Supper a s a 'converting ordinance' . Worship and Theology Down th e age s the experience of worship ha s called fo r theo logical explication . Sometime s thi s ha s bee n n o mor e tha n elaborate explanation s for practices and symbol s whic h arose accidentally or i n rathe r strang e circumstances . Bu t it has also been tru e tha t muc h grea t theolog y ha s been th e attemp t t o interpret practices in worship and relat e the m t o the deposit of faith i n th e Bible . Neithe r th e doctrin e o f th e Trinit y no r orthodox christolog y ca n b e simpl y read of f the page s of th e Bible. Doctrinal formulation ha s to relate the faith t o changing cultural contexts, i t is true; but eve n more urgent i s the tas k of relating the practice s and formulation s used i n worship to the tradition of faith. How could Christian s worship Jesus as divine (as the y did fro m a very early stage) an d stil l be monotheists ? Thus, christolog y aros e ver y largely as an explanatio n o f how Christians worship. Likewise , baptis m was administered i n th e three-fold nam e befor e ther e was any agreement tha t the Holy Spirit was a separate hypostasis, le t alone a formulated doctrin e of th e Trinity . These, an d other , doctrine s emerge d ou t o f consideration o f what is said an d don e i n worship; the experi ence o f worship demands theological explication . We can properl y thin k of worship a s theology. Worshi p in all its forms an d element s is laden with theologica l insights, some of whic h ar e rarel y brough t t o verba l expression : theolog y i s acted out , expresse d i n practice . Worshi p i s th e vehicl e o f theology, communicatin g fa r mor e effectivel y tha n learne d treatises eve r can . Thus , Methodist s an d Lutheran s hav e fel t particularly strongl y tha t th e hymn s use d i n worshi p com municate the fait h i n a way that people can appropriate . Many Roman Catholic s felt that the changes in the mas s enjoined b y the Second Vatica n Council involved a change i n the 'faith once delivered t o the saints', and tha t the change in the language of worship from Latin to the vernacular separated the m fro m thei r fellow Catholics who worshipped i n other languages. Th e 166 2 Prayer Boo k was, and is , one o f the theological standards of the Church of England - an authoritative repository of the teaching

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of the Church whic h many Anglicans fel t was not at the mercy of cultural and theologica l fashions as the Alternative Book was believed t o be. We can thin k of theolog y a s worship. Anselm, for instance , believing that theology is faith seekin g understanding and tha t faith i s inseparabl e fro m worship , wrote som e o f hi s mos t significant works of theology in the form o f prayer, of dialogu e between God and th e theologian . Muc h classical theology is in the for m o f sermons , bearin g al l th e mark s tha t the y were originally delivered i n th e contex t o f worship. For centuries it was assumed tha t theological lecture s should star t with prayer, because theolog y is done in the presence of the living God, an d should therefore be reverent as well as rigorous. The Orthodo x Churches, i n particular , maintai n a livel y convictio n tha t theology should be doxology, that it should lead peopl e t o give praise t o God , tha t i t shoul d flo w naturall y an d unselfconsciously into worship. In a sense theolog y provide s a tes t of worship, and worshi p provides a tes t of theology . Theolog y shoul d properl y be th e friendly criti c o f worshi p an d preaching , seein g par t o f it s function a s the encouragement o f honesty and integrit y in th e church's worship and proclamation. There is nothing wrong in seeing worshi p a s a kin d o f theologica l laboratory , o n th e assumption tha t authenti c theolog y shoul d 'rin g true ' i n th e worship o f God' s people . Thi s i s not t o sugges t tha t worship and theolog y are , o r ough t t o be, indistinguishabl e from on e another, o r tha t ther e shoul d alway s b e complet e harmon y between them. Worship, like the canon of scripture, is a kind of repository o f insights , images an d convictions , some o f which appear t o die , an d other s o f which go dormant fo r centurie s until i n altere d circumstances , ther e i s what Austen Farre r called a 'rebirt h o f images' . Worshi p an d theolog y ar e bot h explorations int o th e ultimat e mysteries of life ; i t woul d b e strange (an d rathe r dull! ) i f they were always in step with on e another. One may in worship, for example, rejoic e to join 'with angels and archangels and all the company of heaven', while as a theologian havin g great difficulty in working out whether one believes i n angels , o r wha t we mea n b y heaven . Bu t i f afte r careful consideratio n we feel tha t the existenc e of angels must be stoutl y denied, an d tha t heave n i s simply the frui t o f fals e consciousness, the n in honesty we should attemp t to remove all such languag e fro m ou r order s of worship. To mov e betwee n

Worship and Christian Practice 9 worship an d theolog y convince d tha t bot h ar e orientation s towards th e sam e mysterie s is exhilarating an d productiv e i n both areas . It is also true that worship provides some significan t tests of theological position s - can they be prayed or preached ? Do they lead into worship? Do they engage reverentl y as well as rigorously with mysteries which are to be adored, explored, an d lived out i n practice? The ol d epigra m le x orandi lex credendi, the la w of praying and the la w of believing , point s t o th e trut h tha t th e doin g o f theology and th e practic e of worship should b e hel d togethe r for th e healt h o f each.6 Kar l Bart h called th e epigra m 'on e of the mos t profoun d description s o f th e theologica l method'. 7 What is at issue here i s not simpl y the relationshi p between an academic subject , Christia n theology , an d th e practic e o f worship, bu t th e prope r orientatio n toward s truth . Michael Polanyi, scientist , philosopher an d semina l Christia n thinker suggests tha t worshi p stimulates , provokes an d encourage s enquiry; i t point s toward s th e truth , an d sustain s seriou s seekers afte r truth ; bu t i t onl y indicates i n paradoxica l an d fragmentary way s th e natur e o f th e trut h whic h 'we se e i n a mirror dimly' , until at the las t we encounter the trut h 'fac e t o face' ( 1 Corinthian s 13:12) . Polanyi' s concer n i s wit h th e relationship of worship and enquiry in general. H e suggests that all form s of discipline d enquiry are nourished , hel d t o their task, and pointe d steadily towards the trut h by worship: It resembles not the dwelling within a great theor y of which we enjoy the complet e understanding , no r an immersio n i n the patter n of a musical masterpiece, but th e heuristi c upsurge whic h tries to break through the accepted frameworks of thought, guided by intimations of discoveries still beyond ou r horizons . Christian worshi p sustains, as it were, an eternal, neve r to be consummated hunch ; a heuristi c vision which is accepted for th e sak e of its irresolvable tension. I t is like an obsessio n wit h a problem know n t o be insoluble , whic h yet follows against reason, unswervingly, the heuristi c command , 'Loo k at th e unknown! ' Christianit y sedulousl y fosters , an d i n a sens e permanently satisfie s man' s cravin g fo r menta l dissatisfactio n b y offering hi m the comfor t o f a crucified God. 8 6

See P . d e Clerck , 'Lex orandi le x credendi: Sens originel e t avatar s historique s d'un adag e equivoque', i n Questions Liturgiques e t paraissiales, 59 (1978) , pp . 193 212; E.T. , Studio. Ijturgirsi, an d Geoffre y Wainwright , Doxology, Londo n 1980 , pp . 218-83 1 Karl Barth , Th e Humanity o f God, London, 1961 , p . 88 . 8 Michael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, Londo n 1962 , p . 199 .

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Worship is a way of dwelling in truth, which should encourag e a passion t o explore th e mysterie s of life .

Warship and Ethics9 Our relationship to God and our relationship to our neighbou r are interdependent . W e canno t cultivat e a clos e an d lovin g relationship wit h Go d i n worshi p while we ar e bein g mani pulative o r exploitativ e in ou r relationshi p t o our neighbour . The Sermo n o n th e Moun t put s it thus: 'So if you are offering your gift at the altar, and ther e remembe r tha t your brother ha s something agains t you, leav e you r gif t ther e befor e th e alta r and go ; first be reconcile d t o your brother and the n com e t o offer you r gift ' (Matthe w 5:23-24). I f Christia n worshi p i s isolated fro m th e sphere s o f politic s and economic s (th e way relationships within societ y are structured) , it loses its authenticity and easil y becomes th e opiu m o f th e people , a cover for injustice and oppression, or an irrelevance. Archbishop Trevor Huddleston reminde d u s o f thi s whe n h e commente d tha t many Christians are so concerned with the real presence i n the Eucharist tha t the y forge t th e rea l presenc e o f Chris t i n th e needy neighbour. Indee d w e have been reminde d recentl y by Jose Miranda and others tha t for many of the prophets th e real worship of God i s the doing o f justice, no t ritua l nor sacrifices . Hence the y se e worship misuse d a s an alternativ e t o ethica l behaviour, a distractio n fro m th e servic e o f th e neighbour , a disguise fo r injustic e an d oppression , an d constantl y liable to degenerate int o idolatry. Others, like the American theologia n To m Driver, emphasize the capacit y of ritua l t o liberat e an d transform. 10 I n worship, they argue, an alternativ e world is manifested which, by its very existence, challenge s 'th e rea l world' . Ritua l is concerned a s much wit h transformatio n a s with order and continuity . It can challenge th e presen t orde r by presenting th e order tha t is to come. Arid yet the reality of worship continues to be profoundly ambiguous. Totalitaria n regime s thi s centur y hav e tende d t o prohibit evangelistic and educationa l activit y on th e part of the Church, an d t o strive to control preaching , bu t t o regar d th e worship tha t goe s on withi n a recognize d churc h buildin g as °This section draw s on Dunca n Forrester' s article 'Ecclesiolog y an d Ethics : A Reformed Approach' , Th e Ecumenical Review 47/2 (1995) , pp. 148-54 . 10 Tom F . Driver, Th e Magic o f Ritual, San Francisc o 1991.

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relatively inoffensive . There hav e eve n bee n suggestion s tha t the Nazis , s o fa r fro m bein g worrie d b y th e movemen t fo r liturgical renewal, secretly encouraged i t on th e grounds tha t it made churc h peopl e les s concerne d wit h th e political , social and economic processe s aroun d them. " But, contrariwise, both the Naz i and th e communis t dictatorship s wer e a t pain s t o develop alternative secular forms of worship and rituals to wean the peopl e awa y from th e Church : evidence of the continuing power and influenc e of worship ove r behaviour an d belief. 1'2 But how , in a deepl y divided world, can w e worship so that the situatio n is challenged an d transformed ? Camillo Torres , the Colombian pries t who died a s a guerrilla, believed tha t in a society a s profoundl y unjus t an d divide d a s Colombi a i t was impossible fo r th e mas s t o be properl y celebrated . Hence , h e said, 'I too k of f my cassock t o be mor e full y a priest', and gav e up celebratin g mass. 13 I n a ver y differen t context , Ulric h Duchrow asks whether a Church which 'i s divided among active thieves, passiv e profiteers and deprive d victims ' i s indeed th e body o f Christ, capabl e o f celebrating th e Eucharist. 14 But we must recognize that we are not yet in the Kingdom for which we pray. Worship is for thos e seekin g that kingdom and it s justice, and is superfluous fo r those who have already arrived, for in th e New Jerusalem, ther e i s no need of a temple. Worship, after all, is for sinners, not for those who trust in their own righteousness , as we are reminde d b y th e parabl e o f th e Pharise e an d th e publican. An d i n worshi p we fin d God' s forgivenes s and th e grace of new beginnings . But we need to recover today ways in which worship may be a healing, transforming, effective sign of community and of hope, as well as a place in which division and hostilit y are overcome. If in worship we find the tru e natur e of Christian community and experience a little of the Kingdom tha t is to come, prefiguring the lif e o f that Kingdom , we are encounterin g somethin g tha t is sharply at variance with the way of the world. In a sense we are playing out th e roles appropriate t o the Kingdom and express ing fundamental ethical commitments. The Johannine saying, " See Dermot A. Lane, Foundation for a Social Theology, Dubli n 1984 , pp . 143-44 , 182. 12 See especially Christel Lane , Th e Rites of Rulers: Ritual in Industrial Society - Th e Soviet Case, Cambridg e 1981 ; an d Davi d I . Kertzer , Ritual, Politics awl Power, Ne w Haven 1988 . " J. Gerassi (ed.) , Camilla Torres: Revolutionary Priest, Harmondsworth 1979 , p . 9. 14 U. Duchrow , Global Economy, Geneva 1987 , p . 137 .

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'The brea d whic h I shal l giv e for th e lif e o f th e worl d i s my flesh' surel y implies that th e body broken on th e cross and th e bread broke n an d share d amon g believers ar e both for the lif e of th e world . T o shar e tha t brea d involve s quit e specifi c commitments to the hungry neighbour and t o the needs of the world. Thus , i t i s no t onl y legitimat e bu t als o necessar y t o explore th e theolog y and th e ethics of what happens and what is said i n Christian worship.

Worship and Community Worship is the activity of the people of God. I t is not somethin g that peopl e do i n isolation ; eve n whe n prayin g o n one' s own one i s prayin g wit h th e Church . Worshi p i s no t somethin g people watch, a kind of stage-show laid on for an audience, no r is it something the y listen to, lik e a lecture . Rathe r i t i s something that they do, and d o together. It is the central activity of the Christian fellowshi p which create s a s i t expresses , friendshi p with Go d an d wit h ou r neighbours . I n worshi p w e ar e i n fellowship wit h th e faithfu l o n eart h an d i n heaven . W e learn the profound interdependenc e o f which the writer of the Letter to th e Hebrew s wrot e when h e said , o f th e grea t saints of th e past, 'they , withou t us, shal l no t b e mad e perfect ' (Hebrew s 11:40). Christian worship expresses an d make s community in which hostilities and division s are overcome. The poo r and th e weak have a special place i n th e community . If they are despise d o r maltreated th e natur e o f th e Churc h a s 'member s on e o f another' is denied: Two visitors may enter your meetings, one a well-dressed man with gold rings, and th e othe r a poor ma n in grimy clothes. Suppose you pay special attention t o th e well-dressed ma n an d sa y to him, 'Please take this seat,' while to the othe r poor ma n you say, 'You stand over there, or sit here on th e floor by my footstool,' d o you not se e tha t you are discriminatin g among your member s and judging b y wrong standards ? Listen, m y dear friends : ha s no t God chose n those who ar e poo r i n th e eye s o f the worl d t o b e rich in faith an d to possess the kingdom he has promised to those who love him? And yet you have humiliated the poo r man (James 2:2-6). And Pau l warns the Corinthia n Christians , few of whom 'ar e wise b y any human standard , fe w powerful o r o f nobl e birth '

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that whe n the y sham e th e poore r member s a t th e Lord' s table 'i t i s not th e Lord' s Suppe r tha t you eat' ( 1 Corinthians 11:20). In worshi p th e storie s tha t are formativ e o f th e communit v are retold, re-enacted, recalled an d meditated upon . Th e stor v of the communit y of faith i s grafted togethe r with th e persona l stories o f the worshippers . Whe n th e king s of the ol d Anglo Saxon kingdom s o f Englan d wer e converte d t o Christianity , they looke d afres h a t thei r persona l an d dynasti c histories as represented b y the genealogies . Thes e trace d thei r descen t back man y generation s t o th e old Nors e god s - Thor , and Wodin an d s o on. Then, rathe r tha n renouncin g thei r stories , denying thei r histor y an d assumin g a n entirel y ne w identity, the Anglo-Saxo n king s simpl y extende d thei r genealogie s backwards, so that now, as Christians, they traced thei r descent through th e Norse gods to the patriarchs of the Old Testamen t and bac k to Adam. They had grafted thei r stories into the new salvation-history, an d assume d a Christia n identit y without a total repudiatio n o f th e old . Ever y believe r ha s t o relat e th e personal stor y t o th e stor y o f th e communit y o f faith , an d worship i s one o f th e crucia l place s wher e thi s grafting takes place. In th e Jewish Passove r a central par t of the ritual i s when th e youngest child present asks four questions : Why does this night differ fro m al l other nights? Fo r on al l other nights we eat either leavened bread or unleavene d bread; why on this night only unleavened bread? On all other nights we eat all kinds of herbs; why on this night only bitter herbs? On al l other nights we need no t dip ou r herb s even once ; why on this night must we dip them twice? On al l other nights we eat eithe r sitting o r reclining ; why on thi s night do we all recline? The repl y from th e elder s come s i n term s o f th e stor y o f th e first Passover an d of God's deliverance o f his people from Egypt, the story which they are ritually re-enacting, and th e story which tells th e chil d and th e whol e gathering wha t it means t o b e a Jew, wh o the y are . Th e grea t stor y o f God's peopl e dovetail s with thei r personal stories :

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We were Pharaoh's slaves in Egypt, then the Lord our God brought us forth wit h a might y hand an d a n outstretche d arm . And i f the Holy One, Blessed b e He , ha d no t brought our forefather s fort h from Egyp t the n we , our children , an d ou r children' s children , would still be slaves in Egypt. So, even though all of us were wise, all of us full o f understanding, all of us elders, all of us knowing the Torah, we should still be under the commandmen t to tell the stor y of the departur e from Egypt . And the mor e one tell s the stor y of the departure from Egypt , th e more praiseworthy he is.' 5 That i s precisely what happens a t th e Passove r feast . They tel l again th e ol d story , they sing and pra y about it , but abov e all they re-enac t th e firs t Passover , appropriatin g afres h th e story of God' s deliveranc e an d makin g i t liv e i n contemporar y experience. They glimpse in the story who they are, where they belong, and what their destin y is. In worshi p we look back . I n orde r t o understan d ourselve s and ou r time s we must hear agai n an d relat e ourselve s t o th e stories of God's dealings with God's people. We need constantly to reposses s ou r pas t a s somethin g tha t i s stil l operativ e an d influential i n the present . And i n this process w e see where we 'fit in'. But worship would quickly become maudlin , wistful an d disabling if it were simply concerned wit h the past. It also looks towards the future and encourage s hope and expectation , fo r the Go d wh o meet s u s i n th e presen t an d deal t wit h u s graciously in the pas t is also the Go d who will be with us in th e future, when all worship will find its fulfilment an d culmination in th e immediat e presenc e o f God . An d i n th e presen t i n worship and in life we act out the roles of the coming Kingdom. W. H . Aude n i s reputed t o hav e said : 'Huma n being s ar e b y nature actors, who cannot becom e something unti l the y have pretended t o be it.' 16 In this profound sense , Christian worship is a pretence, a form o f play-acting . All down the ages Christians have recognized tha t in worship they are doing something o f ultimate importance, celebratin g the myster y o f God' s lov e an d grace . The y hav e experience d the excitemen t an d th e challeng e o f encountering th e livin g God, and foun d tha t their thirst for God was both satisfie d an d challenged b y their worship in Spirit and i n truth. The y would lr>

N . N. Glatzer (ed.), The PassoverHaggada, withEnghsh Translation, Introduction and Commentary, New York 1969 , pp . 21-23 . 16 Cite d i n Driver , op. at., p. 79 .

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agree wit h Kar l Barth wh o sai d tha t 'Christia n worshi p is th e most momentous , th e mos t urgent , th e mos t gloriou s actio n that can tak e plac e i n human life'. 17 FURTHER READING Tom F . Driver, The Magic o f Ritual, New York 1991. Geoffrey Wainwright , Doxology, London , 1980 . David I . Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven 1988 . Edward Schillebeeckx , Christ th e Sacrament, London 1963 . D. B. Forrester, 'Ecclesiology and Ethics : A Reformed Approach' , The Ecumenical Review, 47/2 (1995) , pp . 148-54 . FOR DISCUSSIO N 1. Wha t i s th e plac e o f Christia n worshi p i n moder n secula r societies? 2. Ho w should worship relat e t o the doin g of theology ? 3. Explor e some of the ways in which the Churc h i n its worship is a social ethic .

17 K . Barth , cite d i n J.-J. von Allmen , Worship: It s Theology an d Practice, Londo n 1965, p . 13 .

CHAPTER 2

THE ROOTS OF CHRISTIAN WORSHIP In 1966 , Loui s Bouye r argue d that , thoug h on e o f th e mos t original creation s o f Christianity , Christian worshi p di d no t spring up 'from a sort of spontaneous generation, fatherless and motherless like Melkizedech; i n discussin g Christian worship, on e must searc h fo r it s roots ; i n recountin g it s genesi s an d development, on e mus t strive t o understan d i t i n it s proper context.1 When Louis Bouyer wrote those words, the idea that the roots of Christia n worshi p wer e t o b e foun d mainly , thoug h no t exclusively, in Judaism wa s still a controversial one . Toda y i t is no more so . Progress in biblical studies and in the comparativ e study o f liturg y ha s show n no t onl y th e artificialit y o f th e dichotomy between th e Old and th e Ne w Testament, bu t als o the continuit y between th e worship of the Old Testament an d that of the New. 2 The Concept of Worship in the Old Testament Scholars hav e bee n know n t o discer n th e existenc e o f tw o distinct theologie s o f worship in the Ol d Testament. The first of thes e theologie s woul d b e overwhelmingl y base d o n th e liturgy o f th e Templ e i n Jerusale m an d therefor e heavil y dependent o n the role of the Levitical priesthood. Th e secon d of thes e theologie s woul d b e mainl y base d o n th e wide r platform o f everyda y life an d woul d therefor e appea r t o b e much mor e people-orientated . ' L . Bouyer , Eucharist: Theology an d Spirituality o f th e Euc.haristic Prayer, Notr e Dame, Indian a 1968 , p . 15. 2 Ibid, p . 19 .

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A priesthood-orientated theology of worship

According to some texts, 3 it would appear tha t the Holy One of Israel coul d b e encountere d onl y i n hi s ow n Templ e i n Jerusalem. It was in the Temple's sanctuary that the glory of the Lord was said t o reside, rather tha n i n the peopl e o f Israel as a whole. In these texts, we are confronted wit h a sharp distinction and separatio n o f the 'sacred ' from th e 'profane' . To give but one example , th e book o f Ezekiel decrees to the las t cubit the shape and measurement o f the Temple see n b y the prophe t i n his vision. The basi c architectural plan o f this Temple is that of the Templ e o f Solomon . Fe w but significan t departures ar e nevertheless taken from this basic architectural plan. Every time this happens , i t i s to emphasiz e th e separatio n o f th e sacre d from th e secula r an d t o safeguar d fro m defilemen t both th e holiness of God and th e holines s of his dwelling-place. 4 Divine laws are set out concerning those who are to be admitted to the Temple an d thos e who are excluded fro m the sanctuary. Of all Levitical priests , onl y th e son s o f Zado k ar e allowe d t o draw near to the Lord and minister to him. The kin g may come a s far as the gateway and th e people must remain outside. When they approach th e sanctuary, the sons of Zadok are enjoined t o wear special linen garments which they are then t o remove and leave behind i n the holy place 'lest they communicate holines s to the people wit h thei r garments' (Ezekie l 44:19). According to these texts, the highest possible worship can be rendered t o the Lord only on his own altar in his own Temple. With o r withou t the limitatio n t o th e son s o f Zado k whic h is peculiar t o th e boo k o f Ezekiel , the priest s ar e th e uniqu e 'personae' o f thi s worshi p b y th e Lord' s ow n decree . Th e people ca n be said to worship only in a secondary and derivative sense, an d tha t onl y b y attending fro m afar . Whe n 'drawin g near' (tha t is when offering sacrifice) , th e priests must perform their worship according t o absolute, immutable an d indispen sable rule s promulgate d b y God himself . The object s use d i n the performanc e o f worshi p ar e themselve s investe d wit h special holiness : th e vestments , th e vessel s an d eve n th e furniture. A s a consequence , the y mus t no t b e touche d b y 3 C f . e.g . Ezekie l 40-46 : Number s 1:50-54 ; 3:5-10 ; 4:15 ; Leviticus 1-7 ; 2 Chronicles 5:5; 13:10-12; Zechariah 14:16-20 . 4 T. Chary , Le s Prophetes e l le culle a partir d e I'ExiL, Paris-Tourna i 1955 , pp. 4-1 6 and 276.

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unauthorized hands . God' s unapproachable transcendenc e i s stretched to the limit and the manner of the Lord's presence in his Templ e i s understood quit e literall y i n spatia l terms . Th e basic unworthiness of all human beings is clearly stated, acces s to Go d bein g guarantee d onl y i n term s o f th e sacre d rite s performed b y a hierarchy of mediation. Failin g to observe th e universal culti c law , even o n th e par t o f th e Gentiles , would incur the most severe penaltie s such as drought o n th e land or even plague . A people-orientated theology of worship According to other texts, 5 worship would appear t o be a kind of 'spiritual sacrifice' leaving little room for outward ritual observances seen a s an en d i n themselves . It must be stresse d tha t in this context 'spiritual ' i s not t o b e take n a s synonymous wit h 'anti-materialistic'. The worshi p advocated b y these texts is not one o f withdrawal fro m th e world . On th e contrary , i t i s seen essentially i n th e faithfu l discharg e o f one' s dutie s o f brotherhood an d solidarit y toward s one' s fello w Israelites . I t consists o f obedienc e t o th e voic e o f th e Lor d an d o f faith fulness t o hi s covenant . I t mean s carin g fo r th e hungry , th e thirsty, the widow, the orphan, th e stranger, th e destitut e an d the oppressed, for the sake of the Lord . Th e aren a of this kind of worshi p i s as wide a s tha t o f lif e itself . Accordin g t o thes e texts, worship is not th e cult of an unapproachable God , bu t a celebration o f Immanuel , 'God-who-is-wit h us' . Acces s t o th e transcendent Go d i s not brough t abou t by a priestly hierarchy of mediation. On the contrary, the whole of the chosen People understands itsel f as called t o become the place where the glory of th e Lor d dwells : a holy , roya l natio n o f priest s spreadin g God's Word no t b y means o f sacred ceremonies , bu t b y their lives. Th e worshi p advocate d b y these text s i s clearly people orientated. N o har d an d fas t separatio n exist s betwee n th e sacred an d th e profane . I n it s origina l an d primar y sense , worship refers to the life and belief of a whole nation, a life and a belief that have immediate practica l and social consequences . In a secondary an d derivativ e sense, worshi p may then b e said 5 Cf. e.g . Exodus 19:5-6 ; Deuteronom y 10:12-22 ; Psalm s 50:7-23 ; 51:17-19 : Amos 2:6-8; 5:12-5 , 21-25 ; Hose a 6:4-10 ; 8:11-14 ; Isaia h 1:10-17 ; 56:6-8 ; 60 and 61 ; Micah 6:6-8 ; Jeremiah 7:1-12 , 22-23 ; Zecharia h 8:14-2 3 and 1 Samuel 15:22-23.

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to refe r als o t o outwar d moment s o f praye r an d encounte r reflecting, alongsid e al l th e othe r aspect s o f ethica l an d practical behaviour , a n indispensabl e inne r ('spiritual' ) attitude t o th e Go d wh o speak s an d act s accordin g t o a n eschatological plan. Unity and diversity in the Old Testament

From the publication in 1885 of Wellhausen's 'Prolegomena to the Histor y o f Israel' , biblica l scholar s hav e engage d i n a recurrently flarin g debat e ove r th e precis e natur e o f th e prophets' attitude t o the worship o f the Temple in Jerusalem . As E. Heaton wrote, the controversy 'has generated mor e hea t than light' , mainl y because o f a n unreadines s t o credi t th e biblical writers and redactor s with th e impartialit y of which we are not alway s capable ourselves. 6 Suffice it to say here with J. P. Hyatt tha t a substantia l consensu s i s bein g gathere d toda y around th e opinio n accordin g t o which 'th e ultimate Biblical and propheti c view is not tha t cultic worship can be completely dispensed with'. 7 In th e first place, prophet s appear regularl y on bot h side s of the argument. I n th e secon d place , as R. Daly points out, 'the very criticism of the prophets make s sense onl v on th e suppositio n tha t the y believed no t onl y in th e ide a o f sacrifice but als o in its practical efficacy'. 8 If th e tw o theologie s o f worshi p w e discerne d i n th e Ol d Testament ar e no t mutuall y exclusive , ho w ca n the y b e successfully mad e t o relat e t o eac h other ? Heavil y influenced by th e libera l Religionsgeschichte school, som e scholar s though t that the priest-centred theology of worship was the original one and tha t th e 'spiritua l sacrifice ' theor y wa s a later Hellenisti c development.9 A correctiv e t o thi s theor y wa s more recentl y supplied b y others wh o showed ho w th e ide a o f 'spiritualize d cult' went well bac k into Old Testament times. 10 On th e othe r hand, som e scholar s argue tha t th e priest-centre d conceptio n 6

E. W. Heaton, His Servants the Prophets, London 1949 , pp. 78-79 . J. P . Hyatt , Th e Prophetic Criticism o f Israelite Worship i n H . M . Orlinsk y (ed.) , Interpreting th e Prophetic Tradition, New York 1969, p. 210. 8 R. J. Daly , The Origins of the Christian Doctrine of Sacrifice, Londo n 1978 , p. 23 . 0 Cf. e.g. H. Wenschkew,Die Spirttualisierung der Kultusbegriffe in A Allen Testament: J'empel, Priesterund Opferin Neuen Testament, in Angelos 4 (1932) , pp. 70-281 . 10 Cf. H.-J. Hermisson, Spracheund Ritus im alt-israelischen Kult: Zur Spintualiesierung der Kultbegnffe i n Alien Testament, Wissenschaftlichen Monographie n zu m Alten un d Neuen Testament 19, Neukirchen-Vluyin 1965, pp. 156-60. Cf. also R. E. Clements, The Idea o f the Divine Presence in Ancient Israel Oxfor d 1965 , especially chapter 7 . 7

20 Encounter

with God

of worship , faithfull y reflecte d i n th e vocabular y o f th e Septuagint, was due more t o the corrupt ideal of worship at the times of the post-exili c Temple tha n t o the biblica l texts themselves.11 A similar and mor e attractiv e theory is that of T. Chary, who argues tha t ther e wer e indee d initiall y i n th e Ol d Testamen t not one bu t tw o understandings o f worship of which Jeremiah and Ezekiel were the forefathers. These two understandings did to a larg e exten t ru n i n opposit e directions , Ezekie l and hi s followers havin g broken awa y fro m th e traditio n o f th e earl y prophets t o introduc e int o th e histor y o f Israe l a ne w an d potentially dangerous factor, as Deutero-Zechariah and the preMaccabean sectio n o f th e boo k o f Danie l show. The concen tration of worship in the Temple o f Jerusalem an d th e rise of a distinctly priestly-orientate d mentalit y greatly contributed t o the stressin g o f th e Ezekiel-base d theolog y o f worship at th e expense o f that theology of worship which was characteristic of pre-exilic times . The balanc e ha d shifted . Th e emphasi s was now o n sacrificia l worshi p rathe r tha n th e impartin g of th e Torah; bu t thi s shif t wa s due mor e t o th e practica l abuse s condemned so totally and effectivel y by all the prophets tha n to any rea l elements i n th e theolog y o f Ezekiel himself. Thoug h heavily outweighed by the priest-centre d strand, th e Jeremiahbased theolog y o f worship di d no t di e ou t completely , bu t continued wit h th e Wisdo m literatur e an d th e 'psalm s of th e poor', to merge eventuall y with the previously more successful Ezekiel-based strand in the uneasy harmony of the Maccabean section o f th e boo k o f Danie l i n th e secon d centur y BC . The harmony reached a t this point was an uneasy one because i t was no more tha n a vision of hope for the future, a vision of perfect worship i n whic h th e ritua l elemen t woul d fin d complet e resonance i n the live s of a People embracing al l nations, race s and tongues . The people would then be truly a People o f Saints gathered aroun d th e 'Hol y o f Holies' , a ter m deliberatel y signifying i n th e opinio n o f the ancien t rabbis both a Templ e and th e person of the coming Messia h Son of Man.12 As anyone in Israel, a priest or not, was seen abov e al l as the subject o f God' s revelatio n an d covenant , i t woul d b e mis leading t o call the Peopl e of God a 'democracy'. Since i t was " Cf. S. Marsili, La Liturgia, momenta storico dellti salvezza, in Anamnesis, (AA.W.), vol. 1 , Torino 1974 , p . 38. 12 T. Chary , op. at., pp. 265-74 .

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21

principally throug h a n encounte r wit h th e livin g Go d tha t correct ethical behaviour was seen to ensue, it would be equally misleading to point exclusively to the mora l issue: justification by works was never a doctrinal theme in either Testament. Without falling into either trap , Chary's thesis takes nevertheless int o serious account the clas h between a strongly priest-orientated theology o f worshi p an d wha t migh t b e calle d rathe r mis leadingly a mor e 'democratic ' an d 'ethicall y minded' view . I t throws ne w ligh t o n W . Eichrodt' s masterl y account o f th e distinctive characte r o f th e priestl y tradition's understandin g of God and his dealings with man and th e world, of the place of man i n creation an d o f the meanin g an d purpos e of history. 13 In hi s comparativ e stud y of th e priesthoo d acros s time s an d cultures, L. Sabourin showe d tha t 'no serious investigations of Old Testamen t institution s ca n b e conducte d unles s du e attention i s also pai d t o th e stream s of traditio n which le d t o the text s a s we have them' . H e warne d u s tha t thi s applie d particularly to the study of the evolution of the Ol d Testamen t priesthood, 'sinc e the redaction o f the text s which are likel y to be informativ e depen d largel y o n th e priestl y circle s being investigated'. For him it was clear, for example, 'that the varying biblical interpretation s of th e Levitica l statu s reflect historical ambitions an d rivalries' , an d tha t 'som e text s se t fort h a program o f action, other s sanction , justify o r explain wha t has already taken place'.14 Without incurring such strictures, Chary successfully explains the evolution of the concept of worship in the Ol d Testament wit h du e car e t o both text s and traditions . Though stil l no t widel y known, Chary's thesis is no doub t th e most satisfactory theor y to be advanced so far.

The Concept of Worship in the New Testament In approachin g th e question o f what theology o f worship - if any - i s contained i n th e Ne w Testament, w e are agai n con fronted wit h th e usual, familiar difficultie s o f exegesis. O n th e one hand the Gospels in general and the Synoptics in particular are th e almos t exclusive source o f information o n th e lif e an d teaching o f Jesus. On th e other hand, th e Gospels are not th e most ancien t of Ne w Testament writings . Moreover , all thes e 13

436. M

Cf. W . Eichrodt , Theology o f th e Old Testament, vol . 1 , Londo n 1961 , pp . 392 L . Sabourin, Priesthood: A Comparative Study, Leide n 1973 , p . 102 .

22

Encounter with God

writings, including the most ancient such as the Pauline epistles, are dependen t upo n a strea m o f preaching an d theologizin g the growth of which predates th e writings themselves. As R. Daly points out , althoug h th e chronolog y o f th e Ne w Testament is b y no w fairl y wel l established an d th e line s o f theologica l growth ar e becomin g increasingl y recoverable , no t enoug h work ha s a s yet been don e t o allo w even th e bes t exegesi s t o avoid altogethe r th e circularit y o f arguments. 15 Happily , th e different Ne w Testamen t sources , thoug h startin g fro m different points , appea r s o t o converg e o n th e subjec t o f worship a s t o sugges t basi c agreement . A prope r exegetica l study woul d hav e t o tak e ver y seriously th e complexitie s o f both Ne w Testament chronolog y an d theologica l growth . N o adequate stud y of the Ne w Testament theolog y of worship has appeared t o date . I n thes e pages , w e mus t therefor e b e tentative, relyin g on th e apparen t unanimit y of th e primary sources rathe r mor e heavil y than we would otherwise choose. The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts The Gospels of Matthew and Luke portray Jesus' respect for the Temple b y puttin g o n hi s lip s traditiona l expression s o f contemporary Jewish piety. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus is made to refer to th e Temple a s 'my Father's house ' (Luk e 2:49). In both th e Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, Jesus refers to the Temple a s the 'hous e of God' (Matthe w 12:4; Luke 6:4). In th e Gospe l o f Matthew , Jesus quote s Psal m 48:2- 3 an d refers t o Jerusalem a s the cit y where Go d th e grea t Kin g has chosen t o dwel l (Matthe w 5:35). Al l three Synopti c Gospel s portray Jesus a s going t o the Temple ; he i s never sai d t o have prayed ther e o r t o have offere d sacrifice s (Matthew 21:14-23; Mark 12:35 ; Luke 19:47 ; 21:37). Mark and Luk e show us Jesus' preference fo r prayin g alon e an d i n secre t (Mar k 1:35 ; 6:46 ; Luke 5:16 ; 6:12 ; 11:1) , an d Matthe w make s hi m enjoi n hi s disciples t o d o likewis e (Matthe w 6:5-6). Matthe w seems t o imply tha t Jesus fel t a strange r t o th e Temple , an d tha t th e Church, base d o n th e confessio n o f Peter , shoul d als o b e a stranger t o it (Matthe w 17:24-27. Cf. also Matthew 16:16-18 in the light of Malachi 3:5). Jesus' rea l attitud e t o th e worshi p o f th e Templ e an d hi s championing of the 'spiritua l cult' (foreshadowe d i n Matthew 15

R. J. Daly, op. at., pp. 53-54.

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23

9:13), i s particularly evident i n th e accoun t al l three Synoptic Gospels give of the episode o f the cleansing of the Temple an d of the tria l of Jesus. It is made perfectly clear tha t the actio n of the cleansin g o f th e Templ e wa s directed agains t th e priest s and th e masters of the Law and no t against the merchants and money-changers b y making Jesus quot e publicl y Isaia h 56: 7 and Jeremiah 7:11 . The cleares t an d mos t reliabl e account of Jesus' tria l befor e th e Sanhedrin , parallele d i n Matthe w an d Luke, i s to be foun d i n th e Gospe l o f Mar k (Mar k 14:55-64). After man y accusations that could no t b e made t o stand u p in court, Mar k 14:5 8 give s us th e on e accusatio n o n th e basi s of which Jesus was condemned t o death: 'W e hear d hi m say , " I will destro y thi s temple tha t is made wit h hands , an d i n thre e days I wil l buil d another , no t mad e wit h hands." ' Sinc e th e Septuagint had reserve d th e expressio n 'mad e with hands' t o refer exclusivel y to idols , callin g th e Templ e o f Jerusalem a temple mad e b y hand s wa s tantamoun t t o denouncin g al l Temple practice s as idolatrous. This was something th e ancient prophets ha d neve r done. Challenged t o reply to these accusations, Jesus remain s obstinatel y silen t (Mar k 14:61) . Directly challenged b y the hig h priest , Jesus not onl y admits t o bein g the Messiah , but actuall y quotes Danie l 7:13 . I n doin g s o h e identifies himsel f wit h the So n of Man around whom th e ne w temple-community wa s to b e buil t an d wh o therefor e woul d spell th e en d o f th e ol d Templ e cul t (Mar k 14:61b-62) . N o further evidence is needed and Jesus is condemned. His crime, the crime for which he was condemned t o die, was not tha t he had claime d t o be th e Son of God (in a post-Nicaea sense), but that he had blasphemed against th e Temple, the most sacred of Jewish institutions. This interpretation o f the Synoptics is confirmed b y the Acts of the Apostles, chapters 5 and 6. Stephen fiercely criticizes the worship o f the Temple , quote s Exodu s 32:4-6, Amos 5:25-27, Isaiah 6:1, and ends by referring to the Temple as an idolatrou s artefact; upo n whic h h e i s immediately pu t t o deat h a s hi s Master was, and fo r the sam e reason . The Pauline epistles and Hebrews

The Gree k translatio n o f the Ol d Testament, th e Septuagint , uses leitourgein an d cognat e word s no t les s tha n 17 3 times t o refer t o th e priestl y worshi p o f th e Temple . I n th e Ne w

24 Encounter

with God

Testament, leitourgein and cognate words are used only fifteen times. Apar t fro m on e quotatio n i n th e Gospe l o f Luk e referring t o th e culti c rol e o f th e Levitica l priesthoo d i n Jerusalem (Luk e 1:23 ) an d a quotatio n i n th e boo k o f Acts which i t is practically impossible t o interpret correctl y without having recours e t o othe r book s o f th e Ne w Testament (Act s 13:2), leitourgein an d cognat e word s appea r entirel y i n th e Epistles: thre e time s i n th e Epistl e t o th e Romans , onc e i n 2 Corinthians, twic e in Philippians and seve n time s in the Epistle to th e Hebrews . Fro m thes e w e ma y safel y discar d fo r ou r purposes two passages from the Epistle to the Hebrews referrin g to th e culti c rol e o f th e Levitica l priesthoo d i n Jerusale m (Hebrews 9:2 1 an d 10:11) , two passages from th e sam e Epistle referring t o the angels' ministr y to God (Hebrew s 1:7-14) an d one passag e fro m Roman s referrin g t o civi l magistrate s a s 'ministers of God' (Roman s 13:6) . Of the remainin g passages , the tw o fro m Roman s an d th e tw o fro m Philippian s refe r respectively t o the leitourgia of Paul (Romans 15:16; Philippians 2:17) and th e leitourgia of Christians (Romans 15:27; Philippians 2:30); th e on e passag e fro m 2 Corinthian s refer s onl y t o th e leitourgia of Christians; the thre e from Hebrew s t o the leitourgia of Christ (Hebrews 8:1-2, 6). In all these passages, leitourgein and cognat e words ar e deliberatel y use d i n a polemica l sens e and directe d t o show, byway of contrast and antithesis , that th e leitourgia of Christians i s primarily a life of service t o others. O n the basi s of these texts, we may safely conclude that : 1. Chris t is the key-foundatio n stone of a new Temple not made by hands and compose d of living beings. 2. Chris t is the high priest of this new kind of worship, the leitourgos ton hagion (wher e to n hagion i s deliberately left t o signif y bot h the ne w templ e an d th e peopl e o f which th e ne w templ e i s composed). 3. Christ' s leitourgia was and i s one of obedience to God and servic e to others. 4. Throug h thei r obedienc e t o Go d an d servic e t o others , Christians are empowered to be with Christ one priest, one altar and one victim. 5. Lik e Christ's, the leitourgia of Christians is indeed a 'liturg y of life'. The them e o f th e priestl y sacrificia l community a s the ne w 'spiritual temple ' i s particularly stron g i n th e Epistl e t o th e

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Hebrews. In Hebrews 10:22 , the readers of the Epistle are given a last solemn exhortation t o 'draw near', that is to participate in Christ's high-priestl y sacrificial activity , and verse s 23-2 5 spell out what this sacrificial activity consists of, namely Christian lif e itself lived in community. Commenting o n thi s passage, R . Daly is in no doub t tha t 'livin g th e Christia n lif e ha s take n ove r th e atoning functio n of the sacrificia l cult' and tha t therefore 'th e deliberate si n o f Hebrew s 10:2 6 fo r whic h "ther e n o longe r remains a sacrifice for sins" would seem t o be th e separatin g o f oneself fro m the only sacrificial action tha t now has any validity: Christian lif e itself. 16 The New Temple theolog y of the Epistle to the Hebrews finds confirmation i n th e theolog y o f th e Pastoral s (e.g . 1 Timothy 3:15; 2 Timoth y 2:20-22 ; Titu s 2:14) , tha t o f th e Deutero Pauline corpu s (e.g . Ephesian s 2:19-22 ) an d als o i n thos e strictly Pauline passage s referrin g t o the Christia n communit y as God's dwelling in the Spirit (e.g. 1 Corinthians 3:9-17; 6:1519; 2 Corinthian s 6:16) . Furthe r impressiv e confirmatio n o f this interpretatio n i s to b e foun d i n thos e passage s i n whic h Paul expand s hi s ideas on Christia n servic e as 'liturgy of life' 17 and i n particula r i n th e pastora l sectio n o f th e Epistl e t o th e Romans (Roman s 12:1-15, 35). The First Letter of Peter

Quite apar t from the question o f its authorship, th e First Letter of Pete r deserve s her e a specia l mention . Thoug h a ver y practical letter , i t constitutes a valuable summar y of Christian theology7. The purpos e o f the letter is clear and uncontroversial : to give strength an d hop e to a Church persecute d for its beliefs. From the ver y beginning o f the lette r we learn, somewha t obliquely , that Go d ha s a providen t purpos e (1:2 ) b y which th e reader s were chosen t o receive salvation and to be obedient to the Lor d Jesus. Th e salvatio n th e reader s receive d consist s o f a ne w birth a s children o f Go d throug h th e resurrectio n o f Chris t from th e dea d (1:3-9) . I n searchin g an d inquirin g fo r thi s salvation, th e prophet s foretol d th e suffering s o f Chris t an d the grac e thos e suffering s would brin g (1:10-12) , bu t th e 16

Ibid., p . 73 . Cf. R . Corriveau, Th e Liturgy o f Life: A Study o f th e Ethical Thought o f St. Paul in His Letters o f the Early Christian Community, Studi a 25 , Brussels-Montrea l 1970 , pp . 155-80. 17

26 Encounter

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fullness of the salvatio n brought b y Christ will not appea r until the day of the final judgement (1:13) . Christ was destined from the foundatio n of th e world t o be th e Lam b without blemish (1:19-20). Th e reader s ar e therefor e exhorte d t o mak e a habit of obedience (1:14) : obedience t o God mean s love an d service to th e brethre n (1:22) . The gif t o f the new birth i s not enough. Lik e babes, th e reader s nee d th e nourishmen t of the milk o f spiritua l integrity : no w tha t the y hav e taste d th e goodness o f the Lord , tha t mil k wil l hel p the m t o grow up t o salvation (2:1-3) . Obedience an d spiritua l integrit y ar e th e secre t o f th e growth to salvation which th e reader s receiv e as a gift i n Christ Jesus. I t i s at thi s poin t i n th e lette r tha t Jesus i s called th e living ston e rejecte d b y me n bu t chose n b y Go d t o b e th e foundation-stone o f his new temple. The reader s are invited to 'draw near ' an d 'b e built ' lik e livin g stone s int o a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood an d t o offer spiritua l sacrifices acceptable t o Go d throug h Jesu s Chris t (2:4—5) . Other s dis obeyed th e wor d o f God an d fo r thi s the y shall be punished . The readers , o n th e contrary , sinc e the y obeyed th e wor d o f God, ar e a chose n race , a roya l priesthood , a hol y nation , God's ow n people: i n other words , being unite d wit h Jesus in obedience t o God's word and purpose , the y are with hi m on e temple and one priesthood. The purpose of this new priesthood i s that th e reader s migh t declare th e wonderfu l deed s of hi m wh o calle d the m ou t o f darknes s int o hi s marvellou s light (2:6-10) ; th e wa y in whic h thi s new priesthoo d i s t o b e exercised consists of the discharge of one's duty to others (2:1113, 12). Christ suffered t o lea d u s t o Go d (3:18) . I n baptism , the reader s hav e died wit h Chris t (3:21) . They must therefor e arm themselve s with th e sam e resolutio n a s Chris t had : t o obey th e wil l o f Go d eve n i f thi s means sufferin g an d deat h (4:1-2). The ful l revelatio n o f Christ , th e lette r says , i s now clos e (4:7). In the meanwhile , each on e o f the priestl y body, having received his or her gif t for a purpose, mus t use it efficiently: like good stewards responsible for all these different grace s of God, they must put themselve s at the service of others, that in all this God ma y receive th e glor y which, throug h Jesus Christ, i s his due i n the world (4:8-11). Christ suffered fo r all who are pre pared t o accept the grace of the new priesthood. Th e suffering s of the reader s ar e a share i n th e sufferin g o f Christ: a blessing

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27

and a privilege (4:12-16). Yet , the lette r warns, the judgemen t which i s upon al l will begin wit h th e judgement of th e house hold o f God (4:17) . So even thos e who m God allow s to suffe r must trust themselves to the constancy of the creator an d g o on doing good, that is go on offering to God as his new temple an d his ne w priesthoo d th e worshi p of a good lif e i n Chris t (4:19 and 3:16) . Paul's familiar theme o f the ne w temple is firmly connecte d with th e concep t o f th e ne w priesthood . Bot h theme s ar e then clearl y expounded i n a way which i s strongly redolent o f the Paulin e idea l o f Christian servic e as a liturgy of life : al l in all, a strikin g confirmation of ou r interpretatio n o f th e Ne w Testament theolog y o f worship. Thejohannine literature The theolog y of Christian community as the new temple, greatly developed i n Pau l and Hebrew s and confirme d b y 1 Peter, is more clearl y articulated in thejohannine literature than in the Synoptics. For th e Synoptics , the Templ e wa s the hieron, or th e plac e where God could b e met. For the Gospe l o f John, th e Templ e was th e naos, o r th e plac e wher e Go d dwells . Th e ver y first chapter o f the Gospel of John states that the Word pitche d his tent amon g u s (1:14) . Commentin g o n thi s verse , R . Brown writes: 'When th e Prologue proclaims tha t th e Word mad e hi s dwelling among men , we are bein g tol d tha t th e fles h o f Jesus Christ is the ne w localisation of God's presence o n earth , an d that Jesus i s th e replacemen t o f th e ancien t Tabernacle.' 18 According t o Brown , the them e o f 'replacement ' i s th e re current theme of the first ten chapters of the Gospel of John. In chapters 2-4 , w e have th e replacemen t o f Jewish institutions and Jewis h religiou s views : th e replacemen t o f th e wate r fo r Jewish purification s in turnin g of water into wine a t Can a an d in th e announcement o f the new birth i n water and th e Spirit, the replacemen t o f th e Templ e i n th e episod e o f th e purification o f th e plac e wher e Go d dwell s and , finally , th e replacement o f worship at both Jerusalem an d Gerizi m in th e episode of the Samaritan woman. Chapters 5-10 ar e dominate d by Jesus' actio n an d discourse s o n th e occasio n o f religious feasts: th e replacemen t o f th e Passove r wit h th e ne w Manna 18

R. E . Brown , Th e Gospel according to John, vol. 1 , Ne w Yor k 1966 , p . 33 .

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from heaven , the replacemen t of the feast of Tabernacles wit h the ne w water and th e ne w light coming fro m Jesus , th e ne w Temple, an d th e replacement o f the festival of Dedication with the consecratio n o f th e Messia h So n o f Go d a s th e ne w Temple's altar. 19 The Gospe l o f John i s widely recognized t o b e more con cerned wit h making theological point s than with th e detail s of chronology. In order to make a theological point , i t places the episode o f the cleansin g of th e Templ e a t th e ver y beginnin g of Jesus' publi c lif e an d ministry : the cleansin g o f the Temple and it s replacement wit h th e perso n o f Jesus himsel f may well have happene d historicall y just befor e Jesu s died , bu t th e whole of his life an d ministr y cannot b e understood excep t i n the ligh t o f tha t replacement . Th e Gospe l o f John i s also th e only Gospel t o pu t o n Jesus' lip s Zecharia h 14:2 1 rather tha n Jeremiah 7:1 1 and Isaia h 56:7: in the new Covenant there shall be no trader in the house of the Lord because there shall the n be a new Temple, a new altar, a new sacrifice, a new priesthood, new worship, new light and ne w life-giving water. In vie w o f th e centralit y o f th e Templ e them e i n John, w e should stres s with R. Daly the importanc e o f John 19:34—37 . He writes: 'John's witness in 19:35 pushe s us to a clearer awareness that Jesus is the new temple, that he alone is the source of living water (i.e . faith), an d tha t b y drinking (believing in Jesus) w e also becom e source s o f livin g water for others. ' The whol e of that passag e - Dal y maintains - shoul d b e seen i n the light of John 10:1 7 (wher e Christ's sacrificia l self-givin g i s seen t o b e both perfectly voluntary and done in loving obedience t o God), John 13:1-15 (where the washing of the feet is seen a s an act of service fo r u s symbolizing Christ's readines s t o di e fo r other s and impellin g us to do th e sam e for th e sake of our brethren ) and of 1 John 3:16 (where we are exhorted to lay down our lives for th e brethren i n imitation of Christ's self-giving). In so doing, Daly successfully removes an y remaining doubt that 'the sam e intimate associatio n betwee n th e sacrific e of Chris t an d th e sacrifice o f Christians which we found i n Pau l and Hebrew s is also richl y witnessed t o in thejohannine writings'. 20 The boo k o f Revelatio n i s often dismisse d a s an unhelpfu l source fo r th e theolog y o f worshi p i n th e Ne w Testament.21 19

Ibid., pp . CXL-CXLI . R.J. Daly, op. at, p. 77. 21 Ibid., p. 82 . 20

The Roots o f Christian Worship 2

9

Since the greater part of the book consists of allegories to which we have long los t the key , this judgement ma y prove t o be to o severe. With regard t o the last section of the book of Revelation, not enoug h attentio n i s often pai d t o th e parallel s with th e books of Isaiah, Ezekiel and Zecharia h i n which the theme s of light an d water , so characteristic of th e Johannine literature, are also highly prominent. To use the familiar language of Hans Kung, i n it s last tw o chapters the boo k o f Revelatio n is aware that'the Church as it is' is not yet either 'the Church as it should be' or 'the Church as it shall be'. The real down-to-earth Church is stil l a plac e harbourin g th e cowardly , th e faithless , th e polluted, murderers , fornicators , sorcerers , idolater s and liars as well as th e hol y (21:8) . Th e Christia n 'ecclesia ' i s not ye t altogether th e Templ e embracin g all peopl e an d al l nations giving to God the pure worship of their spotless lives . The Lam b who died is indeed th e lamp of the new Temple (21:22-24 ) and the fountai n o f th e wate r o f life , bu t tha t lif e doe s not a s yet flow freel y i n th e mids t o f a cit y i n whic h n o on e practise s abomination an d falsehoo d (21:27-22 , 2a). Firml y plante d in the mids t of th e city , th e tre e o f lif e doe s no t ye t produc e it s fruits eac h month . The leave s of that tree ar e no t ye t properly used fo r th e healin g o f th e nation s (22:2b) . All th e familia r themes of the Johannine literature are present in these two last chapters, backe d i n eve n greate r profusio n b y reference s t o Isaiah, Ezekiel and Zechariah in which the same themes appear. Since th e evil-doe r is still doing evi l and th e filth y i s still bein g filthy here o n earth (22:11) , true worship will not tak e place in its entiret y until suc h tim e a s th e real , down-to-eart h practi calities of th e Christia n life wil l b e observed , an d observe d b y all (22:3) . A clear paralle l exists between Revelatio n 22: 8 an d John 19:35 . The judgement o f Revelation 22:10-15 is extended to the Christia n communit y as well as to the worl d a t large . A more down-to-eart h statemen t o f th e natur e o f tru e worship would be hard to find, and so would a more striking confirmation of the overall teaching of the New Testament on the subject. Warship, the Fathers and the Early Christian Writers No surve y o f th e root s o f Christia n worship, however brief, should forget to make reference to the way s in which the early Church understood th e subject in the ligh t of the teaching s of the Bible.

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There i s n o doub t tha t fo r th e majorit y of th e Church' s Fathers an d earl y writers the sacrific e expected o f Christians was tha t of obedience t o God. I n certain cases , th e sacrific e of obedience woul d take the form of partaking in the cup of Christ by actually laying down one' s life i n witness to the Gospel. 22 In more ordinary cases an d i n direct oppositio n t o the sacrificial system of the Old Testament, the only perfect and well-pleasing sacrifices Christian s undertook t o offe r wer e thos e 'o f praye r and givin g o f thanks , when offere d b y worthy people'.23 Th e early Churc h understoo d thi s 'spiritua l sacrifice ' i n th e mos t concrete of terms. So Clement of Alexandria (before AD 215) could write that the sacrifice which the Church offered was that of the 'composit e incense' of which the ancient Law spoke an d which, in the ne w Covenant, 'is brought togethe r in our song s of prais e b y purity of hear t an d righteou s an d uprigh t livin g grounded i n holy actions an d righteou s prayer'. 24 A strongly incarnational theology led the early Church t o see the perfec t temple o f God i n the 'spiritua l being'. 25 Individual Christians becam e suc h a templ e whe n the y acte d justl y throughout thei r lives and therefor e gav e God 'uninterrupted worship i n His own temple, that is in their own bodies'.26 The community o f suc h individuals , an d no t a building , wa s for them, collectively , the tru e hous e o f praye r an d worship. 27 In this sense, th e individua l Christians were see n a s 'the chose n stones well fitted for the divin e edifice of the Father'. 28 For th e Church' s Father s an d earl y writers , th e 'spiritua l sacrifice' o f Christians was a bloodless sacrifice,29 offered on a n altar which was both Chris t and th e compan y of believers.30 At the turn of the fifth century, Augustine (AD 354-430) could therefore write that 'the whole redeemed city, that is to say the congregation o r the communit y of the saints , is offered t o God as our sacrific e throug h th e grea t Hig h Priest , wh o offere d himself i n his passion fo r us , that we might be members o f his 22

Cf. e.g. Th e Martyrdo m of Polycarp , chapter 14 . Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho. Clement of Alexandria, Stromala, book VII, chapter 6 , paragraph 34 . 25 The Epistl e of Barnabas, chapte r 14 . 26 Irenaeus of Lyons, Evangelical Demonstrations, n. 96. Cf. also Ignatius , Epistle of the Ephesians, chapte r 15 , and th e Epistl e of Barnabas, chapter 16 . 27 Justin Martyr , Dialogue withTryphon. 28 Ignatius, Epistle o f the Ephesians, chapter 9 . 49 Athenagoras, Plea for th e Christians, chapter 13 . M Ignatius, Epistle t o th e Magnesians; Polycarpus , Epistle t o th e Philippians, chapter 4. 28 21

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glorious head, according to the for m o f a servant'. 31 Augustine argued that , since 'tru e sacrifice s ar e work s o f merc y to our selves or others, done with reference t o God', it followed tha t 'this is the sacrifice of Christians: we, being many, are one bod y with Christ' an d tha t therefor e 'thi s is also th e sacrific e which the Church continually celebrates in the sacrament of the altar, known t o th e faithful , i n which she teache s tha t she hersel f is offered i n the offerin g sh e makes to God'. 32 Not surprisingly , the earl y Churc h wa s ofte n accuse d o f 'impiety' o r religiouslessness. 33 'Wh y hav e the y n o altars , n o temples, no consecrate d images?' , well-meaning pagan s asked themselves.34 I n thei r answer , th e earl y Church turne d thes e accusations into proud boasts . So Minucius Felix (third century AD coul d writ e tha t 'th e victi m fi t fo r sacrific e i s a goo d disposition, an d a pur e mind , an d a sincer e judgement . . . Therefore thos e who cultivate innocence supplicate God; those who cultivate justice mak e offering t o God; thos e wh o abstain from fraudulen t practices propitiat e God ; thos e wh o snatch human being s fro m dange r slaughte r th e mos t acceptabl e victim. These are our sacrifices, these our rites of God's worship: thus, among us those who are most just are those who are most religious.'35 Thus , Orige n (A D 253-54) coul d argu e agains t Celsus: 'We regard th e spirit of every good man as an altar from which arise s a n incens e whic h is trul y and spirituall y sweetsmelling, namel y th e prayer s ascendin g fro m a pur e con science . . . The statue s and gift s which ar e fit offerings t o God are th e work of no commo n mechanics , but ar e wrought and fashioned i n us by the Word of God . .. In all those, then, who plant an d cultivat e within their souls , accordin g t o th e divine word, temperance , justice, wisdom , piety , an d othe r virtues , these excellence s ar e th e statue s the y raise , i n whic h w e are persuaded tha t it is becoming for us to honour th e model an d prototype o f all statues: th e image o f th e invisibl e Go d . .. By far th e most excellen t of al l thes e (statues ) throughou t th e whole o f creatio n i s that image o f ou r Saviou r who said , u My Father i s in me."' 36 31

Augustine, City o/Gotl, book X, chapter 6. Jbtd. " Cf. Justin Martyr , The First Apology, chapter s 5 and 6 ; Athengoras, Plea jar the Christians, chapters 4 , 10 , 12 , 13 and 27 . 51 Minucius Felix, OcUwius, chapter 10 . 55 Op. at., chapter 32 . M Origen, Against Celsus, book VIII, chapter 17 . 32

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The early Church was often accused also of atheism, that is of the absenc e o f belief i n th e Stat e gods , and therefor e o f subversion an d civi l disobedience . Th e accusation , th e Father s argued, was deeply unjust : absence o f belief i n th e Stat e god s did no t a t al l involv e an y suc h consequences . S o Tertullia n (after A D 220) could firmly state that Christians everywhere did indeed 'invok e on behal f o f the safet y o f the emperor s a God who is everlasting, a God who is real, a God who is living . .. We already pray for th e emperors , tha t they may have a long life, a safe rule , a famil y fre e fro m danger , courageou s armies , a faithful senate , loyal subjects, a peaceful world, all that Caesars and the common people, pray for'. Since however, 'these things I cannot pray for from any one els e than fro m hi m fro m whom I know I shall get them' , I, 'who on accoun t of his teaching am put t o death', can onl y offer t o Go d th e bes t fat victim which God himsel f commanded: 'praye r arisin g from a pur e body , from a n innocent soul, from th e Hol y Spirit'.3 ' From the already quoted Minucius Felix (third century AD) we lear n tha t Christians were though t 't o threate n conflagra tion t o th e whol e world , an d t o th e univers e itsel f an d t o 'mediate it s destruction' i n th e hop e o f substitutin g 'a lif e o f want, hard work and hunger' with 'a blessed an d perpetua l lif e after death'. 38 I n thei r eagerness t o repl y to such accusations , the Father s an d th e earl y Christian writer s afford u s furthe r insights into the kin d of 'spiritua l worship' the y were advocating. The y stresse d tha t Christians , like other s i n th e Empire, were dutifu l citizens , deeply involved in th e comple x fabric o f their concrete historical , social, cultural and politica l environ ment. Their religio n was not on e o f destruction o r escape . So in th e Epistl e to Diognetu s we can rea d (thir d century ) that 'inhabiting Gree k a s well a s barbarian cities , according a s th e lot of each of them ha s determined, an d followin g th e customs of the native s in respect t o clothing, food an d th e res t of their ordinary conduct' , Christian s displaye d a s thei r onl y dis tinguishing mark 'their wonderful and paradoxica l metho d of life'. The y dwelle d i n thei r ow n countries , 'bu t simpl y a s sojourners'. A s faithfu l citizens , they share d al l thing s wit h others, ye t the y endured 'al l thing s as foreigners' . They di d good, yet they were 'punishe d a s evil-doers'. To su m up al l in one word , 'what th e sou l i s in th e body , tha t are Christian s in " Tertullian, Apologeticus, chapter 30. M Minuciu s Felix, Ortuvius, chapters 10, 1 1 an d 12 .

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the world'. 39 Rathe r les s prudentl y an d i n a wa y hardl y calculated t o reassur e th e authorities , Tertullia n similarl y argued tha t Christian s were soli d citizen s and friend s o f th e Empire. H e pleade d tha t th e proo f of thi s was in th e fac t tha t 'nearly al l th e citizen s you hav e i n nearl y al l th e citie s ar e Christians . . . We ar e bu t o f yesterday , ye t w e hav e fille d al l that i s yours , cities , islands , fortifie d towns , countr y towns , centres o f meeting , eve n camps , tribes , classe s o f publi c attendants, th e palace , th e senate , th e forum ; w e have left yo u only your temples . w Broadly speaking, the theolog y of worship of the Fathers and early Christia n writer s contain s an d reflect s al l th e familia r themes o f the New Testament theolog y of worship: the worshi p of Christians i s both 'spiritual ' an d 'perfect ' no t becaus e i t is free fro m material , social, this-world y elements , bu t precisel y because i t presuppose s a n involvemen t i n th e affair s o f thi s world a s tota l an d unreserve d a s th e involvemen t o f th e Incarnate Word . A s christolog y an d soteriolog y developed , they wer e increasingl y brought t o bea r upo n th e concep t o f Christian worship , as i n Irenaeu s (bisho p o f Lyon s fro m AD 177-78) and Hippolytus (AD 235), and above all Origen (AD 253-54), wh o mos t eloquentl y taugh t tha t th e whol e o f Christian lif e wa s a sacrific e an d whos e mai n concer n i t was therefore t o show how the Church and indee d th e whole world are calle d to share i n th e sacrific e o f Christ. 41 The earl y Father s an d Christia n writer s ar e remarkabl y consistent i n thei r teaching s o n th e subjec t o f Christia n worship. Yet , as so ofte n th e theolog y o f worship o f th e earl y Church contained th e see d o f its own destruction. Clemen t o f Rome, who did no t hesitat e to teach that true sacrifice was a life according t o th e wil l o f God, 42 wa s the firs t solitar y voic e t o uphold strict regulations on the subject of worship and t o teach that priestly worship should b e offered at the appropriate time, in th e appropriat e places , by appropriate persons , la y worship being boun d b y the law s pertaining t o lay people.43 In makin g this claim, Clement made recours e t o th e very Old Testamen t 30

The Epistl e to Diognetus, chapters 5 and 6 . Tertullian, Apolegelicus, chapter 37 . 41 Irenaeus , Against Heresies, boo k IV, chapters 30 and 31. For Hippolytu s and Origen, see R. Daly, op . at., pp. 98-100 and 122-27 . 12 Cf. Clement , Th e First Epistle to the Corinthians, chapter s 1 0 an d 31 . Th e attribution t o Clement of Rome is not certain . " Ibid., chapters 18 , 35 and 52. 40

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regulations whic h th e othe r Christia n writer s wer e s o bus y proving t o hav e bee n superseded , th e mos t notabl e amon g these bein g the so-calle d Epistl e of Barnabas. After th e establishment o f Christianity as the only permitte d religion within the Roman Empire under Theodosius I (AD 371), th e flood-gate s o f th e Churc h wer e open t o all kinds of barely-Christianized attitudes . Huma n natur e wa s soon t o d o the rest, since attempting to tame the sacred come s more easily to a human being tha n allowing oneself t o be swept up by it. In practical terms, the original freedom o f Christian worship soon turned int o th e ossificatio n o f liturgica l forms. 44 B y th e beginning o f th e fift h century , th e privat e hous e wher e th e Church met 45 had universall y become the ecclesia (Eglise, Iglesia, Chiesa, Eglwys} o r kyriakon (kirk , church): th e hous e of God, a temple fille d wit h sacred object s th e mos t importan t o f which was the stone altar of sacrifice standing in a 'sanctuary' reserve d for th e ordained and separated from the rest of the building by the 'tetravela' 46 - a cloth-screen designe d t o insure, a s John Chrysostom himself (A D 354—407) explained, 47 that no profan e eye woul d se t it s gaze o n th e 'sacre d mysteries ' (cf . Exodus 36:35-36). Within that sanctuary there would be place d seve n ceremonial candlestick s a s a latter-da y 'menorah' : a perfec t outward reconstructio n o f th e Templ e whos e vei l (Matthew 27:51) wa s torn fro m to p t o bottom. 48 Under th e onslaugh t o f such practices , the teachin g of the earlie r Father s was soon t o be overlaid by all kinds of ex post facto theologies. Throughout these changin g times , th e Churc h continue d t o teac h tha t Christian worshi p was worship 'i n spiri t and i n truth' : charity should no t preven t u s from asking ourselves what , if anything, was understood by that.

14

For this , see e.g. K. Latte, Romische Religiongeschichle, Munchen 1960 , p. 62 . Cf. e.g. 1 Corinthians 16:19 Cf. Duchesne (ed.) , Liber Pontificate, vol . 2 , p . 120. "John Chrysostom , Homilies on the Epistle t o the Ephesians, horn . 4 . 48 For this , se e S . Marsili, I.M. Liturgia, momenta storico delta salvezza, in Anamnesis (AA.W.), vol 1 , Torino 1974, pp . 53-58. 45

46

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FURTHER READING R. K . Yerkes , Sacrifice i n Greek an d Roman Religious an d Early Judaism, Londo n 1953 . R. J. McKelvey , Th e New Temple: Th e Church in the New Testament, London 1969 . R. Corriveau, The Liturgy o f Life: A Study o f the Ethical Thought o f St. Paul in His Letters to the Early Christian Communities, Studia 25, Brussels-Montreal 1970 . R. J. Daly, The Origins of the Christian Doctrine of Sacrifice, London 1978. P. F. Bradshaw and L . A. Hoffma n (eds.) , Th e Making of Jewish and Christian Worship, Notr e Dame 1991 . FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w far does our ide a of God influenc e our worship ? 2. Doe s i t mak e sens e toda y t o speak o f hol y places an d hol y things? 3. Wha t inferences for a renewed understanding o f the Lord' s Supper, i f any, may be legitimatel y drawn from th e biblica l and earl y patristic understanding of the natur e of Christian worship?

CHAPTER 3

IN SPIRIT AND IN TRUTH The word worship comes from the Anglo-Saxon weorthscipe that, in turn , comes fro m a root meanin g t o honour. In ou r contex t therefore, worship should mean the act of paying divine honour to God. Let it be said from th e outset tha t this word can be confusing to Jew s an d Christian s alike . It s Ne w Testamen t Gree k equivalent i s proskynesis, meanin g originall y th e actio n o f falling down to the ground i n an attitude of humble submission before someone 'worthier ' than ourselves, but in the context of religious ceremonie s i t wa s use d mainl y b y pagans , wh o approached thei r gods i n fea r an d trembling. 1 Th e favourit e New Testament word s for the same thin g were on th e contrary the Greek equivalents (douleia and latreia) o f the Old Testament Hebrew word s for service (sheret an d 'abodah). Fo r Jews an d Christians alike, therefore, worship should be not so much the act of paying honour to God as the seruicewe are t o offer i n term s of his final purpose, individuall y and collectively , throug h th e manner an d qualit y of ou r live s (including , of course , ou r practices of devotion) . The words, actions and gestures we use in our worship are so familiar t o us that as a rule we tend not t o question eithe r thei r nature o r thei r effectiveness . Th e way s of our worshi p are no t by and larg e th e produc t o f our ow n discoveries as individual worshipping communities, but a precious inheritance from th e past handed dow n t o us by tradition. Som e sociologist s would say that the y are par t of the commo n sens e world of everyday life, o f what everybody knows , and therefor e par t o f a socia l stock of assumed an d unchallenged knowledge/Ofte n enough , 1 Fo r th e attitud e o f Christians , see e.g . Irenaeu s o f Lyons , Evangelical Demonstration 96.

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when aske d why we should ac t in such ways, our answe r would be a vague assertion tha t th e Churc h ha s behave d i n thi s way for a long , lon g time : becaus e o f it s obvious connectio n wit h the sacred , worshi p i s ofte n though t t o shar e i n th e ver y unchangeability of God . All to o ofte n w e assume tha t what we do no w means t o u s what i t meant t o ou r forefathers . We have n o rea l guarante e that worship as set out i n th e liturgica l books , worship as proposed b y th e culti c officials , worshi p a s explaine d b y theologians, an d worshi p as lived by the congregation s ar e i n fact on e an d th e sam e thing . Th e trut h i s tha t n o for m o f worship, no t eve n tha t o f th e Ne w Testament, mirror s th e essence o f worship perfectl y and fo r al l times . A s Hans Kun g remarks with regard t o the theolog y o f the Church , 'a delicate balance mus t be struc k betwee n th e unthinkin g conservatism of a dead past , a n attitud e whic h i s unconcerne d wit h th e demands of the present, and th e careless rejection o f the living past, an attitud e which is all too concerned wit h the transitory novelties o f th e present'. 2 T o remai n tru e t o itself , Christian worship mus t alway s allo w itself t o b e conditione d ane w by history; i t mus t alway s be bot h a cal l an d a respons e withi n constantly changing historical situations. The histor y of the Christian Church in its complex pattern of growth an d decay , renewe d understanding , forgetfulnes s an d betrayal provide s ampl e materia l fo r th e constructio n o f a theology of worship. The embarrassmen t is one o f riches. Th e problem i s one o f method . Th e dange r i s not tha t we might pervert truth , but tha t we might forget tha t al l human knowledge, includin g theology , i s provisiona l b y definition . Th e truth o f the Go d who gives himself to his people shoul d neve r be confuse d wit h statement s abou t it . A s Karl Bart h wrote , theology wil l alway s b e ' a thinking , an investigatio n an d a n exposition whic h are relativ e and liabl e t o error', 3 sinc e all theology ca n do is 'attempt to understand, expound, see, hear , state, survey, co-ordinate and presen t th e theoretica l meanin g and the practical consequences o f an encounter-dialogue which must be experienced befor e i t is talked about'. 4 Some theologian s hav e attempte d t o solv e th e methodo logical impasse by attributing to the worship of their Church an 2 1 1

H. Rung, Th e Church, London 1971 , pp . 4-6, 13-14. K. Barth, Dogmatics in Outline, London 1966 , p . 11 . Ibid., p. 9.

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artificial kin d of changelessness the bette r t o judge individua l historical development s on th e basi s of thei r conformit y with the suppose d archetyp e of th e ancien t liturgica l books. Th e certain knowledg e tha t Christia n worship i s constantly conditioned ane w by history and cultur e should dissuad e u s fro m treading thi s path . Othe r theologian s hav e adopte d a s their touchstone a syste m o f confessiona l theolog y buil t without much reference to either liturgical documents or historical fact. The perennia l quarrels between th e Catholics and Protestant s of ol d shoul d b e enoug h t o dissuad e u s fro m followin g i n these footsteps . Yet other scholar s have chosen t o engage i n a purely phenomenological study of the history of religions in an attempt t o fin d a minimu m common denominator . Withou t wishing to criticize the appropriateness of this method i n other fields of study, one ca n only lament its exclusive application in theological research. On the understanding that the paramount reality of Christian experience i s that Go d speak s t o u s i n th e here-and-now , we shall attempt to construct an organic and coheren t framework (theology) withi n whic h w e might understand mor e deepl y a particular phenomeno n (worship ) from th e vantag e poin t of the fait h o f the Churc h an d i n th e ligh t o f our commitmen t and actio n in the world of today. Christian Warship The Psalm s and Prophet s of the Old Testament taugh t us that God take s no deligh t in the sacrific e of bulls and rams . The New Testament teaches us that God takes no particular delight in ou r liturgica l endeavours. Christia n worshi p i s worship in spirit an d i n truth . I t i s not s o much a questio n o f tim e an d place an d eve n les s a questio n o f correct words an d suitabl e ceremonies, bu t abov e al l a questio n o f th e righ t attitud e of openness, surrender and obedience to God in a life consecrate d to his purpose . Worship i n spiri t and i n trut h i s not disembodied ; i t i s no t divorced fro m everyday experience. I n spiritua l worship, th e real God encounters and addresses the real human being, and the rea l human being is made abl e to respond in th e power of the Spirit . True worship is not escape from th e temporal , bu t communion betwee n th e huma n an d th e divine . A s God encounters u s wit h hi s Word , w e ar e identifie d wit h God' s

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purpose an d ar e made abl e t o consecrate ou r existences t o his will. I n themselves , liturgica l word s an d gesture s ar e neithe r good nor bad. They are not transparent and therefore ma y hide and vei l what truly lie s behind them . Bein g unable t o carry by themselves a meanin g o f thei r own , the y ca n onl y point t o a reality greate r tha n themselves . A s such, the y ar e neve r con demned in the Scriptures. We are so built that, without outward expression, spiritua l realities cease t o b e presen t an d t o have meaning for us. Worship can only be conducted i n th e huma n tongue, according t o human ways. Even before a word is on ou r mouth, th e Lor d know s i t altogether , an d sinc e w e d o no t understand the tongu e of angels, Go d addresses us in our own language. The word 'tradition' (in the Greek, parddosis) refers to a process whereb y something i s offered, handed ove r t o us. For the communit y of faith, wha t is primarily offered an d hande d over t o u s i s th e realit y o f Go d himsel f a s a gif t o f lov e ('paradosis', i n th e singular) . Abou t thi s fundamenta l fact , there is a variety of'traditions' ('paradoseis , in the plural), some of which are expresse d i n liturgica l form an d non e o f which exhausts th e meanin g o f God' s self-gift . I n givin g to u s bot h himself and hi s power to transform what is still imperfect, God speaks. Ou r rol e i n worshi p i s tha t o f obedienc e t o God' s spoken Word . In speakin g of worship, we often forge t tha t nothing ca n b e added t o or take n awa y from God' s purpose. Th e respons e of the Churc h i s not a condition fo r th e ultimat e coming o f th e Kingdom. The Kingdo m will come whatever we do or fail t o do. By grace , w e are calle d t o giv e embodimen t t o th e Kingdo m and to share in God's creative, redeeming and fulfilling activitv . If we refuse t o co-operate, the los s wil l be our s and no t God's . When we approach Go d in worship, we do so only too awar e of our needs . Ou r need s ar e alway s fulfilled , thoug h no t alwav s according t o the measure of our expectations . As St. Augustine writes, 'n o on e wil l thin k h e di d a benefi t t o a fountai n b v drinking or to the light by seeing'.5 Strictly speaking, God does not nee d ou r worshi p eithe r i n term s o f what we do i n ou r churches o r i n term s of what we do wit h ou r lives . It i s we who need t o worship , so tha t we migh t attai n t o th e unit y o f th e faith, t o mature manhood , t o the measur e o f the stature o f the fullness of Christ (Ephesians 4:13-14). 5

Augustine, City o f God, book 10 , chapter 6 .

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According to th e same Epistle , the experienc e o f Christians is that 'the Go d and Fathe r of our Lor d Jesus Chris t chose u s before th e foundatio n of the worl d to be hi s children'. God' s empowering call is not onl y to satisfaction, but als o to mission. The teaching of the Old Testament Prophets , reinforced by the New Testament, i s unequivocal o n thi s subject: lif e mus t fee d our worship as worship must feed our life . What we do when we worship ha s n o valu e i f th e Wor d ha s n o resonanc e i n th e quality of our existence . In all kinds of ways, God makes known to us , hi s Church , 'th e myster y of hi s will , accordin g t o th e purpose which he set forth in Christ as a plan for the fullness of time, to unite all things in him, things in heaven and thing s on earth'.It is our belief that, within this will and purpose, 'w e who first hoped i n Christ have been destined t o live for the praise of God's glory ' (Ephesian s 1:3-14). Worship i s therefore bot h a personal an d a corporate encounte r wit h God. Th e Wor d of God i s spoke n an d w e ar e renewe d fo r th e servic e o f hi s Kingdom. The initiativ e i s God's, th e powe r i s God's: our s is only th e respons e o f a lif e transforme d b y th e Spirit . Ou r experience show s the trut h o f wha t th e Bibl e teaches: i f in a strict sense the word 'worship' refers primarily to what happens when we gather to pray, in a wider sense i t embraces the whole of our lives . The worshi p in spiri t and i n trut h whic h i s characteristic of Christians should be governed by these three simple principles: 1. Christia n worshi p an d Christia n lif e ar e indissolubl y linke d together. 2. A corporate activit y needed b y us an d no t b y God, Christia n worship i s bot h th e momen t an d th e consequenc e o f a n encounter i n which God gives himself t o his people as a gift o f love, reveal s t o the m hi s wil l fo r th e world , demand s an d empowers a response, and consecrates to his purpose the life of the whole communit y of faith. 3. Therefore , befor e i t is seen as an activity of people towards God , Christian worship should be seen as an activity of God directed towards thos e who m Go d ha s chose n t o liv e an d wor k t o hi s praise and glory .

The Worship of Jesus the Christ Among others , S . Marsil i teache s tha t ou r salvatio n ha s a historical dimension and contains three distinct moments. The

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first momen t wa s one o f prophec y an d announcement . I n it ther e wa s disclosed th e eterna l lov e o f Go d wit h whic h th e Father, who wishes all people t o be saved , chose u s as his own children i n hi s dea r So n ( 1 Timoth y 2:4 ; Ephesian s 1:4 ; 2 Timothy 1:9) . The secon d momen t wa s that of th e fullnes s o f time. Th e tim e o f preparatio n bein g over , th e Word , no w Incarnate, wa s himself th e beare r o f th e goo d new s o f th e present event of salvation. In this second moment , th e Word of salvation becomes 'reality in people', that is 'flesh' (Joh n 1:14) . It was the moment i n which the grace given to us from eternity was actualize d i n th e appearin g o f ou r Saviou r ( 2 Timoth y 1:10). In the Word made flesh, the reality of salvation found its two constitutiv e elements : perfec t at-onemen t wit h Go d an d the fullnes s o f worship . Th e thir d moment , th e momen t i n which w e live , i s both th e resul t an d th e perpetuatio n o f th e second moment : th e 'tim e o f Christ' continue s int o th e 'tim e of the Peopl e of God'. Made one with Christ, his at-onement is our at-onement , hi s worshi p i s ou r worship . Whe n Go d addresses u s i n worshi p w e can respon d becaus e w e are on e Body with Christ, the one hig h priest . Christ's priesthood make s of hi m th e primar y sourc e o f ou r worship . I n worship , we respond t o Go d i n Christ, with Christ, through Christ, becaus e we have been mad e one Bod y with him. When tw o or three are gathered together , ther e i s the Church. There is also her Lord , the Incarnat e Word . Th e Wor d whic h i s announcement , proclamation and cal l to salvation is made present . Th e cal l is heard an d th e powe r t o respon d i s given.* 1 A s E . Brunne r remarks, 'a n exchang e take s plac e her e tha t i s wholly without analogy i n th e spher e o f thinking . The onl y analog y i s th e encounter betwee n huma n beings , the meeting of person wit h person'.7 In worship, Christ is our onl y Mediator. We are with him on e priest, one altar, one victim. His self-offering i s our self-offering , his obedienc e ou r obedience , hi s priesthood ou r priesthood . His response is our response . As Scripture says, we are crucifie d with Christ: since our lif e i s hidden wit h Christ in God, i t is no longer w e who live , but Chris t who live s in us , and th e lif e we now liv e i n th e fles h w e liv e b y faith i n th e So n o f Go d wh o loved us and gav e himself for us (Galatian s 2:20). h Cf. S. Marsili, 'La liturgia, momento storic o dcllasalvessa', in Anamnesis, vol. 1, Torino 1974 , pp. 88-92. 7 E. Brunner, Truth as Encounter, London 1964 , p . 114 .

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In th e perso n o f Jesus, th e peopl e o f Palestine me t th e God who calle d them . I n him , the y me t th e huma n bein g wh o responded t o God with the perfec t answer. In his life , the y saw the perfec t example o f the respons e of God required o f them . As th e Epistl e t o th e Philippian s says , 'thoug h h e wa s in th e form o f God, h e di d not coun t equality with God a thing to be grasped, bu t emptie d himself , takin g th e for m o f a servant , being bor n in the likeness of men', and 'bein g found in human form h e humble d himsel f an d becam e obedien t unt o death , even deat h o n a cross ' (Philippian s 2:6-8). Becaus e o f hi s obedience and i n fulfilment o f the prophecie s o f Isaiah, Christ is the perfect servant and th e perfect worshipper o f God (i n th e Hebrew,'ebed YHWH means both) . In him, we have the perfec t high priest . Fro m th e Epistl e t o th e Hebrew s w e lear n tha t 'when h e appeare d a s the hig h pries t o f the goo d thing s tha t have come , the n throug h th e greate r an d mor e perfec t ten t (which i s his Body) h e entere d onc e an d fo r al l into th e Hol y Place, takin g no t th e bloo d o f goat s an d calves , bu t hi s own blood, thus securing an eternal redemption' . We learn tha t 'he entered no t a sanctuar y mad e wit h hands , a cop y o f th e tru e one, bu t int o heave n itself , no w to appea r i n th e presenc e o f God o n ou r behalf , an d that , therefore , 'h e i s trul y th e mediator of the new covenant' (Hebrew s 9:11-24): subjectively, because o f hi s obedience , an d objectivel y becaus e o f hi s very being in whom the fullness of God was pleased t o dwell. In him, as the ancient Easter liturgy sings, 'heaven and earth are joined in one , an d ma n i s reconciled t o God'. 8 H e i s therefor e th e 'bridge' as well as the 'bridge-maker' (in the Latin, pontifex, that is 'high priest') . The belie f of th e Churc h i s that th e fullnes s o f deity dwells bodily in Christ and tha t from his fullness we have all received, grace upo n grac e (Colossian s 2:9 ; John 1:16) . W e therefor e believe tha t throug h th e hig h priesthoo d o f Jesus th e lif e o f God ha s become our lif e an d that , through th e Incarnatio n of the Son , Go d has now a human face . Through Chris t the hig h priest, all have now direct access to grace an d ar e mad e abl e t o 'draw near' an d offe r thei r existence a s a service o f love and a spiritual sacrifice . We are no w a new temple, a spiritual house built of living stones to be a holy priesthood ( 1 Peter 2:5). Hans Kung writes: 'Christians do no t stan d o n th e threshol d o f the temple lik e impur e peopl e beggin g fo r grace , i n fea r an d * These words survive in the abbreviate d rite s of today: cf. The New Sunday Missal, London 1981 , p. 63.

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trembling': they are themselve s the ne w temple of which Jesus is th e cornerstone , s o tha t 'th e decisiv e facto r i n thei r ne w situation i s not the barrier tha t divides them from God, but th e fellowship whic h link s them t o God throug h Christ'. 9 The fellowshi p which links us t o Go d throug h Chris t is the fellowship of the Hol y Spirit. It is through th e mediation o f the Holy Spirit that the mediation o f Christ the high pries t bears its fruit within us. Since we do no t kno w how to pray as we ought, the Spirit himself, who dwells in us, intercedes with us and help s us i n ou r weaknes s (Roman s 8:26-27). W e are strengthene d with migh t throug h th e Spiri t i n ou r inne r bein g s o tha t through th e power at work within us, God is able to do far more abundantly tha n al l that we ask or thin k (Ephesian s 3:16-20): when we worship, we worship in , with and throug h Chris t th e high pries t in th e unit y and powe r of the Hol y Spirit. The doctrin e o f th e objectiv e mediation o f Christ th e hig h priest (common to many of the Greek Fathers) and the doctrine of th e mediatio n o f th e Spiri t soo n disappeare d bot h fro m Western theolog y an d Wester n liturgica l formularies. As A. J. Jungmann explained , thi s was due t o an excessiv e reactio n t o the danger s o f Arianism i n Europe. 10 Europ e wa s saved fro m Arianism, bu t th e pric e pai d fo r tha t rescu e wa s a seriou s perversion o f th e understandin g o f worship . Fro m a joyou s encounter wit h Go d throug h Chris t and i n th e fellowshi p o f the Holy Spirit, worship became the action of an impure peopl e begging for grace an d offerin g from afar, in fear and trembling and b y mean s o f huma n mediators , du e homag e o f prais e interspersed wit h repeate d entreaties fo r a forgiveness already offered b y God t o al l wh o woul d car e t o accep t it . Neithe r Catholics nor Protestant s are free from thi s indictment and n o truly Christian theology of worship can be constructed unti l the two forgotte n doctrine s - th e mediatio n o f Chris t an d th e mediation o f the Hol y Spirit - ar e reinstated no t onl y i n our books, but first and foremost in the consciousness of the Peopl e of God. The Worship of Christ's Body A human bein g can perceiv e Go d only by means of something created. I t may be a word, a sentence o r a poem. I t may be a '•' H. Kung , op . at., p. 373 . J. A. Jungmann, Pastoral Liturgy, passim.

10

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sculpture, a painting o r a piece o f music. I t may be a natura l occurrence such as a storm i n the mountains, the becalming of the sea, a sunrise or a sunset. It may be, and i t often is, another human being. In thi s sense, th e very person o f the Incarnat e Word was the highest possible mean s of God's presence t o us. Since the fles h and bloo d o f Jesus canno t b e me t i n thi s fashion today , th e Church whic h i s Christ's Bod y i s called int o bein g a s a living temple of God's presence . A s E. Schillebeeckx teaches , thi s is what we mean whe n we say that the Churc h i s called t o be th e earthly sacrament of the primordial Sacrament which is Jesus th e Christ. We may choose not t o respond t o God's call. Even when we respond , ou r answe r i s never complete . T o b e faithfu l t o God's Word, the Churc h has to be renewed day by day. In th e las t chapte r w e sai d tha t wher e tw o o r thre e ar e gathered together , ther e i s the Churc h an d ther e i s her Lord : to be the Body of Christ on earth, the Church needs to meet for both praye r and action. When the Church meets for prayer, the meeting must be so ordered a s to facilitate both th e encounte r between Go d and hi s People an d th e empowering tha t ensues from it . The words , th e sounds , th e action s and th e gesture s 'that compose ou r worship must be directed t o this end without trace o f self-indulgence o r complacency . T o achiev e thi s end , the leader i n worship must pay attention to the Word of God as well as to the law s of human nature . The Go d o f ou r fait h too k humanit y seriously enoug h t o become fles h an d t o pitch his tent among th e pilgri m people. No truly viable theology of worship can be constructed without a mor e extensiv e theological anthropolog y tha n we possess t o date: anyone who takes the human less seriously than the divine can do so only at his or her ris k and peril . The work needed i n this direction i s of staggering proportions . Worship, Theology and Anthropology Open a book o n theologica l anthropolog y an d wha t wil l you find? A cogent demonstratio n o f how sinful w e are an d o f how much we are i n need o f redemption. S o far, so good. But very often yo u wil l als o fin d littl e o r nothin g abou t huma n phenomenon a s such o r abou t th e consequence s o f th e fac t that Go d create d u s mal e an d femal e an d gav e u s corporea l existence in a world that has not yet reached it s final goal.

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Many disciplines , bot h ol d an d new , are dedicate d t o th e study o f huma n beings : philosophy , history , psychology , sociology, anthropology , biology , physiolog y and medicine , economics an d politic s t o mention bu t a few. The state d scop e of theology is to view everything rationally in the ligh t of God's revelation. Theologica l anthropolog y (th e stud y o f huma n beings from th e poin t of view of theology) coul d therefor e b e defined a s 'the attemp t of human being s t o attain self-understanding throug h reflectio n i n th e ligh t o f God's revelation' . The purpos e of all search fo r knowledge i s self-understanding. The purpos e o f theological anthropology shoul d therefor e b e to understan d ourselves , i n th e ligh t o f God' s revelation , as human beings in th e concrete circumstance s of our existence. Viewing the human phenomeno n in the abstract would not be enough. In Christianity , th e huma n phenomeno n ca n onl y b e interpreted christologically . Christ is the first-bor n o f th e ne w creation (Colossian s 1:15) . Ar e we not mean t t o attai n t o th e full measur e of the stature of Christ (Ephesians 4:13)? Without such a christological understanding of the human phenomenon, the life and missio n of the Church would be impaired. So would its worship, the power-house o f our growth. According t o A . Cuva , withi n th e contex t o f theologica l anthropology th e human phenomeno n shoul d be approache d from a dynamic-functional a s well a s fro m a static-ontic point o f view.'' From a dynamic-functional poin t o f view , a huma n bein g should b e approache d i n th e ligh t o f hi s o r he r fou r basi c functions: 1. The theological function. Though long fallen into disuse, the word 'theological ' stil l bes t expresse s th e meanin g t o b e conveyed here : th e firs t an d mos t fundamenta l functio n o f a human bein g i s tha t o f enterin g b y grac e int o a livin g relationship with God. 2. The social function. After one's relationship with God conies, in orde r of importance, one's relationship with othe r huma n beings. W e are socia l animal s tha t canno t full y 'be ' excep t i n relationship wit h other s (th e gender functio n shoul d b e considered as an important subsection of the socia l function) . 11 A . Cuva , 'Line e d i antropologi a liturgica' , i n Nel dec.enna.le. dell Costitutione 'Sarrosanrtum Concilium', Rome 1974, pp. 1-31.

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3. The historical function. Living by grace in freedom, a person is called t o realiz e himsel f or hersel f i n tim e an d spac e an d t o bring his or her contribution to the history of the world in terms of God's ultimate design o f salvation . 4. Th e cosmic function . Our rol e as human beings in the cosmos is one of responsibility to the rest of creation. Theology teaches us not onl y that we must respect everythin g that Go d brings into being, bu t als o tha t creatio n a s a whole i s waiting with eage r longing for the revealin g of the childre n of God, when it will be set free fro m its bondage t o decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the childre n of God (Roman s 8:18-22).

From a static-onti c poin t of view, th e huma n phenomeno n should be approached under tw o fundamental aspects: 1. The oneness of a human being. Against the false dichotomy or trichotomy o f body an d soul o r body, soul an d spirit, biblica l theology teache s u s that a huma n being , mal e o r female , is a single and uniqu e psycho-physical unit. 2. Th e bodiliness of a human being . Sinc e we are a single psycho physical unit, body and sou l (o r body, soul and spirit ) ar e bu t two 'aspects ' o f on e an d th e sam e reality . Contemporar y theological anthropolog y must rehabilitate th e bodily an d loo k upon a human being as a person incarnate.

In th e ligh t o f th e above , i s i t legitimat e t o spea k o f a branch o f theologica l anthropolog y tha t migh t b e calle d liturgical anthropology? Huma n being s hav e fel t th e nee d t o ritualize for a s long as they have been o n thi s earth. Shoul d i t not be legitimate therefore t o study also th e manne r in which ritualization i s and/o r shoul d b e done ? Thoug h ver y fe w theologians have as yet bothered t o g o down this road, whe n put lik e tha t th e questio n answer s itself. Ther e shoul d b e a theological disciplin e called liturgica l anthropology and , in short, its purpose shoul d be th e stud y of homo liturgicus. What is liturgy? Th e Secon d Vatican Council defines it as 'the work of Christ's priesthood in which our sanctification (i.e . our growth t o the ful l measur e of the statur e of Christ) i s signified and effecte d b y means o f visible signs and throug h whic h the Body o f Christ , bot h Hea d an d members , exercise s th e wholeness of it s public worship'. As good a definition a s any, and on e tha t ha s th e great advantag e of not tryin g t o reduc e what happens in the liturgy to the sol e activity of the people of God.

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According t o Ambrosius Verheuil 12 there i s in th e liturg y a double direction : a descendin g an d a n ascendin g line . Th e descending lin e dominate s i n th e catechetica l par t o f th e liturgy, such as in the Servic e o f the Word, an d i n sacramenta l rites. Th e mos t characteristi c thin g of Christia n liturg y is th e celebration o f ou r Redemption : Go d invite s u s an d call s u s together throug h th e redeemin g Wor d o f th e Proclamation , and this Redemption i s pre-eminently expressed and actualize d for us in the sacraments. Redemption comes to us solely through the initiative of God the Father, who sent his Son to earth a s the visible form of the Father's love. In th e catechetica l part of th e liturgy and in the sacraments Go d invites us to faith through hi s Word and, through Christ , focuses on u s his redeeming actio n and come s t o enrich hi s people with divine life . The ascending line dominates i n the praise and thanksgivin g whereby the community of faith gives its answer to God's saving action o n it . The liturg y o f praye r a s an ac t o f huma n being s always comes second, because i t can only be an answer, but th e ultimate purpos e o f God' s savin g action o n th e Churc h i s to make i t possibl e fo r i t t o ascen d t o hi m i n tru e prais e an d thanksgiving. The liturg y in its totality is both th e act of God and th e act of the Church . It is therefore fundamentall y a dialogue, a divine word an d a huma n answer , a wonderfu l exchang e o f gift s whereby Go d give s t o u s himsel f an d hi s divin e lif e an d we , empowered b y him, give to him ever y fibre or ou r bodie s an d every moment of our existence . This doubl e movement i s present i n al l part s of th e liturgy. The tw o movements mus t be distinguished , bu t certainl y not separated. I t is not a s if God first came t o us in Christ and we , having been se t on th e righ t path b y him, can the n ascen d t o God, s o t o speak , o n ou r ow n steam . Th e tw o aspect s ar e inextricably interwoven , realized togethe r a t al l moments , i n whatever sectio n o f the liturgy : God i s continually descendin g to us and we are continuall y ascending to him. The liturg y is therefore a meeting betwee n Go d and huma n beings. It is an 'encounter with God', not yet entirely direct, but in th e grea t meeting point that is Christ. It is not yet a meeting 'face t o face ' either , bu t a meetin g unde r th e vei l o f sign s in which God reveals himself to us and make s known his will. 12

Cf. A. Verheuil, Introduction t o the Liturgy, Londo n 1969 , pp . 17-19 .

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A. Verheuil give s this provisional definitio n o f liturgy (provisional because as yet incomplete): 'a personal meeting, under the vei l of signs , o f Go d an d hi s Churc h an d wit h th e tota l person o f each one o f its members, in and throug h Chris t and in the unity of the Holy Spirit'.13 From this definition, Verheuil develops in more detail five basic aspects of the liturgy : 1. The theocentric character of the liturgy: the liturgy is a personal encounter with God. 2. Th e christocentnc character o f th e liturgy : the encounte r takes place in and throug h the Mediato r Christ. 3. Th e ecclesial character o f th e liturgy : the encounte r doe s no t take plac e primaril y wit h individuals , bu t wit h th e livin g community of the Church . 4. The sign character of the liturgy : the encounte r doe s no t tak e place directly, but throug h th e veil of 'signs with power'. 5. Th e bodily character of the liturgy: it addresses itself to the whole person an d invite s to worship th e whol e huma n bein g i n th e dual unity of both bod y and soul .

Because of the sign and bodily character of the liturgy, liturgical anthropolog y shoul d pa y grea t attentio n t o th e anthropological law s of language. Huma n being s can expres s meaning no t onl y with words , but als o wit h gesture, postur e and sig n and invariably do so at their most effective by means of a combination of the two . We can therefor e spea k of a liturgical language as a sub-section of religious language. Religious language, and therefore a fortiori liturgical language, ca n onl y be th e languag e o f a specifi c community situated i n a specifi c socio-tempora l contex t an d wil l i n con sequence b e subjec t to th e dynamis m regulating th e cultural evolution of community itself.14 As the communit y evolves, has new experiences an d face s ne w challenges, the languag e of its worship mus t evolv e wit h i t an d reflec t th e thu s modifie d network o f relationship s between it s members . I f it doe s no t evolve i n thi s way , th e languag e o f worshi p wil l becom e detached fro m th e actua l circumstance s o f our existenc e an d behind th e times in terms of the evolution of human languages. Liturgy i s for huma n beings , an d no t th e othe r way round. No benefit comes to God from our worship, of which we are the only beneficiaries. The liturg y must therefore reac h u s in ou r ls 14

/fe/.,p. 13. A. Cuva , op . at., p . 17 .

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real lives . Tha t i s what the liturg y is for. I t mus t be therefor e both expressio n an d exercis e o f the huma n condition . In ful l respect o f th e huma n person , th e liturg y mus t valu e an d augment al l huma n values . It s mod e o f expressio n mus t b e accessible t o people living in the here-and-no w and reflec t the conditions of the time s in which we live. Liturgical celebrations must b e th e celebration s o f a specifi c assembl y o f which the y are mean t t o be th e concret e expression. I f it does not d o so, the liturg y wil l b e a t onc e bot h de-humanizin g an d de humanized. Cu t of f from everyda y lif e an d fro m th e worl d i n which w e live , th e liturg y will b e expose d t o th e dange r o f alienation. However, to say that liturgy is for people and tha t it must link up with today's life does not mean tha t today's liturgy must take its measures fro m the modern world. Liturgy is for people, bu t it cannot resign itsel f to be as we still are. We should never forge t that in the liturgy God lowers himself to our leve l to lift us up to his (se e th e theocentric character o f th e liturgy) . The prope r balance mus t b e foun d betwee n thes e tw o complementary exigencies without ever losing sight of either. The sign character of the liturgy also presents its own demands. Sign-making activity is a universal religious phenomenon. Th e presence o f sign s ma y be foun d i n al l religions . They for m a religious category of their own and ar e a legitimate and usefu l way to present and conside r a religion, eve n i f the sign s them selves may point i n different directions.15 In fact, i t may well b e said tha t human being s ar e th e creator s o f rituals. For human beings, th e creatio n o f rite s capable o f expressing adequatel y those thing s the y dee m mos t importan t i s lik e a secon d nature. 16 The importanc e o f the stud y of symbolic language i n the liturg y cannot b e underestimated. 17 The sign s we adopt i n the liturg y must b e such a s to make i t possible for God's Word to reach u s in the concretenes s o f our existence . They must be based o n th e authenti c experienc e o f th e worshippin g com munity, respec t al l genuine huma n value s and promot e the m 13 M.-D. Chenu, 'Anthropologie e t liturgie' , in L a Liturgied'apres Vatican II, Paris 1967, p . 54. 16 E. Kennedy, 'The Contribution o f Religious Ritua l to Psychological Balance', Concilium 2.7, Feb. 1971 , pp . 53-58. 17 Cf. A. Vergote, 'Symboli c Gestures and Action s i n th e Liturgy' , Concilium 2.7, Feb. 1971 , pp. 40-52; E. Kennedy, op. at.; A. Greeley, 'Religious Symbolism, Liturgy and Community' , ibid. pp. 59-69 ; an d G . Tellini, 'Of Symbols , Worship an d th e Word', in C. Robertson (ed.) , Singing th e Faith, Norwich 1990 .

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by engendering commitmen t t o God's eschatological pla n fo r creation. Conclusion It i s a recognize d characteristi c o f childhood , an d therefor e of immaturity , t o se e onesel f an d one' s immediat e needs , supposed o r true , a s the centr e o f th e universe . Smal l infant s and ver y young children firml y believ e tha t all their wants will be satisfie d b y carefu l manipulatio n o f thei r parents . Thi s childish trai t is nowhere mor e apparen t tha n i n th e popula r conception o f worship. Many cultures, past and present , have chosen t o believe that, by accurately performing the appointed rituals, the gods might be made t o be favourably influenced towards us and make them to bestow on us the benefits that are the object of our desires. If it was not fo r thi s self-centred reason , t o what purpose shoul d one bothe r t o supplicate th e gods ? This is not wha t Christian worship is about. In th e first place , th e wor d worship shoul d b e considere d t o have tw o distinct, if correlated meanings . I n th e wider sense, it should mea n th e leitourgia of one's life as expressed in Romans 12. In th e narrowe r sense , i t should b e considere d t o refer t o the moment , i n th e Gree k (kairos) i n which , in an d throug h Christ an d i n th e powe r o f th e Spirit , Go d encounter s hi s people, transforms them wit h his power an d set s the m fre e t o be Christ' s Body i n th e world . In thi s second, narrowe r sense , the worship of the gathered community (that is the liturgy) is the moment (tha t is the kairos) i n which God re-announces an d re-actualizes the mystery of Christ (that is, his eternal plan of salvation) throug h th e mystery o f the Church (that is, through th e earthly realit y of th e Bod y of those who ar e calle d t o becom e the chosen instrument s of the comin g of God's kingdom).18 Hans Rung puts it most beautifully in these words: The Church does not derive its life only from the work which Christ did an d finishe d i n th e past, no r onl y fro m th e expecte d futur e consummation o f hi s work , bu t fro m th e livin g an d efficaciou s presence of Christ in the present. Christ is present i n the entire lif e of th e Church . Bu t Chris t i s above al l presen t an d activ e i n th e worship o f the congregation to whic h he calle d u s i n hi s Gospel , an d 18

Cf. G. Tellini, 'Of Time, Calendars an d Lectionaries' , i n D . Gray (ed.), Th e Word in Season, Norwich 1988 , pp . 60-62 .

In Spirit an d i n Truth 5

1

into which we were taken up i n baptism, in which we celebrate th e Lord's Supper an d fro m whic h we are sen t agai n t o ou r wor k of service in the world. In thi s congregation ther e occurs in a special way God's service to the Church an d th e Church' s service to God. Here God speaks to the Church through hi s word, and th e Church speaks t o Go d b y replyin g i n it s prayer s an d it s song s o f praise . Here th e crucifie d an d rise n Lor d become s present throug h hi s word an d hi s sacrament , an d her e w e commi t ourselve s t o hi s service: by hearing the Gospe l i n faith , b y confessing our sins , b v praising God's mercy and by petitioning the Father i n Jesus' name, by taking part in the meal of the Lord who is present amon g us and by providing the basis for our servic e of one anothe r b y our publi c confession o f fait h an d b y prayin g fo r on e another . This is fundamentally where the Church is, where the Church, the community, the congregation, happens.™

In bot h it s wider and it s narrower sense , worshi p is the on e response require d b y God . I n it s narrowe r sense , i t i s th e moment in which the Church happens. In ou r worship , Go d encounter s u s throug h a syste m o f visible, physical , material means . Th e nee d fo r suc h mean s stems from ou r natur e as whole persons. Suc h mean s ar e use d in worship because we need them, and not because God is supposed to deligh t i n the m i n an y way. They mus t b e vehicle s both of God's call to us and of our answe r to God. I n other words, they must be realized human salvation, that i s means o f pardo n an d grace. The y mus t b e th e visible , historica l an d concret e actualization o f th e Word . The y mus t b e eikones to n pragmdton (Hebrews 10:15) : earthl y sign s charge d wit h th e powe r o f a reality tha t totall y transcend s them . Thes e sign s charged wit h power (i.e. symbols) are not in themselves worship. Yet without them worshi p is impossible. Neithe r ar e th e symbol s which we use i n worshi p i n an y way unique. The y ar e onl y on e o f th e many ways in which God concretely reaches ordinary men and women, grafts them int o the Myster y of Christ, and transform s them int o a chosen race, a royal priesthood ( 1 Peter 2:9) , that is in the Bod y of those who offer t o the consumin g fire of God, with reverenc e an d awe , the acceptabl e worshi p of brotherly love (Hebrew s 12:28 ; 13:1) , having themselves becomes, sacrific e of praise continually offered t o God (Hebrew s 13:15).

10

H. Rung, op. at., pp. 23^35.

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with God FURTHER READING

A. Greeley , 'Religious Symbolism , Liturg y and Community' , Concilium 2..7', 1971, pp . 59-69 . E. Kennedy , The Contributio n o f Religious Ritua l to Psychological Balance', Concilium 2.7, 1971, pp . 53-58. G. Tellini , 'O f Symbols , Worshi p an d th e Word' , i n C. Robertson, Singing the Faith, Norwich 1990 . A. Vergote , 'Symboli c Gesture s an d Action s in th e Liturgy' , Concilium Z.7, 1971, pp. 40-52. A. Vergote , 'L a realisatio n symboliqu e dan s 1'expressio n cutuelle', La Maison Dieu, f.lll (1972) , pp. 110-31. FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w fa r i s i t desirable , o r eve n possible , fo r mode s o f liturgical expressio n t o remai n unchange d throug h th e centuries? 2. I f n o civilizatio n o r cultur e i s naturall y Christian, i s i t important tha t th e Churc h develop s a cathechesi s an d a consequent pattern of formation in matters both human and liturgical? How can i t do this ? 3. Doe s the liturg y presuppose conversion? If so, is the liturg y primarily for thos e who believe? How can it go beyond th e stage of the seeker or cathechumen? 4. I n wha t sens e ma y th e Churc h b e calle d th e earthl y sacrament of Jesus Christ, the Primordial Sacrament?

CHAPTER 4

WORD AN D SACRAMEN T We understand worship as being an encounter wit h God, which can be illumine d by analogies wit h encounter s amon g huma n beings. A n encounte r take s plac e betwee n people ; i t i s intersubjective. I n th e stric t sens e we cannot encounter things , o r even animals , but onl y personal being s or (t o use C. S. Lewis's term) a God who is 'beyond personality'. The whol e Christia n understanding o f God an d hi s dealings with people rule s ou t an understandin g o f worshi p whic h i s les s tha n a persona l meeting. Christian worship is not aw e in fac e o f an irresistible and unresponsiv e Power, nor i s it the attempt t o manipulate by magic o r placat e b y offerings remot e deitie s o r th e force s of nature. Christian worshi p is an 'I-Thou' , no t a n 'I-It' , relationship . But immediately we must qualify these words. As they stand they effectively expres s th e persona l natur e o f Christia n worship, but the y would allow one t o understand worshi p as 'the fligh t of the alone to the Alone'. In fact, Christian worship is always a communal affair , an d tha t i n tw o senses. First , a s w e argue elsewhere in this book, all prayer and al l worship is the worship of the Church . The individua l worshipping is never alone bu t alwaysjoining at least spiritually with the whole Church on earth and wit h 'angel s an d archangel s an d al l th e compan y o f heaven'. We come to God as 'our Father ' even when we worship alone - a good reminder that we bring our neighbours an d our fellows wit h u s whe n w e come befor e God . A t th e hear t o f Christian worshi p i s th e worshi p o f th e congregation , th e fellowship o f those who encounter Go d together , Go d i n on e another an d on e anothe r i n God . Prayerfu l believer s wh o abstract themselves from th e worship of the congregation, like the U N Secretar y Genera l Da g Hammerskjold, ar e distinctly 53

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anomalous, a s W . H . Aude n note d i n hi s introductio n t o Hammerskjold's remarkable book of thoughts, Markings^ The norm mus t be participation i n congregational worship 'both as a disciplin e and a s a refreshment' , a s well a s an awarenes s o f participation in the fellowship of the saints. In the second place , Christian worshi p i s communal becaus e i t i s participation i n the lif e of the Holy Trinity. God himself, in trinitarian theology, must be understood on th e mode l o f a fellowship rathe r tha n an isolate d individua l person . I n worshi p we encounter th e Father, ou r Father , throug h Jesus Christ . In othe r words , h e offers ou r worship ; he is , as it were, our spokesman ; h e give s access to the Father ; we share i n his encounter a s Son with his Father. That i s why prayer i s normally addressed t o the Fathe r 'through Jesus Christ our Lord' . And our capacit y to worship and ou r inclinatio n t o worshi p ar e th e wor k o f th e Spirit , moving u s toward s an d encouragin g u s i n th e mysterium tremendum of an encounte r wit h the livin g God . At th e huma n leve l a n encounte r i s no t a superficia l o r momentary meeting but an engagement a t depth in which each becomes awar e o f th e myster y of th e other . Rea l encounte r always involve s an elemen t o f mystery : no t a contrive d an d artificial myster y but th e authenti c myster y that i s integral t o personality and onl y reveals itself to love: above all , the tender , reliable covenant-love of which the bible speaks. And encounte r is not a partia l matter , bu t a meeting wit h whole people. Th e disembodied voic e w e hear o n th e radi o ma y thrill, delight , infuriate o r instruc t us ; w e becom e awar e o f th e speaker' s thoughts an d styl e of speaking; but w e do no t encounte r th e person. T o watch an athlete breakin g a record or a great orator speaking on televisio n ma y be a fuller experience, bu t i t is still far shor t o f an encounter . Eve n to see an acto r o r a musician perform - whil e i t ma y be a n enriching , o r infuriating , or depressing experience , while it may deepen our understandin g of th e huma n conditio n o r deligh t ou r sense s and ma y even enrich ou r capacit y for understandin g an d sensitiv e relation ships - i t is not an encounter wit h th e actor o r musicia n a s a person. For people are complex a s well as mysterious - th e two are not unconnected - an d there i s more t o the actor tha n his acting, and t o the musician than his playing. Of course, human meeting i s often ver y partial , wit h peopl e shieldin g muc h o f 1

London 1964 .

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55

themselves from others , o r actin g a par t rathe r tha n openin g themselves t o an encounte r a t dept h wit h th e other . Bu t real encounter i s lasting and deep , and involve s the whole person, not just some qualities, aspects or dimensions. The encounte r with Go d i n Jesus Christ, which is Christian worship, i s no t th e hearin g o f a disembodie d voic e bu t a meeting wit h th e incarnat e Word , with the one who expresses in hi s being and hi s works the ver y heart of God, who is God's complete an d adequat e communicatio n t o humanity . Nor i s Christian worship a matter of'naked signs' , of sacramental acts and symbol s whic h magicall y ensur e a meetin g wit h trans cendent powers, in isolation from words , the Word, or speech . No, Christian worship i s rather th e encounte r with th e living, speaking Lor d wh o i s himself both th e livin g Wor d an d th e primordial sacrament . I f worship is understood a s encounter , Word an d Sacramen t belon g together . The y ar e com plementary; both ar e necessary, for they interpret and illumine one anothe r and neithe r in itself is complete o r adequate. God has chosen Word an d Sacramen t as the two-dimensiona l locu s of hi s encounte r wit h hi s people , an d t o separat e them , o r neglect on e i n favou r of th e other , i s to invit e an incomplet e encounter an d a n inadequate understanding o f God and how God relates to people. Almost al l th e Churche s ar e toda y rediscoverin g th e vita l unity of Word an d Sacramen t and seekin g t o express i t mor e adequately i n their worship. But it still remains tru e that many in th e Reforme d an d Luthera n Churche s regar d worshi p as essentially preaching , wit h th e res t o f th e servic e see n a s n o more tha n the preliminaries to the sermon. An d there are stil l seminaries an d facultie s of theolog y wher e detaile d attentio n is given to trainin g in homiletics but ver y little time is devoted to th e principle s of liturgy , so tha t clerg y wh o hav e almos t complete freedo m i n th e constructio n an d conten t of publi c worship hav e a ver y sketchy preparation fo r thi s vital par t o f their role. In Roman Catholic and some Anglican seminaries, on th e othe r hand , th e ministr y o f th e Wor d ha s sometime s been treate d a s a rathe r unimportan t postscrip t t o liturgy . Students hav e bee n give n detaile d instructio n i n th e histor y and practic e o f th e Church' s liturg y (bu t seldo m muc h theology of worship), while the training in homiletics has been rudimentary. Eve n som e curren t textbook s reflec t an d perpetuate thi s unfortunat e split betwee n th e Wor d an d th e

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Sacrament, so that one ca n go through books such as The Study of Liturgy2 and gain the impression that the ministry of the word, and preachin g i n particular , playe d n o par t i n th e worship of Christendom dow n th e ages . And man y book s o n homiletic s proceed with sublime disregard o f the fac t tha t preaching is an integral par t o f Christia n worshi p an d canno t properl y b e considered i n isolation fro m thi s context. The presen t boo k regard s th e unity of Word an d Sacramen t as a fundamenta l principl e o f Christia n worship , whic h ha s been rediscovered b y modern theology of all traditions but still has to penetrate full y into the practice of the Churches' worshi p and th e educatio n o f clerg y an d al l who lea d th e worshi p of God's people. The recovery , in practice a s well as in theology , of the complementarity of Word and Sacramen t involves crossfertilization an d mutua l enrichmen t betwee n th e tw o grea t traditions, the one emphasizing the place of the Word, and th e other the centrality of the sacraments, and must be a major contribution to the ecumenical renewa l of worship, which is surely at th e hear t o f th e revitalizatio n of the Churc h an d Christian faith an d practice . The Ward Christianity understands worshi p as the encounte r wit h God' s Word; speech and hearing are indispensable to the authenticity of this meeting; God becomes really present wit h his people in his Word. And according t o Augustine, i n a phrase belove d o f the Calvinist Reformers, a sacrament itsel f is a verbum visible, a visible word. In worship we hear the Word of God addressed to us, callin g us , encouragin g us , challengin g us , forgivin g us, nourishing us , upliftin g us , strengthenin g us . All this implie s that we must have , as it were, a sacramental understandin g o f the Word in worship, just as we must understand th e sacrament s as encounters wit h the Go d who addresses us in his Word. As Karl Barth ha s observed , th e Wor d meet s us i n a three fold form : i n preachin g (whic h i s discussed i n chapte r 5) , i n scripture and as the Word incarnate , Jesus Christ, to whom th e scriptures bea r witness. 3 Clearly , scriptur e i s a n importan t element, an d on e whic h require s carefu l handling . Scriptur e always points beyon d itself : 'W e do th e Bibl e a poor honour', 2 3

SPCK, 1978 . Church Dogmatics 1/1, Edinburg h 1936 , pp. 98-140.

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7

writes Kar l Barth , 'an d on e unwelcom e t o itself , whe n w e directly identif y i t wit h thi s somethin g else , wit h revelatio n itself.'4 To avoid suc h verbal idolatry is important, bu t i t is also necessary t o have a clear ide a of how scripture function s in th e believing communit y an d ho w i t speak s a s Word. A historical perspective allow s us a useful point o f entry. (i) Scripture and worship in ancient Israel and Judaism The practic e o f worshi p i s strongl y reflecte d i n th e Ol d Testament scripture s as we know them. Indeed , th e recita l of sacred traditio n at Israel' s religious festival s wa s an importan t part of the process whereby the traditions of Israel were shaped and developed . One function of scripture i s to give authoritative guidance for worship, cult and ritual ; another is to narrate th e story o f salvatio n in th e contex t o f worship. I t has , therefore , an importan t interpretative function for the worshippers: Give ear, O my people, to my teaching; incline your ears to the words of my mouth! I will open my mouth i n a parable; I will utter dark sayings from o f old, things that we have heard and known , that our father s have told us. We will not hid e them from thei r children, but tel l to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the Lord, and hi s might, and th e wonders which he has wrought. (Psal m 78:1-4) Ritual, story , interpretation , revelatio n . . . : thes e importan t elements in the worship of Israel are not only the direct concern of scripture ; the y also serve , i n conjunctio n wit h scripture , t o involve the worshippers i n the divine mystery and i n the inner , contemporary meanin g of worship. Psalm 116 , for example, is the liturg y used b y the person wh o has come to the Temple to pay hi s vo w an d mak e a thank-offerin g t o Yahweh . I t i s particularly appropriate t o one wh o has been very ill and wh o promised in his distress to fulfil just such a vow on his recovery . Notice th e lovin g respons e o f on e wh o find s hi s prayer s answered, th e recollectio n o f hi s distress , th e celebratio n o f God's mercy, and th e paying of the vow itself. The liturg y makes personal t o th e worshippe r th e relationshi p betwee n Yahweh and Israe l (cf. Deuteronomy 26:5-10). 1

Op. at., p. 126.

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Diversity i s particularly noticeable i n post-exili c Judaism, no t least in the place given to scripture. To th e priest s in the templ e tradition (cf . the Sadducee s i n Jesus' day) , the Book s o f Mose s formed th e Torah , th e essentia l an d onl y scripture. Fo r them , scripture prescribe d an d interprete d th e cult, and directe d th e way of the worshippers. In these terms, the priest was the teache r of Israel . The destructio n o f th e Templ e b y th e Babylonians , however, le d t o ne w religious developments . Th e absenc e o f Temple worship in Babylon gave an impetus to the editing, study and standardizin g of th e Tora h a s scripture , an d calle d int o being a new, or a t least greatly enlarged, clas s of scribal expert s in the Torah an d written tradition. The ris e of the synagogues in post-exilic Judaism provided centre s for the discussion and study of the Torah a s a continuing duty, allied to the saying of prayers. The scriba l teachers (later , rabbis) regarde d scriptur e as essentially the Torah, but admitted the Prophets an d later the Writings as authoritative commentary on the Torah, interpretin g and applying it to the dail y lives of the people . That , too , wa s the function of the rabbis ' sayings , the 'traditio n of the elders' on which the Pharisees o f Jesus' da y place d s o muc h emphasis . Indeed , s o important was the interpretation an d applicatio n of scripture t o the rabbis that it could even be said that the modern commentar y which relate d directl y to th e contemporar y situatio n wa s more important than th e ancient text considered i n isolation. Another broad groupin g migh t be characterized as sectarian, the Essenes of Qumran being the most accessible example. Here , the worship took place within monastic communities, which had their ow n distinctiv e cultic practice s (especiall y washings o r baptisms); an d scripture , not confine d t o th e Book s o f Moses , was copied, studied and interpreted i n relation to the community which believed that it had a special role t o play in the Las t Days. Such eschatologica l belief s governe d al l aspect s o f thei r life . Their scriptural interpretation was designed t o reveal the hidde n meaning which the text held for them, standing as they believed at or nea r the completion o f God's mighty works in Israel. They wrote commentaries on the scriptures with this purpose i n mind. A characteristic procedure wa s to cite th e scriptur e tex t (some times with modifications ) and ad d a n exposition , usuall y introduced b y 'interpreted , thi s concern s ... ' o r som e simila r formula.5 ' 'Midrash' (commentary ) could b e both explici t and implicit ; see G. Vermes, The Deatl Sea Scrolls in English, Harmondsworth 1962 .

Word an d Sacrament 5

9

It must not be thought that such radically creative procedures were found only in sectarian Judaism. Because the tradition s of Israel wer e constantl y interpreted an d applie d i n th e livin g context of community worship and practice , new meaning was constantly being found in them . I t was said tha t every word of scripture ha d sevent y aspects, 6 s o ther e wa s plent y o f ne w meaning t o b e discovere d b y each generation ! Hence , th e literature expanded . Deuteronom y i s just suc h a recastin g of th e ancien t laws ; th e Priestl y Cod e i s a furthe r example . The boo k w e call Isaia h encapsulate s a length y tradition o f prophetic exposition . Chronicle s recast s th e historica l tradition; apocalyptists and sectarians were similarly expansive, and s o on . Finally , th e rabbi s close d th e canon , th e lis t o f books recognize d a s scriptur e an d henc e regulativ e of fait h and life . (Th e precis e dat e whe n the y di d s o is unknown certainly later than Jamnia, c. AD 95: the priestly tradition had closed it s canon man y centuries previously.) But th e expan sion o f meanin g necessar y t o a livin g communit y was no t halted or 'put on ice' by such action. The rabbini c tradition of authoritative expositio n continue d an d wa s itself encoded i n Mishnah and Talmud . How can we sum up scriptur e and it s relation t o worship in ancient Israe l an d Judaism ? Emergin g fro m an d operatin g within worshippin g communities , scriptur e reflect s an d i s shaped by their worship in many respects. I t also regulates an d informs continuin g worship. It relates and interpret s th e story of God' s wonder s i n th e histor y of th e people , an d enjoin s recital o f the m i n worship. It enshrines and encapsulate s th e truth given to Moses but rediscovere d i n new ways from generation t o generation. I t helps Israel to walk in God's ways and t o trust fo r th e future . Hence , whil e i t prescribe s ritua l an d liturgical action, it can als o attack Temple an d cul t when they do no t trul y reflec t God' s wil l an d purpos e fo r hi s people . Designed t o spea k a contemporar y Wor d t o th e believin g community, i t continue s t o d o s o throug h commentar y an d renewed application . Of course , th e danger s wer e immense : such as legalism, pedantry, and openness t o external influenc e (e.g. hellenizing) . Bu t suc h danger s wer e no t exclusiv e t o Judaism. Th e resilienc e of th e Jewish biblica l tradition i s well attested b y its history since biblical times. 6

See I. Epstein, Midmsh Rtibbah I (Genesis), Freedman and Simo n (eds.) , London 1939, p . xi.

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(ii) Scripture and worship in the early Christian tradition

Christian worshi p ha s alway s had a scriptura l dimension: th e Old Testament was there from th e beginning; bot h in Hebrew and i n Greek translatio n (th e Septuagint, second centur y BC) . Although th e scriptura l cano n wa s open-ended i n th e firs t century, al l inspire d writin g wa s recognize d a s usefu l fo r teaching th e truth an d refutin g error . .. (2 Timothy 3:16) . So where did Christian use of scripture in worship differ fro m th e Jewish? In the Jewish Christianity of the early days, the difference was not to o marked. Th e brethre n worshipped i n the Temple an d were t o b e foun d i n th e synagogue s unti l suc h time s a s the y were declared personae non gratae. Why? The root cause is found at th e core of the Christia n position: belie f in Jesus a s Messiah and Lord . If this was understood in a limited way, the Christians might have remained a sect within Judaism - albeit an extremely heterodox one. Bu t as soon as Jesus' Lordship was interpreted in a radical way, so that the foundations of Judaism were shaken at thei r mos t vita l points - Law , Temple, nation-hoo d - the n the possibilit y o f compromis e wa s rule d out . Afte r initia l hesitation, the salvatio n tha t Chris t offered was made ope n t o all believers, without distincdon o f race, sex or status. In Christ, the Ne w Age ha d bee n established ; th e Ol d wa s swept away. The End-tim e ha d com e into the mids t o f history. Her e was a new 'eschatologica l community' , an d i t wa s wholly Christocentric, centred o n th e Word . Such a position wa s of immense consequenc e fo r scriptura l interpretation. I t i s tru e tha t th e Ol d Testamen t ha s a n expectation o f the future: whether the coming forth of a 'shoot from th e stump of Jesse', or 'the Day of the Lord', or Elijah th e Prophet, or 'on e like a son of man', or the servant of the Lor d . . . But the earl y Christians did no t limi t thei r interes t i n th e scriptures t o th e expositio n o f suc h passages . Becaus e the y regarded Jesus th e crucified and rise n Christ , as the fulfilmen t of al l God' s wor k throug h Israel , the y believe d tha t al l th e scriptures testifie d t o him . As the Jesus of th e Fourt h Gospe l says t o his fellow Jews, 'Yo u searc h th e scripture s because yo u think that in them you have eternal life ; and i t is they that bear witness to me; yet you refuse t o come t o me tha t you may have life' (Joh n 5:35f.) . Jesus as the Christ was therefore th e starting point o f thei r scriptura l interpretation . The y rea d th e Ol d

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Testament i n th e ligh t of thei r Christia n fait h an d foun d i t responding i n innumerabl e way s to thei r interrogation . I t was as i f th e motif s which coalesce d i n Chris t wer e prefigure d i n varied an d fragmentar y way s i n th e stor y o f God' s previou s dealings with Israel. Hence Pau l can tak e th e notio n o f Moses' veil and use it to suggest that the splendour o f the old covenant was a fading splendour ( 2 Corinthians 3:13) - not because ther e is anything in the Mosai c tradition t o suggest this , but becaus e Paul knows that 'wha t once ha d splendour ' (i.e . the religio n of the ol d covenant ) 'ha s com e t o hav e n o splendou r a t all , because o f the splendour that surpasses it' ( 2 Corinthians 3:10). For Paul , thi s wa s not a tortuou s o r far-fetche d argument : it wa s nothing othe r tha n 'th e ope n statemen t o f th e truth ' (2 Corinthian s 4:2) , as th e trut h wa s revealed i n Christ . Th e cycle o f interpretatio n bega n wit h Christ , rea d th e Ol d Testament i n th e ligh t of Christian faith , an d the n foun d th e scriptures witnessing to the finality and completio n tha t Christ represented. Suc h interpretatio n wa s integra l t o Christia n worship an d essentia l t o evangelis m among th e Jews. No t fo r nothing di d Pau l spen d thre e sabbath s i n th e synagogu e a t Thessalonica, arguing from th e scriptures and 'explainin g and proving that it was necessary for the Christ to suffer an d t o rise from th e dead, and saying , "This Jesus, whom I proclaim t o you. is the Christ" ' (Act s 17:3). This Christo-centrism was not a merely intellectual stance, a kind o f hermeneutical gam e playe d o n th e chequer-boar d o f Judaistic biblical usage. I t permeated th e whole Christian community, which resonated t o the crucified-and-risen Christ . The relational aspec t cam e t o th e for e i n communit y lif e an d worship: 'where two or three are gathered togethe r i n my name, there a m I i n th e mids t o f them' . Th e ne w communit y was nothing less than 'th e temple o f the living God' ( 2 Corinthians 6:16), separate d alik e from th e ol d communit y with it s faded glory an d fro m th e paganis m o f th e nations , bu t abov e al l enjoying th e welcom e o f Go d wh o was a Fathe r t o them , hi s sons and daughters. In fact , scriptur e an d worshi p inter-relat e i n severa l way s here. Th e worshi p an d communit y lif e ar e informe d b v scripture. Because Christ came 'not to destroy the Torah but to fulfil it' , the Christian s could us e and adap t Jewish psalm s and liturgies; henc e th e 'psalm s an d hymn s an d spiritua l songs ' (Colossians 3:16, Ephesian s 5:19), the great hymnic utterances

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in Revelation, and the Odes of Solomon, 'the earliest Christian Hymn-book'.7 Hence , too , th e doxologies , th e us e of 'Amen', and th e grea t confessions : Cullman n ha s observed , 'Al l thes e old confessio n formula e hav e thi s in common , tha t the y ar e Christocentric and tha t they stress the present Lordship o f Christ'. 6 Christian prophets , too , woul d injec t scriptura l lesson s an d interpretations into the service of worship, as the Spiri t moved them; a criterio n o f genuin e prophec y wa s agai n Christo centrism.9 This Christo-centrism was only possible b y reason o f a strong deposit o f traditio n abou t Jesus the Christ ; both hi s teachin g and th e apostoli c witnes s t o hi s life , deat h an d resurrection . One ca n se e it in operation whe n Pau l explicitl y cites a 'wor d of th e Lord ' t o correc t erro r i n hi s churches . Paul' s us e o f the traditio n o f th e las t suppe r ( 1 Corinthian s 11:23-26 ) i s particularly informative . He stresse s th e chai n o f tradition , records th e action at the meal and its purpose i n a concise an d careful way , and enlarge s freel y o n th e point s h e want s th e Corinthians t o understan d i n particular . However , fro m ou r point o f view , th e mos t significan t fac t i s tha t Pau l cite s dominical traditio n a s th e complet e mode l fo r Christia n practice, t o b e imitate d an d applie d i n th e contemporar y situation. Here we have Christian traditio n alread y possessin g a prescriptiv e function . An d th e apostl e himsel f wa s con sciously contributing to a deposit o f apostolic letters , designe d to b e rea d i n churche s an d eve n t o circulat e amon g the m (though possibl y conceived b y the writer as having immediat e rather tha n long-ter m significance) . From th e earliest days of the Christian movement, therefore , the 'searching of the scripture' in the context of 'the apostles' teaching and fellowship ' was a creative movement which led to a definitiv e understandin g o f th e scripture s i n Christo-centric perspective. Lik e th e Ethiopia n i n Act s 8:26-40 , Christian s and enquirer s nee d guidanc e i n order t o 'understand' ; an d like Philip , apostles an d communit y leader s ('prophet s an d teachers') ha d t o begin wit h th e scriptur e an d relat e th e good news of Jesus (cf . Acts 8:35). Hence, th e logi c of the situatio n suggests tha t the Old Testament scripture s wer e accompanie d 7 J. H. Charlesworth, Th e Odes o f Salomon, Oxford 1973 , p. vii (Preface) . * Early Christian Worship, E.T. , Londo n 1953 , p . 23 . 9 Cf. 1 Corinthians 12:3; and see in particular James Moffatt's comments in loc, in hi s volume on 1 Corinthians in th e MofFat t Ne w Testament Commentaries .

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in Christia n worship by Christian commentary; tha t thi s commentary would comprise 'the things concerning Jesus'; and that the commentato r woul d attemp t t o brin g scripture s an d Christian traditio n alik e int o dynami c relationship with th e contemporary situatio n o f th e hearers . I t i s therefor e no t surprising tha t impressiv e evidenc e ha s bee n pu t forwar d t o suggest that Matthew, for example, 'wrote his Gospel to be read in churc h roun d th e year; he too k th e Jewish Festa l Year , an d the patter n o f lections prescribed therefor , as his base; and i t is possible for us to descry from M S evidence for which feast, an d for whic h Sabbath/Sunday , an d eve n o n occasio n fo r which service, an y particular verse s wer e intended'. 10 Whatever ma y be th e fina l verdic t o f scholarshi p o n thi s detaile d case , i t certainly fit s th e genera l patter n tha t ha s emerge d i n ou r discussion. It was inevitable that in course o f time, the traditions concerning Jesus, 'hande d dow n t o u s b y th e origina l eyewitnesses and servant s of th e Gospel ' (Luk e 1:2), would ceas e to be simply 'the utterances of a living and abidin g voice'" and acquire written form. In th e cas e of Paul's (an d other) letters , written t o specific churche s as part of his care o f the churches, the questio n wa s one o f collection an d perhap s eve n editing. Certainly, 1 Clement (96-97 AD) is familiar with Pauline writings as well as being 'saturated' in the Old Testament.12 Justin (c. AD 155) completes th e picture: . . . o n th e da y called Sunda y ther e i s a meetin g i n on e plac e o f those wh o liv e i n citie s o r th e country , an d th e memoir s o f th e apostles or th e writing s o f th e prophet s are rea d a s lon g a s tim e permits. Whe n th e reader has finished, the president in a discourse urges and invite s (us ) to the imitatio n o f these noble things. The n we all stand up togethe r and offe r prayer s . . .1S

The prayer s ar e followe d b y th e Eucharist . I t i s noteworthy that th e servic e begins with scriptur e lessons ; the n come s th e homiletic application; then th e sacrament. There is no specifi c suggestion o f lectionary here: the readings seem 'ope n ended'; but ther e i s a decide d mov e toward s a Christia n cano n o f scripture. Although thi s matter would not be finally settled until much later , i t i s interestin g tha t Eusebiu s conducte d hi s 10

M. D. Goulder, Midrash and Lection in Matthew, London 1974, p. 172. Papias (earl y second century) , cited i n Eusebiu s H.E. III.39 . ;2 Cf. C. C. Richardson, Early Christian Fathers, London 1953 , p . 37. 'Justin, Apology 1,67 ; se e Richardson , op . cil., p. 287 .

11

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research int o th e issu e by noting which books were actually in use in the churches .

(Hi) Scripture and worship How may we express briefly the relations between scripture an d worship? (a) Scripture permeates worship. Ol d an d Ne w Testament s proceed fro m livin g communitie s o f faith . The y includ e compelling examples of these communities at worship. In the Old Testamen t w e hav e th e prayer s o f Solomo n a t th e dedication o f th e Temple , th e Boo k o f Psalm s with it s wide range o f spirituality and worship , and th e worship practices of Israe l i n festival . I n th e Ne w Testamen t w e hav e th e instructions given by Jesus to th e disciple s on th e matte r o f prayer, an d i n th e apostoli c letter s a variet y o f prayer s i s exemplified: thanksgiving , supplication, intercession , an d at leas t b y implicatio n confession . Th e sam e source s giv e abundant evidenc e o f th e praise s tha t ar e inheren t i n all worship. Ail interesting aspect of all this is the extent t o which the Ol d Testament prayer s and prais e wer e take n ove r an d 'christianized' in the churches . Th e hymn s which we find in the Gospel s (cf . firs t tw o chapter s o f Luke ) ar e directl y derived fro m th e worship of Israel, yet they refer specificall y to th e comin g o f Christ . Th e earl y Christian s apparently made th e transposition withou t difficulty. Fo r them, Jesus was Lord. I t is not without significance that th e first outside view we have of Christian worship speaks of them 'singin g hymns to Christ as to a god'.14 The languag e neede d for such hymns was readily available throug h th e scripture s an d worshi p of Israel and Judaism. Th e intensit y of Christian devotion, fired by prophet and charismatic , sparked th e gap and mad e th e transposition possible . By its very nature, worship is offered by worshippers in their particular situatio n i n life . I n th e Christia n traditio n abov e all worship must not become so formalized as to be thought less and automatic. Th e teachin g of Jesus expressly forbids it. There must always be a contemporary aspect to worship, otherwise i t is not trul y the offerin g o f the worshipper. That is not t o say that Christians cannot use the words of others i n M

Pliny , Epistle s X (t o Trajan) , xcvi.

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the worship they offer. As we have seen they have traditionally done s o in using scriptural language, and not least the Lord's Prayer itself . Bu t the y mus t identif y wit h th e scriptura l meaning s o that it speaks fo r them. The mos t famou s example o f scriptural worship is the us e of th e Psalms , pros e an d metrical , i n Christia n worship . Literally, thei r point s o f referenc e ar e outwit h th e Christia n tradition: th e plac e o f Zio n i s a cas e i n point . However , Christian worship itself provided the context which informed and reinterpreted th e psalmist's imagery. Thus, Zion became the symbo l for th e Churc h o r th e Ne w Jerusalem, whil e th e spiritual lif e o f th e psalmis t wa s reinterpreted i n Christia n terms. Christian worship supplies its own hermeneutic, which is simila r t o tha t applie d fro m th e beginnin g t o th e Ol d Testament. Sometime s thi s is made explicit by appending t o a psalm , fo r example , a n ascriptio n o f prais e i n Christia n terms. Whil e w e can mak e n o objectio n t o thi s practice, i t would b e unfortunat e i f thi s appendag e wer e regarde d a s legitimizing o r 'christianizing ' th e Ol d Testamen t materia l for us e in Christian worship . Generally speaking , th e scripture s hav e immensel y en riched Christia n worshi p throughou t th e ages . The y hav e given a wealth of symbolism which has helped th e worshippe r to understand hi s or her own position i n relation t o God and the koinonia, an d als o t o expres s thi s i n prayer . I n short , Christian praye r mus t b e contemporary , bu t no t merely contemporary, wit h th e worshippers. I n their devotions, the y are unite d with the devotion s of the faithfu l o f all the ages ; and nothing is better equipped t o give expression t o this facet of thei r experienc e tha n th e languag e an d symbolis m o f scripture, their commo n heritage . (b) Scripture i s itself a major element i n worship. Th e churc h service tha t Justi n describe s bega n wit h a n unspecifie d number o f scripture readings. Probabl y a certain informality characterized th e proceedings : possibly interpretations an d discussions o f meaning intersperse d the readings. Certainly , exposition followed . On e thin g i s clear: scriptur e itsel f was the firs t majo r elemen t i n th e service . I t represent s an d conveys th e revelatio n o f Go d t o man , supremel y i n Jesus Christ. Without this , ther e ca n b e n o Christia n worship . I n time, i t was thought fittin g t o begi n worshi p o n a not e o f praise an d prayer , before introducin g th e Word . Th e focu s

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has no t changed . On e simpl y approache s i t i n a wide r liturgical context than Justin's order provides. Thus, worshippers today approach th e plac e of revelation through prais e an d prayer . Th e readin g o f th e scripture s takes the m beyond th e vestibule , so to speak , into th e hol y place wher e Go d reveal s himsel f throug h th e scriptures . Hence ther e i s an obligatio n o n th e par t o f thos e leadin g the worshi p to ensur e tha t th e lesson s ar e a s appropriat e and meaningfu l a s possible . Ther e is , however, n o auto matic relationshi p betwee n readin g th e scripture s an d hearing th e Wor d o f God . T o identif y th e Wor d wit h th e words o f scriptur e i n a litera l an d positiv e way is a majo r error whic h obscure s th e movin g of the Spiri t i n th e heart s and mind s o f th e worshippin g community . Henc e on e might say that the words of the Bibl e are hear d a s the Word of Go d onl y i n th e contex t of worship and devotio n where the huma n spiri t i s mad e ope n t o God' s Spirit . A pre condition i s the attentiv e hearing o f th e words ; participation b y the congregation i n reading - orall y or silently helps toward s thi s end . A ful l appreciatio n o f th e liturgical movemen t o f th e servic e - hearin g th e Word , responding t o th e Word, exposition o f the Word , response to the exposition - alert s worshippers to the demand whic h the servic e i s placin g upo n them . Ther e i s therefor e a n element of mystery at the heart of the liturgy here: a mystery which consist s of nothin g shor t o f th e encounte r o f Go d and hi s people. Truly, when this encounter take s place, it is as the gif t o f God an d a s an ac t of his grace. Ye t the liturg y itself als o help s worshipper s i n thei r searc h fo r Go d an d for th e divin e revelatio n through th e scriptures . 'Seek an d ye shall find . ..' is appropriate t o them , 'fo r i t is in seeking that we are found . . ." Finally, the impression may have been given that Christian worship as described her e i s rather academi c and cognitive. This ha s no t bee n th e intention , althoug h on e woul d wis h to sugges t tha t in th e positio n i n whic h th e Churche s find themselves toda y i t i s important tha t al l worshippers wh o have th e capacit y shoul d understan d wha t i s involve d in Christian worship and interpretation , and b e able t o 'giv e a reason fo r th e fait h tha t i s i n them' . Bu t th e Christia n response t o the divine approach i s a response o f 'the whole person': it involves both th e cognitive and affectiv e domains,

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and i s concerned wit h knowledge, feeling, relationships an d action. (c) Scripture gives specific warrant for certain practices in worship Go therefore and mak e disciples of all nations, baptizing them in th e nam e o f th e Fathe r an d o f th e So n an d o f th e Hol y Spirit . . . For I received from th e Lor d what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he ha d give n thanks , he brok e it , and said , 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance o f me' . . .

Whatever else may be said about these passages, two liturgical acts are expressly warranted by them: baptism and th e Lord' s Supper. This i s no t th e plac e t o follo w ou t th e baptisma l con troversies o f man y centuries . Th e dominica l warran t sanctions baptism in the con text of evangelism and teaching . Matthew see s 'al l nations ' (i.e . th e Gentiles ) a s potential catechumens, t o be baptize d b y water an d s o received int o the tru e Israel . I t mus t b e admitte d tha t th e Evangelist's concern i s far removed from later controversies. He does not specify whether adults alone should be baptized and children excluded, an y mor e tha n h e specifie s a t wha t ag e on e becomes adult! He does not specify how the rite of baptism is to b e carrie d out , althoug h som e hint s ma y perhap s b e derived from othe r New Testament writings. The basi c point is that baptism, in Christian understanding, is carried out by Christ's warrant. When th e rite is administered, appropriat e scriptural passage s ar e read , bot h a s warrant for an d inter pretation o f th e meanin g o f baptism . Thus, i n th e cas e o f infant baptism, the reading of the 'child pericopae' interprets what th e churc h i s doin g i n term s o f Jesus ' attitud e t o children whil e instructing the adult s present o n importan t aspects o f discipleship . A s always , th e church' s teachin g function i s important. The whole rite, being Christo-centric, is properly interpreted furthe r in terms of Christian doctrine: but care shoul d b e taken not t o overload th e liturg y with to o much didacti c material, for thi s will lessen th e impact of the liturgical action rather tha n enhance it . The Lord' s Supper is the clima x of Christian worship . Its place i n th e liturg y i s discussed below . One notes , however,

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that when Pau l was writing t o the Corinthians , a eucharistic tradition - whether as 'the breaking of bread' or the Agapeor fellowship mea l - wa s already i n existence : Pau l wa s not introducing th e sacramen t fo r th e firs t time . Equally , Pau l had t o assert hi s apostolic authorit y i n order t o correct th e excesses whic h Churc h traditio n b y itsel f wa s unabl e t o handle. Hence th e significance of incorporating the narrative of 1 Corinthians 11:23ff. in the communion service as warrant and mode l fo r th e liturgica l practice. On e note s als o th e kerygmatic emphasi s i n Paul : 'fo r a s ofte n a s you ea t thi s bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes'. The Lord' s Suppe r i s a powerful proclamatio n of the Cros s and Resurrection , an d thi s proclamation mus t be made an d heard . Th e ministr y of Word an d Sacramen t is a unity. Indeed , i n th e ful l servic e o f Christia n worship, th e people o f Go d ar e helpe d b y the liturg y to approac h Go d through th e vestibule of praise an d praye r to the hol y place where th e Wor d i s hear d an d understoo d an d respons e made; and finally to the mos t holy place where the bread of life i s offered i n word and action : a holy mystery interpreted by scripture and therefor e properly the object of study in the continuing teaching ministry of the Church. Sacrament The ter m 'sacrament ' i s not foun d i n th e Bible , and wa s not used i n th e earlies t Church , althoug h wha t w e no w kno w as sacramenta l worshi p was a centra l focu s o f th e encounte r with God . Th e equivalen t ter m t o sacramen t i n th e Ne w Testament i s mysterion, 'mystery' . I n th e synopti c Gospel s we read o f th e 'myster y o f th e Kingdo m o f God' . I n Pau l th e mystery i s God's pla n fo r th e salvatio n of al l which has bee n realized i n histor y as wel l a s reveale d i n Christ' s deat h an d resurrection - th e 'paschal mystery ' which is implanted agai n and agai n i n histor y through th e proclamatio n o f th e Word . The 'myster y o f God ' ( 1 Corinthian s 2: 1 i n som e MSS ) i s identical with the myster y of the crucified Jesus (1 Corinthians 1:23; 2:2) , and with the proclamatio n o f the Gospel. The good news, God' s secre t plan , i s no w reveale d an d realize d i n the event s o f passio n an d resurrection . Th e myster y which had bee n hidde n i n Go d i s now revealed throug h th e Spiri t (1 Corinthian s 2:7-16) . I n Colossian s an d Ephesian s i t i s

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explained that the mystery once secret and no w made manifes t is tha t i n Christ , Go d wa s reconciling th e whol e cosmo s t o himself, and al l things are involved in a process which might be called 'christification ' (Colossian s 1:15-29 , 2:8-12 ; Ephesian s 1:8-10, 2:4-10, 3:1-13),. To sum up the New Testament under standing of the ter m mysterion: it is used in three related senses : (a) God's secret purpose for the salvation of all, now revealed in Chris t (e.g . Roman s 2:25 , 8:19-21); (b) A n earthl y reality expressing i n a hidden wa y a meaning relate d t o God's secret plan (e.g . Ephesian s 5:32 ; Revelatio n 1:20 , 17:5-7) ; (c ) A n historical happening with a special significanc e related to God's plan (e.g . 1 Corinthians 15:51; 2 Thessalonians 2:7). In secular usage mysterion meant, in a general way, a secret, while the plural form, mysteria referred t o the cults of the paga n 'mystery religions' . Th e questio n o f th e relatio n o f earl y Christianity to these myster y religions is a very complex matter into which we cannot go here, except to say that most moder n scholarship reject s th e view , enthusiasticall y propounded i n a former generation , tha t early Christianity (an d particularl y its cult) was shaped very largely on th e model of a mystery religion. The Father s are on th e whole very cautious about any use of the term myster y to refe r specificall y t o Christia n worship, presumably because the y fear confusion with the paga n rites of the mystery religions. But Clement of Alexandria — notable among the Father s for hi s eagerness t o relat e th e Fait h t o it s cultural context - speak s of three Christia n mysteries, or categories of mysteries: first , th e 'lesse r mysteries ' whic h were receive d a s preparation o r preliminar y t o greate r ones , fo r example , initiation b y baptism ; secondly , th e 'greate r mysteries' , th e central truth s o f th e Faith , which were t o b e live d an d con templated s o tha t graduall y more o f thei r meanin g becam e plain an d coul d b e appropriate d b y believers; and thirdly , th e 'great mystery ' whic h th e othe r mysterie s reflec t o r poin t towards, Jesus Chris t himself. The Lati n Fathers seem t o have had a certain suspicion of the Greek ter m mystenonand tende d to borro w a curren t ter m sacramentum a s a n alternative . Sacramentum ha d a pluralit y o f meanings , bu t th e on e whic h made i t most suitabl e fo r Christia n usag e wa s the sacramentum miiitiae, th e ritua l o f entr y o f recruit s int o th e Roma n army , which include d th e takin g of a solemn oat h o f loyalty and was often accompanie d b y the 'bran d of fidelity ' (fidei signaculum). Tertullian was the first to use sacramentum in a Christian context.

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In th e cas e o f baptism, h e understoo d i t on th e mode l o f th e military recruit's sacramentum, as indicating a binding faith an d commitment of one's self and th e star t of a new life. His talk of marriage as a sacrament suggests that he saw sacramentum as a direct translatio n o f th e mysterion o f Ephesian s 5 , where th e analogy between the love of Christ for his church and a husband and wif e i s declare d ' a grea t mystery' . Cypria n interpret s sacramentum in a less legal (o r military ) way than Tertullian ; a sacrament is a matter of symbols, figures, and sign s representing spiritual realities . Accordingly he speak s o f th e Eucharis t as a sacrament i n additio n t o baptis m an d marriage . Hilar y of Poitiers knows of three sacramenta: initiation, Eucharist and th e incarnation. But the three are clearly not 'o n a level', as it were: the Incarnatio n i s the foundatio n an d basi s for th e othe r two; they draw their meaning and significance from the Word mad e flesh. Augustine, th e firs t grea t systematize r o f Lati n theology , understood a sacramen t a s th e 'sign ' o f a sacre d reality , th e visible for m o f a n invisibl e grace. H e distinguishe d fou r com ponents: (a ) th e signum, th e outwar d visibl e an d materia l element, such as bread, wine, or water; (b) the virtus sacramenti, the 'virtue ' o r inward , invisibl e grace conveye d i n th e sacra ment; (c) th e verbum, the spoke n formul a pronounce d b y th e minister whic h provide d th e lin k betwee n th e sig n an d it s 'virtue'. The verbum is, in fact, the Word of God, not a magic spell, an d th e sacramen t mus t neve r b e separate d fro m th e Word o r i t cease s t o b e a sacrament . A s Augustine wrot e i n relation t o baptism : 'Tak e awa y th e Wor d an d th e wate r i s nothing but water. But when th e Word i s joined to the elemen t the resul t is a sacrament. . . Where does the wate r get it s lofty power to bathe th e body and cleanse th e soul if it is not throug h the actio n o f th e Word ? An d no t becaus e i t i s spoken, bu t because i t i s believed.' 15 (d) Th e 'agent' o f the sacrament i s Christ himself, wh o is th e Word. On e canno t bu t notic e tha t i n th e transition from th e Ne w Testament understandin g o f mysterion to th e develope d theolog y o f sacramentum in Augustine some thing ha s bee n los t an d th e concep t ha s bee n significantl y narrowed. Wha t ha d originall y denoted God' s secret pla n fo r all creation revealed and realized in Christ, and only derivatively the cult in which the Church re-present s th e mystery of Christ, *•' O n Ike Gospel of John 80.3, cite d i n J. Martos , Doors to the Sacred, Londo n 1981 , pp. 191f .

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now suggest s mer e rite s rathe r tha n on-goin g realities . Th e primordial 'sacramentality ' o f Chris t i s all but forgotten , an d the understandin g of the cult consequently impoverished an d opened to all sorts of distortions. Sacraments considered a s rites are viewed in isolation fro m thei r proper context and accorded a significanc e o n thei r ow n whic h differ s substantiall y from the primitiv e view. No w ne w question s o f a quit e differen t order arise, such as the number o f sacraments tha t exist (Pete r Lombard taugh t tha t ther e wer e seven ; th e Reformatio n recognized onl y two) or whether explicit institution by Christ is required t o mak e a sacramen t (Hug o o f St. Victor - twelft h century - emphasized th e need fo r dominical institution, as did the Reformers , bu t ther e wa s disagreement a s to ho w explicit such institutio n nee d be) . Consequently , Thoma s Aquina s taught tha t the sacrament s work ex opere operato, which came t o be interprete d a s a wa y of affirmin g th e objectivit y o f th e sacraments and thei r independenc e o f th e spiritual , moral o r emotional state of the minister or of the recipients. Sacraments, he taught, are the work of God and not of man, and th e minister (representing th e Church ) an d th e Churc h itsel f (i n whos e name th e rit e is administered) ar e only instrumental causes of Christ's own savin g activity. A sacrament i s an objectivel y valid offer o f grac e mad e b y Go d himself . Sacraments confe r th e grace the y signify , no t fo r an y superstitiou s reaso n o r i n a magical way , but becaus e i n the m Chris t th e Hig h Pries t i s acting throug h hi s Body , represente d b y th e minister , whose worthiness, while desirable, is not essential to the efficacy of th e sacrament. Afte r Thoma s th e prevalen t lega l an d juridica l thinking resulte d i n th e validit y o f th e sacramen t bein g see n as dependin g upo n th e correc t performanc e o f th e rit e i n the prescribe d form , wit h th e prope r words , b y th e legall y authorized minister . Thi s legalisti c understandin g o f th e sacraments became ver y widespread in the later Middle Ages so that sometime s a juridica l vie w almos t totall y obscure d a theological understandin g o f their meaning and significance. The Reformatio n attempte d t o recove r a biblica l under standing o f th e sacrament s but wa s only partially successful in escaping fro m th e legac y o f th e late r Middl e Ages . Th e Reformers' view s covered a wide spectrum, fro m th e Zwinglia n extreme where they were understood as little more than visual aids fo r th e commemoratio n o f pas t events , t o stron g affirmations o f th e Rea l Presenc e o f Christ with his people i n

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their celebration. Fo r an act of worship to be a sacrament it had to have been specificall y institute d by the Lord , with a promise of divin e grac e attached ; accordingl y onl y tw o sacraments , rather than the mediaeval seven, were recognized. This narrowing of the category of sacrament was not reall y a recovery of th e New Testamen t vie w - a s we have see n th e earl y Church was perfectly familia r wit h baptis m an d th e Lord' s Suppe r bu t understood the m a s element s i n th e vas t mysterion o f God' s dealings with mankin d i n Christ rather tha n th e tw o members of a particular class of rites. The stron g affirmatio n tha t Word and Sacramen t belonge d togethe r protecte d th e tw o sacraments fro m a n unhealth y isolation , bu t fel l shor t o f a rediscovery of the primitive comprehensiveness. Becaus e sacramental quality was believed t o inhere onl y in baptism and th e Eucharist, th e theologica l understandin g o f othe r form s of worship was inhibited and th e Reforme d Churche s were even reluctant to speak of preaching a s sacramental althoug h thei r practice seemed t o suggest such an interpretation. In principle the assertio n o f the complementarit y o f Word and Sacramen t and th e understanding of a sacrament as a verbum visibile, or as a seal and confirmation of God's Word of promise, should have opened up th e recover y of the prope r integration of Christian worship int o th e econom y o f salvation ; in practic e mediaeva l problems about th e number an d validity of the sacraments and opposition t o lat e mediaeva l sacramentalis m ensure d tha t a narrow vie w o f sacramentalit y wa s maintained whil e baptism and th e Eucharist were separated sharpl y from all other form s of worship (whic h were thereb y deprive d o f any sacramenta l significance) an d theologicall y relegated t o little more tha n an appendix rathe r tha n relatin g t o th e hear t o f th e Christian mystery. The Easter n Churche s followe d a very different path . The y continued t o us e th e ter m 'mystery ' i n thei r liturgie s in th e biblical sense : fo r the m th e Incarnation , th e Eucharist , Marriage, Baptism , th e Veilin g o f a Virgin , the settin g apar t of oil for liturgical use and numerou s othe r events, acts, rites, and doctrine s ar e al l 'mysteries' , i n th e sens e tha t the y ar e earthly realitie s fundamentall y related t o Christ , th e mystery of ou r salvation . Ther e wa s no questio n o f identifyin g two , three, seven , o r mor e rites as sacraments o r mysterie s t o th e exclusion o f al l else . Rather , the y wer e concerne d wit h identifying th e whol e of revelatio n an d salvatio n with a serie s

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of historical , tempora l focuse s o f encounte r fundamentall y related t o th e primordia l myster y of Christ . These views were partially abandoned onl y where the influence of Latin though t led t o th e adoptin g o f Wester n post-Aquina s sacramenta l theology. At the heart of the modern movement fo r liturgical renewal is a recover y o f th e understandin g o f sacramen t a s mystery, never totall y lost in th e East . Goin g bac k t o scripture an d th e Fathers, pioneer s suc h a s Odo Case l i n German y understoo d sacraments as rites in which participants encountered the living Christ, and his saving activity was re-presented t o them. Worship was seen as participation in the mysteries of the Christian Faith, and th e rit e itsel f had a significanc e which was simply instrumental. Buildin g o n suc h foundation s a numbe r o f recen t theologians, mos t notabl y Edwar d Schillebeeckx , hav e developed a sacramenta l theolog y whic h faithfull y reflect s neglected emphase s i n Scriptur e an d th e Father s an d trans cends man y ancien t controversies , suggestin g possibilitie s of ecumenica l consensu s i n thi s fiel d s o lon g devastate d by warring armies . Sacrament s ar e understoo d a s lovin g encounters betwee n th e believe r an d Go d which , like lovin g encounters between tw o human beings , reveal truths which are not apparen t o n th e surfac e o r accessibl e t o th e detached , 'objective' observer. Disciples o f today , jus t a s th e disciple s o f lon g ago , i n encountering Jesus com e int o touch wit h a mystery which they know t o be th e myster y of God's being an d acts , the secre t o f the universe and th e meaning of life. In the primary sense, then, we shoul d spea k o f Jesus Chris t as bein g th e Sacrament. 16 I n Christ, th e Incarnate Son , throug h hi s physical, historica l an d material humanity we encounter th e mystery, and th e reality of God himself . I n a secondar y sense , th e Churc h whic h i s th e Body o f Chris t shoul d b e regarde d a s a sacrament . I t i s th e community in tim e an d space , th e visibl e fellowship, in which the Go d an d Fathe r o f our Lor d Jesus Christ is encountered , and as his Body, it represents Christ sacramentally to the world. Thus, th e Churc h i s also t o be understood a s the sacramen t of the unity of all mankind: it shows in sacramental for m the saving purpose o f God fo r al l humanity, it is a sig n of hope fo r all , a working model (t o use a rather crude image) of what God wills lh Cf . th e titl e o f Schillebeeckx' s book , Christ th e Sacrament o f the Encounter with God, Londo n 1963 .

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for everyone: lovin g fellowship with God and with one another . And th e Churc h i s a sacramen t becaus e th e visible , empirica l reality of the fellowship points beyond itself to its Lord, to Christ the sacramen t o f th e encounte r wit h God . Thirdly , ther e ar e sacraments o f the Church which are sacraments, Schillebeeck x argues, precisel y because they are also acts of Christ himself. 'A sacrament', h e writes , 'i s primaril y an d fundamentall y a personal ac t of Christ himself which reaches and involve s us in the for m o f an institutiona l ac t performe d b y a person i n th e Church who. . . is empowered to do so by Christ himself. M 7And since the sacraments ar e acts of Christ, Schillebeeckx insist s that 'he mus t in some way have institute d the m himself'. 18 Indeed, without conceding th e extreme Protestan t positio n tha t ther e are two and onl y two sacraments, baptism an d th e Eucharist, an emerging ecumenica l consensu s concur s i n accordin g a very real primacy to these two rites while affirming tha t the y canno t be properl y understoo d excep t a s specia l focuse s o f a mor e broadly conceive d sacramentality . Go d i s no t confine d t o encountering hi s people onl y in baptism an d th e Eucharist, but he has trysted to meet them there, and these two meeting place s encourage an d hel p believer s t o discern th e presenc e of God elsewhere an d encounte r him in Christ i n all sorts of times and places, which thereb y becom e sacramental. Fo r wherever Go d is encountered believers may say, with Jacob, 'This is none other than th e house of God, an d thi s is the gate of heaven' (Genesi s 28:17.) Finally, to understand sacraments as ways of introducing an d intensifying th e experienc e o f encounte r wit h Go d i n Chris t involves th e necessit y o f holdin g togethe r th e Wor d an d th e Sacrament. Apar t from th e Word, the symbol s and action s of a sacrament would mystif y rather tha n revea l the mystery of God's purpose i n Christ; the Word integrate s these acts and symbol s into the mystery of salvation; Word, symbol and action mutually clarify one another and cannot be held apar t without danger of radical distortion. 19

17

Op . at., p. 62 . Op . aL, p. 137 . 10 Thus, D . Coggan advocate s a bi-foca l understandin g o f th e mean s of grace : '. . . the Livin g God comes t o u s both i n the Sacramen t of the Bod y and Bloo d of Christ an d i n th e sacramen t o f the Wor d . . .': Th e Sacrament o f the Word, Londo n 1989, p . 24. 18

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FURTHER READING J. Barr , Ol d and New in Interpretation (2n d edn.), London 1982 . —, Holy Scripture: canon, authority, criticism, Oxford 1983 . —, Th e Scope and Authority o f the Bible (Explorations in Theolog y 7), Londo n 1980 . D. Coggan, Th e Sacrament o f the Word, Londo n 1989 . A. Lewis, 'Ecclesia ex Auditu: A Reformed View of th e Churc h as the Communit y of the Word' , The Scottish Journalof Theology, vol.35, 1982, pp . 13-31 . C. F . D. Moule, Worship i n th e New Testament, London 1961 . H. H. Rowley , Worship i n Ancient Israel, Londo n 1967 . E. Schillebeeckx, The Sacrament of the Encounter with God, Londo n 1971. D. N . Power , Th e Eucharistic Mystery: Revitalizing the Tradition, London & Dublin 1993 . FOR DISCUSSION 1. 'Th e liturgy is scripture's home rathe r than its stepchild, and the Hebre w an d Christia n Bible s were th e Church' s first liturgical books.' (A. Kavanagh.) What then is the importance of the worshipping community for the interpretation of the Bible? 2. Ho w far is scripture itself dependent o n th e traditio n of th e faith community , and ho w fa r i s Church traditio n guide d and correcte d by scripture? 3. Wha t do you consider to be the most creative way of viewing the relationship of Word and Sacrament ? 4. I s a 'non-sacramental ' servic e o f worshi p a defectiv e o r incomplete for m of Christian worship?

CHAPTER 5

THE WORD AN D THE WORDS I N WORSHIP - PREACHIN G Introduction Preaching i s in crisis . Thi s awarenes s ha s bee n wit h u s fo r som e time now , reducing pastora l moral e an d congregationa l fervour . But the wa y out, towar d ne w effectiveness in preaching , i s not ye t clear. Wha t i s quit e evident , though , i s tha t th e ol d topical / conceptual approac h t o preachin g i s critically, i f not terminally , ill.1

Talk o f crisi s can b e dramati c an d alarmist . A crisis can b e 'talked up'. Yet there ca n be little doubt tha t in many societies today, and in many Christian communities, preaching does not emerge as an outstandingly effectiv e mod e of communication . Doubtless the reason s ar e complex, an d rais e many questions about the secularization of society (and its impact upon church communities) an d th e relationshi p betwee n preachin g an d culture. Some preachin g has been enormousl y effective i n th e modern world . Here on e think s not s o much of the American media evangelists, with thei r huge following , no r eve n of Bill y Graham, wit h hi s remarkabl e preachin g crusades , bu t a t a n arguably deeper leve l of Martin Luther King in the Civi l Rights campaign, and Desmond Tutu in the struggle against Apartheid. In th e las t two cases, on e ca n discern a total coalescin g o f the concerns o f people and preache r fo r a changed world , and a readiness to hear language and imagery as immediately relevant to thei r situation . People , preacher and biblica l tex t were all part o f th e contemporar y momentu m fo r chang e an d trans formation. 2 1

R . L. Eslinger, A New Hearing, Nashville 1987 , p. 11 . For a discussion o f hermeneutics , cf. J. I . H. McDonald , Biblical Interpretation and Christian Ethics, Cambridge 1993 , pp . 200-46 . 2

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Situations which give rise to crisis talk could hardl y be mor e different. Th e sermon i s no more tha n a conventional elemen t in a conventional act of worship. There is an apparently deter mined passivity on the part of the congregation, combined wit h a lack of expectation tha t anything will change. Such preachin g is a non-event. It may result from basic errors or misconceptions on the preacher's part, whether abou t the nature o f communication or what is to be communicated. Bu t it is too easy to blame it all on the preacher. Preacher an d congregation together may bear a share of the blame. Together they have failed t o generat e the kin d of situation in which the Spiri t of God can move . But possibly both ar e victims of a kind of cultural captivity in which it is very difficult t o sing or respon d t o the Lord' s song.3 To begi n t o addres s thi s situatio n i s a dauntin g task , wel l beyond th e scop e o f this chapter. It s complexity demonstrates the fac t tha t preachin g cannot properl y b e viewed i n isolatio n from th e worshi p an d communit y lif e o f whic h i t i s part . I f the sermo n i s a non-event, perhap s muc h th e sam e i s true o f the worship . If th e sermo n i s emotional froth , perhap s th e worship i s like tha t too . Preachin g presuppose s a degree o f expectation: no t o f bein g entertained , no r havin g one' s prejudices o r opinion s reinforced , but o f having the horizons of one' s understandin g widene d an d one' s commitmen t t o Christian discipleship challenged and strengthened. Yet, while accepting the importance o f this lively community context, it is still legitimate to separate ou t for special treatment some of the presuppositions o f effectiv e preaching . Le t i t b e sai d tha t preaching i s never easy , and tha t th e preache r i s ultimately in the hand o f God and delivers the message he or she believes to be give n fro m above . Nevertheless , tha t doe s no t spar e th e preacher the struggle not only to prepare a sermon that will be effective bu t als o t o understand , lik e an y professional , th e nature an d implication s o f th e tas k entruste d t o him o r her . This is what is addressed i n thi s chapter. This tas k itsel f i s wide rangin g an d canno t b e discusse d exhaustively. However , severa l importan t dimension s ma y be indicated briefly here. One involve s biblical interpretation. The New Testament message , a s is well known, comes to us from th e alien cultural setting of the Graeco-Roman world, two thousand years ag o (o r th e equall y strang e worl d o f ancien t Israel) . 3

Cf. chapter 1 1 below .

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Rudolf Bultmann had littl e need to exaggerate it s alien natur e (which perhap s h e did) ; nor Denni s Nineham th e difficult y o f communicating acros s cultures. 4 The horizon s o f th e ancien t world wer e ver y differen t fro m thos e o f today . Ye t the Ne w Testament writing s not onl y mov e i n th e though t worl d o f demons, 'principalitie s and powers ' an d angeli c appearances ; they also deal with explosive issues such as 'eating meat offered to idols' , 'Korban ' an d th e table-fellowshi p at Antioch. 5 In all such issues there is an attempt to apply, in the relevant cultural setting, th e Christia n messag e o r 'goo d news ' a s th e basi c principle an d motiv e o f Christia n existence . Thi s i s what is translatable into other cultures and ages . And its translatability is enhanced i n that there is, down the ages, a chain of Christian worship and witness, each lin k of which denotes th e attempt, in a differen t cultura l milieu , t o expres s th e gospe l i n con temporary terms . T o stan d i n thi s traditio n an d recogniz e oneself to be part of this chain is to acknowledge that the gospel can b e translated meaningfull y int o th e languag e an d cultur e of today . I t doe s n o more , however , tha n provid e a n initia l impetus to the process. The actua l translatio n has to be undertaken afresh in each generation, i f not in every sermon o r act of worship. The secon d dimensio n is that of communication. Communication theor y ca n teac h u s th e rudiment s o f th e science , bu t preaching ha s t o com e t o term s with th e fac t tha t communi cation itself has been revolutionized in modern society. In times past, th e preache r wa s the communicato r pa r excellence, th e fountainhead o f wisdom and inspiration . As Derek Weber ha s emphasized, the media age has changed th e situation radically. In a medi a ag e (fille d wit h message s of al l shape s an d colours , wrapped up in 3-hour films and 10-secon d sound bites, surrounded by compute r technolog y an d psychologica l researc h int o soun d and image response) the preache r feels like an amateur in a world of professional communicators. 6 The proble m mus t b e addressed ; i t cannot b e bypassed . Th e effect of television in particular maybe to shorten th e attentio n 1 Cf. R . Bultmann, 'The Ne w Testament an d Mythology' , i n Kerygma an d Myth (ed. H . W. Bartsch), London 1954 , pp . 1-44 ; D. E. Nineham, The Use and Abuse of the Bible, London 1976 , passim. For a review of Nineham , cf. R. H. Preston , 'Need Dr Nineham be so Negative?', Expository TimesXC 9, 1979, pp. 275-80. ' For mea t offered t o idols , see 1 Corinthians 8; 'Korban' occur s in Mar k 7:11; on Antioch , see Galatians 2. 6 D. C. Weber, Discerning Images, Edinburgh 1991 , p . 91.

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span, t o crav e visua l images , t o see k participation , and t o demand straightforwar d language. Traditional preachin g doe s not accor d wit h thes e emphase s bu t the y may point th e way to effective moder n preaching . Suc h question s ar e addresse d below. Yet th e mos t importan t dimensio n o f al l remains . Th e 'source' of the message i s two-fold: in the immediate perspective the sourc e i s the encode r (i.e . the preacher , teacher , liturgist or communicator ) bu t ultimately , it transcend s th e huma n dimension. The word s of the encode r ar e designe d t o convey the Wor d fro m Beyond , th e addres s o f th e wholl y Other . Liturgist an d preache r a s part o f th e Church , bea r witnes s to the Word from Beyond made manifest in the human dimensio n in th e perso n o f Jesus th e Christ . Through him , preacher an d liturgist are given a Word t o speak; indeed a Word t o embody . Underlying ou r attempt s t o grappl e wit h homiletic s an d liturgies is a confidence tha t the work on which we are engage d is part of a much larger scene , not only in this-wordly terms bu t in term s of the communio sanctorum. Ultimately, it is God's work that we do, and th e issues are in his hand. All this has been the work of God. H e has reconciled u s to himsel f through Christ , an d ha s enliste d u s i n th e ministr y o f recon ciliation. Go d wa s in Christ , reconcilin g th e worl d t o himself , n o longer holding people's misdeeds against them , and has entrusted us with th e ministr y o f reconciliation . W e ar e therefor e Christ' s ambassadors. It i s as if God wer e appealin g to you through us : we implore yo u in Christ's name, be reconciled t o God.7

Origins Preaching i s sometimes assume d t o b e a peculiarl y Christia n phenomenon an d t o characteriz e particularl y the Reforme d Christian tradition . I n fact , i t characterize s man y religiou s traditions. After hi s enlightenment, Siddhartha Gautama , th e Buddha, committe d himsel f t o a preachin g ministry . Th e Benares sermon , wit h it s kerne l o f dhamma, translate d hi s spiritual experience int o intelligible doctrine; th e 'sermo n o n burning' set s fort h th e Buddhis t vie w o f huma n existenc e a s fevered b y passion s an d thu s enslave d t o th e world. 8 I n 7 2 Corinthians 5:18-20, RF.B . * Cf. Man's Religious Quest, Whitfield Fo y (ed.), London 1978 , pp . 176-82 .

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Christianity, the catholic tradition of East and West enshrined a great preachin g tradition : Origen, John Chrysostom , Gregory of Nazianzus , Augustine, Ambrose an d Savonarol a are name s to conjure with in this regard. The prophets of Israel were essentially messengers o f Yahweh. The formul a 'Thus say s th e Lor d . . .' appear s t o b e derive d from th e sendin g o f roya l messages : Thu s say s my Lord th e King . . .' I t i s a proclamation , t o b e delivere d wit h sovereign authority. Th e apprehensio n o f th e messag e fall s withi n th e realm of religious mystery and i s not full y open t o our scrutiny . Often, we deduce, it occurred i n the course of intense religious experience; it was accompanied by a commission to convey the message, whateve r th e consequences , sometime s wit h mor e than a sense of urgency, almost a compulsion to utter the divine communication. Amos at Bethel and Jeremiah a t the gat e o f the Temple ar e examples o f prophec y whic h assume s th e for m o f a proc lamatory sermon . Deuteronom y provides furthe r example s of sermons a s th e instrument s of propheti c leadership . A characteristic o f tru e prophec y i s that i t uses intelligibl e language (cf. Paul in 1 Corinthians 14) an d tha t it reinforces and applies the tradition of Moses, the magnaliaor mighty works of salvation which God wrought in Israel in th e event of the Exodus and a t Sinai. Preaching in the prophetic tradition consists primarily of two related forms : th e messag e o f salvation and th e message of judgement. I n addition , i t can conve y eschatological urgency ('the da y of th e Lor d i s near . . .'). Thes e characteristic s are carried ove r int o earl y Christianity . Here, th e messag e o f salvation (euangelion: good news) predominates; but its obverse is the warning against rejecting God's grace an d incurrin g his judgement, an d th e eschatological emphasis , though modified by th e fac t tha t th e Chris t ha s alread y com e i n th e mids t of history, nevertheles s remain s stron g i n Ne w Testament proc lamation. One o f the distinguishing marks of post-exilic Judaism is the emergence o f written scripture, th e Torah , as focal i n th e lif e and worshi p of th e faith-community . Wit h i t ther e cam e th e synagogue, th e scribes , rabbini c exegesi s - an d synagogu e preaching. A t wha t poin t th e homil y o r sermo n becam e a regular par t o f synagogu e worshi p i s unclear , bu t Luk e 4 implies i t wa s no t uncommo n i n Jesus ' time , whil e i n Alexandria, Philo was a philosophical preacher with apologeti c

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objectives. However , the rabbini c traditio n o f preachin g was fundamentally exegetical . There wer e tw o forms o f homil y which merit particular note. One was the proem homily, in which the preache r selecte d a text which would enable hi m t o bring the secon d lesso n (fro m 'th e Prophets' ) int o ne w lif e an d relevance for the hearers and move on fro m ther e t o elucidate the primar y lesson (fro m th e Torah) . A s with th e Pharisai c tradition generally , th e emphasi s wa s on th e clai m of divine obligation o n th e live s of the hearers . Henc e parable , analogy and illustratio n formed a prominen t par t o f the homily . The second majo r form was known as the yelammedenu homily. Here the startin g poin t wa s a questio n pu t b y th e leader s o f th e congregation: 'Let our teache r instruc t us . . .' I n th e ministr y of Jesus, th e addres s i n th e synagogu e a t Nazaret h and th e discourse o n th e brea d o f life i n th e Fourt h Gospe l appea r t o be o f th e forme r type , while question s suc h a s I s i t lawfu l t o heal on the sabbath?' (Matthew 12:10) appear to be of the latter variety.9 That th e synagogu e homily was at leas t influence d i n it s development by external models, especially hellenistic preaching, is very likely, for Greek rhetoric and educatio n had a lasting impact on Jewish practice , even when Greek culture as a whole was rejected as inimical to the Jewish faith.10 Popular preaching emerged in the Greek worlds with the diatribe, which deliberately adapte d philosoph y to th e popula r market . The homily was therefore a homely, conversational presentation of a philosophical position : the wor d implie s 'familiar dialogue' . Vivi d illustrations and analogies abounded. Question s - sometime s rhetorical, sometimes direc t - brough t th e hearers into active engagement with the subject-matter. Humour, repartee, stories and a variety of rhetorical device s heightene d th e effect . I n a later phase , however , th e homil y becam e muc h mor e o f a formal discourse or lecture. There can be little doubt that early Christian preaching was considerably influenced by the GraecoRoman homiletic tradition and tha t the synagogue homily also mediated rhetorica l for m and art . Examples of early Christian preaching in the New Testament suggest tha t th e variou s strand s wer e wel l represente d i n it . The propheti c strand is reflected in the kerygmatic sermons of Peter an d Pau l i n Acts : the y proclaim th e Christia n magnalia 0 10

Cf. J. I . H. McDonald, Kerygma an d Didrtche, Cambridge 1980 , pp . 48ff . Cf. M. Hengel, Judaism an d Hellenism I, London 1974 , pp . 65-83.

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or 'might y acts of God'; they call for repentance, with urgency born o f a n eschatologica l faith . Indeed , suc h propheti c models pinpoin t th e basi c Christia n stanc e fro m whic h th e scriptures of the Ol d Testament ar e 'peshered ' o r give n thei r distinctive Christia n interpretation. However , Paul's address to th e synagogu e congregatio n a t Antioc h i n Pisidi a (Act s 13:15-41) bears some resemblance t o a proem homily, though it has bee n thoroughl y Christianized . Another goo d exampl e of a Christianize d synagogu e sermo n i s th e speec h o f Stephen (Act s 7:2-53) , whil e a mor e hellenisti c exampl e i s the Areopagu s speec h i n Act s 17:22-31 . Paul' s preachin g is echoed i n man y o f hi s letters , an d homileti c influenc e i s strong i n letter s suc h a s Hebrews and 1 Clement. The word s dialegesthai (Act s 20:7, 9) and homilein (20:11) both sugges t that Paul's preachin g invite d participatio n i n dialogu e an d argu ment. The mai n factor which separates Justin's description of early Christian worshi p fro m tha t o f th e Ne w Testamen t i s tha t Christian writing s have take n thei r plac e alongsid e th e Ol d Testament scriptures , an d Christia n preachin g i s basically exegetical. I n Origen , th e homil y expound s a pericop e o r selected passag e vers e b y verse . Eve n suc h unpromisin g material a s th e Son g o f Song s i s expounde d i n thi s way in two homilies. I n Origen , carefu l commentar y or textua l study lays th e foundation s o f homiletics , thoug h o f cours e h e had hi s ow n assumption s abou t ho w scriptur e shoul d b e interpreted.11 The homily , however , wa s no t th e onl y preachin g fro m Origen knew . H e use d logos t o describ e a mor e systematic discourse o n a selecte d theme . Augustine , too, distinguishe d between homil y an d sermon , th e forme r bein g relativel y informal an d th e latter (the sermo} referrin g t o a discourse i n a great basilica . Th e sermo ha d a mor e systemati c structure , building u p a n argumen t b y logica l step s an d reachin g a conclusion which combine d th e complete d argumen t with a n appeal t o th e hearers . Increasingly , i t reproduce d th e procedures an d device s of classica l rhetoric , an d wa s a for m " Origen ha d a three-fol d exegetica l method : th e litera l o r direc t sens e (e.g . Song of Songs is a love poem or lyric) ; the deeper or indirec t sens e (th e Song is an allegory of Christ an d th e Church) ; and th e spiritual (th e Song offers an imag e of heaven: the marriag e o f the Logo s and th e huma n soul) . Cf. R. P. Lawson, Origen: the Song o f Songs, Commentary an d Homilies, London 1957 , pp . 8ff. ; R . A . Greer , Origen, London 1979 , pp . 23f .

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that was to have much influence o n th e Christia n traditio n of preaching.

Theology The notio n tha t th e Gospels , and muc h othe r materia l in th e Bible, are essentiall y kerygmatic, tha t is , designed t o proclai m God's messag e o f salvation , wa s given prope r prominenc e by Martin Kahle r i n 1892 . H e wrote , Th e rea l Chris t i s th e preached Christ , an d th e preache d Chris t i s th e Chris t o f faith.' 12 Thereafter , fo r th e bes t par t o f a century . Reforme d theology ha s bee n 'dialectical' , 'kerygmatic' , 'th e theolog y of the Word' . Henc e i t i s integrall y relate d t o th e preachin g ministry. Throug h th e wor k o f Kar l Rahne r an d others , thi s emphasis has also come to the fore in Roman Catholic thinking. Karl Bart h wa s one o f th e mos t outstandin g proponent s o f kerygmatic theology . Particularl y i n his earlier writing s - fo r example, i n th e Word o f Go d and th e Word o f ma n - h e gav e prominence t o th e perspectiv e o f th e preacher , concerne d to relat e simultaneousl y t o th e wor d o f scriptur e an d th e world of his hearers. Even in the Church Dogmatics, the emphasis he place d o n preachin g i s evident i n th e wa y he pinpointe d the thre e forms of the Word o f God: (i ) th e proclaime d Word ; (ii) th e writte n Word; (iii ) the reveale d Word. 13 Th e proc lamation whic h th e preache r make s Sunda y b y Sunda y nourishes the faith of the Church. It is not simply a human process; fo r wher e th e Wor d i s trul y proclaimed , th e Hol v Spirit i s at work i n th e proclamatio n leadin g th e hearer s int o truth (cf . John 16:13) . Indeed , i t ha s been suggeste d tha t we can appl y the ful l Trinitaria n analogy and develop - bu t with suitable cautio n - th e relation betwee n th e written Wor d and God th e Son, and th e relation between th e revealed Word and God th e Father. The Ne w Testament seem s t o requir e thes e analogies . The y ar e not artificia l dogmatic constructions, but reflec t trul y the fac t tha t it is the Father who creates and command s with his Word, that it is the So n who is the expectatio n o f the Ol d an d th e witnes s of th e New Testament, and tha t it is the Holy Spirit who leads us into th e full trut h afte r th e Ascension. 14 12

Dersogennantehistorische festis und dergeschichtUche Iriblische Christus, Leipzig 1892, p. 63 (E.T. , Philadelphi a 1966) . " Cf. Church Dogmatics I.I; E.T., Edinburgh 1936 , pp. 98-140. 11 D. Ritschl , A Theology o f Proclamation, Richmond, Va. 1963 , p. 29 .

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On th e othe r hand , on e coul d clai m tha t al l three 'persons ' or 'mode s o f being' ar e presen t a t eac h stage , an d tha t th e christological dimensio n i s particularly relevant to th e under standing of preaching. Rudolf Bultman n combine d thre e mai n element s i n hi s kerygmatic mode, (a) It is dialectical: God i s proclaimed through the Wor d h e utters , particularl y on th e Cross . Bultman n has a stron g affinit y wit h Paulin e theology : 'W e preac h Chris t crucified . . .'. (b) I t draws freely fro m Heidegger' s existential analysis of human existence . How does the Word of preachin g relate t o thos e wh o hea r it ? It summon s the m t o decision . I t calls upo n the m t o adop t a ne w understanding o f thei r own existence: to effect th e transition , by the grac e of God throug h his Word , fro m th e 'inauthentic ' lif e o f unbelie f t o th e 'authentic' life of faith. Hence, according t o Bultmann, biblical language and imagery ('myth'), which derived from a n ancient world-view wholly alien to modern man , has t o be interprete d existentially. Heidegger' s descriptiv e analysi s o f huma n existence, Bultmann believed, was of great assistance in setting out th e meaning of the 'ne w life in Christ' for his hearers, (c) I t makes ful l us e o f biblical criticism to enable u s to understan d the purpor t of the tex t in its ancient context and s o identify its essential messag e fo r today . Thus , whe n th e biblica l text is preached an d hear d a s the Word o f God, something happens: i n Bultmann's terms, preaching is an event that effects change or transformation i n th e lif e o f the hearer . I n som e sense , he o r she becomes a new being.17 This relational aspect of preaching i s beautifully develope d by Paul Tillich in a justly celebrated sermon: Sometimes at that moment a wave of light breaks into our darkness, and i t is as though a voice were saying: 'You are accepted . Yo u are accepted, accepte d b y that which is greater tha n you, and th e nam e of which you do no t know . Do not as k for the nam e now; perhaps you will find it later. D o not tr y to do anything now ; perhaps later you wil l d o much . D o no t see k fo r anything ; do no t perfor m anything; do no t inten d anything . Simply accept th e fact that you are accepted!' I f that happens t o us, we experience grace . After suc h an experience w e may no t b e bette r tha n before , an d w e ma y not believe mor e tha n before. Bu t everything is transformed . . .'8 17 For an introduction to Bultmann's thinking and it s relationship to Heidegger , cf. J. Macquarrie, An Existentialist Theology, London 1954. 18 Th e Shaking of the Foundations, London 1949 , pp. 161fT .

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Preaching is therefore a personal transaction in the fulles t sense: a person-to-perso n encounter , permeate d b y grace. The proc lamation must be made lovingly, for it is an expression o f and a vehicle for the love of God. It is - no w and forever - good news (gospel), eve n thoug h i t carrie s th e pai n o f revelatio n o f th e truth abou t oneself , or the sting of judgement o r rebuk e (an d the preache r ca n neve r exclude himsel f o r herself ; he o r she , too, is a receptor). It is gospel because , i f it is authentic Word, it conveys with the judgement th e assurance tha t God accepts us now. that this gracious moment o f truth i s the effectin g o f th e transformation, th e wo w of salvation. Nevertheless, we do well to heed the protest of J. B. Metz and others against the 'privatizing' of the gospel, which occurs when preaching i s relate d to o exclusivel y t o th e individual. 19 Preaching, lik e worship , i s a communit y action ; and , lik e worship, it sends u s out int o the world in Christ's name. 'Go d so loved the world . . .' The ministry of Jesus was a public event, as political as it was spiritual. It is all too eas y for preache r an d congregation t o retrea t int o th e comfortabl e shelter o f som e form o f neo-orthodoxy. The essentia l complemen t o f 'ortho doxy' (righ t belief) i s 'orthopraxis': right expression o f faith i n action. Love to God is inseparable from love to neighbour, and the latter involves action i n the world. If Christians are t o shar e in Christ' s ministr y o f reconciliation , the n preachin g mus t provide some o f the trainin g for this front-line engagement . Exegesis Important a s i t i s fo r th e preache r t o hav e a theologica l understanding o f preaching , th e aci d tes t come s whe n h e o r she sit s dow n a t th e des k t o prepar e th e sermo n fo r nex t Sunday. I f the preache r i s to be faithfu l t o th e ministr y of th e Word, a central concern mus t be with a sound exegesis . Allied to thi s is the necessit y to communicate wit h th e hearers . Th e preacher mus t steer a course, as Karl Barth put it, 'between th e problem o f human lif e on the one hand and th e content of the Bible o n th e other' . Ther e ar e n o eas y answer s t o thi s predicament, nor should anything offered below be interpreted in tha t way. At most, certain guidelines can b e indicated. (a) The preacher owes it to the hearers, to have a knowledge and appreciatio n o f the ful l rang e o f th e Biblica l literatur e 19

Cf. Theology of th e World, Londo n 1969 , pp . 107-15 .

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that comprise s th e cano n o f scripture , t o b e awar e of th e findings o f Biblica l scholarshi p and t o b e abl e t o appl y it s insights to the interpretation of scripture. All this represents, as it were, the primar y elements of his or he r science . The preache r wil l only reach a defensible and productiv e resolution of the problem of scripture through an intelligent study of all the evidence . That ther e i s considerable dange r in divorcin g th e academi c an d th e practica l (theoria an d praxis) i s illustrated from tim e t o tim e b y solecisms perpe trated b y churchmen : e.g . th e appea l i n tim e o f wa r o r conflict t o the warlik e Yahweh, leader of Israel's hosts in th e destruction o f her enemies ; the appeal to the Mosaic Law to justify capita l punishmen t o r oppositio n t o (say ) bloo d transfusion o r spiritualism, or th e appeal of the first<entur y codes cite d in the Ne w Testament t o justify oppositio n t o all forms o f abortio n o r t o th e relaxin g of th e la w on homo sexuality; or th e patheti c spectacle o f the 'creationist ' versus 'evolutionist' debat e i n som e circle s today . Suc h 'direc t transference' o r 'instan t exegesis ' take s n o accoun t o f th e importance of th e contex t o r th e difficult y o f extrapolatin g texts in thi s way. (b) The use of a lectionary assists exegesis. It is helpful to have a carefully arrange d selectio n of passages - usuall y Old Testament, Epistle and Gospel - related t o the Christian Year; for th e liturgica l season itsel f is a help t o interpretation, an d the lectionar y provides a disciplin e for th e preacher . On e cannot simply repeat one's favourite passages or themes; and the disciplin e impose d b y th e lectionar y afford s greate r objectivity t o th e us e o f scriptur e an d make s fo r bette r coverage o f th e whol e rang e o f biblica l texts . Above all , it requires the preache r t o clarify hi s or her understandin g of the relationshi p of Old Testament, Epistl e and Gospel . Whatever part of th e Bibl e it comes from, a biblical passage attempts som e kin d o f crystallization ; of faith , tradition , message, understanding o f life, or gospel . I t is a crystallization that includes the origina l receptors in th e faith-perspectiv e in question. Late r generation s (includin g ourselves) ar e partl y excluded fro m immediat e appreciatio n o f thi s perspectiv e because th e origina l communicatio n presuppose d a wholl y different cultura l setting from our own. Hence th e need, in the Church as in Judaism, for interpretation, midrash, exposition -

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in short, for the work of exegesis that 'gives the sense', translates and applies the meaning in modern terms . Christian exegesis is Christo-centric, sinc e Jesu s th e Chris t represent s th e ful l expression o f God' s savin g work ; henc e th e interpla y of Ol d and New Testaments, and the Christian /?es/^rstandpoint. Even' exegetical sermon , therefore , i s a ne w crystallizatio n of th e Gospel of Christ; a new statement of God's acceptanc e o f us in Christ. An d thi s ne w statemen t involve s th e receptors , th e congregation. Preachin g i s a n even t whic h change s an d reshapes thei r lives , thei r community and thei r world. E. Best concludes his study of exegetical preaching i n thi s way: The purpos e o f al l understanding o f Scripture i s to mak e Chris t appear i n hi s churc h s o tha t h e shape s tha t churc h t o b e lik e himself. Th e purpos e o f th e preachin g i s th e formatio n o f th e church to be the true body of Christ. The purpose of the devotiona l study o f Scriptur e i s the harmonizin g o f th e individua l int o th e whole which is the church . Bu t the preache r need s to remembe r that ther e ar e mor e factor s a t wor k tha n hi s preachin g i n th e shaping o f the church t o be the tru e body of Christ. Certainly this takes place throug h worshi p and in the sacraments, bu t it also takes place as the individual member s come to their own understanding, form i n themselve s a new crystallization, an d s o contribute to th e upbuilding o f the whol e body. The movemen t i s then from Chris t through th e crystallizations which are Scripture and th e histor y of the churc h int o th e crystallization o f the sermon an d ou t agai n t o be th e lif e o f the Church , whic h i s the lif e o f the rise n Lord , an d the onl y crystallization tha t reall y counts.20

The method s o f exegesi s ar e governe d b y our overal l under standing of exegetical interpretation. Careful study of the text, with commentaries, is a prerequisite; but th e material from th e commentary is not th e substanc e o f th e sermon . I f it were so, the sermo n would , almos t certainly , b e academicall y overcharged an d conceptuall y inappropriate t o the congregation , and i t would in consequence lose impact. Commentaries enrich our understanding of the passage and enable us to bring about a mor e worth y crystallization of th e Gospe l fo r th e congrega tion. 'Every sermo n shoul d b e ruthlessl y unitar y i n it s theme, ' writes Ian Pitt-Watson, with perhaps some exaggeration.21 'This is th e firs t an d grea t commandment! ' I t i s importan t t o 20 Z1

Cf. E . Best, From Text t o Sermon, Edinburgh 1978 , p . 113 . Cf . A Kind of Folly, Edinburg h 1976 , p . 65 .

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determine wha t the centra l thrust or them e o f the passag e is. Provided the selected them e is inherent in the passage and no t extraneously imposed , i t i s o f muc h hel p i n establishin g a consistent lin e o f approac h i n th e interpretatio n an d expo sition, for it establishes the kerygmatic unity - th e crystallization of truth - tha t brings the hearers into active exploration of the meaning fo r themselves . H. Thielicke commends thi s textualthematic kind of approach . First, in this way one remain s within the tex t and allow s it to be an end i n itself. On e discover s in it a centre an d peripher y and on e illuminates it on th e basi s of its main ideas . Second, this way of determining the theme not only helps to keep the sermon tru e t o the tex t but also help s the preache r t o achieve order an d clarity .. . Third, the method is also helpful to the hearer. He retains it better and can more readil y pass i t on to the others . .. But the themati c sermon i s helpful most of all to hearers who ar e interested i n a question and perhaps have no desire to listen to any biblical exposition whatsoever. This wil l b e tru e especiall y of thos e wh o ar e o n th e fringe s o r outside th e church . They ma y sit up an d tak e notic e whe n the y find tha t th e them e announce d i s 'Th e Meanin g o f Life ' an d perhaps the y will be much surprised t o hear a sermon o n the Rich Young Ruler subsumed under thi s theme. They may also recognize that some unexpecte d problem s are deal t with in the Bible. 22

Forms Thielicke's exegetical procedure aptl y illustrates the relationship betwee n th e substanc e o f th e sermo n (i.e . exegetica l concern) an d th e for m whic h th e sermo n assumes . Biblica l material, in fact, prompts more tha n one form , as we shall see. Thielicke seem s mos t a t hom e wit h th e themati c (o r textua l thematic) discourse , but i t has its drawbacks. (a) Thematic preaching. A descendant o r hei r of the traditio n of classica l rhetoric , themati c preachin g represent s th e systematic developmen t of a selected theme , which ma y be based o n a verse , a passag e o r eve n a boo k o f scripture . Sometimes parodie d a s 'three points and a poem', it has an introduction, designe d t o captur e th e attentio n o f th e 27

Th e Trouble with the Church, London 1966 , pp . 63ff .

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listeners and to lead them t o interested engagement wit h the substance of the discourse. It develops its argument by means of a series of reasoned steps ; not only systematically expounding an d commendin g th e them e o r thesis , but als o refuting objections o r counter-theses , a s th e whol e armour y o f rhetorical device s - questions , illustrations , anecdotes , quotations, repetitions , similes and other figure s - i s at the disposal o f th e speaker . Th e impac t whic h th e preache r hopes t o achiev e does no t operat e a t th e intellectua l level alone (eve n i f th e argumentativ e natur e o f th e procedur e might suggest otherwise) : i t is concerned with the emotion s and th e will , th e affectiv e an d volitiona l a s wel l a s th e cognitive. I t seek s a respons e fro m th e hearer s a s whol e beings. The conclusion , therefore , i s not only the goal of the argument: i t i s th e crownin g appea l t o th e listeners , summoning the m t o respond i n fait h an d obedienc e t o th e Word whic h ha s bee n mediate d t o the m throug h th e exploration of the theme . There i s virtually a consensu s amon g homiletician s tha t traditional conceptua l preachin g simpl y doe s no t com municate i n today' s world. On e o f it s ancestors i s the sermo delivered in the larg e basilica , with an overtone , perhaps, of the lectur e hal l o r larg e auditorium . Bu t man y o f th e liturgical setting s in whic h th e themati c discours e i s use d today are not of this type. One think s of the sparsely attended evening service , or th e mornin g servic e i n a rura l are a o r depopulated cit y centre; and on e reflect s also on th e TV age, the effect of the mass media o n communication, and a whole range o f socia l change s whic h mar k of f ou r ag e fro m it s predecessors. I s the declamator y form o f oration reall y suitable, whe n th e settin g migh t sugges t a mor e informal , perhaps conversational , typ e o f talk ? I t highlight s th e authority of the preacher, but may also suggest that he or she stands 'si x fee t abov e contradiction' , beyon d challeng e o r questioning, despite th e fac t tha t some sermo n conten t may be ope n t o questio n o r positivel y invit e discussion . I n considering th e mos t appropriat e for m o f sermon , th e preacher must reflect on it s relation t o the congregation an d the liturgical setting. Again, does the thematic discourse lend itself t o th e expositio n o f every typ e o f scripture , whether prose o r verse , narrative or parable , epistl e o r apocalyptic book? One migh t take 'rac e relations ' or 'prejudice ' a s the

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theme of the parable o f the Good Samaritan, but thi s hardly does justice t o th e paraboli c story whic h Jesus told , whic h seems t o requir e a different form o f discourse, namel y on e much mor e directl y relate d t o narrativ e o r story-telling . There is therefore a direct relation betwee n sermon form and the nature o f the scriptural material. (b) Popular exposition. I n its early Christian setting, the homily is essentiall y the expositio n an d discussio n o f a passag e o f scripture (o r 'pericope') . The applicatio n o f the passag e t o the live s of the participant s is kept in view throughout an d i s sometimes mad e explici t at th e end. A s H. J. C . Pieterse ha s put it , 'We can say . . . that a homily is linked t o a pericope, which it expounds verse by verse in a largely analytical way; that i t i s characterized b y a n intimat e atmospher e an d i s geared t o dialogue wit h listeners.23 Pieterse points out tha t it is particularly suited t o 'factual ' texts : by which we take hi m to mean text s which only come t o life fo r readers or hearer s when the y are mad e awar e o f th e backgroun d o r setting-in life. Fo r example, t o understand wha t Paul was saying about 'meat sacrificed to idols', on e ha s to learn somethin g o f the social an d historica l situatio n o f th e earl y Christian s a t Corinth an d als o of groups and tendencie s alread y forming in thei r community. It is the preacher' s tas k to elucidate thi s 'background', so that th e whole congregatio n ca n read an d explore th e passage an d com e t o an understanding o f Paul's meaning an d ai m i n writing . Thus , preache r an d con gregation ar e brought int o dialogue not only with each other but with the biblical writer. Their minds meet with his or he r mind, an d thei r live s ar e ope n t o th e challeng e o f th e message. The advantage s of this method ar e considerable. I t invests authority not i n th e preache r (wh o is seen as a facilitator of interpretation) bu t i n the text . It can be applied t o a variety of type s of texts : t o poem s an d psalm s a s well a s letter s o r other prose passages . Taken t o its logical conclusion, it would provide opportunit y fo r puttin g question s t o the expositor , and fo r sharing idea s and insights , and i t would thus obviate the inheren t weaknes s of the monologue as a mode of communication. 2X 'Sermon Forms' , i n Journal o f Theology fo r Southern Africa 36 , 1981 , p . 12 ; Communicative Preaching, Pretoria 1987 , pp. 158-63 .

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1

The metho d a s described abov e lends itself to the smaller, more intimate group: the evening or mid-week service, or the bible stud y group. Th e discussio n o r 'feed-back ' ma y b e relatively informa l o r i t ma y b e structure d (e.g . dividin g into smalle r groups) . Man y ma y fee l tha t th e lac k o f such opportunitie s i n man y churche s i s an eviden t weak ness, bu t tha t preacher s an d congregation s nee d tim e t o adjust t o a new situation which puts th e preache r in a mor e vulnerable positio n an d th e congregatio n i n a mor e activ e role, whic h ma y no t b e t o everyone' s liking . Bu t i f we genuinely believ e tha t preachin g ha s t o d o wit h com municating meaning , bot h adjustment s ar e essential . On e reflects o n th e nee d fo r muc h mor e effectiv e adul t educa tion i n ou r churches . I t i s a ga p whic h th e expositor y homily can g o some way to fill. (c) Th e story sermon. Th e Gospel s consis t largel y of stories . The story-telle r clearly had a n importan t plac e i n th e com munication of the early Christian message, and especially the tradition about Jesus. The Old Testament relate s the story of Israel, Jesu s himsel f wa s a skille d story-telle r an d earl y Christian preachin g focuse d o n th e stor y of salvation . It i s surprising, therefore , tha t many modern preacher s ten d t o make relativel y littl e use o f th e ar t o f story-telling , except when talkin g to children or fo r th e purpos e o f illustrating a thematic discourse . I n othe r words , th e moder n preache r seems to be much less dependent o n th e stor y than his biblical predecessors. Ye t i t i s doubtfu l i f narrativ e text s ca n b e properly expounde d withou t makin g substantia l us e o f narrative. The stor y is more than the means of conveying the message. I t i s no t dispensable . I n a rea l sense , i t i s th e message. I n th e interactio n of th e character s i n a give n situation an d i n th e dram a tha t is generated i n th e telling , the hearers are drawn into dialogue with the picture of reality that is created i n th e narrative . In thi s way, they are brough t to questio n thei r ow n understandin g o f lif e i n a ne w an d radical way. To mak e prope r us e o f th e narrativ e form , preacher s must d o thei r homewor k o n th e biblica l narrative . They must observe carefully how the biblical story-teller structured his narrative, what his aims were an d wha t devices he use d to effec t them . They mus t also conside r ho w modern inter -

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preters (preacher and hearer) might engage with the theme of th e stor y a s somethin g tha t matter s vitall y i n thei r lives . The followin g is a brief example, usin g the stor y of Jonah: Introduction. Ho w difficul t i t i s to forgiv e one's enemies ! Focus o n a tellin g image o f th e struggl e t o forgive : fo r example, th e struggl e man y former POW s have t o forgive their enemie s o f hal f a centur y ago , especiall y i f the y received bad treatment at their hands. Or present a picture of individual s wh o surprise d themselve s b y findin g reconciliation possibl e - thoug h neve r easy . The story of Jonah is about this very issue . I. Focu s briefly on th e powe r and glor y of ancient Assyria, whose capita l wa s Nineveh: o n it s war s of imperia l con quest: on it s conquest an d subjugatio n o f Northern Israe l (Jonah's country), when The Assyrian came down lik e the wolf on th e fold , And hi s cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; And th e sheen of their spears was like stars on th e sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. (Byron ) The result : th e destructio n o f th e country , th e rui n o f a culture an d religion , th e dismemberin g o f Israel , th e imposition o f alien ways . How dreadful, whe n everythin g that is precious to you collapses before your very eyes. Such is the legac y of wars, ancient and modern . II. Jonah , a s th e prophe t o f th e Lord , i s told t o g o an d preach God' s messag e o f salvatio n t o th e peopl e o f Nineveh, the Assyrians whom he hated. Picture the struggl e in Jonah's heart an d mind . H e does not want his enemies to b e saved . H e pray s fo r thei r destruction . Focu s o n Jonah's attempt t o frustrate God's purpose by sailing off in the opposite direction . Forgivenes s i s never an easy matter - eve n fo r a prophe t o f the Lord! Nor was it easy for his people. III. Th e stor y tell s o f God' s determinatio n tha t huma n hardness o f heart will not triumph. The harder Jonah tries to escape from God, th e more God pursues him and return s him to his vocation. The episode of the great fish highlights the struggl e betwee n Go d an d Jonah i n a most dramati c way. But it is impossible t o escape from God . Hi s purpose demands fulfilment , eve n when we try to frustrate it.

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IV. Jona h returns to his mission with a heavy heart, hopin g that he will die before he sees the salvation of his enemies. But even that hope i s shattered, as God frustrates his tactics time and tim e again. Finally , the prophet has to face up to the reality he trie d so hard t o conceal fro m himself . While he fel t suc h bitterness towards the enemie s o f his people , God was concerned for all the people of Nineveh - t o say nothing of their cattle (which also matter). Conclusion. Bitterness , resentment, eve n hatre d charac terize th e huma n condition , especiall y when peopl e hav e suffered terribly . That wa s Jonah's experience . An d on e can easily justify to oneself one's implacable hostility. Yet Jonah, who thought he was opposing th e enemies of God, learned t o hi s chagrin tha t Go d wa s concerned fo r thes e very people . We don' t kno w how Jonah fel t afte r h e was compelled t o realiz e ho w Go d sa w things . Probabl y a current o f resentment woul d last a long tim e within him. Maybe he trie d t o tell himself tha t Go d might forgive, but he himself was only human. But, like us, he could no t shut out th e Voice which says: Love your enemies and pra y for your persecutors ; onl y so can you b e childre n o f your heavenly Father, wh o causes th e su n to ris e o n goo d an d ba d alike , an d send s th e rai n o n th e innocent an d th e wicked. (Matthe w 5:44-45, REB )

New Developments in Homiletics 'How can preachers work within an increasingly visual culture?' This i s on e o f th e mos t pressin g question s face d b y homileticians today . Thi s issue , combine d wit h th e problem s outlined earlie r i n thi s chapter, hav e le d som e commentator s to argue tha t the sermon i s 'under attack'24 and that 'preaching is i n crisis'. 23 Suc h pressur e ha s le d t o a numbe r o f ne w approaches t o the ar t o f preaching. 26 A central assumptio n o f this section i s that 'televisio n and motio n picture s have shape d a visuall y orientated generation'. 27 Ou r visua l culture i s like a bank o f TV monitors showin g many different scene s - i t has 24

Klaas Runia, Th e Sermon Under AtUick, Exeter 1983.. Richard L . Eslinger, A Ne w Hearing, Nashville 1987, p. 11 . 26 See A New Hearingfor a clear exposition o f ne w movements withi n homiletics. 27 Patricia Wilson-Kastner , Imagery for Preaching, Minneapolis 1989 , p . 21 .

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many faces. This section wil l identif y fou r aspect s o f thi s visual culture, an d explor e wha t th e recen t development s withi n homiletics can contribute to those attempting t o communicat e in suc h a rapidly evolving context . (i) From static points to imaginative moves One significan t shif t i n ou r perspectiv e o f realit y coul d b e highlighted b y contrasting th e Lumier e brothers' earliest film shots i n 189 5 wit h recen t actio n movie s suc h a s Ro b Roy, Braveheart and th e Batman triology. This first film, Sortie d 'usine, was made b y a stationary camera as workers left th e Lumieres ' factory.28 Th e resul t resemble s a pictur e wit h movin g figure s on it . The curren t movi e industry , represente d b y the actio n adventure genre , relie s o n ver y differen t techniques . Tight editing an d rapi d cut s combin e wit h movement s o f camer a angles to allow viewers to see and hea r fa r more tha n the y ever could without the camera's aid. Davi d Buttric k recognizes th e significance o f this shift: Times have changed, and so, apparently, has human consciousness. We loo k a t movie s from earl y i n ou r centur y and laug h a t thei r stilted, fixed-camer a unreality . Nowaday s a singl e scen e i n a television drama may involve hundreds o f different camer a angles from camera s mounted o n movin g booms. W e view th e produc t and remar k its realism. The electroni c medi a ar e a produc t o f a changed, highl y complex huma n consciousnes s and, in turn , act on the consciousness of the age. 29

On th e basis of this change in perceptio n Buttric k argues fo r a similar developmen t i n approache s t o makin g move s within preaching. A single, fixed, point of view adopted by a preacher, may seem slo w and turgi d t o an audienc e mor e use d t o rapid shifts i n viewing angles. The parables , fo r example , provid e man y opportunities fo r preachers t o invit e thei r listener s t o join the m i n makin g imaginative leaps . Conside r th e classi c tal e o f th e Goo d Samaritan (Luk e 10:29-37) , wher e th e stor y coul d b e retol d from a variety of angles. Persuadin g th e listener t o stand by the 28

Lumiere fil m Sortie d'usine (1895) , i n Early Cinema, Primitive and /*u>neer.<;, a British Fil m Institut e video. w David G . Buttrick, 'Preaching to the "Faith " of America', in Leonard I . Sweet (ed.), (Communication and Change in American Religious History, Gran d Rapid s 1993 , p. 316. See especially Part 1 on 'Moves ' in his Homiletics: Moves and Structures, London 1987.

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listening lawyer , wal k wit h th e religiou s professional s and li e in th e ditc h wit h th e mugge d travelle r coul d al l provid e provocative insights into this story.30 Even a view from th e in n might elicit a new response t o this familiar parable . On the one hand, what could be described as a single-fixed camera approach, which merely allows the characters to pass across th e scree n o f th e imagination , ma y limi t th e story' s potential power. On th e othe r hand, a multi-camera approach, if sensitively handled , coul d lea d listener s int o an d throug h a story and so allow them to experience it s movement. The powe r lies no t i n discoverin g an d makin g a singl e poin t i n thre e different ways, but rather through enablin g listeners to step into the stor y itself and s o encounter it s original force afresh. (ii) From monologue to dialogue

A second aspec t of our visua l culture is an increase d suspicion of monologues. Television thrives on conflict, on disagreement, and on discussion. Producers are expected t o represent oppos ing view s an d s o create dialogu e an d debate . Preacher s wh o ignore this phenomenon ar e in danger o f alienating or at least distancing their listeners. Fred Craddoc k argue s that: . . . sermon s whic h begi n wit h conclusion s an d genera l truth s arrived at by the ministe r in the privac y of a study tend t o oppres s and trea t a s les s tha n full y faithfu l an d capabl e a listenin g congregation. Today , thi s i s often calle d th e bankin g metho d o f communicating; tha t is , th e speake r simpl y make s deposit s o f information i n th e min d o f the listener.* 1

Craddock i s not arguing here for a balanced, tame , or objective style o f preachin g whic h lack s passion o r vision . H e i s rathe r explaining how he came to prefer an inductive approach ove r a deductive approac h fo r preaching . H e suggest s inductive movement is from the 'particulars to the general', and deductive is from 'th e genera l t o particulars'. 32 The inductiv e approac h attempts t o turn th e sermo n int o a conversation betwee n 'th e congregation an d th e biblical text'.33 30 See McDonald , 'Vie w fro m th e Ditch' , forthcomin g i n Scottish Journal o f Theology. 31 Fred Craddock , 'Inductiv e Preaching ' - unpublishe d pape r fo r the Societas Homiletica - Stetso n University , 20-23 August 1990 , p . 8. 32 Ibid., p . 10 . ss Ibid., p . 12.

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In th e parable o f the Pharise e and th e Tax Collector (Luk e 18:9-14), fo r example , a deductiv e approac h migh t b e t o begin wit h th e genera l statement : 'ever y on e wh o exalt s himself wil l b e humbled , bu t h e wh o humbles himself wil l b e exalted' (v . 14) . Th e parabl e woul d b e use d a s a too l t o demonstrate and illustrat e thi s truth . An inductive approach , might invit e th e listener s t o reflec t o n th e character s por trayed i n thi s story. Ho w do the y act? What do the y say? Ho w is i t relevan t today ? Thes e coul d b e question s raise d t o consider. I n short , Craddock' s approach t o inductiv e preaching i s an attemp t t o move th e authorit y fro m th e preache r t o the text . Th e congregatio n i s invited t o explor e i t wit h th e help of the speaker , rathe r tha n hav e the answer s thrust upon them. (Hi) From single images to visual stones A thir d aspec t o f ou r visua l cultur e i s th e multiplicit y and plurality of images. Some pictures are static, whilst many others are rapidl y moving . I n televisio n news , for example , i t i s no t uncommon fo r disaste r image s t o b e place d sid e b y sid e with sportin g images . Thi s constan t visua l juxtaposition ca n anaesthetize audiences to the message s conveyed. In radi o programmes , fo r instance , th e locatio n o f a 'littl e picture' within the structure of the overall programme o r report can add significantly to the texture of the broadcast. A n image, however, may be s o powerful that it can interrup t th e flow of the programme . Th e sam e is true i n th e contex t of a sermon. While a pictur e adds dept h an d colour , i t can s o provoke o r evoke th e listeners ' imaginatio n tha t th e preache r lose s thei r attention, o r th e imag e i s remembered an d th e messag e i s forgotten. The 'unforgettable ' verbal image and visual story is a potentially dangerous weapon . Preachers wh o are operating withi n a visual culture nee d t o develop a sensitivity to using images effectively in sermons. One of th e central factor s her e is to consider th e structure s mad e use o f by the preacher . I n a privat e interview, David Buttrick argued: People ten d no w to think through imag e systems . Your problem, however, is that a lot of young preachers are trying to preach solel y in images ; an d again , without a logica l structur e i n whic h thes e images can form, occur , and mean , they aren't going t o do much

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for you. They are simply going to be images which don't necessarily provoke contemplation/' 4

For Buttrick , image s ca n provok e though t s o lon g a s the y function structurally. Image piled upon image, without obvious meaning, i s on e o f th e confusin g characteristic s o f Post modernity. Man y o f th e parable s ar e ric h i n verba l imagery . Take a selection o f Lukan parables . The y graphicall y portray, for example , a man who builds his house on roc k (Luk e 6:48 49), a sower who broadcasts hi s seed (Luk e 8:5-8), and a father who runs, embraces and kisse s his profligate son (Luk e 15:20) . These active images are ofte n wove n together imaginativel y to create unforgettable stories . (iv) From dry words to visual plots

Stories built around picture s are anothe r significan t aspect o f our visual culture. Advertising parables wit h a materialistic twist often rel y o n shor t storie s being tol d throug h pictures. 30 Thi s contrasts sharply with earl y advertising in th e seventeent h an d eighteenth centuries , which relied almos t entirely on word s to promote it s wares.36 The curren t primac y of the visual is also t o be foun d i n man y other longe r televisio n programme s an d films. Popular hospital dramas, such asER, Casualty and Cardiac Arrest, increasingly draw on trauma s made visually explicit. Th e sight of stab wounds, grief-stricken relatives, and violen t fights in th e hospita l upsets th e equilibriu m an d add s t o th e crafte d narrative suspense . Th e tensio n inheren t withi n cycle s o f conflict an d resolution , a s well a s multipl e plotlines , i s ofte n heightened throug h a n imag e o f a traumatize d patien t o r a n exhausted doctor . In this context, th e well-chosen image speak s many words and add s t o the plo t development . 31 David Buttrick , recorded privat e interview , Vanderbelt Divinit y School, USA, 29 March 1994 . :0 See the Wrigley' s Spearmint Gum Advert: An attractiv e man an d woma n sit apart on a Greyhound bus, they share a piece of chewing gum, they meet, tal k and laugh, but the ma n gets off the bus, in the ba r he is pictured alone, he stares sadly at hi s half of the chewin g gum stick , and suddenl y the secon d hal f appears. Sh e had got off to join hi m after all! This simple thirty-second story has no words, lively music an d ove r three dozen shots . "'Gillian Dyer , Advertising (is Communication, Londo n 1982 . A n adver t fo r toothpaste i n 165 8 fro m the Mercuris Politicus provides a flavour o f the beginnings of the verbal craft of advertising: 'Most excellent and approve d Dentifrice to scour and cleans e th e Teeth , makin g the m a s whit e a s ivory , preserve s the m fro m toothache . . . i t fastens th e teeth , sweeten s the breath , an d preserve s th e Gums and Mouth s from cankers. '

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'Plot' i s th e significan t wor d here . Bot h metaphor s an d pictorial language contribute to the 'plot' of a sermon. Eugen e Lowry's work on Th e Homiletical Plot, 7'1 is useful i n thi s context. He argue s tha t 'plot ' i s 'the key term for a reshaped imag e of the sermon. Preaching is story-telling'.38 This theme, especially the importanc e o f story-telling , recur s i n muc h recen t homiletical literature. 39 Interestingly, Lowry goes beyond th e simpl e cycle of conflict and resolutio n found in much contemporary television drama. His approac h ha s bee n associate d wit h th e 'Copernica n Revolution' within homiletics.40This is the move from a spatial building bloc k approac h t o sermo n preparation , toward s a sermon as an 'event-in-time, a narrative art form'.41 In Lowry's eyes there are a number of parallels between, on th e one han d the preacher , an d o n th e othe r han d th e playwright , the novelist an d th e televisio n writer . Significantly , however , h e does no t attemp t t o mimi c th e multipl e plo t developmen t common t o most 'soap operas'. Instead, Lowr y identifie s a numbe r o f stage s withi n th e sermonic plot. They could b e stated imperativel y as: (1) Upse t the equilibrium , (2) Analyse the discrepancy , (3 ) Disclos e th e clue t o resolution , (4 ) Experienc e th e gospel , (5 ) Anticipate the consequences . Underlyin g Lowry's argument i s the belie f that listener s are mor e likel y t o encounte r a stor y for them selves, if they also move through thes e stages. Assuming a visual culture, one wa y of making these stages more accessibl e would be fo r th e preache r t o create a n imag e or a scene fo r each o f these stages . The parabl e o f th e Goo d Samaritan , fo r example , provide s ample opportunity for a number of vivid scenes. Portrayals rich in contemporar y imager y might also ai d th e listeners ' move ment through thi s parable. In the mid-1990s a Balkan re-telling might mak e thi s tal e mor e accessible . First , upse t th e equilibrium: a Bosnian Serb soldier lies in a pool of blood on a " Eugene L . Lowry, The Homiletical Plot - Th e Sermon as Narrative Art Form, Atlanta 1980. Se e als o hi s Doing Time in the Pulpit: Th e Relationship between Narrative and Preaching, Nashville 1985 . M Ibid., p . 15 S!) See Wayn e Bradle y Robinson (ed.) , Journeys Toward Narrative Preaching, New York 1990 . 10 Richard L . Eslinger, A Ne w Hearing, Nashville 1987 , p . 65 . 11 Eugen e L. Lowry, The Homiletical Plot - The Sermon as Narrative Art Form, Atlanta 1980, p . 6.

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road t o Sarajevo ; h e ha s bee n hit . Second , analys e th e dis crepancy: a Catholic and a Protestant soldier, both wearing blue berets of the U N walk over an d ignor e him . A bearded, blackrobed Orthodox pries t trips over him by mistake, and the n darts to th e othe r sid e o f th e track . Third , disclos e th e clu e t o resolution: an elderl y Croatian Musli m woman in a tatty brown shawl kneel s besid e th e soldier . Sh e think s of he r ow n son s killed in the war. Fourth, experience th e gospel: sh e wipes the blood off his face, pulls him o n t o her woode n cart , and take s him back to her village. Finally, and perhaps mos t problematical in thi s interpretation, anticipat e the consequences : A Bosnian Serb journalist writes the stor y up. Hi s headline is : 'The Roa d to Peace.' Suc h a n approac h relie s upo n well-chose n pictorial language t o develop the plot. Many homileticians underline th e importanc e of using vivid pictorial language, 'word s which you can see, smell, touch, hear and feel'. 42 For others, 'imagery ' in preaching means more than pictures; it includes the whole physical and sensor y dimension for th e world portraye d i n a sermon. 43 One o f the strength s of verbal imager y i s tha t i t ca n wor k o n man y differen t levels , feeding differen t part s o f th e listeners ' imagination . I t i s potentially multi-dimensional. 44 I f Davi d Buttric k i s correc t when he asserts 'pulpit language must relate to a new twentieth century consciousnes s tha t i s simultaneous, perspectiva l an d complex',45 then the use of verbal imagery partially answers that need. The writer and preacher, Fre d Buechener, speaks evocatively of 'preachin g th e Kin g who look s lik e a tramp , th e princ e of peace wh o look s lik e a princ e o f fools, th e lam b o f God wh o looks lik e something hun g u p a t th e butcher's. 46 Such visual language i n preachin g ha s the potentia l t o act like a 'magnet' drawing 'a cluster of reflections and emotions'. 47 This imagery is drawn from a scholar already cited, who ha s been describe d as one o f the fathers of homiletics, Fred Craddock . A recurring theme i n hi s work i s the importanc e o f a well-selected verbal 42

Edward F . Markquart , Quest for Better Preaching, Minneapolis 1984 . Patricia Wilson-Kastner , Imagery for Preaching, Minneapoli s 1989 , p . 20 . Wilson-Kastner highlight s the 'ric h ability of images to sustain man y meanings' . She describes this as 'multidimensionality', ibid., p. 54. 1j David Buttrick , Homiletic - Moves an d Structures, Londo n 1987 , p . 56. 46 Fred Buechner , Telling th e Truth, Th e Gospel a s Tragedy, Comedy an d Fairy Tab, San Francisc o 1977 , p . 60. 47 Fre d Craddock , Preaching, Nashville 1985, p . 197 . 45 44

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image.48 A preacher wh o imaginativel y experiences th e worl d of th e scriptura l tex t wil l als o b e mor e ope n t o th e visua l opportunities it provides. Homiletician Charles Rice argues that 'if we have an experienc e o f the text , allow ourselves to be le d deeply int o it s images - i n our mind' s ey e to see its people , places, an d thing s - t o experienc e it s languag e a s a new dawning, ther e i s every likelihoo d tha t th e resultin g sermo n will i n form an d content , rel y upon an d awake n th e imagina tion'.49 One o f th e grea t strength s o f pictoria l languag e i s its ability t o creat e image s o n th e screen s o f th e listeners ' imagination. Another relevan t stran d o f scholarshi p withi n homiletics , partly prompte d b y our increasingl y visual culture , explore s the relationship between th e imagination and preaching . Pau l Scott Wilson' s Imagination o f the Heart an d Thoma s Troeger's Imaging a Sermon represen t tw o ke y text s i n thi s field. 50 Bot h writers recogniz e th e powe r o f words t o creat e image s an d stories which could aid the listeners' encounte r with God . Conclusion There ar e sign s tha t preachin g i s bravel y facin g it s critics and enjoyin g a renaissanc e i n som e areas . A s a face-to-fac e medium, relyin g primarily on verba l communication, preaching stands out a s a rare species in a media-saturated societ y of mass communication . Preacher s canno t afford , however , t o ignore ou r increasingl y visua l context , no r shoul d the y acquiesce entirely in its more seductive images. Both the theory and practic e o f homiletic s nee d t o continu e t o adap t t o a n environment where man y listeners will become more used t o interactive and visuall y based communication . Many homileticians are now attempting to come to terms with this rapidl y evolving visual culture . Th e attentio n give n t o imaginative moves , dialogue , visua l storie s an d pictoria l language i s a vital par t in thi s process. Ther e is much t o lear n ** Fred Craddock, As One without Authority, Nashville 1979, p. 78 . 49 Charles Rice , 'Shaping Sermons b y the interpla y o f Text an d Metaphor' , in Preaching Biblically, Don M . Wardlaw (ed.), Philadelphia 1983, p. 104 . Also cited by Richard Eslinge r in A New Hearing, p. 22. 30 Paul Scott Wilson, Imagination of the Mean - Ne w Understandings i n Preaching, Nashville 1988 , an d Thoma s Troeger, Imagining a Sermon, Nashville 1990 . Se e also Derek Weber, Preaching to be Heard in a Televised Age, Edinburgh; unpublished thesis, 1993.

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from th e varied faces of our visual culture. Preaching , however , in both method and content, shoul d always maintain a counter cultural edge . There is a time t o be iconoclasti c an d a time t o be iconofiers. 51 There i s also a time t o speak, and a time t o be silent. FURTHER READING E. Best, From Text t o Sermon, Edinburgh 1978 . D. Buttrick, Homiletic - Moves and Structures, London 1987. F. Craddock, Preaching, Nashville 1987 . R. L. Eslinger, A New Hearing, Nashville 1987 . I. Pitt-Wilson , A Kind o f Folly, Edinburg h 1976 . T. Troeger, Imagining a Sermon, Nashville 1990 . P. S . Wilson , Imagination o f th e Heart — New Understandings i n Preaching, Nashville 1988 . FOR DISCUSSIO N 1. I s there a difference between preachin g and teaching ? If so, what is it? 2. I n wha t way s may th e us e o f commentarie s b e helpfu l o r unhelpful t o preachers ? 3. Ho w would you distinguish an 'inductive ' from a 'deductive' approach t o preaching ? 4. Ho w can th e preache r se t abou t creatin g image s o n th e screens o f the listeners' imagination ? 5. D o you agree that TV has transformed th e whole business of communication i n the modern age? If so, how can preachers learn fro m it , and what should the y avoid?

51

GregorT. Goethals, Th e Electronic Golden Calf, Cambridge , Mass. 1990, p . 153 . Goethals also uses the word 'iconofiers', in the parallel context of creating symbols of faith .

CHAPTER 6

THE WORD AN D TH E WORDS IN WORSHIP - PRAYE R Prayer as Dialogue Prayer is like a dialogue between God and hi s people; a kind of conversation which sustains and deepen s a relationship and is indeed virtually indispensable to that relationship. The relationship is continuous. Prayer in the sens e o f time set aside for this particular dialogue i s not continuous , althoug h prayerfulness, a prayerfu l attitude , should infor m the whole of life . In suggestin g that prayer is to be understood o n th e analogy of dialogu e o r conversatio n - a n imag e whic h mus t no t be pushed to o far - we are explicitly excluding th e idea of prayer as magic, a matter of spells and incantations . Christian praye r has indee d bee n understoo d a s magic - witnes s the English term for jugglery or deceit, 'hocus pocus', very possibly derived in th e seventeent h centur y from th e Lati n of th e Mass , hoc est corpus meum. Malinowski and other anthropologist s make a clear (perhaps to o clear ) distinctio n betwee n magica l an d socia l language i n prayer . Magic is concerned wit h th e contro l an d manipulation o f supernatura l forces , i t i s an impersona l an d rather mechanica l way of achievin g one's ends. Socia l us e of language (i n prayer or otherwise) is concerned wit h th e estab lishing an d nurtur e of relationships, with 'bonding', with th e establishment o f fellowshi p throug h communication . Th e distinction between the social and th e magical use of language is helpful , bu t shoul d no t b e presse d to o far ; man y actua l instances of prayer language have an intrusive magical element. But Christia n theolog y ha s a well-grounde d tendenc y t o b e suspicious o f magica l languag e i n worship , an d prefer s t o understand praye r socially, or as a dialogue. I t also follows from this that Christians do no t understan d praye r as primarily self102

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exploration. I t is rather an encounter with God which inevitably issues i n self-examinatio n an d a deepenin g o f self-under standing. Similarly, prayer should no t b e understood simply as a for m o f psychological hygiene, although praye r may well b e cathartic or result in an improved sense of well-being and peace . The shape , ton e an d conten t o f an y dialogu e ar e alway s determined b y the participants . The Bosto n newspape r which in reportin g th e visi t of a famous preache r said , 'Never befor e had s o eloquen t a praye r bee n addresse d t o a Bosto n con gregation', wa s confuse d abou t th e partie s t o th e prayer dialogue; bu t perhap s pardonabl y sinc e som e publi c praye r does giv e th e appearanc e o f bein g addresse d t o th e congregation rathe r tha n t o God . Bu t i f w e assum e tha t Christian praye r is addressed t o God, tha t God i s a participant in th e prayer-dialogue , particula r understandings o f God mus t deeply affec t th e understanding and practic e o f prayer . Jesus shocke d th e peopl e o f hi s tim e b y teachin g tha t we should approac h Go d confidently , joyfully, simpl y as children coming to Daddy, Abba in Aramaic. The use of the term Abba was so striking that i t survives in it s Aramaic for m i n th e Ne w Testament (Mar k 14:36 ; Galatian s 4:6 ; Roman s 8:15) an d lie s behind th e slightl y more forma l 'Our Father ' wit h which th e Lord's Praye r begins. Th e us e of thi s term i n prayer, as James Mackey writes, 'at once gives expression t o the lived convictio n and appeal s fo r it s continuance, th e live d conviction, namely, that Go d cherishe s al l things great an d small , and al l people, good ba d an d indifferent , a s a fathe r cherishe s hi s children . Like so much taugh t by Jesus, i t is disappointingly simple to say, and al l but impossibl e t o live.' The Churc h dow n th e age s ha s spent muc h energ y tryin g to escap e fro m th e simplicit y and directness of Jesus' teaching on prayer. His 'model prayer', The Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:9-13; Luke 11:2-4), his own practice of prayer and the things he taught all suggest the availability of God t o liste n t o th e prayer s of hi s people , hi s readines s t o respond, an d th e similarit y of prayer t o conversation withi n a loving family. It is this basic conviction about th e nature of God, his approachabilit y an d lovin g responsiveness , whic h give s Christian praye r its distinctive shape and mood and content and calls fo r language , words , appropriat e t o th e encounte r wit h this lovin g Abba, Father , Daddy , wh o draw s hi s peopl e t o participate in the outworking of his purposes an d th e lif e of his Kingdom.

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The Place of Formulae In everyda y language w e constantly use formulae - form s of words which sometimes d o no t hav e a ver y easily specifiable meaning, or ar e used wit h scan t regard t o the meanin g o f the words (whic h ma y not eve n b e known ) because it is the socia l function o f the formulae which is important. We say 'hello', or 'hi', 'goodbye' , or 'cheerio ' simpl y as formulae o f greeting o r farewell. W e sen d letter s wit h 'your s sincerely' , o r 'your s faithfully', an d i t certainly does not guarante e th e honest y o r integrity of the writer. 'How do you do?', seems well on th e way to ceasing to be a question expecting any answer. And in Britain at least , man y conversations star t wit h a highl y formularize d little exchange o f comments abou t th e weather. Such formulae are a necessary part of social interaction. We teach ou r childre n t o say 'please' an d 'than k you' eve n when the word s bear littl e relatio n t o what they are, i n fact , feeling . These are not only signs of good manners, but tutor s of feeling and no t a n unimportan t par t o f th e socializin g process , th e induction into a particular community and set of relationships. Much conversatio n neve r gets beyon d th e leve l of formula e — polite, cocktail-party chit-chat, what is often labelled 'small talk'. Indeed, formula e ma y b e use d a s a wa y o f avoidin g rea l conversation, rea l dialogue , rea l encounter . W e ma y eve n convert the m int o magica l spells , o r allo w over-familiarity t o deprive the m o f meaning . Bu t ther e i s also a sens e i n which formulae ma y be th e preliminar y t o rea l conversation , th e prelude t o fran k an d fres h interaction . We can us e formula e as a way of defendin g ourselve s agains t rea l meeting , o r a s a kind o f testin g th e wate r befor e w e plung e int o significan t conversation. Prayer, and particularly public prayer, is full of such formulae and se t forms. Most of them ar e familia r an d muc h loved , with all sorts of associations gathered around them . But if you asked the member s of an average congregatio n wha t 'Kyrie eleison' , 'Amen' an d 'Halleluia ' mean , yo u would ge t a bewilderin g diversity o f replie s and , i f peopl e wer e honest , a larg e proportion o f 'don't knows' . I t would be interestin g t o know what worshippers today make of the phrase 'worl d without end' with whic h s o man y prayer s ar e concluded . A long obsolet e translation of the Latin in saecula saeculorum, meaning Tor eve r and ever' , o r 'throughou t al l ages', th e ol d phras e continue s

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vigorously in use although i t conveys either n o meanin g a t all, or a misleading one . Much of the language of public praye r i s constantly repeated. This is as characteristic of most extempore prayer as it is of more formal liturgica l prayer. Phrases, sentences, an d whole prayers such a s the Magnificat , Nun c Dimittis , and th e Lord' s Prayer are use d s o frequently in worship tha t reformer s o f a purita n inclination dismis s the m a s 'vain repetitions' . It is, however, a mistake based o n a wrong translation of Matthew 6:7 to suggest that Jesus rejecte d th e repetitio n o f familia r form s i n prayer. The Greek term battalogein translated in the Authorized Version as 'us e i n vain repetitions' , i s better rendere d a s 'to hea p u p empty phrases ' (RSV ) o r 't o g o babblin g on' (NEB) . Th e clea r intent of the verse as a whole is to discourage pointles s verbosity in praye r rathe r tha n repetition . I t woul d appea r tha t Jesus himself used repetitio n i n prayer (Matthew 26:44), as any pious Jew would be accustome d t o doing , an d di d no t se e th e new intimacy i n praye r int o whic h h e introduce d hi s disciple s as excluding th e us e o f se t form s o r i n an y wa y incompatible with participatio n i n th e forma l prayer s o f th e templ e an d synagogue. Like the formulae of everyday conversation, praye r formulae can be the preliminary to, and a training for, a more profound , spontaneous, and direct dialogue. And the movement from the formalities to more authentic an d revealin g communicatio n i s often a penetratio n int o th e depth s o f meanin g an d imager y contained i n th e formula e rathe r tha n a passin g beyon d th e formulae i n such a way that they are mad e dispensable . The Shape of Prayer All dialogu e ha s a shape , a flow , a movement , a structure . Otherwise i t woul d b e nothin g bu t meaningles s jumble s o f words, phrase s an d sounds , ver y much th e 'babblin g on' tha t Jesus warned hi s disciple s agains t i n thei r prayers . Al l publi c prayer mus t hav e shape ; bu t som e prayer s i n shap e an d sequence ar e more spiritually and aesthetically satisfactory than others. The various kinds of prayer may be classified in terms of their purpose an d content . No t all are indispensabl e i n every act of worship, but a n awarenes s of the variou s type s of prayer helps us t o maintai n a prope r balanc e i n worship . There i s also a

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sequence, a development fro m on e kin d of prayer to another , which ha s been foun d i n th e experienc e o f th e Churc h t o be psychologically and spirituall y helpful and t o fit naturally into the movement o f Christian worship . The variou s forms are no t wholly distinc t fro m on e anothe r an d ten d t o flo w together . Perhaps we should regar d them a s ways of focusing the conten t of prayer. A list of the main types is as follows: the order in which they occur i s variable. Here w e follow roughl y the sequenc e o f an ac t of worship which reflects the shape of the Eucharist : (a) Adoration. Here, a t th e star t of worship, th e worshipper s remind themselve s o f th e presenc e o f God , tur n thei r attention t o him, and enjoy his company, giving him the glory and th e love that is his due. I t thus sets the ton e for the whole of worship : th e focu s i s on Go d an d no t o n ourselves , o n God's wonderful love and power and faithfulness , rathe r tha n on ou r ow n feelings. (b) Invocation. Thi s i s a praye r askin g fo r God' s presenc e and hel p i n our worship , so that i t may be worship 'i n Spirit and i n truth' , acceptabl e t o Go d an d enlightenin g t o hi s people. (c) Penitence o r Confession. Briefly , an d earl y i n th e service , we think of ourselves in the ligh t of the glory of God. Shame , penitence, sorro w ar e expresse d for al l the way s in which we have fallen short of God's glory and faile d in his service. We have broke n ou r relationshi p wit h him ; no w w e see k hi s forgiveness t o restor e tha t relationship , a forgiveness which is declared at the end o f the prayer . (d) Supplication. Stil l focusin g o n ourselves , an d befor e w e turn bac k t o God and th e need s of the world, th e prayer s of penitence an d confessio n ar e naturall y followed by a praye r for som e specia l grace s an d fo r God' s hel p i n livin g a s disciples. (e) Illumination. I n th e contex t o f the Ministr y of the Word , and usuall y befor e th e sermon , o r sometime s befor e th e scripture readings , come s a praye r tha t ou r mind s ma y be illuminated so that we can hear and understan d wha t God is saying to us, and respon d with alacrity and joy. (/) Intercession. At the beginning of the response to the Word of God, in the prayers of intercession th e needs of the Churc h and th e world are offered t o God, ofte n i n very specific terms,

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with people in need being praye d for by name an d th e issue s of th e da y an d th e concern s o f th e congregatio n bein g remembered i n some orderl y sequence . (g) Commemoration of th e Blesse d Departed . I n churche s o f the Roman Catholic and Orthodo x traditions it is customary to pra y fo r th e dead , an d t o as k the saint s and th e Virgi n Mary to pray for us. The Reformatio n rejected prayer s for th e dead a s superstitiou s an d to o closel y tie d t o th e belie f i n Purgatory, an d prayer s fo r th e intercessio n o f th e saint s as impugning th e sol e mediatorshi p o f Christ. Most Protestan t churches no w encourage a praye r whic h is a kind o f exten sion of the praye r of thanksgiving (and may come at the en d of tha t praye r rathe r tha n afte r th e intercessions) , giving thanks for th e lif e o f al l the faithfull y departed , an d asking that w e ma y b e strengthene d t o follo w thei r example . I t is desirable, however , tha t eve n thos e wh o fee l continuin g theological difficultie s involve d i n prayer s fo r th e dea d should b e reminde d tha t thei r prayer s are joined wit h th e prayers of all the saints in earth and heaven , and i n that sense we pray with th e saint s in heave n an d the y presumably pray for u s even i f we feel it inappropriate to pray for them ! (h) Thanksgiving. This is , of course , th e hear t o f th e Grea t Prayer of the Lord' s Supper , an d i n a very real sense thanksgiving, the prais e an d glorificatio n of God, i s the hear t o f all prayer. Thanksgiving is accordingly most properly one o f the climaxes o f a service , whethe r o r no t tha t servic e b e a celebration o f th e Lord' s Supper. I t i s placed a t thi s poin t in th e servic e becaus e thanksgivin g is the dominan t not e i n the respons e t o th e declaratio n o f God' s trut h an d lov e in the Ministr y of th e Word . W e give thank s for wha t God ha s done and will do - leadin g naturally to a commitment to his service. (i) Oblation. In thi s praye r th e whol e Church , eac h indi vidual Christian in fellowship with one another, with the Body of Christ in every land and ever y age, and with the Risen Lord , offers hersel f t o th e Fathe r t o b e use d fo r th e wor k o f th e Kingdom. In the Lord's Supper thi s prayer commonly come s at the end o f the Great Thanksgiving; in other service s it may appropriately b e allie d t o th e dedicatio n o f the offering s of the people. 1

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Prayers may also be classifie d i n term s of their structure, o r form. 1. Collect. Thi s highl y developed an d muc h love d for m o f prayer ha s a simpl e an d clea r structure , encourage s succinct ness, and i s often of great beauty. Collects usually consist of five parts: (a ) an address to God; (b ) a relative clause indicating the activity or attribut e of God o n th e basi s of which we approac h him; (c ) th e petition ; (d ) th e purpos e o f th e petition ; (e ) a doxology, and (/ ) th e conclusion declarin g the sole mediatorship of Christ. For example : (a) Almight y and everlastin g God, (b) b y whose Spirit the whole body of the Church is governed and sanctified; (c) hea r ou r praye r whic h w e offe r fo r al l you r faithfu l people; (d) tha t each i n hi s vocation an d ministr y may serve you i n holiness and trut h (e) t o the glor y of your name; (/) throug h ou r Lord an d Saviour Jesus Christ. (Alternative Service Book collect fo r Good Friday ) Some o f the part s ma y be omitted , but a collect is always ters e and follow s stric t rule s o f rhyth m an d development . Bu t all the shor t prayer s are no t collects , and th e collec t i s only on e of th e form s o f praye r available . Collects hav e a significan t place i n worship , particularl y at th e star t o f worship (whe n people ar e collected), or a s a summing up o f prayers or o f the theme of the Ministry of the Word. But the public prayer should never b e allowed t o becom e grea t string s o f collects , an d nothing else. 2. General Flayer. Thi s i s a praye r th e content s o f whic h is general rathe r tha n specific . I t i s usuall y longe r an d mor e loosely constructed tha n a collect, but classic prayers of this sort such a s the Genera l Confession an d Genera l Thanksgiving o f the Boo k of Common Prayer , the Praye r for th e Whole Estat e of Christ' s Church i n th e Churc h o f Scotlan d Book o f Common Order, 194 0 (itsel f derived fro m a simila r prayer in th e Book of Common Order of 1564) and indeed the Lord's Prayer itself are 1

This list i s somewhat indebted to tha t in Raymon d Abba, l*rinaples o f Christian Worship, London 1957, pp. 87-96. Cf. the Book of Common Order of the Church of ScotUmd, Edinburg h 1994 .

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splendid instance s o f Englis h prose , dignified , luci d an d musical. The dange r wit h genera l prayer s i s that the y ten d t o become verbos e an d lackin g i n unit y unles s ver y skilfull y composed. An d b y definition thei r conten t i s general rathe r than specifi c to the time , place an d congregation . 3. Bidding flayer. In this form of prayer a list of subjects for prayers o f thanksgivin g or intercessio n i s give n out , eithe r interspersed wit h versicle s an d response s o r followe d b y a period o f silenc e an d a brie f praye r summin g u p th e prayer s offered. Mos t modern liturgie s suggest thi s form for the prayers of intercession. I t has the virtues of being highly adaptable and combining extempor e element s - o r even spontaneou s prayer from member s o f the congregatio n - an d se t forms withi n a clear and simpl e structure. 4. Litany. Thi s i s a responsiv e prayer , rathe r lik e a bidding prayer, bu t usuall y excluding an y extempore o r spontaneou s elements. Man y o f th e olde r litanies , suc h a s tha t i n th e English Book o f Common Prayer o r thos e i n th e Scottish Book o f Common Prayer (1929 ) ar e comprehensiv e an d length y prayers, really amountin g t o a specia l offic e i n thei r ow n right . Modern litanies , such a s the tw o litanies of intercession i n th e Church of South India Book of Common Worship, are far shorter and almos t indistinguishabl e fro m biddin g prayers . Th e traditional Western litany was a long chain of very short phrases, going throug h Invocations , Depreciations , Observation s an d Suffrages, wit h a concluding collect and ofte n Kyries , the Lord' s Prayer an d othe r element s added . Man y o f th e traditiona l litanies ca n stil l appropriatel y b e use d i n whol e o r par t o n special occasions , bu t ar e to o long and ofte n to o archaic t o be used frequently . 5. Acclamations. Many moder n liturgie s hav e restore d thi s ancient form of prayer said, sung or shouted out, by the people. In th e eucharisti c praye r o f th e Roma n Mas s th e peopl e say immediately after th e words of institution: Christ has died, Christ is risen , Christ will come again. or another brief acclamation . Most other moder n forms of worship also hav e acclamations for th e people. In addition, th e Sanctusand Benedictus are mor e properly classified a s acclamations than a s responses.

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6. Versicles and Responses. Thes e are shor t responsive prayers, sometimes use d a s an introductio n t o a prayer , sometime s forming a shorter litany in an offic e suc h as the Book of Common Prayer Matins, or th e Offic e o f Compline . 7. Free Prayer. Fo r long , charismati c sect s wer e th e mai n groups tha t allowe d members o f th e congregatio n t o hav e a 'speaking role' i n public prayer, apart fro m se t responses an d prayers sai d together . I t ha s recently , however , becom e common i n mos t o f th e mainlin e denomination s fo r oppor tunities t o b e give n t o member s o f th e congregatio n t o pray aloud, particularly in the prayers of intercession, confession and thanksgiving. The re-introductio n o f thi s primitive practice is often me t with som e initia l but short-live d embarrassment, yet quickly it is accepted a s a privilege which adds reality to prayer and greatl y improve s th e sens e o f participatio n a s wel l a s blending surprisingly well with the more forma l prayers. All praye r has a shape, which may be mor e o r les s adequate . 'If i n transactin g business' , wrot e Calvin , 'som e for m mus t always b e observed , whic h publi c decenc y an d therefor e humanity itself require u s not t o disregard, thi s ought specially to be observed i n churches.' 2 This applies whether th e prayers in questio n ar e an ancient o r modern set form, composed for the occasion (o r 'conceived' prayers, to use Isaac Watt's phrase) extempore (no t prepared word for word before th e service), or free, when members of the congregation ma y lead i n prayer as they wis h an d th e Spiri t moves . Th e singl e mos t importan t reason why shape or form is important i n public worship is that it i s fa r easie r fo r th e member s o f th e congregatio n t o appropriate an d mak e thei r ow n clear, well-structured praye r than t o enter int o a disjointed an d loosel y structure d prayer . This ma y be perfectl y appropriate i n privat e o r smal l grou p prayers, but does not 'work well' in the necessarily rather mor e formal settin g of public worship. There i s an emergin g ecumenica l consensu s tha t ther e i s a proper plac e i n publi c worship fo r al l thes e kind s o f prayer , that the y blend wel l together , an d tha t thi s provide s a mor e balanced experienc e of prayer fo r the congregatio n tha n th e use of one kind alone. The great classical prayers, together with the bes t moder n prayers , remin d worshipper s o f th e grea t heritage o f Christia n devotion , broade n an d deepe n thei r - Cite d i n R . Abba, op . (it., p. 107 .

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spiritual horizons, remind the m that they pray in solidarity with the whole Church, and ar e s o rich tha t the y can be use d agai n and again without exhausting their meaning. Extempore, composed o r fre e praye r allow s for th e freedo m o f the Spirit , and recognizes tha t i t i s a particula r congregatio n i n a particula r place a t a particula r tim e whic h i s praying, an d ha s specifi c matters t o brin g befor e th e Lord . A sensible combinatio n o f these kind s of praye r i n publi c worship show s tha t the y com plement an d fertiliz e on e another , an d togethe r enric h an d enliven th e congregation's experience .

The Word beyond Words In ordinar y conversation w e often fin d i t hard t o pas s beyon d polite formalitie s t o a rea l encounte r wit h othe r peopl e an d significant conversation . Mos t peopl e hav e th e experienc e o f coming away from a party feeling that everythin g has been at a superficial level ; peopl e hav e kep t on e anothe r a t a distanc e and neve r got beyond small-tal k to matters of importance. W e have alread y argued tha t conversationa l small-tal k and polit e formalities hav e importan t function s in socia l relations , as d o their equivalent s in prayer . Polit e bu t superficia l exchange s come aliv e if we suddenly realize that th e perso n wh o i s asking 'How do yo u do?' i s really interested i n us , really cares fo r us , and want s an answe r whic h i s honest an d detailed , no t just a verbal push-off. And besides, such conversationa l formula e ca n be th e preliminarie s t o a rea l encounte r eve n whe n the y themselves ar e no t investe d with muc h significance . Set forms of prayer are no t prayer-wheel s or magic , earnin g merit b y thei r repeate d incantation . Rather , the y prepar e u s for, an d ope n u s to , th e possibilit y o f a mor e profound , authentic, and disturbing encounter with God. This encounter , like all encounters, involve s communication. Bu t n o languag e can b e reall y adequat e fo r communicatio n wit h Go d an d hi s people. Nevertheless , rea l communicatio n i n praye r ca n tak e place throug h se t formulae, now 'come alive ' an d use d wit h a fuller awarenes s o f th e richnes s o f meaning , i n coherent , balanced and rhythmic sentences, or in the 'inarticulate groans' in whic h th e Spiri t himsel f plead s fo r us , becaus e we do no t know how to pray as we ought (Roman s 8:25, NEB) . True prayer is spontaneous, honest , personal , and fro m the heart; it is a kind of lovers' discourse. And lovers ' conversatio n i s not alway s very

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polished o r grammatica l o r coherent . What matters i s that i t comes fro m th e heart . Lovers ofte n communicat e i n silence , gazin g int o on e another's eyes, or sitting quietly side by side, holding hands and simply enjoying eac h other's company with a quiet confidence and joy. In worship, too, there is an important plac e for silence, the quie t in whic h th e congregatio n togethe r ca n enjo y th e company of God. Most people need som e trainin g in the use of silence i n prayer , and som e preparatio n fo r it , or th e tim e of silence ha s a n atmospher e o f tenseness , th e uneas y quiet of those wh o expec t ever y moment t o b e fille d wit h words , th e children o f a cultur e tha t i s saturate d wit h words , tire d o f words, an d distrust s words. Th e silenc e i n praye r shoul d b e the silenc e o f lovers , enjoyin g on e another ; th e silenc e i n which on e appropriate s an d add s t o th e spoke n prayers ; and above all , the silence in which the worshipper stops chattering and listen s to th e Word , to th e othe r part y in th e dialogu e of prayer. The Language of Prayer Christian prayer is properly in the common tongue , in ordinary speech. I n thi s Christianity differs fro m man y other religion s which mak e a n emphati c distinctio n betwee n th e sacre d language use d i n worship , and ofte n no t understoo d b y th e people, an d th e profan e language o f everyda y discourse. Fo r Muslims, nothing can take the place of the Arabic Qu'ran. The tendency t o use a special languag e fo r worship is widespread, and i t is often fel t tha t it i s proper i f the languag e of praye r is not understood. Th e obscurity and specialnes s of the language safeguards an d emphasize s the mystery . At the tim e of Jesus a large numbe r o f Jews did no t understan d th e Hebre w of th e scriptures and the synagogue prayers. The Scriptures were read, first in Hebrew , and the n a Targum, or paraphras e i n Aramaic, the lingua franca of the Levant, so that the people got the gist of what had been rea d i n the unknown sacred tongue . It would appear tha t from the beginning Christians believed that praye r should no t b e i n a strang e an d sacre d language ; ordinary language was the appropriate vehicl e for the new and intimate kin d o f communicatio n betwee n Go d an d peopl e which had bee n mad e possibl e by Jesus. Early Christian prayer may have been commonly in Aramaic - s o the survival of words

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such a s Abba an d Maranatha i n th e Ne w Testamen t woul d suggest. And from early times it is clear that Christians used th e Septuagint, th e Gree k translatio n of th e Jewish scriptures , in preference to the Hebrew. The earliest Christian documents to have survived, including many prayers, are i n koine Greek, th e common, ordinar y languag e o f mos t o f th e Mediterranea n basin. Time and again in the early centuries of the Church there is evidence to suggest that there were no doubts or hesitations about th e need t o translat e th e Bibl e and th e liturg y into th e language actually spoken by the people. But ther e appear s t o b e a n inheren t tendenc y towards archaism and contrive d mystery in the language of prayer, and gradually thi s infecte d th e Christia n Church . B y the nint h century som e theologian s wer e arguin g tha t onl y th e thre e languages of the superscription o n the cross - Hebrew , Latin, and Gree k - wer e legitimat e fo r Christia n worship . Thes e three wer e recognize d a s 'sacre d tongues' ; th e emergin g vernaculars wer e profan e an d undignified . Thi s argumen t was use d agains t Cyri l an d Methodius , who translate d th e liturgy into Slavonic. Ironically their translatio n continue d i n use unchange d fo r man y centuries afte r it , i n it s turn , ha d ceased any longer to be intelligible to the ordinary people; such is th e conservatis m o f worshi p tha t th e ordinar y languag e o f many centurie s before become s i n cours e o f tim e a sacre d tongue, shroudin g rathe r tha n communicatin g the mysterie s of the faith . The mos t obviou s exampl e o f th e perpetuatio n i n worship and churc h usage o f a n archai c languag e whic h onl y a smal l and declinin g minority understan d i s the us e o f Lati n i n th e West. Originally adopted as the language o f the people (rathe r than Greek , whic h ha d becom e th e languag e onl y o f th e scholarly elite), Latin spread throughou t the Western Church, eclipsing almos t al l vernacula r forms o f worship , eventually becoming for most worshippers a mysterious and unintelligible sacred tongue . This, of course, drasticall y affecte d th e qualit y of participatio n possibl e fo r th e lait y i n worship . A strang e tongue excluded the people from meaningful participation in worship, a s thi s lette r fro m Bisho p Stephe n Gardine r t o Cranmer in 154 7 makes clear: For i n time s pas t . .. th e peopl e i n th e churc h too k smal l hee d what the priests and the clerks did in the chancel, but only to stand up a t the Gospe l and knee l a t th e Sacring , or els e ever y ma n was

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occupied himself severall y in several praye r . .. It was never mean t that th e peopl e shoul d indee d hea r th e Matin s or hea r th e Mass, but b e present there an d pra y themselves i n silence. 3

In 166 1 Pop e Alexande r VII denounced thos e wh o 'i n con tempt o f th e regulation s an d practice s o f th e Churc h hav e reached such pitch of madness as to have translated into French the Roma n Missal' . Suc h a n 'attemp t t o degrad e th e mos t sacred o f rite s by both debasin g th e majest y whic h th e Lati n tongue give s to th e sacre d rite s and b y exposing the m t o th e eyes of the commo n people ' was condemned i n th e stronges t terms.4 As late a s 194 7 Piu s XII argue d fo r th e retentio n o f Latin: 'The use of the Lati n language prevailing in a great part of the Church afford s a t onc e a n imposin g sig n o f unit y an d a n effective safeguar d agains t th e corruptio n o f tru e doctrine.' 5 But ther e ar e other , an d better , way s i n whic h worship may express th e unit y o f the Church ; and eve n i f the Lati n liturgy expresses orthodo x doctrin e verball y it certainl y doe s no t effectively communicat e thi s doctrine, an d open s th e wa y to all sort s o f strang e distortion s an d eccentri c misunderstand ings o f th e fait h o n th e par t o f ordinary people . I n additio n the use of a special 'church language' such as Latin emphasizes the differenc e betwee n clerg y an d laity , th e elit e wh o kno w and use the cultic language, and th e majority who are mystifie d by it. The Reformers , wit h rar e unanimity , affirmed tha t th e vernacular, the language of the people, shoul d be the language of prayer, just as they stressed th e central importance of putting the Bible, carefully translated, into the hands of the people. 'I n the church', said Luther, 'w e ought to speak as we used to do at home, the plain mother tongue , which every one i s acquainted with.' I n thi s a s in s o muc h else , th e Reformatio n strov e t o recover th e emphase s an d practice s of th e earl y Church: th e whole Peopl e o f Go d shoul d participat e full y i n worship an d this is impossible without understanding. The unnecessar y and artificial mystery of an unknown tongue must be removed i f the true mystery of faith i s to become accessible . The us e of a dead language in worship is far more questionabl e tha n th e ecstati c * Cited i n R . Abba, of), at., pp. 23-24 . 1 Bullfi o f Alexander VII, 1661 , i n P . Gueranger, Institutions I .iturgirrues, Paris 1880 , vol. 2 , p. 118 . •"' Pius XII, Encyclica l Mediator Dei, 1947, Londo n 1954 , § 64 .

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'tongues' that St. Paul sought t o control by insisting upon interpretation o r translation . Cranme r was typical of the Reformer s in believing that the move t o vernacular i n worship was clearly in accordance with the wil l of God : . . . God' s wil l an d commandmen t is , tha t whe n th e peopl e be gathered togethe r minister s shoul d us e suc h languag e a s th e people may understand and tak e profit thereby , or else hold thei r peace. For as a harp or lute , if it give n o certai n sound, tha t me n may know what is stricken, who can dance after it? For all the sound is in vain: so it is vain and profitet h nothing , saith Almighty God by St. Paul, if the pries t speak to the people in a language which the y know not. . . For (St. Paul) speaketh by name expressly of praying, singing, lauding , an d thankin g o f God , and o f all othe r thing s which the priests say in the churches . . . ; that whether the priests rehearse the wonderful works of God, or the great benefits of God unto mankind above all other creatures, or give thanks to God or make open confession of their faith, or humble confession of their sins, with earnes t request of mercy and forgiveness , o r mak e suit unto Go d fo r anything : the n al l the people , understanding what the priest s say, might give thei r minds and voice s with them , an d say, Amen . . ." The move to the 'plain mother tongue' did not, of course, mea n that th e language s of liturgy and o f Bibl e translatio n becam e conversational o r marketplac e vernacular . Th e Reformer s believed i n th e us e o f clear , simpl e an d dignifie d language , and thei r most notabl e production s such a s the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, Luther' s Bible , and th e Authorize d Versio n did muc h t o shap e an d encourag e th e developmen t o f th e vernacular. But th e norm s o f liturgical English lai d down betwee n 155 0 and 166 2 tende d t o ossify , whil e th e 'plai n mothe r tongue ' developed vastly . This is as true of extempore praye r as of the authorized forms , fo r th e languag e o f th e forme r wa s dominated b y th e Authorize d Versio n an d increasingl y demonstrated th e inbuil t conservatism o f liturgical language. As a consequenc e a good dea l o f th e languag e o f praye r ha s become opaqu e an d obscur e t o man y worshippers , an d sometimes conveys a very different messag e from that originally intended. Not many worshippers today realize that 'Prevent us, O Lord' in the familiar collect means 'Go before us, O Lord, to enable us ' rathe r tha n 'Sto p u s from doing' . Th e schoolbo y 6

Martin Luther , Table Talk, E.T. , W. Hazlitt, London, p. 185 .

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who, being asked what 'divers temptations' migh t be, though t for a moment and the n replied , 'Migh t have been mermaids' , was simpl y demonstratin g a n extrem e cas e o f th e mis understandings generate d b y th e continue d us e o f a culti c language whic h i s now s o differen t fro m th e 'plai n mothe r tongue' of everyday usage. Another complicatio n is that som e archaic Englis h ha s acquire d i n th e passag e o f tim e sexis t overtones which are understood as excluding a goodly par t of the congregation . Eve n some recen t liturgie s are replet e with gratuitous sexis m - 'fello w men' instea d o f 'fellows', 'al l men' instead of'everyone', and 'men' where 'people' is really meant. The importanc e o f not usin g exclusive language i n worship can hardly be too strongly emphasized. A faith which has at its heart reconciliatio n an d th e overcomin g o f divisio n an d hostility should neve r in its worship use language which makes whole categories of people feel excluded fro m the community and fro m the lovin g purposes of God. It is not alway s easy or appropriate t o modif y o r chang e exclusiv e languag e i n olde r material, bu t moder n worshi p language shoul d b e constantly sensitive to this issue. Controversy rages in most of the Churche s about whether it is allowable to address God as Mother, but i t is now widel y agree d tha t ther e mus t i n worshi p be a n explicit recognition o f the feminine qualities in the Godhead, and that in worshi p an d theolog y dow n th e age s ther e ha s bee n a n unbalanced stres s o n th e masculinit y of Go d an d indee d o f Jesus, sometime s eve n suggestin g subtl y tha t i t was maleness rather tha n humanity that God assumed i n Christ. A rather different , bu t n o les s serious, proble m arise s fro m the continued use of the pronouns 'thee' and 'thou' in addressing God. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries these were in English, as their equivalents ar e still in French an d German , the intimat e terms used i n family lif e or between close friends. 'You' wa s th e mor e deferentia l form , use d i n addressin g someone o f grea t statu s an d power . A s late a s th e reig n o f Charles II a Quaker woma n caused a public outcry by addressing the king as 'thou' - it was considered an impertinence. Th e Reformers' choic e o f 'thou' languag e fo r th e addres s t o God was indeed a daring affirmation of what one might call the 'Abba principle' - tha t God is above all our Father, and we approach him a s childre n comin g t o thei r Daddy . Bu t sinc e th e seventeenth centur y 'thou ' language , with all its complicate d impediments of verbal inflections , has falle n ou t o f commo n

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usage. Except in prayer, no one addresses anyone else as 'thou' and al l the associate d form s - th y and thine , an d wil t an d shalt an d dids t an d s o forth - hav e s o fallen int o disus e tha t those wh o lead i n praye r frequently land themselve s i n comi c and unnecessar y confusions . Bu t the rea l proble m i s this: the development o f th e Englis h languag e an d th e entrop y o f liturgical Englis h hav e le d t o an exac t reversa l o f th e origina l theologically well-grounded reason for choosing to address God as 'Thou'. Today some peopl e argue tha t this preserves a sense of th e glor y and th e othernes s of God , o f his transcendence , and discourage s to o eas y familiarit y with him . Bu t i t wa s precisely intimacy and familiarit y which Jesus offered i n teach ing u s t o com e t o Go d a s Abba, an d th e Reformer s trie d t o safeguard b y addressing God as 'thou'. Today sound theolog y and th e Reformatio n insistenc e o n th e us e i n worshi p of th e 'plain mothe r tongue ' bot h deman d tha t 'thou ' wit h al l its quaint linguisti c accompaniment s b e se t asid e i n Christia n prayer. It ha s t o b e admitted , however , tha t ther e i s stil l a vast , intractable proble m i n finding an appropriate an d satisfactor y English styl e and idio m fo r public worshi p - alway s remem bering tha t no language can possibly be adequate fo r speaking with God , o r fo r speaking o f God. Cranmer , th e translator s of the Authorize d Versio n an d th e other s wh o establishe d th e norms of'church English ' which were to last for centuries, were primarily translators wh o put faithfulnes s to the text , accuracy and clarit y above all other considerations. But, like all educated people of the time , they had bee n immensel y carefully traine d in languag e an d th e ar t o f writing . Their studie s i n classica l literature an d i n rhetori c gav e the m a remarkabl e sens e o f rhythm, emphasis and style . They did no t us e the languag e o f the market place, or conversational English or even slang, but a dignified, slightl y formal , bu t abov e al l clea r language . The y realized tha t ther e i s a differenc e between th e languag e o f private prayer and tha t of public prayer; and tha t the languag e of praye r an d th e languag e o f Bibl e translatio n ar e no t th e same. Nonetheless , th e languag e o f Christian praye r mus t b e soaked i n the language of the Bible so that the Bible provides a kind of grid on which worshippers locat e the images, concepts , symbols and allusion s in prayer. 7 1 C. S. Meyer (ed.) , Cranmer'sSelected Writings, Londo n 1961 , pp. 90-91, cited in D. L. Frost, Th e Language of Series Three, Bramcote 1973 , pp . 5-6 .

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The languag e of prayer is the languag e of a community, the Church which canno t be understood without reference t o the community's book, the Bible. The philosophe r Wittgenstein is certainly right in saying that meaning depends o n th e contex t in which words are embedded, an d i n the cas e of the words of prayer, this means the household o f faith and its book abov e all else.8 The language is not esoteric to the community; it 'is not a special sor t o f language , but just ordinar y language pu t t o a particular use'.9 Prayer is not a self-contained language-game without impingment o n ordinar y languag e o r th e abilit y t o communicat e beyond th e bounds o f the church, although i t can degenerat e to this. But the language of prayer should help people to break out o f th e bana l literalis m of so much moder n languag e an d demonstrate th e ability of language t o penetrate to the depths and lif t t o the heights, to show the riches and the possibilities so often neglecte d i n the modern world. The languag e o f praye r i s replete wit h images , metaphors , symbols, an d narrative , much , bu t no t al l o f it , borrowe d from Scripture . Som e o f thi s materia l i s vibrant an d living . Other images , metaphor s an d symbol s see m dormant , o r dead an d incapabl e o f resuscitation . I t would see m tha t on e of th e function s of liturg y is to preserv e a treasur y o f image s and symbol s fro m whic h eac h generatio n find s som e tha t are meaningful . Sometimes a n imag e tha t ha d seeme d lon g dead i s suddenly rebor n an d discovere d t o b e relevan t t o a new situation . Othe r symbol s see m inaccessibl e an d un recoverable, embedde d totall y in ancien t context s alie n t o the moder n experience . An d t o find fresh imager y which can act a s a vehicl e fo r Christia n praye r an d communicat e a t the dept h o f th e ol d i s no eas y task . A good dea l o f moder n liturgical work ha s been strippe d o f so much imagery , symbol and allusivenes s tha t i t seem s bald , reflectin g th e bana l literalism o f so much moder n language . Othe r attempt s a t a modern imager y do no t wea r wel l (fo r instance , th e hym n 'God o f concrete , Go d o f steel , Go d o f pisto n an d o f wheel', with it s rather crude sanctificatio n o f modern industry ) or ar e just plain ludicrous: B

See A. C. Thiselton, Language, Liturgy and Meaning, Bramcote 1976, p. 21. W. D. Hudson, 'Some Remarks on Wittgenstein's Account of Religious Belief in Royal Institute of Philosophy lectures, vol. 2, London 1969 , p . 40, cited in Thiselton, op. cit., p. 5. 9

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Oh y e thirsty of every tribe Get your ticket for an aeroplane ride, Jesus our Saviou r is a-coming to reign And take you up t o glory in His aeroplane.10

For reall y fin e moder n imager y we should turn , a s D. L. Fros t suggests, t o the poets . H e instance s T. S. Eliot's fine section o n the suffering, healing lov e of God, th e wounded surgeo n in Four Quartets. To tha t one migh t add R . S. Thomas's very different , but equall y evocativ e an d movin g poem , 'Th e Musician' ; th e poems of Edwin Muir, and man y others . 'What languag e shal l I borrow , t o prais e thee , heavenl y friend?' N o language, ancient or modern, is really adequate fo r prayer, for converse with God. The finest of words 'the tongue s of me n an d angels' , w e are reminde d b y St. Paul, are merel y noisy gong s an d clangin g cymbal s i f separated fro m love , fo r the languag e o f praye r i s the languag e o f love , which i s often simple and fragmentary , but come s fro m th e heart an d speak s to th e heart . An d becaus e praye r languag e i s words offered t o God, w e shoul d striv e t o ensur e tha t the y ar e a s fres h an d authentic an d livel y and beautifu l as may be. FURTHER READING D. Z . Phillips, The Concept o f Prayer, London 1965 . A. C. Thiselton, Language, Liturgy an d Meaning, Bramcote, Nott s 1975. A. J. Gossip , I n th e Secret Place o f th e Most High, London (4th ) 1957. J. Dalrymple , Simple Prayer, London 1984 . FOR DISCUSSIO N 1. 'Praye r is like a dialogue betwee n God and hi s People; a kind of conversation . . .' But how does the dialogu e o r conversation or communication work? In what way is prayer differen t from a n inner dialogue i n which one talk s with oneself? How does Go d con verse wit h us? 2. Wha t factors should influenc e the languag e o f prayer? 3. Ho w importan t i s it tha t congregation s shoul d develo p a theological understandin g of worship? 10 Anon, c . 1935 , i n Donal d Davie (ed,) , Th e Ne w Oxford Rook o f Christian Verse.. Oxford 1981 , p . 292.

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4. Ho w important i s it to insis t tha t th e languag e o f prayer in worship shoul d expressl y includ e 'recognitio n o f th e feminine qualitie s of th e Godhead' ? Wh y should thi s b e required toda y rathe r tha n i n th e past ? If thi s deman d i s resisted, what does that say about th e Churc h today?

CHAPTER 7

BECOMING A CHRISTIAN Becoming a Christia n is th e wor k o f a lifetime . It i s a lon g process that begins before th e first awakening of our fait h an d can end onl y at the moment of death. According t o Christian theology, in th e matte r of our salva tion we are dependen t o n God' s grace. The initiativ e is always God's. I t cannot be ours . Without what is technically known as God's 'prevenient grace, we would remain unawar e of his call to faith. Furthermore, hearing God's call and being able to answer it are completely different matters . To be made abl e t o answer God's call , and t o go on doin g so , we need what is technically known a s 'concomitant grace . A good analogy to this initial phase o f the proces s of becoming a Christian can be found in the operation o f the now largely superseded off-set printin g machines. To mak e i t possibl e fo r the printing plates to be properly inked, a priming solution had to be sprea d ove r them. A different kin d of solution, known as fountain solution would then have to be continually spread over the printin g plate s to make sur e tha t the y remained properl y inked an d continue d t o wor k th e wa y they wer e mean t to . Having been 'primed ' by God's prevenient grace, fo r a s long as we g o o n bein g bathe d i n th e fountai n solutio n o f God' s concomitant grace, we will be able t o remain i n the faith , put o n the new self which progresses toward s true knowledge the mor e it i s renewed i n th e imag e of its Creator1 and, finally, attain t o that maturity which is measured b y nothing les s tha n th e ful l stature of Christ. 2 The relatio n of God to his People, th e world and th e eschaton is fundamenta l t o th e understandin g o f th e revelatio n o f th e 1 Se e Colossian s 3:10. * Se e Ephesian s 4:13.

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Old an d th e Ne w Testament. I t i s an integra l par t o f God' s design tha t hi s Name (i.e . his power) shoul d b e imprinte d i n the heart of the hearers of the Word and imposed o n th e whole of thei r existence. Th e Wor d o f Go d alway s makes a realit y of what it says. Therefore, whe n God's Word i s spoken an d heard , its hearer s ar e mad e t o identif y wit h God's final purpose an d become consecrate d t o it as efficacious sign s of God's coming universal reign . As Scripture says , in th e richnes s of hi s grac e God has lavished on hi s people al l wisdom and insight . He ha s made know n to them, his Church, his secret purpos e t o be pu t into effec t whe n th e tim e was ripe: namely , tha t th e universe , everything in heaven and on earth, might be brought int o unity in Christ , for i t was his will tha t thos e wh o were th e firs t t o set their hope on Christ should caus e hi s glory to be praised. 3 The mystery o f God' s fina l purpose , full y accomplishe d i n th e person o f Jesus, th e first-bor n o f th e ne w creation, 4 was unknown to humanity in previous generations, bu t is now revealed in th e Spirit to us, his holy apostles an d prophets . Th e Churc h is no w t o sho w t o th e principalitie s and rulin g force s o f thi s world ho w many-sided God's wisdom is , according t o th e pla n which he had formed from all eternity in Christ Jesus our Lord. 5 God's cal l t o faith , therefore , i s no t onl y a cal l an d a n enablement t o begi n t o gro w int o th e perfec t humanit y of Christ, the second Adam, 6 but also a call and an enablement t o become a visibl e instrumen t o f Go d fo r th e comin g o f hi s kingdom withi n th e Bod y o f Chris t tha t i s his Church . Th e primary object of the Church i s to live and work to God's praise and glory. God's call to faith and salvation is indivisible from God's call to mission. Therefore, n o on e coul d b e sai d t o have faith wh o was not prepare d t o become a visible member o f th e missionary Body that is the Church. Henc e th e necessity to have rites in which candidates are publicly initiated into the Church . In mos t Christia n churches , th e rite s o f initiatio n hav e traditionally been three : baptism , confirmation an d admissio n to Communion. Thes e rites are closely bound with one another , with the gospel o f Christ and with individual Christian identity. Yet, important as they are, they have been variously interpreted , combined an d administere d throug h th e histor y o f th e ' Se e Ephesian s 1:8-12 . 1 Se e Ephesians 1:15. Se e Ephesians 3:10. 01 Se e Corinthian s 15:45-50.

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universal Church. 7 Th e variou s Initiatio n theologie s w e have inherited fro m th e pas t were littl e more tha n rationalization s of curren t liturgical practices seen i n isolatio n bot h fro m th e original motiv e force s tha t brough t the m int o existenc e an d from th e subsequen t historica l factors tha t mad e the m wha t they are. They were ex post facto theologies . Fo r this reason, ou r inherited pattern s o f Christia n Initiatio n ar e no w bein g questioned on theologica l a s well as pastoral grounds . Though the possibilit y of making proselytes from amon g th e Gentiles wa s no t excluded , i n th e Ol d Covenan t effectiv e belonging t o th e Peopl e o f th e Covenan t wa s a matte r o f physical birthright an d correct genealogy. Judaism was, and still is, fundamentall y a n ethnic religion. A s Scripture says , i n th e New Covenant, though forme r Gentiles, we are no longer aliens or foreig n visitors , but fellow-citizen s wit h th e hol y peopl e o f God an d par t o f God' s household . W e ar e buil t upo n th e foundations o f th e apostle s an d prophets , an d Chris t Jesu s himself i s the cornerstone . Belongin g t o th e peopl e of God is now the physical birthright of any human being who is prepared to respond t o God's grace . Throug h Jesus, then , w e all in th e one Spiri t have free access to the Father , those wh o were far as well a s thos e wh o wer e near. 8 Wha t matter s is not th e mer e performance o f a rit e o f initiatio n or th e impartin g o f ne w knowledge, as Pagans and Gnostics believed, but the final result of th e proces s o f initiation : a Spirit-fille d life i n a Spirit-filled community that is totally consecrated t o God's purpose. We are talkin g here, therefore , o f tw o distinct processes: th e liturgical/sacramental proces s o f Christia n Initiation an d th e wider proces s of becoming of which th e liturgical/sacramenta l process o f Christian Initiation is only a part. Though intimately connected, thes e tw o processes should neve r be confuse d th e one with the other . The Liturgical-Sacramental Process In th e Ne w Testament , th e individual' s respons e t o th e apostolic preachin g of the Word i s followed by a water-bath an d the outpouring o f the Spirit, but no t necessaril y in that order. 9 7 Se e e.g . Danie l Stevick , Holy Baptism, Supplemen t t o Praye r Boo k Studies 26, New Yor k 1973 , p . 9. 8 Se e Ephesians2:17-22. 9 Se e Acts 8:26-39.

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By mean s o f th e water-bath , th e believe r di d no t receiv e a personal and unconditional guarantee of salvation, but a token, earnest and foretaste of it within a community of believers. Th e final salvation o f the individua l baptized depende d stil l on hi s or he r continue d obedience t o God's will. It was clearly understood tha t for a Christian there coul d b e n o salvatio n if he o r she refused to belong visibly to Christ's Church, or, having done so, to work for th e comin g o f God's kingdom i n and throug h the Church. We cannot regard th e New Testament data on Christian Initiation a s th e foundatio n o f immutabl e policie s an d practices . History teache s us a differen t lesson. I n post-apostoli c times , two differen t pattern s o f Christia n Initiatio n wer e alread y i n existence, with theological emphases an d nuance s of their own that had bee n obtaine d throug h a deliberate polic y of adaptation o f th e origina l Ne w Testamen t dat a t o sui t differen t cultural milieux. The first of these patterns of Initiation originated in East Syria and Armenia , two regions o f th e ancien t world tha t were outwith th e border s of the Roma n Empire. The Acts of Thomas, th e Didascalia Apostolorum and th e Armenian Order of Baptism (thir d to sixth century AD) testify t o the followin g structure : 1. A messianic anointing o n th e head , know n a s 'marking ' o r 'signing'. 2. A water-bath with tripl e tota l immersio n i n th e Nam e o f th e Trinity. 3. Admission to the eucharistic community and reception of Communion. At a later date, an anointing of th e whole body wit h consecrate d oil for the purposes of healingwas added to the ceremonies an d placed before th e water-bath . Late r o n still , a thir d anointing , this tim e with a speciall y consecrated chrism ( a mixtur e o f oil and balsam ) wa s place d after th e water-bath . Anointing was known a s hatma, or 'seal''. I t i s not difficul t t o work out wher e the inspiration for both of these adde d anointings came from: in th e days in which soap had no t yet been invented, one use d oil t o ru b th e dir t off one's ski n before plungin g into th e bat h and, again , a mixture of oil and perfum e to restore th e proper tone t o th e ski n after comin g ou t o f th e bat h itself . These two extra anointing s were ver y probabl y adde d t o thi s pattern o f Initiation i n imitatio n o f wha t was happening alread y within the Roman Empire. Their symbolism is not difficul t t o work out

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and i s amply testified by the Church Father s and writer s of that part o f the world: onl y God ca n cleanse u s from sin and mak e us as 'new' a s one feel s afte r a relaxing bath. Th e meanin g of the origina l ceremonies i s equally clear. In th e Ol d Covenant, God's anointed were his kings, priests and prophets. In the New Covenant, throug h th e ceremonie s o f Christian Initiation the believer is visibly made a member of the visible royal and priestly body whos e purpos e i t i s t o spea k fo r Go d an d s o b e hi s prophets. The secon d o f tw o ancient pattern s o f Christia n Initiation originated instea d withi n th e confine s o f th e Empire , i n th e Greek-speaking world of Carthage an d Rome . I t contained six distinct moments : 1. Formal instruction in the faith before any liturgical action. 2. Formal renunciation o f Satan an d anointing with the oil o f exorcism. 3. Water-bath with tripl e immersio n i n th e Nam e of the Trinity . 4. A second anointing, originatin g i n Nort h Afric a an d explicitl y associated b y Tertullian wit h th e receptio n o f th e fruit s o f th e Spirit. 5. A laying-on of hands with a further anointing, originating in Rome, that - according to Hippolytus - 'sealed ' the baptized as members of Christ's Body . 6. First Kiss of Peace and admission to the eucharistic community (i.e. participation i n th e Praye r o f th e Churc h an d receptio n o f Communion.

A discrepanc y exist s therefor e betwee n Tertullia n (£.160 225) and Hippolytus (c. 170-236). Tertullian knows of only one anointing after th e water-bath, whilst Hippolytus mentions two. The Hippolyta n patter n wa s characteristic of Rome an d Milan. The patter n know n t o Tertullia n continue d instea d t o b e characteristic o f the res t of the Lati n world unti l the enforce d Romanization of its practices in early mediaeval times . The parallel s betwee n th e Eas t Syrian/Armenian patter n o f Christian Initiatio n an d tha t o f th e Western , Graeco-Roma n world are self-evident. With the multiple anointings , thei r final, more developed patter n was based o n the common experienc e of takin g a bath. However , th e Eas t Syrian/Armenian patter n was mor e consecratory tha n initiatory. It s primary , ostensibl e purpose wa s not jus t th e admission of th e believe r int o th e Church, but his or her consecration to the royal, priestly and prophetic messiani c Body of the Church. The mor e immediat e

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Scriptural source s o f this pattern o f initiation are t o be foun d in th e baptismal imager y of the thir d chapte r o f the Gospe l of John and in the eschatological/messianic themes of the Gospel s of Mark and Matthew . The Graeco-Roma n pattern of Christian Initiation i s 'later ' i n feel , mor e elaborat e an d mor e finel y articulated. I t i s mor e initiatory tha n consecratory. It s primar y ostensible purpose wa s initiation into th e Church, and no t consecration t o it s purpose . Moreover , fro m th e fourt h centur y onwards it s more immediat e Scriptura l source s becam e mor e and mor e th e baptisma l imagery of death and resurrection of th e sixth chapter of Paul's Letter t o the Romans. 10 Bv th e en d o f th e fourt h century , both o f thes e pattern s o f initiation wer e full y established . B y then , a ne w proble m confronted th e Church , namel y that o f making, the accepte d pattern of Initiation meaningful to the newly converted masses . Once again , th e proble m wa s solve d i n differen t way s i n different part s of the Christia n world. Taking advantage o f his privileged geographica l situatio n on th e ver y scene wher e th e death an d resurrectio n o f Chris t ha d take n place , Cyri l o f Jerusalem (A D 386) strov e t o sho w th e vividnes s of th e self offering o f Christ through th e accepte d liturgica l signs. Mor e than a little embarrasse d b y the tendenc y o f a half-converte d Empire t o thin k o f itsel f a s th e kingdo m o f God , Joh n Chrysostom (A D 354-407) attempte d t o sho w throug h thos e same liturgica l signs the radica l challenge s o f th e secula r cit y and stresse d th e necessit y fo r th e believe r t o re-liv e i n th e present th e Lord' s life , deat h an d resurrection . Livin g a t th e edge of a rapidly declining Wester n Empire , Ambrose o f Milan (AD 339-397 ) pointe d instea d t o th e symbol s o f th e trans formation o f th e worl d brough t abou t b y God i n Christ . Fo r Ambrose, th e cleansing water , the perfumed oi l and th e white robes o f th e newl y baptize d int o th e famil y o f Go d wer e th e visible an d tangibl e beginnin g o f a n incorruptibl e worl d t o come. As a membe r o f a smal l an d stil l persecute d minorit y outside th e Roman Empire, Theodore of Mopsuestia (t A D 428) interpreted th e baptisma l liturg y as a message o f hope and a s the toke n o f an eschatologica l realit y that had alread y begu n and ye t was still t o b e revealed . Comin g fro m a n Eas t Syrian background, Theodor e insiste d o n th e rol e o f th e Christia n community i n the comin g abou t of the promise d futur e and , 10

Se e Aidan Kavanagh , Th e Shape o f Baptism, New York 1978 , pp. 3-78 .

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consequently, on th e necessit y of the tota l commitmen t of the individual t o God's plan for the world." Many, perhaps the majority, of the half-converted masses had become Christia n for no mor e tha n appearanc e sake . Becaus e of thei r paga n background , th e greate r numbe r o f those wh o had come to believe was more concerned with their own personal salvation tha n with God's universal plan o r thei r own role i n it. In th e vie w o f many , th e Churc h (o r better , th e Church' s hierarchy) existe d fo r n o othe r purpos e tha n t o procur e th e salvation o f its adherents b y means of appropriate ceremonie s and th e preachin g o f th e Word . I n thi s context, baptis m was seen a s the principa l mean s t o obtai n th e remissio n o f one' s sins. It made sense therefore , i n their view, to delay the celebration of baptism for as late in life a s possible, lest one shoul d sin after baptis m ha d bee n conferred . Th e fac t tha t many , including th e Empero r Valentinian , miscalculate d an d die d unbaptized, did not serv e much t o stop thi s practice, especially since o n th e deat h o f Valentinian Ambros e himsel f solemnl y proclaimed from his pulpit in Milan that , although unbaptize d by either th e baptis m o f water or b y the baptis m o f blood (i.e . martyrdom), Valentinian had die d baptized b y the baptis m of desire. Starting fro m wher e Ambrose ha d left , Augustin e of Hipp o (AD 354—430) added to all this a theory of his own. Since baptism was the only known means o f regeneration, whe n a n infan t who b y definitio n wa s as ye t incapabl e o f bein g baptize d b y either martyrdo m o r desire - die d unbaptize d b y baptism o f water, i t could no t possibl y be admitte d t o th e lif e o f heaven . No baptism : n o regeneration . N o regeneration : n o salvation. Thanks t o Ambros e an d Augustine , wh o di d n o mor e tha n reflect what was being felt at the time , the theolog y o f Initiation of th e Wester n Churche s los t sigh t o f th e wide r process o f becoming a Christian and turne d int o the theology of the rite of Initiation. Onc e more , wha t happene d t o Rom e afte r it s conquest o f Greec e happene d als o t o th e Churc h afte r it s victory over paganism , as in th e well-know n Lati n ta g 'Graetia captaferum victor em coepit'\]2 11 Se e Hug h M . Riley , Christum Initiation: A Comparative Study o f the Interpreiation of the Baptismal Liturgy in the Myslagogical Writings of Cyril of Jerusalem, John Chrysostom, Theodore o f Mopsueslia an d Ambrose of Milan, Washington D C 1974 , pp . 452-55. 12 I n English , 'Havin g been mad e a captive, Greece capture d it s fierce victor' .

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In apostolic time, infants may or may not have been baptized, though the y probably were - a s an exception - o n the basis of the 'household' principle . By the beginning of the thir d century AD, infant s wer e certainl y bein g baptize d i n th e Rom e o f Hippolytus, bu t stil l i n suc h a smal l numbe r fo r i t t o b e stil l considered a s the exception rathe r tha n the rule. By the end of the fifth century, however, th e Churc h ha d alread y begu n t o run ou t o f available adult baptizable material . The chang e of circumstances had been so gradual, that no one actually noticed and so the Church, in a triumph of liturgical conservatism, went happily on baptizing unresponding infants with a rite that had originally bee n devise d fo r th e baptis m o f full y responsibl e adults. Baptism was seen a s the God-appointed wa y to take care of both original sin and any other si n the candidate might have committed (a s Augustine had taugh t followin g i n th e step s of his mento r Ambrose) , ther e coul d hardl y b e a caus e fo r undergoing th e upsettin g experience o f change . A s we learn from the Ordo Romanus XVIII, the only change to take place was that that baptismal liturgy of the Church eventually gave up th e pretence o f asking infants to renounce Sata n and profes s their belief i n God and commande d tha t the infants ' parents should be asked t o do so on thei r behalf. To cope with the new situation in which the baptism of a large number o f infant s ha d becom e th e rule , th e Easter n an d Western Churche s resorted t o different solutions . I n th e East , the burden o f the complet e Initiation of infants was left t o th e local presbyter , who performe d th e liturgica l ceremonies i n their entirety . As a consequence , havin g been full y initiate d into th e Church , th e infan t wa s straightawa y admitte d t o Communion. I n th e West, the rites of Initiation were split into two temporall y separate d liturgica l units. I n Rom e an d mos t of the res t of Italy, the loca l presbyter was allowed t o carry out the ceremonies o f Initiation up to , but not including, the 'seat 1 of th e laying-o n o f hand s an d th e fina l anointin g tha t wer e to b e performe d b y the Bisho p a t som e late r date . I t would appear that , in the beginning, th e rest of Europe followed the practice of the Eastern Churches and opted for a complete rit e of Initiatio n to be conferre d o n infants , bu t thi s custom may not hav e lasted for long. Late r on, at the tim e of the enforce d Romanization of their liturgical practices, the Northern nations - wh o knew only of on e anointing afte r th e water-bat h afte r the manner of Tertullian - were compelled to administer two

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separate anointings after the water-bath, in the Roman manne r of Hippolytus . As a protes t agains t thi s unwanted chang e o f custom, th e Norther n nation s made a poin t o f administerin g this compulsor y secon d anointin g wit h laying-o n o f hand s a full wee k afte r th e celebratio n o f thei r customar y initiator y rites (which they, of course, considered t o be already a complete form o f Initiation) . Gradually, the interva l between th e cele bration of the two sections of the rite increased t o an interval of months and the n years . However, not al l the Bishops could o r would be bothered t o go around thei r vas t Northern diocese s to 'confirm' th e liturgica l actions of the loca l priests . Eve n when the Bisho p di d so , unwillin g to depar t fro m thei r ancien t customs, not al l the candidate s woul d tur n u p fo r such a newfangled ceremony. The resul t of it all was, of course, utter chaos, until Archbishop Peckha m of Canterbury decreed in 1281 tha t no one was to be admitted t o Communion i f he or she had no t been firs t episcopall y confirmed . Thi s regulatio n seeme d t o make pastora l sens e an d a s a consequenc e th e loca l la w concerning 'confirmation and the admission to Communion became eventuall y the la w of the , a s ye t undivided , Wester n Church. The initiator y pattern was clear: 1. Baptis m was to be administered as soon as possible by the loca l parish priest . 2. Confirmatio n wa s to b e administere d b y the bisho p after th e infant ha d reache d the ag e of discretion. 3. Admissio n t o Communion was to be allowed only after on e ha d been episcopall y confirmed. In thi s way, some appearanc e o f orde r wa s established i n the Wester n Church , i n theor y i f not alway s in practice , bu t a heavy pric e ha d t o b e paid . Fro m tha t momen t on , i n th e minds o f man y th e receptio n o f Communio n (tha t was now to tak e plac e onl y afte r on e ha d reache d th e ag e o f dis cretion) wa s made conditiona l t o th e intellectua l abilit y to understand wha t it was that was being received . Th e fac t th e Communion wa s suppose d t o b e a myster y (an d tha t con sequently onl y Go d an d hi s Incarnat e So n wer e likel y t o b e capable o f a ful l intellectua l understanding o f it ) wa s neve r taken int o account . N o on e ha d a s ye t worke d ou t tha t there ar e man y ways of learning and tha t th e mer e impartin g of informatio n ha s neve r bee n amon g th e mos t successfu l ones. I n point of fact, there are many people today who have no

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idea of the differenc e between education , nurtur e an d forma tion. Peter Lombar d (c . A D 1100-1160) identifie d an d th e IV Lateran Council (AD 1215) proclaimed the existence of seven sacraments tha t wer e institute d b y Chris t fo r th e purpos e o f containing and causing what they signified. On the whole, thes e sacraments had come t o be administered a t crucial moments in the lif e o f th e individual . Baptism wa s therefore see n a s th e sacrament o f birt h an d confirmatio n a s th e sacramen t o f coming to maturity. Marriage and orders marked th e beginning of a new kind of life-role within society. Penance was seen as the repeatable means of obtaining th e remission o f one's sins and therefore als o as the repeate d beginning of a new life o f grac e after sin. The anointin g of the sic k was seen as the sacrament of the dying . The onl y exception wa s the Eucharist . It was not t o be received only at crucial moments i n one's life, but regularly, since - as from the formula of its administration - th e believer was by it 'preserved unto everlasting life'. Apart from the Eucharist, the sacrament s of the Church ha d become the rites of passag e of the Christia n society. At the Reformation, the notion of Hugh of St. Victor (AD 1096-1141) that only those signs that were specifically instituted by Chris t coul d properl y b e calle d 'sacraments' wa s accepte d without question . Sinc e th e Scripture s coul d hardl y provid e a specifi c momen t i n whic h Chris t institute d th e rit e o f confirmation, it s sacramenta l statu s wa s irredeemably com promised i n th e eye s o f th e Reformers , alon g wit h th e sacramental statu s o f every other 'sacrament ' excep t baptis m and the Lord's Supper. Unwilling to grant t o confirmation th e status of a sacrament, John Calvin saw nevertheless the pastora l advantages o f th e practic e an d recommende d tha t al l young people who had been baptize d as infants should continue to be given th e opportunit y t o respon d publicl y t o God' s Wor d by making a personal decision fo r Christ. 13 The Initiatio n practic e o f th e sixteenth-centur y Wester n Churches remained practically unchanged until modern times. The firs t majo r chang e too k plac e i n th e Roma n Catholi c Church whe n Piu s X allowe d childre n wh o ha d reache d th e age o f discretio n t o receiv e Communio n befor e the y wer e IS Se e J. C . D. Fisher, Baptism i n th e Medieval West, Londo n 1965 ; an d Christian Initiation: Th e Reformation Period, London 1970 .

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episcopally confirmed . The America n Episcopa l Church was the firs t majo r Churc h t o op t fo r a patter n o f complet e Initiation o f infants, t o which the y added an optiona l and full y repeatable service of 'Affirmation' to be celebrated after the baptized infant s ha d reache d th e ag e o f discretion . Another notable chang e too k plac e whe n th e Churc h o f Sout h Indi a and, later on, th e Roma n Catholic Church established that, in theory, if not alway s in practice, from then o n th e Initiatio n of adults should b e seen a s the norm. The Legacy of the Past The legac y o f suc h a confuse d pas t i s a numbe r o f difficul t questions mos t o f whic h ar e stil l no t full y answered . I s confirmation a sacramen t distinc t fro m th e sacramen t o f baptism and , i f i t is , what does i t do ? Wha t i s it s theological rationale? A t whic h poin t doe s on e receiv e th e Spirit : a t baptism, at confirmation, or at some other time ? What are th e requirements fo r admissio n t o baptism ? Mus t th e infants ' parents b e practisin g members o f th e Church ? Is ther e an y difference betwee n th e baptis m o f infant s and tha t o f adults, and i f so, what is it? Should one baptiz e infants in the first place? How much sense does it make to say that the baptism of adults should b e considere d t o b e th e norm , whe n what we actually baptize i s mostly infants? Is baptism th e sacramen t o f complete Initiation, o r not ? Should complet e sacramenta l Initiatio n b e administered a t one and the same time, or is it better to do it in stages? Are baptism and confirmatio n rite s of passage or is their primary natur e somethin g totall y different ? Can baptis m b e repeated, and i f so, under what circumstances? Given that more and more adults are still unbaptized in Western society, should one re-institut e the discipline of the catechumenate? Should a kind of catechumenate b e instituted also for lapsed Christians, involving th e entir e congregation ? I f on e i s justified b y faith , what i s th e poin t o f sacramental Initiation ? Whe n shoul d people - b e they infants, childre n or adults - b e admitted to Communion: after Baptism, after confirmation, or a t any time at all ? All thes e question s coul d wel l b e turne d int o a single , disheartening one : ca n we still speak of a Christian theology of Initiation afte r s o man y centuries o f tentativenes s an d con fusion? W e can, bu t no t withou t a thoroughgoin g attemp t at

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reconstruction. W e have mor e data abou t i t no w than a t any other time : the existing confusion must be bravely sorted out in the ligh t of what we now know. 14 This we will be unabl e t o d o unless we are prepare d t o kee p a n ope n an d objectiv e mind . We must question wha t we are accustome d t o take for grante d because o f ou r denominationa l allegianc e an d giv e u p ou r cherished habit of fighting again and again the denominationa l battles of the past . In th e firs t place , w e shoul d ge t awa y from th e mediaeva l notion tha t the mos t importan t thin g about th e sacrament s is that in the performance o f the correct ritua l by the minister of the sacramen t a s th e lawfu l representativ e o f th e Churc h w e can identify a 'moment' in which God effects 'change*. As Antoine Vergote argue d a quarter o f a century ago, doing s o would reduce the 'expressive' actions that are characteristic of the sacraments to the mere level of'performative' actions: in that there ca n b e i n the m n o manipulatio n o f object s (water , for instance, or bread and wine), to obtain a pre-determined aim. To see sacraments in this light would be nothing short of magic, or eve n idolatry. 15 Let us make a number o f hypothetical cases. Titius and Caius, two friends in ancient Rome, hear about Christianity and decid e to enro l a s cathechumens . Havin g successfull y passe d th e necessary scrutinies, the two are admitted to a course of formal instruction. O n th e wa y to on e o f th e lesson s o f thi s course, Titius is run ove r by a mad chario t drive r and die s i n the arm s of hi s friend . I s Titiu s saved ? Wil l h e g o t o heaven ? Th e traditional answe r i s tha t Titius , havin g bee n baptize d b y baptism o f desire is , all things being equal , assure d o f eterna l salvation. One should wish to know why. Surely the only possible answer i s tha t Titiu s i s assured o f eterna l salvatio n because , although not yet baptized by water, he had already come t o faith and wa s therefore justified by it. The sam e would apply also t o those who, though no t yet baptized b y water, had witnessed t o their faith b y undergoing martyrdo m (o r 'baptis m o f blood'). We are save d by faith, no t b y baptism, thoug h thi s is not t o say that baptism i s therefore a n option : th e cal l to faith involve s a call to become visibly a member of Christ's Body the Church . M

Se e e.g. G. Kretschmar, Recent Research on Christian Initiation, in Studta Liturgica 12:2/3 (1977), pp. 87-103. 15 Se e Antoine Vergote, Symbolic Gestures and Actions in th e liturgy, i n Concilium, vol. 2, no. 7 , February 1971, pp . 40-52.

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On Easte r Eve , Cams , th e survivin g friend , i s baptize d together wit h th e othe r successfu l cathechumens wh o ha d proved thei r knowledg e an d understandin g o f th e baptisma l Creed. I t woul d b e reasonabl e t o assum e that , lik e hi s dea d friend Titius, Caius had come to faith and was therefore already justified b y it . I n traditiona l theolog y baptis m i s sai d t o b e the sacramenta l sig n of entry 'into Christ'? Does it follow from this that it is possible t o be justified without being 'in Christ'? Is not being 'in Christ' wha t justification also is about? I n the cas e of Caius , the 'moment' o f baptis m woul d hav e coincide d wit h the 'moment' o f justification onl y in th e unlikel y event tha t h e was accidentall y to hav e com e t o fait h i n th e ver y instant in which th e wate r was poured an d th e formul a pronounce d b y the lawfull y appointe d minister : even the n justification , and therefore entr y 'into Christ', would have come t o Caius by faith and no t b y baptism as such. So, why baptism? Does it achieve anythin g at all ? Of course . One should remember tha t baptism is not just about one's first entry 'into Christ' a s abou t visible entry int o Chris t throug h initiation int o Christ' s visibl e Body , th e Church . Unti l th e 'moment' o f baptism , th e candidate , howeve r justified an d 'in Christ', i s no t ye t visibl y a membe r o f Christ' s visibl e Body : water baptis m i s still necessary , because n o on e ca n b e save d who i s prepare d t o obe y onl y on e hal f o f God' s cal l an d refuses t o become a visible member o f Christ's spiritual army. The momen t th e candidat e i s visibly incorporate d int o th e visible Bod y of th e Churc h throug h baptism , th e grac e tha t is necessar y t o fulfi l hi s o r he r ne w rol e o f 'soldier o f Christ' becomes availabl e t o th e neophyt e b y mean s o f th e on e and sam e sacramenta l sign . It wa s not jus t fo r th e sak e o f i t that, befor e bein g baptized , th e candidat e had bee n mad e to make a public renunciation of evil and a solemn professio n of faith! Being baptized takes only a few minutes, but we should neve r forget tha t th e transitor y momen t o f baptis m ha s a vita l pre history (the initiative of God in bestowing his prevenient grace on th e futur e believer , th e bestowa l o f God' s concomitan t grace and , finally, the individual' s coming t o fait h an d there fore t o justification) as wel l a s a n equall y \ito\ follow-up (th e coming t o baptis m i n du e cours e an d th e living-u p t o it s promises throughou t one' s life). I n other words, th e time-line of liturgical/sacramental proces s should be seen so to speak t o

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'float' over the time-line of the much more comprehensive process of becoming a Christian. The fundamenta l principle o f th e Churc h a s a community of fait h i s that , revealin g himsel f o f hi s ow n initiative , Go d addresses u s i n man y an d variou s fragmentary ways through out th e cours e o f ou r lives . Hi s call enables an d demand s a response tha t i s to becom e visibl e i n ever y aspect o f ou r exist ence a s members of the communit y of faith. God' s call is twofold: 1. W e are called t o identif y with his eternal design for all creation and become consecrate d t o it. 2. Thi s we must do b y becoming visible members of his Body th e Church whic h i s the creatio n o f th e Spiri t and , afte r Christ' s ascension int o heaven , th e primordia l instrumen t o f God' s visible presence on earth .

The entir e process o f becoming a Christian consists, in fact , of a series of repeated encounters with God that contain a call, an enabling and th e deman d o f a specifi c kin d of response that will lead t o the growt h of both th e Churc h an d th e individual member o f it to a new kind of humanity to be measured onl y by the ful l statur e of Christ, the first-born of the ne w creation. Since God himsel f has chosen t o address us, enable u s and demand ou r respons e no t onl y in our privat e lives but als o by means of the liturgica l signs of the sacrament s of the Churc h (the ecclesial sacraments of which Schillebeeckx speaks),16 thes e sacraments also derive their meaning and efficac y from th e life , death an d resurrectio n o f Jesus Christ , a s does ou r eterna l salvation. The sacramenta l sign s are not arbitrar y signs, word s and actions . The y ar e fille d wit h th e myster y which is Christ himself. They are efficacious because , bein g acts of the Church qua Church, they are not just the acts of the Church bu t the acts of God through the Church. In al l ecclesial sacraments, we can therefor e discer n th e ver y same three-fol d patter n o f call , enablin g an d demande d response tha t i s characteristic o f an y howeve r less formalized types of encounter wit h God . A s we would i n an y other one-toone kin d o f persona l encounter , w e ca n distinguis h i n al l ecclesial sacrament s between th e activit y o f th e tw o partners. We ca n distinguis h betwee n th e actio n o f Go d addressing , 16

Se e Edwar d Schillebeeckx, Christ the Sacrament o f Encounter with God, London, 1971.

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enabling us , an d demandin g a respons e an d th e desire d responding action , or absence of it, of us the addressees . Th e difference betwee n a sacramenta l encounte r an d an y othe r encounter wit h God is not in the sequence o f call, enabling and demanded response tha t is common to all encounters with God, but i n the specific nature o f the eccclesial sacraments . According t o Schillebeeckx, 17 an ecclesia l sacrament i s a visible actio n proceedin g fro m th e Churc h a s redemptiv e institution; it i s an officia l ecclesia l act performe d i n virtu e o f either th e characte r o f ordinatio n o r o f th e character s o f baptism and confirmation . An ecclesial sacrament is the visible act o f th e visibl e Bod y entrusted b y God t o deman d a visible and publi c response t o a visible an d publi c cal l and enablin g that, throug h th e Church , is the visibl e and publi c ac t of God himself. Once thi s simple fact i s taken int o consideration, th e answer t o the man y questions that vex us today may not prov e as difficult a s we may have thought the m t o be. The Shape of Things to Come Daniel Stevic k s o sum s u p th e historica l developmen t o f Christian Initiation: It i s striking how often i n thi s process of adaptatio n th e form s of Christian Initiatio n wer e shape d b y extrinsic forces . Augustin e derived his theology fro m curren t Church custo m and defended i t by a critica l misreadin g o f St . Paul . St . Thomas' s doctrin e o f confirmation reflecte d th e practic e o f confirming at a moment i n life subsequent t o baptism. The Roman view that the Bishop should retain th e righ t to confirm prevailed i n the West by a process tha t had littl e t o d o wit h th e meri t o f th e issue . . . . The rite s o f th e sixteenth-century Reformatio n an d Counter-Reformatio n wer e shaped without the historical dat a as to how initiatory practice ha d developed. Pragmatic , disciplinar y an d polemi c consideration s have dominate d th e histor y o f Christia n Initiation . Fe w ne w departures hav e stemmed fro m a fresh insight into the meaning of becoming a Christian.18

Perhaps the way to come ou t o f the impass e is to distinguish carefully betwee n th e liturgical/sacramenta l process an d th e intimately connected bu t fa r from identica l process o f becom ing a Christian. 17 18

Edwar d Schillebeeckx, op . dt., p. 62 . Danie l Stevick, op. at., pp. 34-35 .

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Salvation ha s tw o aspects: wha t we are save d fro m and what we are saved for. We are saved from all kinds of sin, and therefor e also fro m th e ver y limitations of th e 'old nature' w e inherited from the first Adam. What we are saved for, and by, is the new nature of Christ the secon d Adam , so that, by being mad e abl e to want to follow God's law , we might be fo r eve r free from its extrinsic demands . I t is not possibl e to make a distinction i n re between thes e tw o aspects of salvation, because i t is simply no t possible t o be save d from si n an d no t b e save d for Go d a t on e and th e same time. The symbolical immersion i n the water that drowns, cleanses and give s life point s to what we are save d from: alienation fro m God . Th e anointin g an d laying-o n o f hand s point t o wha t w e ar e save d for. I f th e water-bat h i s seen a s baptism an d th e anointin g and/or th e laying-o n o f hand s is seen a s confirmation , we shoul d no t b e abl e t o distinguish between th e tw o any more tha n w e can distinguis h betwee n the tw o different an d yet totally inseparable aspects of salvation: baptism an d confirmatio n canno t possibl y b e see n a s tw o distinct sacraments , but a s tw o distinct stages , separate d fo r pastoral and no t theologica l reasons, o f the celebration of the one sacrament of Initiation. As it was in the beginning, and ever should be . At wha t poin t doe s on e receiv e th e Spirit ? Those wh o first asked thi s question di d no t eve n tr y to take into consideration the accepte d doctrin e o f the Trinity . The trinitaria n doctrin e of th e 'operations a d extra' clearl y states tha t when God act s on something other tha n itself within the inne r lif e of the Trinity, the act is the ac t of one of th e divin e persons, but th e operation is the operatio n o f th e undivided Godhead. B y virtue o f th e doctrine o f th e divin e processions and relations (the doctrine of the so-calle d 'operations a d intra'), an y operatio n o f th e un divided Godhead by means o f which the ne w life we receive in Christ i s bestowed i s said t o b e th e ac t o f th e Hol y Spirit by virtue of its being th e Lov e of God th e Fathe r and tha t of God the Son . Therefore, th e bestowal o f God's grace i s not just the operation o f the undivide d Trinity, but als o the specifi c ac t of the Holy Spirit. In other words, receiving God's grace and being acted upo n b y the Holy Spirit are one an d th e same thing . We are acte d upo n b y the Hol y Spirit the very moment we receive God's prevenient grace even before w e come t o faith. Onc e - in the process of becoming a Christian - we come to faith throug h the ac t of the sam e Spiri t and ar e justified, we are bor n ane w

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into the new creation. Is this not th e same as 'receiving the Spirit'? We d o s o ever y tim e w e receiv e God' s grace , so , fa r fro m receiving th e Spiri t for the first time when we are confirmed , we are likel y to have received hi m umptee n time s before. I f this is so, what could confirmatio n do? It could onl y mark us publicly as the new creature we should already have become. Th e Greek formula o f what we call confirmatio n i s very eloquent o n thi s point: 'Zffgqyt^nrat 6 dovXoq lov deov . . .': 'The Servant of God N.N. is marked in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Amen.' Di d no t Tertullia n sa y th e baptis m wa s a 'sacramentum', th e oat h o f allegianc e o f th e soldie r o f Christ, and th e anointin g wa s the 'fidei signaculum*, or th e equivalen t of th e indelibl e mar k tha t wa s burnt int o th e member s o f a Roman legion on joining it? What ar e th e requirement s o f baptism ? Tha t woul d surel y depend o n whether we would be baptizing an infant or an adult. When w e baptize a n adult , Go d make s publi c hi s demand s through th e Churc h a s redemptive institution , and th e adul t candidate, who is capable of a personal response, i s expected t o respond to God's call in th e here-and-now. When w e baptize a n infant, God makes equally public his call t o the infan t throug h the Church as redemptive institution, but the infant's personal response wil l of necessity have t o come a t a later stage . God' s action i s valid and , a s fa r a s Go d i s concerned i t i s also full y effective. God's grace is effectually bestowed on the infant, but it will still be up t o the infant , once grow n up, t o accept or reject it a t will . So , i n th e cas e o f adults, th e on e requiremen t o f baptism i s faith an d th e renunciatio n o f evi l tha t goe s in separably wit h it . In th e cas e o f infants , the on e requiremen t would be the fact tha t there was indeed a chance tha t the child would b e brough t u p within th e Churc h an d wa s likely t o undergo i n i t a proces s o f Christia n formation. I f this shoul d not likely be the case, there would be little point, either pastoral or theological , why one shoul d procee d t o baptize. The loca l church woul d hav e t o star t discriminatin g between it s fringe and its inner core, the drivers and the passengers. Some kind of discrimination woul d becom e necessary . Childre n o f parent s who were prepare d t o allow their childre n t o grow u p i n th e Church (whethe r o r no t th e parent s wer e prepare d t o mak e themselves par t o f th e lif e o f th e Church ) woul d hav e t o b e disentangled fro m thos e parent s wh o wer e merel y askin g of some kind of half-understood rite of passage vaguely connected

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with Christianit y without being connecte d wit h th e Christia n life, o r fo r som e quasi-magica l for m o f spiritua l insuranc e against th e eventualit y tha t ther e migh t b e somethin g i n Christianity after all. Should we baptize infants in the first place? Surely the answer is 'why not', if pastoral rathe r tha n theologica l reason s shoul d suggest tha t it was advisable in the circumstances ? As we all know, the young learn by suggestion and imitatio n much mor e than the y coul d eve r lear n late r o n throug h a proces s o f Christian educatio n alone . N o on e wil l eve r lear n wh o i s no t made t o feel t o belong, and on e ca n b e sai d t o belong i n th e Church onl y when one ha s been baptized . Should th e baptism of adults be considered as the norm an d the baptism of infants th e exception? The answe r would surely depend o n th e actua l proportio n o f adult s an d infant s tha t were availabl e to b e baptized . Wha t i s th e poin t o f a nor m when i n fac t al l w e ma y hav e i s a numbe r o f exceptions ? Different pastora l situation s will determine wha t is best i n th e circumstances. Is baptism th e sacramen t of complete Initiation ? That woul d depend. Of course it is, and tha t whethe r or not we want the water-bath to be followed, immediately or after a period o f time, by a ceremony o f anointin g and/or laying-o n o f hands . I f we thought differently , w e would impl y tha t i t was possible t o b e saved from sin without being saved for God in the new life in Christ, an d a s we know only to o well, this is not possible . Th e confusion arise s only when we insist in seeing i n confirmation , whatever w e ma y mean b y it (an d th e opinion s abou t i t ar e legion), as a rite of passage int o maturity. We may well wish t o make it so for pastoral reasons, but, theologically, confirmation is not it . The justification for administering the one sacramen t of Christia n initiatio n i n tw o distinct sacramenta l stage s ca n only be a pastoral an d not a theological one . Can baptism b e repeated, or not? That would also depend. If one though t tha t just becaus e on e wa s not awar e o f God' s action, God' s actio n was therefore invalid , most certainl y not. The Wor d of God makes a reality of what it says. In an ecclesial sacrament, God' s call , his enablin g an d hi s deman d o f ou r response ar e mad e once and fo r al l whether w e like it or no t and whether or not we are aware of it at the time. It is the action of God, and not our own action that matters in this respect. But what of other cases?

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Let u s assum e fo r th e sak e o f th e argumen t tha t someon e should b e admitte d t o baptis m whe n h e o r sh e ha d n o fait h and ha d n o intentio n whateve r t o liv e a s a tru e soldie r o f Christ. Through th e Church as redemptive institution, the cal l of God , hi s enabling , and hi s deman d o f a positiv e respons e would validl y mak e that , becaus e Go d i s God, onc e an d fo r all. Al l tha t remaine d t o b e don e b y th e onc e insincer e baptismal candidat e wa s to elici t th e correc t kin d of respons e at an y late r tim e i n life , withou t an y furthe r liturgica l o r sacramental acdon. Is not this what the doctrine o f sacramental character is actually about? But does this necessarily mean t o say that, havin g eventuall y come t o fait h throug h hi s o r he r acceptance o f God's prevenien t an d concomitan t grace , tha t very sam e baptize d perso n shoul d b e denie d i n al l circumstances th e chanc e t o respon d publicl y t o God' s sacramental call, providin g i t wa s mad e clea r t o al l tha t thi s secon d water-bath wa s mos t definitel y no t a re-celebratio n o f th e sacrament o f Initiation ? Th e sam e coul d possibl y apply t o those who , havin g been baptize d a s infants , wished t o mak e their ow n formal response t o th e past action o f God o n the m (when th e sacramen t o f Initiatio n ha d bee n celebrated) . I n either case , th e servic e would b e n o mor e tha n a servic e of 'affirmation' and the nature of the baptismal character would still b e preserved , arguably , both inwardl y an d outwardly . It would b e the n a matte r o f pastora l discretion , an d no t a question o f theology . But one woul d have serious reservation s about thi s practice i n th e cas e o f someon e who , having bee n baptized a s a sincer e adult , having subsequently lapse d fro m the faith , wished t o do everything al l over again . For this case , the re-institutio n of th e Orde r o f Penitents , rathe r tha n re submission t o som e kin d o f catechumenate , ma y no t b e after al l such a bad pastora l idea . Shoul d th e catechumenat e be re-instituted? Why not, where there should b e valid pastoral reasons for doing so! At what point should peopl e be admitted t o Communion? By turning the question around, we may well ask at what point one should b e admitte d t o b e presen t a t th e Eucharist . Shoul d children b e exclude d fro m i t unti l the y reac h th e ag e o f discretion? Doin g s o ha s ofte n bee n prove d t o d o untol d pastoral harm. If it makes the children fee l excluded and causes them onl y to o ofte n t o com e t o th e conclusio n tha t Com munion i s nothing t o do with them an d a game adult s lik e t o

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play among themselves. The children lose interest in the whole thing. The y becom e bore d wit h th e entir e servic e an d ar e denied th e possibilit y of Christia n formation . On e learn s by living th e Eucharist , an d no t b y bein g give n th e correc t intellectual informatio n abou t i t a t a late r stage . Here , too , imitation and suggestion could do the trick. The objection that intellectual understandin g i s a necessary pre-condition t o th e reception o f Communio n i s pur e nonsense . I s anyone truly capable of it at any stage of his or her development? It would be like sayin g tha t in order t o be invite d to a banquet an d satisf y one's hunger on e ha d firs t t o pas s a n examinatio n o n cordon bleu cookery. With regard to admission t o Communion o f the unbaptized, the answer would depend o n what we thought th e Eucharist to be about. I f we thought o f it, as many do, a s merely sitting and being fed a t th e Lord' s Table , the n th e answer s would surely be 'why not?. But is this all that the Eucharis t is really about? If we though t tha t th e Eucharis t was the ecclesia l sacrament in which th e individua l and th e Church ar e aske d onc e more to become with Christ a single, holy and livin g self-offering t o God for th e comin g of his Kingdom an d t o renew once agai n ou r total commitmen t to God's eterna l purpose , b y admitting the unbaptized to Communion would we not run th e risk of making liars of them, whether they knew it or not? What i s needed toda y i s not just th e creatio n o f 'up-to-date' services of Christian Initiation. Doing just tha t would b e little more tha t a wast e of time . Wha t i s needed toda y i n al l th e Churches i s a clea r policy o f Initiatio n tha t i s capabl e o f reflecting the pastoral exigencies of the time. It has always been so. Should i t be different now? In some pastora l circumstance s it ma y be advisabl e t o administe r Christia n Initiatio n only t o responsible adults , providin g i t wa s made crysta l clea r tha t children of Christian parents already truly belonged t o Christ's Church. I n othe r pastora l circumstances , i t may be advisabl e to spli t th e liturgical/sacramenta l proces s int o tw o distinct stages, provided is was made crystal clear that when an infant is baptized, as far as God is concerned he or she is a full member of the Church an d ha s already been given th e necessar y grac e t o grow into the new creation that is God's will for humankind. In other cases , it may be pastorally advisable to choose a policy of complete liturgical/sacramental initiation of infants. In this case, baptized childre n coul d b e re-accepte d int o an y Christian

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congregation an d admitte d t o Communio n withou t further ado a t an y subsequen t stag e o f thei r lif e shoul d the y hav e become estrange d fro m th e lif e o f th e Church . I n al l thre e cases, pastoral necessit y should reig n suprem e an d theolog y be kept where i t belongs. I n al l three cases , theologica l necessit y would b e respecte d an d ther e woul d b e n o nee d t o quarre l about it . Any polic y o f Christia n Initiatio n w e may be le d t o choose would o f necessit y have t o be accompanie d b y a concomitant policy of Christia n nurture , educatio n an d formation . I n th e absence of such a policy, we would ru n th e ris k of introducing (or should one say 'perpetuating'?) a certain element of magic and superstitio n i n ou r understandin g o f th e sacraments . Whichever wa y we ma y wis h t o turn , th e wa y ahead wil l b e fraught wit h dangers . Livin g wit h dange r shoul d no t b e foreign t o those wh o profess to follow th e On e wh o promised to sen d t o u s th e Spiri t tha t wil l lea d u s int o al l th e truth . Whatever els e wil l happen , painfu l chang e wil l awai t us . Le t this b e a tru e proces s o f th e kin d o f conversio n th e Gospel s call 'metanoia'. W e mus t rene w ou r ver y understandin g o f what th e Churc h i s about an d the n reorganiz e it s structures accordingly fro m thei r ver y roots . Afte r that , w e coul d d o worse tha n followin g the conclusio n o f Aidan Kavaaag h tha t it woul d the n b e fo r th e loca l churc h t o pu t itsel f int o th e hands of the Gospe l an d Christ' s Spirit rather tha n unde r th e safer an d mor e manageabl e tutelag e o f convention s an d programmes. i a FURTHER READING J. D . C. Fisher, Christian Initiation: Baptism i n th e Medieval West, London,1965. —, Christian Initiation: The Reformation Period, London 1970 . R. Burnish, The Meaning of Baptism, Londo n 1985 . D. S . M. Hamilton, Through th e Waters: Baptism an d th e Christian Life, Edinburgh 1990. F. C. Quinn, 'Confirmation: Does it Make Sense?', Ecclesia Orans 5/31988. D. G . Hamilto n an d F . A. J. Macdonal d (eds) , Children a t the Table, Edinburgh 1982 . 10

Aida n Kavanagh , op . at., p. 169 .

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1. 'Baptis m onc e receive d i s unrepeatable, an d an y rite s of renewal must avoid being misconstrued as baptism.' Do you agree, or not ? Why? 2. 'Baptis m i s complete sacramenta l initiatio n and lead s t o participation in the Eucharist/Lord's Supper. Confirmation and other rites of affirmation hav e a continuing pastoral role in the renewal of faith among the baptized but are in noway to be seen a s the completio n o f baptism o r a s necessary for admission t o communion.' Discuss. 3. 'Th e renewa l o f baptisma l practic e i s an integra l par t o f mission and evangelism. Liturgical texts must point beyond the lif e o f the Church to God's mission in the world.' What significance d o yo u se e i n thi s statemen t fo r th e under standing of baptism?

CHAPTER 8

CHRISTIAN FORMATIO N Christian formatio n i s one o f th e mos t importan t aspect s o f practical theology . I t i s concerne d wit h encounterin g Go d through th e worshippin g Christia n community , an d wit h th e shaping of Christian character. It thus involves basic orientation in lif e an d th e appropriatio n o f Christia n story an d vision . I t relates to the provision church communities make for Christian nurture an d education , an d fo r th e developmen t o f Christian attitudes an d discernment . I t i s also concerned , inseparably , with th e Christian' s lif e i n th e world , a s well a s with ultimate horizons. I t ha s t o embrac e th e diversit y of Christia n experi ence, as well as the paradoxes of the faith itself. Therefore, while it ha s muc h i n commo n wit h 'huma n growt h an d develop ment', i t i s als o markedl y differen t i n importan t respects . Secular thinkin g tend s t o focu s o n individua l happiness , fulfilment an d autonomy . Christia n thinkin g emphasizes th e interdependence o f humankin d under Go d an d recognize s that i t i s i n givin g tha t on e receives , and tha t i t i s i n losin g one's life that one find s life . Lif e is ajoyous gift , t o be 'realized ' in servin g others . Christia n understandin g i s irrevocabl y relational: it is lived with an d for others - Go d and neighbour. Christian formatio n an d Christia n worshi p ar e therefor e closely interrelated. New Testament Perspectives Encounter with God

The decisiv e feature, both i n Jesus' preachin g an d tha t of th e early Christians , i s the ne w orientatio n o f lif e brough t abou t through turnin g to God. I n th e Gospels, John th e Baptis t and Jesus are credited with the summons, 'Repent, for the kingdom 143

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of God is at hand'.1 Repentance her e is not primarily sorrow for sin. It means 'turnin g back' - teshuvah in Hebrew - an d marks the poin t i n one's life a t which one turn s back 'decisivel y an d irrevocably' to God.2 The early Christians spoke of their 'conversion' or 'turning around' (Lati n conversio, Greek epistrophe). Th e Thessalonian Christians , who had 'turne d t o God fro m idols ' (1 Thessalonian s 1:9) , mus t now 'liv e live s worthy of th e Go d who call s yo u int o hi s kingdo m an d glory ' ( 1 Thessalonian s 2:12). Wayn e Meek s emphasize s th e socia l implication s of Christian conversion.3 Encounter with God - the reforming and transforming event that is God's gracious gift - provide s a new context, a ne w story , a ne w goal, an d a ne w identit y for th e convert, and lead s on t o growth in the faith . To reflect Pauline terminology an d later theology , justification goes hand i n hand with sanctification. I t is not ou r purpos e her e to reflect on th e exaggerated emphasis whic h convert s typicall y impart t o thei r conversion accounts . I t i s par t o f thei r concer n wit h thei r identity and standin g i n th e ne w community. Nor d o w e take the stereotyp e o f thei r conversio n a s applicabl e t o everyone . But some point s should b e underlined: particularl y the proces s of decentringand recentringthzt is involved, and th e resocialization associated wit h it . Th e dynamic s o f Christia n formatio n pre suppose th e centrin g o f life i n Chris t and th e solidarit y of th e member wit h th e Christia n community in it s worship, witness, fellowship and spirituality . This centring on Christ is given ritual expression i n baptism and constantl y reinforced i n worship. Baptism into the community of faith Even in the New Testament, no t all converts came from outsid e the faith . Som e wer e member s o f Christia n household s t o whom fait h wa s mediated b y parents o r master s alread y com mitted t o the faith. The believe r ha s a sanctifying influenc e on other member s o f th e household : 'otherwis e you r childre n would be unclean, but as it is they are holy' (1 Corinthians 7:14). They wer e alread y socialize d o r i n proces s of socializatio n i n the Christian household. They were brought to baptism a s the sign and seal of their belonging to the Christian community. 4 1 E d Sanders ha s questioned th e plac e o f repentance in Jesus' message , bu t thi s need no t detain u s here. '2 G . Vermes, Th e Gospel o f Jesus th e few, Newcastl e 1981 , pp . 24-25 . s Th e Origins of Christum Morality, Yal e 1993, pp . 18-36 . 1 Cf. chapter 7 .

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Christ is like a single bod y with it s many limb s an d organs , which, many as they are, togethe r make up one body; for in the one Spiri t we wer e al l brought int o on e bod y b y baptism . . . ; and w e wer e all give n tha t on e Spiri t t o drink . ( 1 Corinthian s 12:12-13 ; cf . Galatians 3:27-28)

Baptism, a s w e hav e seen , ha s man y aspects . I t i s a rit e o f initiation, cleansing, new beginnings, and much more. It marks the boundary between th e community cleansed b y the Spirit of God an d th e outsid e worl d a s th e spher e i n whic h th e wri t of th e devi l obtains . I t is , particularl y i n Paulin e thinking, incorporation int o th e communit y tha t bear s Christ' s name , 'the bod y o f Christ' . Howeve r decisiv e baptis m ma y b e fo r individuals, th e blessing s i t bestow s ar e realized through the community o f faith. Indeed , whil e w e rea d o f individua l con version and baptism, as in the encounter o f Philip the evangelist with th e Ethiopia n eunuch, th e rit e o f baptism alway s involves the communit y (eve n i f i n th e isolatio n o f th e encounte r i n question th e community is represented b y Philip alone). In Acts the whol e Christia n communit y wa s devoted 't o th e apostles ' teaching an d fellowship , to th e breakin g o f brea d an d th e prayers' (Act s 2:42). Hence , whethe r on e think s of adul t o r child baptism, one ha s always to relate th e action of baptism to continued growt h within th e fellowshi p of th e faithful , an d t o the active assistance which the worshipping community gives to the process. ° Growth and development in Christian life and community

The perspectiv e of growth i s prominent i n the New Testament. Like th e new-bor n infant s yo u are , yo u shoul d b e cravin g fo r unadulterated spiritua l mil k s o tha t b y i t yo u ma y gro w toward s salvation; for surely you have tasted that the Lor d i s good. ( 1 Peter 2:2-3)

There are severa l points here . Perhaps th e writer has recently converted Christian s in mind here , but wha t he write s applies to all. Infants are utterly dependent on thei r mothers' mil k for the sustainin g o f lif e itself . The spiritua l lif e o f th e faithfu l i s dependent o n wholesome teachin g - 'th e pur e mil k o f the word' (logikos) - s o that thei r growt h an d developmen t 'int o salvation' may be sustained. Here, salvation is an eschatological 5

On baptism , se e chapter 7 above .

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goal. I t is not somethin g give n in it s entirety on conversio n o r entry to the Christian community, but is rather th e completio n and wholenes s t o whic h on e aspires . Th e fina l sentimen t reflects Psalm 34:8: Christians have indeed taste d and seen tha t the Lor d i s good o r kind . Spiritua l growth i s possibl e onl y through a n encounter , howeve r mediated , wit h th e divin e goodness. Th e worshippin g communit y i s centra l t o thi s process. Th e secon d lette r attribute d t o Pete r end s wit h th e exhortation t o 'grow in th e grac e an d knowledg e of our Lor d and Saviou r Jesus Christ ' ( 2 Peter 3:18) . Chris t embodies th e grace o f Go d fo r us . Respons e t o th e grac e o f Go d i n Chris t thus represents the primar y condition of Christian formation . The Christian's life is modelled (mimesis} on Christ and the apostle ( 1 Thessalonian s 1:6) . A necessar y corollar y i s tha t we mus t alread y hav e begu n t o lear n an d t o internaliz e the Church's definitive story. Again, the worshipping communit y is a catalyst. In his care of his churches, Paul presupposed a perspective of moral and spiritua l growth. Friends, we are alway s bound t o than k Go d fo r yo u . . . becaus e your faith keep s on increasin g and th e lov e you all have for each other grows ever greater. (2 Thessalonians 1:3)

Sometimes with Paul - or writers acting in his name - ther e is a preference fo r th e metapho r o f building: th e buildin g u p o f the fait h community , to which al l who exercis e th e gift s the y have been given contribute materially. And i t i s he wh o ha s give n som e t o b e apostles , some prophets, some evangelists, some pastors and teachers, to equip God's peopl e for wor k i n hi s service, for th e buildin g u p o f the bod y of Christ, until w e all attai n t o th e unit y inheren t in ou r fait h an d i n ou r knowledge of the Son of God - t o mature manhood, measured by nothing les s tha n th e ful l statur e of Christ . (Ephesian s 4:11-13, REB)

This many-side d ministr y ha s a n immediat e goal . I t i s 't o equip God's peopl e for work in his service'. Christian learnin g is learning for service. This service, a s well as the 'learning ' o n which i t i s based, contribute s t o a furthe r goal , whic h i s th e realization o f th e onenes s o f th e fait h communit y a s 'th e body o f Christ' . Th e ultimat e o r eschatologica l goa l - th e vision tha t i s par t o f th e stor y - i s th e complet e persona l formation manifeste d i n 'th e fullnes s o f Christ' . Christia n

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formation look s beyon d wha t i s achievabl e i n th e presen t scenario, bu t i t represent s a kin d o f 'impossibl e possibility ' towards which Christian s move. Sometimes, i n th e struggl e t o articulat e perception s o f Christian formation , the writer mixes his metaphors : You are built on th e foundation o f the apostles and prophets , with Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone. In him the whole building is bonded together and grow s into a holy temple i n th e Lord . In him yo u are als o being built wit h al l th e other s into a spiritua l dwelling for God. (Ephesians 2:20-22) The mixin g of the metaphor s of building and growt h is readilv comprehended. I t enable s th e write r t o brin g togethe r th e notion o f essential foundations and structure s (Christ and th e apostolic message ) wit h tha t of th e hol y temple whic h is thus rising throug h Chris t (cf . 'th e bod y o f Christ' ) fro m thes e foundations, an d finall y th e ide a o f th e incorporatio n o f th e addressees and othe r faithfu l peopl e i n thi s 'spiritual dwellin g for God \ The goa l o f Christia n growt h an d developmen t ca n b e conceived i n a variety of ways. It ca n b e conceive d i n term s o f th e growt h o f th e com munity a s 'th e househol d o f God' , comprisin g Jew an d Gentile, bond an d free , mal e an d female . As always, tru e growth come s fro m Go d an d i s inspired b y th e Spiri t of Christ. I t means identificatio n with hi m wh o i s our peace , who 'ha s broke n dow n th e dividin g wal l o f hostility ' (Ephesians 2:14 ; cf . Galatian s 3:28) . Al l thi s mus t b e expressed i n worship. It can be conceived as an eschatological goal: 'the measure of th e statur e o f th e fullnes s o f Christ ' (Ephesian s 4:13). But growt h towards such a n eschatologica l growt h i s also a process of personal growth here and now. 'Personal maturity ' i s the resul t of a proces s o f growth an d development , no t a sudden acquisition . Suc h dimension s ar e buil t int o Christian worship. It can be conceived i n moral terms . Speaking the trut h in love (Ephesian s 4:15 ) i s the by-product , i f not th e condi tion, o f growt h 'int o Christ ' an d growt h i n community. Indeed, maturit y of fait h an d mora l actio n g o han d i n hand. I t is 'renewal i n min d an d spirit ' (Ephesian s 4:23),

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involving truthfulnes s and th e uprigh t devou t lif e which goes with it . Have don e wit h al l spit e an d ba d temper , wit h rage , insults and slander , with evil of any kind. Be generous t o one another , tender-hearted , forgivin g on e anothe r a s God i n Chris t forgave you. (Ephesian s 4:32, REB ) It involve s growing away from worldy conformity as one i s 'transformed by the renewal of your minds'(Romans 12:2), which brings discernment o f the wil l of God. It ca n b e conceive d i n term s o f using th e gift s Go d ha s given us (Romans 12:6); or of letting ourselves be channel s of th e Spiri t for som e usefu l purpos e i n th e communit y (1 Corinthians 12:7). It can b e conceive d i n term s o f trainin g fo r discipleship . The disciples ' commissio n wa s to preach, teac h an d heal . But the disciples had t o be with Jesus for some tim e befor e they could undertak e suc h a mission. The wor d 'disciple ' means 'learner' : itsel f a clu e t o th e proces s o f growt h through interactio n with their teacher . In the culture of the Lord

Christian formatio n ha s ofte n bee n conceive d i n term s o f a process o f sanctification . Th e Christia n community , whether thought o f as a congregation o r a family or , i n extreme cases , represented b y a singl e paren t o r sponsor , ca n brin g other s within th e embrac e o f it s holiness ( 1 Corinthian s 7:14) . I t is not surprising , therefore , tha t fro m apostoli c time s th e Christians emphasized th e importanc e o f the family . Families, however, ar e alway s deeply affecte d b y thei r cultura l setting . Socio-historical factors are evident i n the household structures presupposed i n th e Ne w Testament epistles . Thei r etho s o f Hellenistic urban households was paternalistic; domesti c slavery was accepted a s a normal par t of life, and sociall y conditione d assumptions about discipline and upbringing, as well as the role of women and children, are not har d t o detect. Pau l and other teachers di d no t attac k suc h structure s bu t rathe r allowe d Christian fait h an d cultur e t o influenc e an d modif y th e ethos of th e famil y s o tha t i t coul d serv e a s an instrumen t o f Christian nurture. Thus, while the leadership role of the father and husban d remained , th e mutualit y o f th e relationshi p o f

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husband an d wif e was emphasized. While slaves remained par t of th e household , the y coul d becom e ful l member s o f th e church communities . Curren t notion s o f upbringin g an d discipline inevitabl y affecte d th e Christia n vie w o f th e up bringing o f children , bu t th e wors t feature s o f heavy-hande d paternal chastisemen t wer e expressl y forbidden . I n thi s connection, th e mos t famou s phras e occur s i n Ephesian s 6:4 : '. . . bring the m u p i n th e disciplin e an d instructio n o f th e Lord.' Tw o key words ar e nouthesia ('discipline' ) an d paideia ('upbringing'). The forme r undoubtedl y carrie s overtone s o f 'warning' bu t i t als o contain s th e notio n o f 'reminding' . I t suggests Christia n paraenesis: th e kin d o f instructio n whic h reminds th e catechume n o f his or he r identit y as a Christian and warn s agains t th e corruptio n o f th e worl d a s wel l a s commending Christia n virtue . I t i s illustrated i n th e fourt h century by John Chrysostom's sermon on Vainglory an d the Right Way for Parents to bring up their Children. The wor d paideia has a much wide r connotation. I t can denote simpl y the rearin g o r upbringing of the child . It gives us the phrase , 'th e nurture of the Lord' , understood a s training: education i n th e Christian way. Tha t i s probably it s primar y meaning i n thi s context . I n Hebrews 12:5-13, it is used o f the kin d of discipline which can be painful bu t which nevertheless expresses lov e and makes one strong an d perseverin g i n th e fac e o f th e challeng e o f evil. It can als o denot e th e conditio n whic h results from thi s process and promote s th e proces s i n others : somethin g clos e t o 'culture'. 6 'Brin g the m u p i n th e cultur e o f th e Lord ' . . . Christian education i s never to be reduced t o mere instructio n or conten t o f knowledge . I t i s contextualized withi n a com munity of faith an d worship which demonstrates it s faith, hope and lov e as it communicates its story and lifestyle . Paul leaves the Corinthian Christians in no doubt that worship, offered t o Go d an d inspire d b y the Spirit , ha s a n importan t educational an d instructiv e function (cf . 1 Corinthians 14) . It must 'edify ' th e community . It must stimulate and encourage , offering som e aspec t o f revelation , enlightenment , prophec y or instruction . Bu t there i s an ambivalenc e abou t worship. I t can s o easil y fail t o achiev e al l it s purposes . Th e charismati c worship at Corinth reduce s to the cult of the individual ; it has little o r n o benefi t i n term s o f buildin g u p th e community' s 6

Cf. W.Jaeger's classic study, Paideia: Th e Ideals o f Greek Culture, 3 vols., Oxford 1943-45.

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understanding o r communicatin g th e gospe l o f Christ . Unworthy expression s o f worship invalidat e th e activit y itself and sen d ou t th e wron g signals . Division s in th e Corinthia n communities resul t i n thei r meeting s becomin g counter productive ( 1 Corinthians 11:17). The resul t i s tha t whe n yo u mee t a s a congregation , i t i s no t the Lord' s Suppe r yo u eat; when it comes t o eating , eac h o f you takes his own supper, on e goes hungry and anothe r ha s too much to drin k . .. Ca n I commen d you ? O n thi s point , certainl y not ! (1 Corinthians 11:20-22 )

Paul goes on to insist that the story of the Last Supper be taken as the model for the Lord's Supper i n Corinth. Here we find an important indication not only of the place of story but the place of significant story in the life of worshipping community. 7 // recalls the faith community t o its true being. The stor y has consequence s for action : no t onl y in term s o f appropriate liturgica l action, important as that is, but in terms of the kind of community that is fit to recall, celebrate an d ac t out thi s story in its social life. In other words, the culture of die community must be such tha t it communicates it s fait h a s i t remembers , celebrate s an d proclaims the events which have shaped it. This is the secret of its paideia. The recalling of significant story is at the heart of the ethos of the Churche s an d therefor e form s a n essentia l par t o f th e instruction o f youn g an d old . I t i s an importan t par t o f th e reading o f th e scripture s - i n Ne w Testament terms , th e scriptures o f Israel, howeve r define d - whic h ar e significant both a s a witness to Christ (cf . John 5:39) an d for the guidanc e of the faithful . All inspired scripture has its use for teaching the truth and refutin g error, or for reformation of manners and disciplin e i n right living, so that th e ma n o f God ma y be capabl e an d equippe d fo r goo d work of every kind. ( 2 Timothy 3:16--17, NEB )

But it is only within the etho s of Churches open t o the spirit of Christ that the necessary discernment wil l be found. Searching the scriptures can itsel f lead t o error if the conditions for all its interpretation ar e not set by a Christ-centred faith and a Christcentred ethos . Lik e Jesus' opponents in the Fourth Gospel , we 7 On this , see S . Hauerwas , A Community o f Character, Notr e Dam e 1981 , pp . 66-69.

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may searc h the scriptures for the secret of eternal life yet refuse to come t o him t o receive that life (cf . John 5:40). 8 Much mor e coul d b e sai d abou t th e importanc e o f community for paideia. It is not mer e conventio n which leads Paul to strike the not e o f thanksgiving when addressing many of his churches, no r t o emphasiz e th e importanc e o f prayer . Th e 'psalms and spiritua l songs' als o played a part. It is clear from the Haustafeln in particular that the household community was considered t o have a particular role in Christian nurture. Here again, ethos play s an importan t part. True, certain duties ar e expected an d inculcated: obedience an d 'honour' to parents the secret of a long and prosperou s life , as the commandment put it ! (cf. Ephesians 6:1-2). But if the child had duties towards the parents , the famil y etho s impose d mutua l responsibilities on th e parents . Father s particularl y mus t no t 'goad ' thei r children 't o resentment' . Wha t i s bein g suggeste d i s a supportive, if demanding, relationship, which fits well with 'the culture of the Lord' . The Church as a Community of Nurture Induction Christian education an d nurture , integral as they are to the lif e of th e churches , ar e intimatel y involved i n th e proces s o f induction into the community of faith. Preparation for baptism involves th e candidat e o f mature r age , and th e parent s an d sponsors i n th e cas e o f infan t o r paedo-baptism . A rigorou s system o f preparatio n wa s proposed b y Hippolytus i n Rom e about AD 200. Those seeking entry to church membershi p ha d to be sponsored by a church member of good standing . Careful enquiry had t o be mad e about lifestyl e an d occupation , many occupations bein g fo r Hippolytu s inconsisten t wit h th e Christian faith. Slaves had to have their master's consent before they coul d b e admitted . I n al l cases , goo d characte r wa s essential. It should b e noted that Hippolytus was attempting to reinforce th e separatio n o f the churc h etho s from tha t of th e world. H e wa s living a t th e tim e o f th e firs t grea t influ x o f outsiders int o th e church : a developmen t which , however satisfying i n term s o f churc h growth , brought th e dange r o f importing worldl y standard s int o th e church . Hippolytu s 8

See above, chapter 4, pp. 58-69.

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proposed a time of preparation an d stud y lasting up t o three years, althoug h som e candidate s migh t progres s throug h i t more speedily. A gradual induction into the life and worship of the churc h wa s envisaged. Th e catechumen s woul d gradually progress t o th e hearin g o f th e Word , bu t baptism , anointing and first Communion wer e reserved fo r the Easter celebration . Hippolytus' scheme was idealistic and never fully implemented. He tended to glorify the apostolic age and to believe that things had gone from ba d t o worse ever since! But he signalled some important aspect s o f Christia n educatio n an d nurtur e a s induction int o th e worshippin g community . Ho w d o yo u identify the boundary between church and world? At what stage in persona l developmen t d o yo u admi t t o baptis m and firs t Communion? What is meant by a Christian lifestyle, and what is excluded?9 In answerin g thes e questions , churche s hav e chose n man y different procedures . Fo r example, if adult baptism is taken as the norm , Christia n nurtur e i s essentiall y preparatio n fo r baptism. If infant baptism is practised, Christian nurture refers to upbringing within the culture of the church as worshipping faith community . A more detaile d investigatio n would ente r many qualifications. While Roman Catholic s ma y receive firs t Communion in childhood, much weight is attached to ongoing catechetical instruction and confirmation at a later stage. Many churches adjust thei r practice according to their perception of earlier maturatio n i n youn g people . Som e evangelica l con gregations admit children freely t o fellowship meal s but delay baptism unti l maturity . There ha s lon g bee n pressur e o n Reformed Churche s to allow access to the Lord's Supper at an earlier stage, particularly in the context of family worship. Thus, Horace Bushnell, in his classic work, Christian Nurture, wrote in 1861: I mus t als o spea k o f anothe r an d mor e genera l mod e o f dis couragement, i n what may be called th e holdin g back , or holdin g aloof system , by which children are denied an early recognition o f their membershi p in the Church, an d a n admission t o the Lord's table . .. What I now refer to, more especially , i s the negatively bad or discouraging effect throw n upo n their piety, by these methods of detention , o r exclusion . Th e child , givin g evidence , howeve r beautiful, o f hi s piety , i s still kep t back fro m th e fellowshi p an d 9

On Hippolytus , se e Gregor y Dix (ed.) , Th e Apostolic Tradition o f Si Hippolytus, London 1968 , pp . 23-43; also, the General Introduction , pp . xi-li.

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table of Christ, for th e simpl e defect o f years. As if years were on e of the Scripture evidences of grace.10 The stronges t argument for such alteratio n i n practic e relate s to nurture. If the sacraments are indeed 'mean s of grace', then all adherents who could conceivabl y benefit from the m shoul d be able to do so in the context of a supportive fait h community. Such policie s would give expression t o Bushnell's dictum that the chil d bor n int o a Christia n famil y shoul d neve r kno w himself o r hersel f t o b e othe r tha n a Christia n fro m earlies t years. They would also place a premium on goo d communica tion i n Christian worship and teaching . Th e thoughtfu l reception of the sacrament - 'wha t is the meaning of this rite?' (cf. Exodus 12:26 ) - shoul d b e in context with thoughtfu l us e of the Bible , th e sourc e o f th e Church' s story , and learnin g t o participate meaningfull y i n praye r an d worship . Eve n th e disciples asked Jesus t o teach the m ho w to pray. Instruction The Christia n traditio n ha s alway s ha d a prominen t instruc tional emphasis , which i t inherite d fro m ancien t Judaism . Instruction, however , involves methods a s well a s content. I n his paraboli c teaching , Jesu s instructe d i n a creativ e way , projecting a worl d i n whic h hi s hearer s wer e invite d t o participate, yet that created worl d also impinged on th e world of thei r ow n experienc e an d s o opene d u p ne w possibilitie s of belie f and action. " Augustin e used th e grou p dynamic s of his community at Cassiciacum t o develop active learning. 12 He also emphasize d th e importanc e o f th e mora l an d spiritua l quality o f th e teache r i n th e educativ e proces s an d stresse d the importance of recognizing and responding t o the learner' s limitations an d difficulties . Yet , like othe r Churc h Fathers , Augustine wa s inevitabl y concerne d wit h th e conten t o f instruction. H e mappe d ou t a biblicall y base d catechetica l programme, designe d t o impar t th e fundamental s o f th e Christian story . H e als o provide d a Christian-centre d curriculum fo r us e i n schools . Al l these feature s are involved 10

H. Bushnell , Christian Nurture, New York 1861 , pp. lOf f Cf. B. Chilton andj. I. H. McDonald.y^ui and the Ethics of the Kingdom, London 1987, pp. 120-24 . 12 Cf. G. Howie, Educational Theory an d Practice in Si Augustine, London 1969 , pp . 139-81. 11

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in th e Christia n traditio n o f instruction , whic h ma y b e considered briefl y under th e followin g headings. Catechesis. This term properly denotes the instruction given to catechumen s preparin g fo r baptis m an d therefor e originally included the whole range of interaction between teacher an d pupils . Subsequently it cam e t o denot e th e content o f such instruction . Catechisms were handbook s of instruction, common throughou t th e Middle Ages and the Reformatio n period . Sinc e the y characteristically contained materia l to be learned b y heart - fo r example, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments and the Creeds - the y were often set out in question-and-answer form and became identifie d with rot e learnin g methods . A s such, they wer e attacke d - ofte n execrate d - b y progressive educators fro m Roussea u onwards . Whil e thes e critic s rejected bot h th e dogmatic s and th e pedagogic s o f th e catechetical method , the y operate d wit h a variet y o f assumptions of their own. It is worth noting that catechetics in th e earl y Christian centuries ha d a wider connotation than i n later times. The catechetica l school of Alexandria, particularly under the leadership of Clement and Origen , was concerned with a theological outreach t o the cultured in society. In post-Reformation Scotland, the catechism had greatest impac t when it operated i n th e contex t of famil y life in a relatively static society. In spite of idealistic defences sometimes made of the traditiona l usage, 13 catechisms are unlikely t o b e effectiv e o r accepte d tool s o f Christian instruction toda y unless they are completel y suited t o th e context i n whic h the y are use d an d ar e als o muc h mor e stimulating and imaginative , in content and method, than has often been th e case in past. Christian schools? In th e earl y centuries, Christian s wer e living i n a multi-religiou s societ y in which the y formed a small minority. Because of the pagan content of the schoo l curriculum, Hippolytu s regarde d schoo l teachin g a s a doubtful or unacceptable vocatio n for Christians. Christian children ha d t o be educate d a t home , a t leas t i n well-of f families wh o coul d includ e a tuto r i n thei r households . That was the kin d of situatio n whic h John Chrysosto m addressed. Augustine anticipate d th e growth o f Christian " Cf. T. F. Torrance, Th e School o f Faith, London 1959 , especially pp. xi-cxxvi .

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schools, an d hi s approach t o curriculu m influence d th e monastic an d othe r Christian schools o f the Middl e Ages. The Reformer s strongl y encourage d th e nationa l an d universal provision o f education, a s in a celebrated sectio n of th e First Book o f Discipline (1561). M Bu t thi s concorda t with th e stat e ra n int o difficult y wit h th e progressiv e secularization o f society , s o tha t - a s i n Scotland , fo r example - th e schoo l syste m tha t ha d it s roots i n th e Presbyterian traditio n ha s become 'non-denominational' . The Roma n Catholi c Church, after a perio d o f difficulty , was eventually able to retain control of its religious teaching within th e stat e sector . Suc h a solutio n i s not withou t its difficulties. I n England , th e Churc h o f Englan d and th e Roman Catholi c Churche s i n particula r operat e churc h schools withi n th e stat e provision , alongsid e 'non denominationar schools which also teach religiou s education. Othe r countrie s - suc h a s the Netherlands an d the USA- have found different ways of dealing (or not dealing) with religion in state education. In all cases, the secularization of Christendom and the pluralistic and multi-religious nature o f Western societ y have pose d acut e problem s fo r the Churches . Som e loo k t o independen t o r grant-aide d Christian school s fo r a solution . Christia n teachin g i n a post-Christian ag e i s problematic bu t i s capable o f being handled with integrity in both school and church settings . At an y rate , i t i s clea r tha t Christia n formatio n wil l henceforth tak e place in the contex t of cultural pluralism (as reflected, for example, i n the media), rather than i n a sterilized cultura l vacuum. The Churche s requir e t o fac e this scenario , no t wit h mer e traditionalis m o r sectaria n isolation, bu t wit h a determine d realis m whic h give s primacy to the quality of Christian education in church and home an d recognize s th e nee d t o develo p a 'critica l consciousness' t o enable peopl e t o come t o terms with an aggressive and pervasiv e secularism. Sunday schools. Th e Sunda y schoo l movemen t ha d it s effective beginning s wit h th e wor k of Thomas Stoc k an d Robert Raike s i n Glouceste r i n th e latte r par t o f th e eighteenth century . As its name suggests , it met a n educa tional nee d b y respondin g positivel y t o th e questio n 11

Cf.J. F . Cameron, Th e First Book o f Discipline, Edinburgh 1972.

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whether th e childre n o f the poo r shoul d b e educated. It was essentially a la y movement, with stron g social , moral and religiou s aims. Overcoming a variety of opposition, it spread rapidly , aided by Raikes" journalistic advocacy and planning skills . Acknowledgin g tha t literac y an d goo d character wer e essential i n personal , socia l an d religiou s life, i t serve d a s a precurso r o f universa l education pro vision, whic h wa s no t establishe d unti l afte r 187 0 i n England and Wales . By the end o f the century, it acquire d a narrower focus on religious and moral education. In spite of it s undoubted achievements , its educational standard s were neve r high , an d a s it s influenc e bega n t o wan e Christian educationists demande d reform. The first major overhaul o f it s procedure s i s associate d wit h G . H . Archibald i n th e earl y twentiet h century. He institute d a programme o f 'decentralization', which saw departments established t o cater for the needs of particular age groups . He emphasize d th e nee d t o understan d th e growt h an d development of children, and introduce d livel y new visual and activit y methods, includin g outdoor activities ; and h e underlined th e importance of the trainin g of teachers. I n consequence, th e Sunda y school movemen t experience d something o f a revival , cu t shor t b y World War I . Later , attention switche d t o sociologica l issues , suc h a s th e separation o f Sunday school an d church , i n which socia l class played a part. H. A. Hamilton pled for the integration of the tw o bodies, advocatin g the 'famil y church' concept . From baptism, a child was given a 'church friend'; families shared i n worship, eve n i n plannin g it ; and considerabl e demands were made on parents and teachers . After World War II , ther e wa s a ne w stress o n designin g curricula t o reflect the context of the faith community. Sunday schools were no w seen a s agents o f Christian nurture , conveyin g the joy o f Christian lif e an d worshi p within a lovin g faith community. Yet in many respects th e gulf between churc h and Sunda y schoo l wa s neve r full y overcome . Sunda y schools seem unavoidabl y t o take childre n ou t o f churc h worship, withou t bein g abl e t o induc t the m int o a meaningful experienc e o f worshi p whic h migh t com pensate for so doing. I n face of the growing secularization of society, they need to take on board the critical notion of what it means t o grow up a s Christian children in a world

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hostile o r indifferen t t o th e Christia n faith . The y ar e unlikely to be successful unless they are seen t o be integra l to the life and worship of the church communit y and a vital part o f it s mission , an d ar e give n huma n an d materia l resources to match th e demands of such a task. Sensitivity to church, chil d an d worl d would see m imperative . The y also need the full co-operation and involvement of parents, imaginative an d dynami c leadership , staf f training , an d all-round commitment to effective Christia n nurture.'0 Institution While Christia n educatio n and nurtur e are to be see n as vital elements i n th e lif e o f churche s today , the y ar e als o widel y regarded as problematic. Muc h depend s o n th e willingness of the churc h communit y to view itself as a nurturing, educatin g fellowship, an d t o accep t tha t th e Churc h i s about Christia n formation an d shoul d b e shape d accordingly . The dilemma s discussed above reflec t the dilemmas o f the Church i n moder n society. Facin g th e consequence s o f declin e i n number s an d influence tha t affects 'mainstream' churches today, there tend s to be a resort t o crisis management o r damage limitation . The preservation of the institutio n becomes a vital concern. Ye t the demands o f nurture an d education - o f Christian formation suggest tha t th e institutio n itsel f mus t change . Communit y rather tha n institution , participatio n rathe r tha n passivity , communication rathe r tha n wordiness, provide a basic orienta tion. Worship must indeed preserve - or recover! - its liturgical integrity and purpose , bu t i t must be suc h a s to enable youn g and ol d t o participat e meaningfull y i n it. The toke n prologu e for childre n i s not satisfactory , nor ar e 'famil y services ' which alienate man y b y thei r shee r banality . Nor ar e word y 'hym n sandwiches' whic h los e liturgica l direction . Th e doubl e question mus t be asked: is this worship worthy to be offered t o God, an d i s it helpful fo r th e Christia n formatio n o f al l those who shar e i n it ? In othe r words , th e etho s o f worshi p mus t reflect th e nurtura l prioritie s of th e communit y and mus t b e supported b y a variet y o f agencies , fro m parenta l group s concerned wit h upbringing and priorities in the modern world to adult learning programmes o f a shorter or longer duration. 13 On Sunda y schools, cf . J. Ferguso n (ed.) , Christianity, Society an d Education. London 1981 .

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One reactio n migh t be, 'But we do all this already . . .' Check, then, ho w fundamental o r ho w peripheral i t i s to th e lif e o f the church . Churche s hav e a seemingl y infinit e capacit y t o domesticate ne w initiative s within traditiona l structure s an d practices. As Hippolytus and Augustine saw in their day, nurture and educatio n presen t a radica l challeng e t o th e fait h community. Christia n formatio n involves the re-formatio n of the Churches.

Growth and Development as Christians Developmental studies and their significance

The twentiet h century has witnessed an abundance of developmental studies. Classic students of the discipline include Piaget in cognitive development; Erikson i n emotional development ; Kohlberg (and Piaget) in moral development; and Goldman in religious understanding. Howeve r controversial the y may be, the educational importanc e o f such studie s is beyond dispute , as the work of an educationist suc h as Jerome Bruner indicates . Studies relating to faith development are of particular relevanc e to us, although onl y one exampl e ca n be noted here and very briefly at that. James Fowle r ha s done pioneerin g wor k on fait h develop ment, using stage theor y to present a meaningful pattern. 16 Stage 1. Beyon d the earliest stage of undifferendated fait h (personally importan t bu t largel y beyon d empirica l research), Fowle r identified th e firs t stage , typica l of 3-7 year-old children , a s 'intuitive-projective' . A s the y en counter th e ric h novelt y of their worlds, imagination an d fantasy creat e long-lastin g image s an d feelings , late r hopefully to be clarified. Egocentric and imitative, children at thi s stage ar e influence d by the example , storie s an d actions of adults and other s t o whom the y primarily and trustingly relate. Stage 2. The 'mythic-literal ' state point s u p th e somewha t literal internalizing of the stories and beliefs that symbolize belonging t o one's community. The previous fantasy-fille d operations ar e now curbed by an increasingly concrete and 16 James Fowler, Stages of Faith. Th e Psychology o f Human Development an d th e Quest for Meaning, Sa n Francisc o 1981 .

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realistic understandin g o f a mor e coheren t an d linea r world: a world of people, place s and events . If story interprets life, stories of a cosmic nature are interpreted anthropomorphically and are not subjected to conceptual analysis. Children ar e no w more awar e o f others ' perspectives . A degree o f reciprocity characterizes their moral awareness; 'fairness' i s the primar y moral criterion. While this stage is typical of middle childhood , man y adolescents an d adult s evince similar structures. age 3. As we grow up, life becomes more complicated. We are immersed i n th e world of people, but a number of different sphere s deman d ou r attention : family , school , peer groups, work, local community, the worlds of media and church , if it has retained relevanc e to life. On e ha s to synthesize this material; that is, to bring it into a coheren t whole as part of one's identity and outlook : in short, one' s faith. This is what is meant b y the 'synthetic-conventional ' stage, typica l o f adolescent s an d man y adults . Strongl y interpersonal, i t i s conventional i n tha t i t relate s t o th e values and expectatio n o f significant others. Peopl e a t this stage ten d t o hav e a n implici t ideology - a clustering of beliefs an d value s strongly but tacitl y held . Authorit y is traditionally locate d o r foun d i n pee r grou p o r intimate group consensus . age 4. The 'individuative-reflective' stage marks a notable development, often accomplished i n early adulthood o r in mid-life, i f a t all . Persona l identit y is n o longe r simpl y conformity t o others ' expectation s an d value s but relate s to a carefull y define d fram e o f meanin g o r worl d vie w which emerge s throug h one' s ow n reflectio n o n lif e experiences and mora l judgements. A t the same time , it is conscious of being par t of a larger or ultimate framework of meaning. Stories and symbol s are now 'demythologized' into concepts an d ideas . Commitmen t t o thi s self-certai n system of meaning and valu e is likely to be muc h stronge r than awarenes s o f th e unconsciou s influence s or socio logical conditioning inheren t in the vie w taken. age 5. 'Conjunctive faith' brings together image and concept, persona l perceptio n an d socia l unconscious . There is a new appreciation o f the freshnes s and dept h o f story and symbo l as one rework s one's past and reclaim s it

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as one's own . This stag e acknowledge s th e 'deepe r self , the 'socia l self, th e 'conditione d self. It takes failure an d defeat within the compass of life's meaning, affirming thei r role i n persona l development ; henc e Fowle r sometime s applies th e ter m 'paradoxica l consolidative' t o thi s stage. While renewing one's awareness o f one's tradition, one is also made ope n and vulnerable t o those who find truth in quite differen t tradition s an d outlooks , a s well a s t o new dimensions of religiou s truth . One' s idea s o f justice now acquire a universa l dimension , an d th e promotio n o f others' growth and development become s a priority. Staged. Th e final stage is found only in the spiritual giants of humanity. It embraces thos e wh o have incarnated tha t which i s truly human an d liberating , and whos e lives have radiated cosmi c or ultimat e purpose . Th e powe r of their presence i n th e world ha s often bee n see n a s threatening to th e structure s tha t sustai n human system s of meaning, and i n consequenc e the y have ofte n bee n persecute d o r killed. They evince a simplicity, lucidity and grac e which is of the essence of their humanity and spirituality: hence they might well point, as Jesus did, to a servant boy as the pattern of the disciple. Life i s both affirmed and le t go. They have an abidin g significance , across th e barrier s of race , class, creed o r gender, o f which no t even death ca n rob them . The debat e about fait h developmen t and relate d topic s is by no means over , an d th e entir e projec t ha s a provisiona l aspect. While forma l aspect s o f Fowler' s stag e theor y an d th e com plexities of his analysis may be criticized , this is not th e plac e for a detaile d critique . Holisti c interpretation s o f fait h hav e their uses . Neithe r conservativ e no r libera l i n orientation , they plac e u s al l on th e ma p - an d tha t ca n be a humbling experience. Worship and faith development Only a brief exemplification of the relatio n o f worship to faith development i s possible here . Worshi p i s both offered t o th e glory of God and is of formative benefit to the individual worshipper an d th e congregatio n a s a whole . I n it s latte r aspect, it is intended t o be an 'edifying ' o r learning experienc e (cf. 1 Corinthians 14). As such, i t involves the participatio n of

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the whole congregation, youn g and old, and also engages the whole person. I t thu s involves cognitive, affective an d conativ e responses, an d relate s to the whole life. The 'al l age' aspect of worship suggests that young and old, ric h and poor , male and female, ca n lear n fro m on e another . Example s may be cite d briefly from eac h o f the recognize d stages. Stage 1 . I f young childre n lear n fro m adults , ca n adult s learn fro m young children? This stag e provide s a remark able rang e o f metaphor s an d models . 'Unles s yo u tur n round an d becom e lik e children, you will never ente r th e kingdom of Heaven' (Matthe w 18:3, REB) . God hides many things fro m th e learne d an d wis e an d reveal s the m t o 'babes' (Matthe w 11:25) . Th e write r of 1 John addresse s the congregatio n a s 'children' , becaus e the y 'kno w th e Father'; but also writes, perhaps more literally , to 'fathers ' and 'youn g men' ( 1 John 12-14) . Hence, there ar e qualities and strength s in every stage of life, and i t is the mark of the matur e teache r t o be abl e t o highligh t them an d us e them t o develo p spiritua l awareness. Worshi p itsel f ha s been compare d t o play , th e learnin g activit y mos t characteristic o f childhood. I t combines lightheartednes s with seriou s purpose . Fo r example , playtim e is also storytime, and for many today worship is the only time they hear the Christia n story . Indeed , i n worshi p w e enac t an d celebrate th e story , and graf t togethe r thi s story and ou r own story . Play i s essential fo r growt h and educatio n an d the developmen t o f a capacit y to relate . I n worshi p Go d nurtures hi s family , an d thi s i s most full y expresse d i n liturgy which is playful rathe r tha n solemn, and serious bu t joyful. Bu t it is also true tha t when we become adult we put away childis h things . Th e metaphor s an d model s o f childhood ar e helpfu l onl y so far as they promote spiritual growth.17 Communication with young children is also part of congregational worship. Here th e descriptio n o f developmenta l stages is directly relevant. Following Piaget and Brune r as well as Fowler, we would underline th e need to enter their world, not i n a paternalistic or condescendin g way , but as part o f a natura l conversatio n whic h wins response fro m 17 On worshi p and play , cf . T . Driver , Tht Magic o f Ritual, San Francisc o 1991 , pp. 98-99.

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them. We must accept the m a s the person s the y are, an d begin with thei r awareness of life. We must stimulate their interest and involvement , widen their horizons, whic h can only be achieve d throug h thei r co-operatio n an d involvement, and thu s (withou t lecturing or moralizing! ) convey a worthwhile message. This i s the stag e of enactive learning, which put s a premiu m o n involvement , participation , imagination and spontaneity . But it is not designed simply for th e entertainmen t o f th e adults , althoug h thei r sympathetic participatio n i s als o par t o f th e learnin g situation. Enactiv e representation i s a se t o f action s fo r achieving a certain result. The speaker mus t therefore hav e in view a clear objective which is capable of realization with this particular group i n the tim e available. Stage 2. Fowler' s use of the term 'mythical literal' points to the iconic or pictoria l natur e o f th e 'stag e 2 world' an d perhaps underlines its limitations. Piaget described i t as the 'concrete operational ' stage ; realit y consists o f people , places, events, stories of life, experiments, explorations ; i n short, th e material , tangible , empirica l world . Worshi p does not lac k iconic elements: bread , wine , Bible, pulpit, choir, organ , worshipper s . . . Brune r describe d iconi c representation as a set of summary images or graphics that illustrate o r stan d fo r a concept withou t fully definin g it. Metaphors ar e derive d fro m thi s stage : suc h a s Jesus' indication of the servant boy as the image of humble service and 'greatness' ; an d Paul' s us e o f th e race , o r armour . Parables are grounded i n such images . The challeng e fo r the communicato r i s to encapsulate th e messag e i n suc h images whil e leaving th e doo r ope n fo r furthe r develop ment i n understanding . I t canno t b e emphasize d to o strongly tha t thi s iconi c representatio n i s th e mod e o f communication centra l t o th e tele-visua l age, an d th e need t o expres s th e fait h i n suc h term s i s of overridin g importance. Such an emphasis is in line with the insistence that worship should b e grounded i n 'real life' . tage 3. The sheer conventionality of this stage is a threat to worship. It represents a conformity to the accepted social ethos o f congregations. Bu t while worship is our offerin g of ourselves t o God a s we are, i t is also an encounte r with God which changes us . Stage 3 tends t o domesticate th e

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divine word and make it subordinate to an ideology formed largely of conventional elements. There is even a tendency — a temptation , perhap s - fo r churche s t o nurtur e suc h attitudes, for many prized virtues - loyalt y to the institution, reliability, commitment - coexist within the limitations of this group an d ar e see n a s vital t o institutiona l life. Socia l bonding is , o f course , importan t bot h fo r adult s an d adolescents. Th e absenc e o f adolescent s from man y congregations demonstrates the importance of the peer group for thi s age-group and it s relative distrust an d rejectio n of the adul t (o r childish ) etho s discerne d i n churches. 18 Education an d nurtur e alik e depen d o n rebuildin g structures of trust and acceptance , encouragin g participa tion, giving opportunities for talkin g about rea l lif e issue s and emphasizing the personal an d inter-personal strengt h of Christia n community . In th e case s o f adolescent s an d adults alike, the goa l i s to create possibilitie s of moral an d spiritual growt h an d insight , not leas t throug h a deepe r understanding of , and mor e meaningful participatio n in , worship itself. Stage 4 . Th e 'individuativ e reflective ' stag e ma y partly reflect a maturatio n beyon d th e conventiona l stage . I t is characteristic o f th e 'thinkin g person' : on e wh o i s no t afraid t o le t th e Wor d intersec t conventiona l value s an d transform them . At its best, this stage encapsulates respons e to the prophetic word i n worship and t o the leading of the Spirit. Intelligen t worship promote s religiou s and mora l discernment. Ye t the danger s - a s Pau l foun d i n th e 'enlightened' party at Corinth (cf . 1 Corinthians 8) - lie in individualism and a lack of humility. Conventional stage 3 values may be superseded not by Word and Spirit but bv an individualistic ideolog y tha t owe s mor e t o a kin d o f complacent, intellectual or even religiou s self-satisfaction . Self-awareness needs t o be fostered a s part of pastoral care. Hence i t i s important tha t th e worshippin g community both encourage s critica l thinkin g an d als o remain s i n dialogue wit h it s searching spirits . To b e sure , Pau l i s all too well aware of the dangers of'knowledge', insistin g that one must, in love, consider th e effect of one's attitudes and actions o n others . Thi s bring s a n essentiall y Christia n 18

Cf. L . Francis, Teenagers an d th e Church, London 1984 .

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Encounter with God perspective t o bea r o n persona l an d socia l developmen t and modifie s individualisti c values . Thus , dialogu e an d discussion - i n association with worship if not actually part of it - ar e essential if worship is to be a creative force in the lives of participants and i n th e lif e o f the world. 19 Stage 5 . B y its very nature , worship deals wit h th e dee p things of God. I t can therefor e draw the worshippe r into the mysteries of life and eternity, good and evil, alienation and redemption . T o som e i t i s given t o se e furthe r tha n others, and the y are able, in the spirit of understanding, to share thei r perception s wit h others . Lik e Paul , the y can demonstrate i n thei r lives th e paradoxe s o f mature faith : commitment t o truth , yet toleranc e o f others ; awareness of suffering , ye t affirmatio n o f God' s love ; respec t fo r doctrinal statements, yet awareness that the reality is much greater tha n th e formulae . Parado x occur s eve n i n th e notion tha t one' s deepes t perception s are , i n fact , given through relationship with others and with the Other. Here is a maturit y which overcome s th e limitation s of conventional or individualistic religious attitudes, and which serves as an inspiratio n for others . Ye t the possibilitie s of growth towards such maturity are implicit - occasionall y explicit in the experience and th e substance o f worship. Stage 6 . Christia n worship centres o n Christ , th e Wor d made flesh . H e incarnate s cosmi c purpos e an d divin e salvation - i n his life and ministry, death and resurrection, abiding presence an d transcenden t glory. He i s mediator and model, high priest and atonement. The rich symbolism of Christian worship points to him a s God with u s and fo r us. He represent s for u s the ful l statur e of humanity, but that humanity is transparent upon th e nature and purpos e of God. Stage 6, if we adopt such a convention, is thus more than th e hig h poin t o f huma n development. We look t o Christ a s the goa l o f ou r persona l an d spiritua l develop ment, and w e press o n toward s th e goa l i n company with the faithfu l i n heave n an d o n earth . The goa l transcend s what we are; it is eschatological, the ultimat e poin t i n ou r pilgrimage. Yet that ultimate point was expressed i n human

19 Relevant her e i s the wor k o f Oser : cf . Ose r an d Reich , 'Moral judgement, religiousjudgement, world view and logical thought: a review of their relationship', British Journalo f Religious Education 12 , 1990, pp . 94-101 , 172-81.

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terms i n Christ , wh o therefor e showe d u s th e ne w humanity, lived out i n faith and transfigure d b y hope and love. Chris t i s therefore mor e tha n on e o f 'th e spiritual giants of mankind', although what he expresses is inherent in God's creation. God in Christ affirms and enhance s life . Worship is similarly life enhancing, radiating the joy of life made whole . Arguments will continue about the strengths and weaknesses of patterns o f faith developmen t suc h a s that outlined above . Discussion o f that nature , however , should no t diver t us from the challenge o f their insights. For example, the recent convert loudly proclaiming that h e ha s 'found th e Lord ' may be little more tha n stage 2 in faith development . The traditionalis t who constantly exhorts the church t o 'take a strong moral line' or to 'get back to the Bible', like literalists and legalist s of all hues, is probably n o highe r tha n stag e 3 . The liberal , appealin g t o rationality an d enlightene d conscience , an d insistin g on th e need t o demythologiz e ancien t scriptures , evince s stag e 4 characteristics. Stage 5 , so elusive for most o f us a t leas t on a consistent basis , i s positivel y required o f th e Christia n wh o would wor k fo r communit y and racia l harmon y i n a rnulti religious society. And wha t abou t paris h ministr y and churc h life? Ar e the y geare d t o sustainin g peopl e a t th e leve l o f conventional attachmen t an d institutional surviva l rather tha n committed t o fait h developmen t an d Christia n witnes s in a n alien world ? Christia n educatio n i s a parod y o f itsel f i f wholly domesticated t o institutiona l requirements . It s natur e is t o b e deepl y challenging . Christia n formatio n i s a n on going proces s o f growth and development , fo r individual and community. Christian formation involves life-long learning. The focu s of this learning is the fait h communit y itself, with its worship an d sacraments which enhance ou r remembranc e o f the Church's story, relate it to our life-stories and engender spiritual renewal and transformation . Learning takes place by a variety of means: hearing th e Christia n proclamatio n an d story ; participating in worship an d sacrament ; sharing in the lif e of the fait h com munity; learnin g fro m others ' example , widenin g one' s contacts with other Christians and th e work of the Churches in the wider world; an d attempting t o bear a quiet witness in the world o f work, business o r community . Learning i s not abou t

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sitting in a classroom all day! To be sure, adult learning classes have their place, as do Christian education centres and distanc e learning. Bu t the mai n factor is to establish tha t the Christian life is itself a learning process, fed by many streams. We need t o take seriousl y th e fac t tha t 'disciple ' mean s 'learner' . Th e language of Christian spirituality suggests an on-going proces s - becomin g mor e tha n on e presentl y is . It i s a livin g o f th e Christian stor y as our story ; a mor e complet e turnin g t o th e goal or vision which Christ sets before us . As w e hav e seen , Christia n growt h an d developmen t ar e eschatological; their goal i s mature personhood , 'measured by nothing les s tha n th e ful l statur e o f Christ ' (Ephesian s 4:13). But th e peculiarit y of Christia n eschatolog y i s tha t i t i s no t simply reserved for 'the last days' but vitall y intersects life here and now . Eschatology presents th e goal, the vision. Looking to Christ, 'th e originato r and perfecte r o f ou r faith' , w e have a stable faith yet one which is always growing towards its ultimate goal, whic h i s als o it s inspiration . An d thi s chang e an d development take s plac e i n organi c unit y wit h 'th e bod y o f Christ', which is a spiritual rather tha n an institutional concept but one earthed i n the community of faith. Thu s we are to maintain the trut h i n a spirit of love; so shall we fully grow up into Christ. He is the head, and on him the whole body depends . Bonded an d hel d togethe r b y every constituent joint, th e whole frame grow s throug h th e prope r functionin g o f eac h part , an d builds itself u p i n love. (Ephesians 4:15-16, REB )

FURTHER READING J. Astley and L . J. Franci s (eds.), Critical Perspectives on Christian Education, Fowler Wright, Herefordshire 1994 . H. Bushnell , Christian Nurture, New York 1861 . J. Ferguso n (ed.) , Christianity, Society an d Education, London 1981. J. Fowler, Stages of Faith. ThePsychology o f Human Development an d the Quest for Meaning, Sa n Francisc o 1981 . T. H . Groome , Sharing Faith: A Comprehensive Approach t o Religious Education an d Pastoral Ministry, Sa n Francisc o 1991. J. Hull , What Prevents Christian Adults from Learning?, Londo n 1985.

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F. K . Schweitzer , G . Faust-Siehl , B . Krupka , K.-E. Nipkow, 'Religious Developmen t an d th e Praxi s of Religiou s Education \journal o f Empirical Theology 8 , 1995, 1. FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w fundamental t o Christia n formation ar e learnin g an d identifying wit h the Church' s story ? How does one lear n t o identify wit h it? Are ther e strength s an d weaknesse s i n this kind of approach? 2. I s the perspective of religious development th e key to understanding Christia n formation? If it is important, what place does worship have in it , and wha t are th e consequence s fo r worship? 3. Ha s the Sunday school had it s day? If not, what contribution can i t mak e t o Christia n formatio n i n future ? I f i t i s outmoded, wha t ca n replac e i t a s th e agenc y fo r th e Christian nurtur e o f the young? 4. Wh y do so many Christian adults find it difficult t o progress in religiou s understanding ?

CHAPTER 9

THE MEA L FO R TH E LIFE O F THE WORLD The Meal in the Upper Room Jesus, o n th e evenin g o f hi s arrest , gathere d hi s disciple s together fo r a meal in an upper room in the city of Jerusalem. The earliest written account of that meal which we possess is in Paul's Firs t Lette r t o th e Corinthian s 11:23-26 . Her e Pau l speaks of having given the Corinthians , o n his first arrival th e tradition, th e story , of this meal, which he ha d himsel f earlie r received from the Lord. Pau l was first in Corinth about th e year 51, and h e mus t have received thi s account a t the tim e of his conversion. Thus, w e have her e a story which goes back to th e very early days of the Church , indicating a conviction tha t th e Church's obedient followin g of the command an d exampl e o f the Lord in taking the bread and th e cup was vital to its life an d worship and witness.1 Paul was insisting that the Church's meals must hav e bee n see n a s continuous wit h th e suppe r i n th e upper roo m o n th e nigh t of Jesus' betrayal ; h e i s imposing a 'Last Supper ' moti f o n a variet y o f existin g practices . Th e synoptic gospel s wer e writte n late r tha n 1 Corinthians, an d each ha s an account o f the Las t Supper. Thes e passages agre e with 1 Corinthians 11 and with each other in the broad outlines of wha t happene d i n th e uppe r room , bu t the y diffe r i n numerous details, some of which we will notice late r (Matthew 26:26-38; Mark 14:22-24; Luke 22:17-19) . John's Gospel has , in chapte r 13 , an accoun t o f th e Las t Suppe r whic h differ s substantially both from Pau l an d fro m th e synopti c stories. I n John ther e is nothing abou t th e bread and th e cup, o r Jesus' sayings abou t them ; instea d ther e i s th e narrativ e o f th e 1

Cf. I. Howard Marshall , Lnst Supper an d Lord's Supper, Exete r 1980 , pp . 32-33 . 168

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footwashing an d a discussion betwee n Jesus an d th e disciple s about service , th e comin g betrayal , and th e destin y of Jesus, leading int o th e farewell discourses o f chapters 14-16 and th e prayer of chapter 17 . All the sources are agreed thatjesu s met with his disciples for a familiar ceremonia l mea l on tha t fatefu l night . The disciple s were a mixed bunch ; former zealots together wit h a reforme d quisling; a handful of fishermen; Peter who was going t o deny in a few hours' tim e having had any involvement with Jesus; an d Judas, who was about to betray him to the authorities for a paltry fee. None of them were excluded fro m fellowship with Jesus as he approache d hi s ultimat e crisis . I t wa s i n a wa y a famil y occasion; Jesus and his family of disciples gathered fo r the ritual meal just a s every pious Jewish famil y cam e togethe r for suc h festivals. Despit e th e gatherin g clouds, i t wa s in paradoxica l fashion a festive occasion, and a ritual so familiar to the disciples that they must have found security in the midst of stress as they heard the familiar words and took part in the well-remembered actions, so rich with associations and speakin g so powerfully of the thing s of God . Jesus too k thi s comfortingly familiar rite , and h e mus t have startled an d disconcerte d hi s disciple s b y givin g i t a ne w meaning an d a quit e unexpecte d an d puzzlin g significance . When he performe d th e traditiona l ritual of taking the brea d he sai d (whethe r i t wa s i n additio n to , o r instea d of , th e customary words we are no t told ; Jesus' word s made suc h a n impression tha t the y alon e wer e remembere d an d passe d down), 'This is my body which is for (or , broken for ) you.' And when h e too k th e cu p h e said , 'Thi s is my blood o f th e ne w covenant which is poured ou t fo r many.' 2 In doing an d saying these things , Jesus wa s linking togethe r i n th e stronges t an d most dramatic of ways what happened a t the Suppe r an d wha t was t o happe n o n th e cros s th e nex t day . Th e tw o events interpreted one another and remain indissolubly linked. In the Supper, Jesus proclaimed t o his disciples that the death o n th e cross was to be th e inauguratio n o f a new covenantal relation ship betwee n Go d an d hi s people ; tha t he wa s to di e fo r th e disciples and 'for many ' - a term which must be understood in the inclusive rather than exclusive sense as meaning 'everyone'. 2 There i s no spac e her e t o g o int o th e variation s in th e word s o f Jesus i n th e various sources. Fo r detailed discussion s the reade r is directed t o J. Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words o f Jesus, London 1966 ; an d I . Howard Marshall , op. at .

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He is giving up his life for them; they are t o be nourished unt o eternal lif e b y his broken body and outpoure d blood . The rit e of th e footwashing , whic h take s th e centra l plac e i n th e Johannine account , shoul d b e understoo d a s another wa y of describing the linkage between the Supper an d the Death. The footwashing speaks of the servant-role of Jesus. The narrativ e is not simply exemplary - thoug h i t is that: 'If I, then, your Lord and Teacher , hav e washed your feet , yo u als o ought t o was h one another' s feet. Fo r I have given you an example , that you also should do as I have done t o you' (Joh n 13:14-15). It may well have awakened associations wit h the Old Testament figur e of the Suffering Servant and passage s such as Isaiah 53 may have come to mind, along with saying s of the Lord like, The Son of man . . . came not t o be served bu t t o serve, and t o give his lif e as a ransom for many' (Mar k 10:45) . Thus, th e Lord' s Suppe r and th e Lord's Sufferings were linked permanently and closely together, so that each lights up the mystery and the significance of th e other , an d neithe r ca n b e properl y understoo d i n isolation. The accounts of the Last Supper i n 1 Corinthians, Luke and John all suggest that in the course of the Supper Jesus indicated to his disciples that they should regar d wha t he did and sai d at that time as an example t o be followed frequently; in Paul and Luke it is an explicit command t o take the brea d an d th e cup, in John i t is the suggestio n tha t th e disciple s should serv e on e another i n days to come a s Jesus had serve d the m by symbolically washing thei r fee t i n th e uppe r room . An d both th e New Testament an d othe r source s fo r th e practic e o f th e earl y Church mak e i t quite clea r tha t th e regula r an d distinctively Christian mode of worship was the repeating of the Supper that the Lor d ha d celebrate d wit h hi s disciples , thereb y bein g obedient t o hi s explici t command , becomin g awar e o f hi s continuing presence with his people, and being nourished and sustained by his body and bloo d signified and conveye d in th e bread and th e wine. The repetitio n o f the Suppe r wa s to be 'i n remembranc e of me' (eis te n emen anamnesiri). Thi s phras e i s more difficul t t o interpret tha n i t migh t see m a t firs t sight . Whil e i t clearly includes th e ide a o f remembering Jesus and what he did , th e Lord's Suppe r ha s neve r bee n a commemoratio n o f a dea d Jesus, or a wake for a dead God ; it has always been a celebration of the living presence of the resurrected Lord. Perhap s a better

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translation into modern Englis h would be to speak of'recalling' Jesus and his work, for in the Supper he is present according t o his promise , an d th e fruit s o f his self-offering ar e give n to his people.3 Was the Las t Supper a Passover meal, or som e other kind of ritual fellowshi p meal ? The Passove r was an annua l feast , celebrated wheneve r possibl e i n Jerusalem, bu t throughou t th e diaspora a s well, i n smal l groups, an d typicall y in th e family . I t commemorated an d symbolize d God' s deliveranc e o f hi s people fro m death b y the blood of the passove r lamb smeare d on thei r lintels and doorposts , and thei r hast y departure fro m Egypt an d saf e passag e throug h th e Re d Sea . Th e synopti c accounts sugges t tha t th e Las t Suppe r wa s indeed a passove r meal; John, however , indicate s tha t i t too k plac e before th e Passover, an d Jesu s wa s crucified a s th e Passove r lamb s were being sacrificed ; while the epistle s do no t indicat e whether it was understoo d a s a Passove r feas t o r not . Th e argumen t i s complex, bu t no t o f crucia l importanc e fo r ou r understand ing o f th e Lord' s Supper. 4 A s we hav e argue d earlier , th e Last Supper , th e crucifixio n and th e resurrectio n wer e tie d together intimatel y and inextricably , and al l th e source s ar e agreed tha t this three-sided even t too k plac e a t Passove r tim e and must be understood i n the light of the Passover. The Jesus who gav e himsel f o n th e cros s fo r hi s peopl e an d wh o gave and give s himself t o the m i n th e Suppe r ma y be understoo d as th e Passove r lamb : 'Chris t ou r Passove r lam b ha s bee n sacrificed fo r us; therefore le t us keep th e feast' , crie s St. Paul (1 Corinthians 5:7). Christ died fo r th e deliveranc e o f all: this was a 'ne w exodus', th e fulfilmen t an d completio n o f the old . In Luke' s accoun t o f th e Transfiguration , Moses an d Elija h spoke wit h Jesus o f his 'exodus which he wa s to accomplis h a t Jerusalem" (Luk e 9:31) . I t i s thu s clea r tha t th e Supper , whether it s origi n wa s a Passove r feas t o r not , mus t b e understood alon g wit h th e deat h an d resurrectio n o f Jesus in th e ligh t of the Passove r - i.e . tha t i t relates t o a sacrificia l death throug h whic h liberation i s achieved, and throug h thi s Supper th e peopl e o f Go d participat e i n th e fruit s o f th e sacrifice, i n th e liberatio n tha t ha s been wo n fo r them . The y 3 Forjeremias' controversia l interpretatio n o f the anamnesis, see Th e Eucharistic Words of Jesus, pp. 237-55 . * Readers may follow the argumen t i n Jeremias, op . cit., pp. 15-18 ; and I . Howard Marshall, op . tit., chapter 3 .

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encounter God' s purpos e fo r al l humankin d an d respon d with joy to his call. If the Lord's Supper inherited from the passover tradition an emphasis o n lookin g bac k t o Christ' s act s o f sacrific e an d liberation whic h were rea l once again i n th e rite , it also too k from th e Passover the idea that the Supper looke d forward , not just t o th e cros s an d resurrectio n bu t t o th e culminatio n of all God's purposes. Just as the Passover nourished an d arouse d a thirs t for freedo m an d a longin g fo r God' s future , s o th e Lord's Suppe r looke d forwar d wit h eage r anticipatio n t o a future which was often described by the image of the messianic banquet: 'On this mountain th e Lord of hosts will make for all peoples a feast of fat things , a feast o f wine on th e lees , o f fat things full o f marrow, of wine on th e lee s well refined' (Isaia h 25:6). The synoptic gospels record tha t Jesus at the Last Supper looked forwar d to renewing the festivitie s with hi s disciples in the kingdom : 'I tel l you I shall not drin k again o f thi s fruit o f the vin e unti l tha t da y when I drin k i t ne w with yo u i n m y Father's kingdom.' 5 Fro m th e beginning , then , th e Lord' s Supper ha s been a feast o f hope and expectation, pointin g to the future , a kin d o f appetize r (antepast) fo r th e messiani c banquet. Thus, the Lord's Supper should be seen as stimulating a thirst , a longing, for th e immediat e presenc e o f God and a n eagerness for the Kingdom and its justice. It therefore i s also an act o f commitment t o th e wor k of th e Kingdom , the wor k of justice, liberation and peace. To share the bread and the cup is to share a destiny.6

Eating with Jesus Other memorie s o f Jesus enriche d an d fertilize d th e earl y Christians' understandin g o f th e Lord' s Supper ; indee d i t is possible tha t as these memorie s influence d th e wa y the earl y Church celebrate d th e Supper, so the liturgical experience o f the writer s may have shaped th e way certain gospe l narrative s were committed t o writing. I t is, first, necessary to remember thatjesus ate many times with his disciples before the supper i n the uppe r roo m o n th e nigh t o f hi s betrayal. Man y of thes e 5 Matthew 26:29; cf. Mark 14:25, Luke 14:16 , 17 . For detailed discussion o f these texts, seejeremias, op . di., pp. 218fF . 6 On this paragraph, see Geoffrey Wainwright, Eucharist andEschatology, London 1971.

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earlier meals would certainly have had a ritual element in them. They wer e celebration s o f friendship , i n whic h the disciple s learned the meaning of love. It should not be necessary to argue that i t matters a grea t dea l who m on e eat s wit h an d th e way eating i s organized. A radically segmented societ y like Hind u India had multitudinous strict rules concerning who could ea t what wit h whom , rule s whic h preserved th e segmentatio n o f the societ y by ensuring that people from castes far apart in th e social hierarch y could neve r mee t a s friends around th e on e table. Commensalism, eating together, i s a sign and a source of friendship. I f a family, or a group o f friends, always 'eat on th e trot', never sit down around a table to eat, and drink, and talk , they hav e lost on e o f th e greates t source s o f friendshi p and caring. Jesus at e often with his disciples. He got a reputation as one who enjoye d eatin g an d drinking , not a t al l a gloomy ascetic: 'This man's a drunkard an d a glutton', the y said, scandalized that eating and drinkin g should pla y so large a part in his life . But what really shocked th e religiou s peopl e o f th e tim e was not tha t Jesus enjoye d eatin g an d drinkin g with hi s disciples, but tha t he wa s willing t o shar e table-fellowshi p with all sort s of people . H e receive d prostitute s an d quisling s an d othe r notorious sinners , th e outcast s o f society , a t hi s table . H e refused t o put up th e fences that were so beloved o f pious Jews. 'This fellow welcomes sinners and eat s with them ' (Luk e 15:2 NEB), the y sai d i n horror . Fo r the m th e ide a tha t a devou t believer shoul d ea t wit h Gentiles , or wit h know n wrongdoers, was unthinkable; the very possibility aroused deep-seated fear s not ver y differen t fro m thos e o f a high-cast e Hind u afrai d o f the pollutio n incurre d b y sharin g table-fellowshi p wit h a n untouchable. But Jesus mixed freely with all sorts of people an d was generall y considere d t o kee p th e mos t undesirabl e o f company a t hi s table . H e welcome d peopl e who were known wrongdoers or had th e most dubious o f reputations. The exampl e - th e shocking preceden t - o f Jesus' table fellowship was only established i n the earl y Church afte r bitter controversy. Jewish Christian s found i t desperately difficul t t o share at the Lord's Table, or at the common table , with Gentile Christians. Many of them said that the issue did not matter, that separate celebrations of the Supper fo r Jews and Gentiles would in no way compromise the Gospel. But Paul thought otherwise. For him the universality of the Gospel and th e work of Christ in

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tearing dow n barrier s amon g peopl e mus t b e displaye d i n celebrations o f th e Lord' s Suppe r a t whic h ther e wa s n o discrimination, n o recognitio n o r sanctionin g o f th e old-ag e suspicion an d hostilit y between Jew and Gentile . He withstoo d Cephas to his face because he had equivocated on this vital issue (Galatians 2: 1 Iff.). Pau l battle d o n unti l h e won . An d th e controversy wa s of no littl e moment ; henceforward, whereve r the Church was established, ther e was to be one common tabl e at which all, as equals, receive d an d share d th e thing s of God . And thi s principl e o f eucharisti c commensalis m shape d no t only th e Churc h bu t th e whol e o f Wester n society , a s Max Weber recognized. 7 Not that it has been sustained consistentl y within the Church ; the tradition i n the Reformed Churche s to 'fence the tables' in order t o exclude th e unworth y seem s strange whe n measure d against the practice of the Lord himself. And the refusal of one denomination t o allow believers o f another to join them at the Lord's Suppe r contrast s glaringl y wit h Jesus' welcom e t o hi s table of a whole assortment o f disciples, including th e one who lost faith in him and betrayed him , and the one who denied any knowledge o f him when th e going go t rough. The narratives of the feeding miracles and the account of the Last Suppe r als o she d ligh t o n on e another . Consider , fo r instance, this narrative: As he went ashore he saw a great throng, and he had compassion on them, because they were lik e sheep without a shepherd; and h e began t o teac h the m man y things. And whe n i t gre w late, his disciples came to him and said, 'This is a lonely place, and the hour is late; send them away, to go into the countr y and villages round about and buy themselves something to eat.' But he answered them, 'You give them something to eat.' And they said to him, 'Shall we go and buy two hundred denarii worth of bread, and give it to them to eat?' And he said to them, 'How many loaves have you? Go and see.' And when the y found out , they said, 'Five, and tw o fish.' Then he commanded them all to sit down by companies on the green grass. So they sat down in groups, by hundreds and b y fifties. An d taking the five loaves and the two fish he looked up to heaven, and blessed, and brok e the loaves , and gave them to his disciples to set before the people; and he divided the tw o fish among them all. And they all ate an d wer e satisfied. An d the y took up twelv e baskets full o f broken pieces and of the fish. (Mark 6:34-43) 7

Max Weber, Th e Religion of India. Translated by Hans Gerth and Do n Martindale, New Yor k 1958 , pp. 37-38.

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We may note the resonances betwee n such an account as this, the narratives of the Last Supper, and the Church's celebrations of the Lord' s Supper . For instance, the context of the feeding , and it s immediate prelude , i s teaching; i t i s not isolated , bu t must b e understood a s the consequenc e of the teaching , th e two having a very significant linkage. Here we see quite clearly a theme we discussed in chapter 4 - the complementarity of Word and Sacrament and their inseparability the one from the other. Both th e teachin g and th e feedin g are instance s of Jesus' care for the people, but neither on its own is an adequate expression of that boundless compassion. Next, the relation between Jesus and th e disciple s i n th e stor y mus t hav e reminde d th e early Christians of the activities of the various ministers at the Lord' s Supper, suggesting both that the host is always Jesus, and that even faithles s an d mundan e disciple s hav e a n importan t function i n the distribution of the Lord's largesse to his people. The companie s sittin g i n orderl y fashio n ma y have reflected more accuratel y than th e imag e o f th e twelv e disciple s with Jesus, gathere d aroun d th e table , the actua l experience o f the Lord's Suppe r i n th e churche s i n which the Gospe l wa s read. But the most impressive similarity between this miracle and th e Last Supper was the action of Jesus: h e too k th e food, blessed it (eulogesen), brok e th e bread , an d gav e i t to th e people . Thes e are precisely the four actions at the heart of the accounts of the Last Supper , an d th e action s repeate d fro m th e ver y earliest days ever y time Christian s have celebrate d th e Suppe r o f th e Lord. There are differences, o f course, an d the y are of no little importance. Fish are mentioned i n the narrative along with th e bread, and there is no wine; there is no explicit connection with the sufferings of Jesus, o r suggestion tha t the bread is his body. But som e o f th e difference s giv e a ne w depth t o th e under standing of the Lord's Supper . There is, for example, a strong emphasis on th e lavishnes s of God's graciou s provision fo r his people; ther e i s wondrously enoug h foo d t o satisf y everyone , and when the food ha d been share d amon g th e multitude the remaining plenty was not waste d or throw n awa y but gathere d together i n baskets - sufficien t fo r all Israel, enoug h fo r the whole world. Similar light is cast upon th e Lord's Supper by the Johannine story o f th e marriag e a t Can a o f Galilee : Jesus i s present a t a festive occasion, a party, and h e miraculously provides abundan t wine as his contribution t o the celebration. Here th e emphasis

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is no t s o muc h o n th e meetin g o f huma n need s a s on th e importance o f festivity and ne w life. And in the sixth chapter of John afte r a miracle of feeding, Jesus speak s of himself as the bread tha t come s dow n fro m heave n t o nouris h a pilgri m people jus t a s th e mann a wa s given i n th e wilderness . Go d provides for the material and spiritua l needs of his people with infinite and wonderful generosity . Finally, th e Lord' s Suppe r ha s been interprete d i n th e ligh t of the meals which the resurrected Jesus had with his disciples, recounted in Luke and John. The stor y of the Emmaeu s roa d (Luke 24:13-32) stresses the hidden presenc e of the Lord with the two disciples on their way, and how when 'he took the bread and blessed , and brok e it, and gav e i t to them . .. Their eye s were opened an d they recognized him' (w. 30-31). Once again, we have the fou r actions, and table-fellowshi p with the Lor d so that 'he was known to them in the breaking of the bread' - an experience which has been repeate d countless times down th e ages a s the Churc h ha s broken th e bread i n obedience t o he r Lord's command an d example . Anothe r instanc e of recogni tion o f the rise n Lord i n the contex t of a meal is the breakfast on th e lakesid e recounte d i n John 21:12-13 . A s the y at e together, 'non e of the disciples dared ask him, "Who are you?" They knew it was the Lord ' (v . 12). In a meal, th e presenc e o f the rise n Lor d i s recognized; thi s table-fellowship of th e firs t disciples i s continued ever y tim e th e Churc h celebrate s th e Supper o f the Risen Lord .

The Lord's Supper in the Early Church And s o it was from th e beginnin g o f th e Church . I n Act s we hear that the early Jerusalem Christians 'devoted themselves to the apostles ' teachin g an d fellowship , to th e breakin g o f th e bread an d th e prayers ' (2:42) . Almost certainl y thi s indicates the mai n feature s o f th e earl y gatherings fo r worship , which appear t o have taken place alongside attendance a t the Temple , and very frequently, in the homes of the Christians rather tha n in any special building s (Acts 2:47). It is suggested late r in Acts that th e Breakin g of the Bread , th e nam e i n all probability for the Lord' s Suppe r (an d stil l use d a s suc h b y sect s lik e th e Brethren), was the norma l way of marking the firs t da y of th e week, th e feas t o f th e Resurrection . Thi s frequenc y i s at firs t sight a little strange, particularl y if the Las t Supper had bee n a

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Passover, for th e Passove r was celebrated only once a year. But in view of the influence of Jesus' regular table-fellowshi p on th e understanding o f th e Lord' s Supper , an d th e fac t tha t fro m very earl y indeed th e Christian s observed th e firs t da y o f th e week a s th e feas t o f th e Resurrection , weekl y or eve n mor e frequent celebratio n i s easy t o explain , despit e th e Passove r connection. In 1 Corinthians 11, Paul is commenting o n a situation where the Lord's Supper - a rite involving bread and wine and specifically connected wit h the death and resurrection o f Jesus - i s part of a ful l mea l fo r th e congregation . Thi s mea l ha s becom e scandalous and divisiv e because the better-of f Christian s wer e bringing plenty of food t o eat themselves and refusin g to share with th e poore r Christian s who went hungry. Hence Pau l proclaims that 'when you meet together, it is not the Lord's Suppe r that yo u eat' (v . 20). Fo r th e ric h despis e an d humiliat e th e poor an d divid e th e Bod y o f Christ , makin g a parod y o f th e sacred rite , a practica l denia l o f it s significance . (This ma y illumine the meaning of v. 29: 'For any one who eats and drinks without discerning th e bod y eat s an d drink s judgement upo n himself.') 1 Corinthians 1 1 and othe r Paulin e passages , alon g with th e reference s i n Acts, remind u s that the Lord' s Supper was in fact a real meal, not a n isolated ritua l whose association with meals , o r wit h th e continuatio n o f table-fellowshi p with Jesus, had bee n forgotten . This point remains valid even if Paul was insisting on a distinction and eve n separation betwee n th e Eucharist an d th e agape meal . The emphase s i n th e Act s and the Paulin e accounts ar e rathe r different , but the y seem t o be complementary descriptions of a form of worship which was in essentials the same . Acts does not connec t th e Breakin g of the Bread explicitly with th e death o f Jesus and make s no mentio n of wine , but see s th e suppe r a s a festiv e continuatio n o f th e table-fellowship th e disciple s enjoye d wit h Jesus befor e hi s death an d afte r th e resurrection. An d it is worth rememberin g that the author of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke which has a special interes t in Jesus' meals , and contain s th e stor y of the supper a t Emmaus. In Paul we see the connection wit h the Last Supper an d th e linkin g with th e dyin g of Jesus spelled ou t i n very explici t terms . Th e interest s o f Pau l an d Luk e ma y b e slightly different , bu t the y bot h enric h ou r understandin g o f the earl y an d perennia l form s o f th e Supper , withou t funda mental conflict .

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As w e mov e ou t o f th e Ne w Testamen t period , w e fin d evidence that the Churches strove to follow th e command an d example o f th e Lor d a s closely a s possible , celebratin g th e Lord's Suppe r weekl y or mor e frequently , t o recal l Jesus an d his death , t o rejoic e i n hi s resurrection , t o continu e a rea l fellowship wit h hi m an d wit h on e anothe r aroun d th e table , and t o nourish faith an d hope and love. Writing about the year 110, Plin y th e Younger , who wa s a Proconsu l i n Asi a Minor, reported t o the Emperor Trajan on the activities of the strange new sect of Christians. Among their suspicious activities was the fact tha t they met together o n a fixed day each week - clearly Sunday - fo r a common meal . This must have been th e Lord's Supper, or the Eucharist or 'Thanksgiving' as it became increasingly commonly called, and whic h is mentioned i n other earl y Christian sources. The Didache (probably early second century) gives evidence o f weekly eucharistic worship:8 On th e Lord's Day of the Lord, come together, break bread, and give thanks , having first confessed your transgressions , that your sacrifice ma y be pure (chapter 14:1) . There i s an accoun t o f a common mea l wit h explicit sacra mental practices. Thanks is given over the cu p as follows: We give thanks t o you, our Father , fo r th e hol y vine of your child David, which you made known to us through Jesus. Glory to you for evermore.

Then thank s i s given ove r th e brea d - th e orde r i s rather unusual: We give thanks to you, our Father, for the life and knowledge which you have made known to us through your child Jesus; glory to you for evermore. As this broken bread was scattered over the mountains, and whe n brough t togethe r became one, so let your Churc h b e brought together from th e ends of the earth into your Kingdom; for your s ar e th e glor y an d th e powe r throug h Jesus Christ fo r evermore (chapte r 9). After th e mea l ther e follow s a magnificen t prayer o f thanksgiving. Th e motif s ar e participatio n i n th e vin e o f David , gratitude fo r th e lif e an d knowledg e an d immortalit y which believers have received throug h Jesus, th e 'sacred name' which is lodged i n th e heart s of th e faithful , an d th e eschatologica l 8 Cited from R . C. D.Jasper and G . J. Cuming, Prayers o f the Eucharist - Early and Reformed, Londo n 1975 , pp . 14-16 .

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gathering togethe r o f th e church . Th e strang e thin g i s tha t there i s no mentio n o f th e passio n o r th e resurrection , o f th e body an d bloo d o f Christ, or o f th e Las t Supper. Accordingly some scholar s regard thi s passage as an accoun t of an agape, o r perhaps a very eccentric Eucharist. The Didache, primarily a very early produc t o f Jewish Christianity , should remin d u s o f th e rich plurality of theme and imager y which goes into the making of the Christia n eucharistic tradition. Justin Marty r was converted t o Christianity about the year 130, and hi s First Apology wa s probably written abou t 150 . Her e h e gives two accounts of the Lord' s Supper . I n th e first, a baptism is followed by prayers o f intercession, th e 'kis s of peace', an d Then bread and a cup o f water and o f mixed wine are brought to him who presides over the brethren, and he takes them and offer s praise and glory to the Father of all in the nam e of the So n and of the Holy Spirit, and give s thanks at some length that we have been deemed worth y o f these things from him . When h e ha s finished the prayers and th e thanksgiving , all the people present give their assent by saying, 'Amen'. . . . And when th e presiden t ha s given thank s and al l the peopl e have assented those whom we call deacons give to each one present a portion of the bread and wine and water over which thanks have been given, and tak e them to those who are not present. 9 The second accoun t relates to an 'ordinary' Sunday celebration - incidentally making it quite clear that the Eucharist was the main Sunda y service. O n thi s occasion th e servic e start s wit h the readin g o f 'th e record s of th e apostle s o r writing s o f th e prophets', followe d b y a homily . Thereafter th e servic e pro ceeds much as before, excep t tha t there i s no kiss of peace, it is mentioned tha t th e presiden t pray s 'to the bes t o f his ability', i.e. h e i s not tie d t o a text , an d ther e i s a collectio n fo r th e needy. Hippolytus' Th e Apostolic Traditionwas probably written in th e early thir d century . I t contains th e earlies t tex t of eucharistic prayer and comes before th e development o f the varied families of liturgie s i n Eas t and West . It s accoun t o f th e Eucharis t is closely similar to that of Justin, but ther e i s considerably mor e detail. Th e tex t o f th e eucharisti c praye r wa s probabl y a specimen rathe r tha n a mandatory form and i t has been highly influential on al l modern liturgica l revisions. It contains all the 9

First Apology, 65, 3: cited i n Jasper and Cuming , op. dL, pp . 18-19 .

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major section s an d emphase s whic h mos t scholar s regar d a s important i n a eucharisti c prayer . Th e Eucharis t follows th e consecration o f a bishop with the Peace and the offering of gifts, on whic h th e ne w bishop 'wit h al l th e presbytery ' lay s hand s and give s thanks: Greeting The Lord b e with you. And with your spirit. Sursum Corda Lift u p you r hearts. We hold the m toward s the Lord (Greek: Let us pray to the Lord). Let us give thanks to the Lord . It is worthy and right . Thanksgiving We giv e thank s t o you , O God , through you r belove d servant Jesus Christ , whom in the last times you sent to us as saviour and redeeme r an d messenge r o f your will; he is the Word inseparable from you, through who m you made all things, and o n whom your favour rested. You sent hi m from heave n into a virgin's womb; he was conceived, made flesh and revealed as your Son, born of the Holy Spirit (and a virgin). As he gave full expression t o your will and create d for yo u a holy people, h e stretched ou t hi s hands in suffer ing in order to free from sufferin g those who put their trust in you. And afte r he wa s handed ove r t o suffering, which he freely accepted, tha t he might destroy death and brea k the bond s o f th e devil , tread dow n hel l and giv e light to the righteous, fix the limit and manifest the resurrection. Narrative of Institution he took bread, gave thanks to you and said, Take, eat; this is my body, which is broken for you.' Likewise also the cup, saying, This is my blood, which is shed for you; when you do this, do it to remember me. ' Anamnesis, or Remembrance We remember therefor e hi s death and resurrection , an d Oblation we offer t o you the brea d and th e cup , giving you thanks because yo u hav e accepte d u s a s worthy to stan d befor e you and serv e you.

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Epiclesis, or Invocation of the Holy Spirit And we ask you to send your Holy Spirit upon th e offerin g of your Holy Church; to unite all your saints, and t o grant them, as they partake, that they may be filled with the Holy Spirit and tha t thei r faith may be confirmed i n the truth ; Doxology so that we may praise and glorif y you through you r servant Jesus Christ, through whom be glory and honour t o you, to the Fathe r and th e So n with the Holy Spirit, in your Holy Church, both no w and fo r ages and ages . Assent of the People Amen.10 All thes e earl y sources indicat e tha t while there wa s a goo d deal of flexibility in the way in which the Supper was conducted and n o for m o f word s wa s mandatory , ther e wa s a clos e similarity i n th e shape o f th e rite , clearl y determined b y th e intention of following th e comman d an d exampl e of the Lord as closely as possible i n taking, blessing, breaking and sharing . The grea t praye r wa s alway s on e o f thanksgivin g ove r th e elements an d commonly , bu t no t universally , included a narrative o f the institutio n - a s the stor y of the Las t Suppe r tends to be called. The connections with the cross and with th e resurrection ar e clearl y affirmed b y the explici t linking of th e elements with th e deat h o f Jesus an d th e fac t tha t th e mos t appropriate da y for th e Lord' s Suppe r wa s recognized t o b e Sunday, the weekly celebration o f the resurrection . Some Developments We cannot here give more than the sketchiest of outlines of the development of the Lord's Supper. Reader s who wish to know more ar e referre d t o som e o f th e book s liste d i n th e bibli ography. Certain developments which took place gradually over a period o f centuries require, however , to be noted. 1. A s we have suggeste d above , th e Lord' s Suppe r becam e disjoined from the common mea l of the congregation, an d th e latter apparentl y disappeare d i n mos t places . Th e kin d o f 10 Hippolytus, The Apostolic Tradition, chapter 4 . Translated fro m tex t L, taking into account text E, in B. Botte's, IM Tradition Apostolique de saint Hippolytt, Paris 1963, pp. 12-16 .

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situation of which we read i n 1 Corinthians 11 was no longer t o be found; perhaps partly because in other places, as in Corinth, the mea l ha d becom e a n occasio n fo r disorder , gluttony , drunkenness, and faction in the church. It is also difficult t o see how, a s the siz e of congregations increased , a weekly o r eve n more frequent common mea l could have been sustained . With this chang e ther e wen t a chang e o f title : th e Lord' s Supper , which clearl y connote s a mea l a t whic h th e hos t i s the Lor d himself, became known as the Eucharist , a word which quickly became a technical term for a rite. Whereas the earliest Church had seen one of the marks of distinction between itsel f and th e pagan cult s of the ancien t world as being tha t the churc h ha d no altar but a table around which they met for a meal, th e way was now open t o the Eucharis t being understood a s a sacrific e on a n altar rather than a meal at a table. 2. W e have see n earlie r tha t th e deat h o f Jesus was interpreted, amon g othe r ways , as a sacrifice i n th e New Testament period, an d tha t there was from th e beginning a very intimate connection betwee n th e cros s an d th e Lord' s Supper . Ther e was thus a necessary link between the Supper and the sacrificia l death o f Christ , an d th e Suppe r coul d neve r b e free d fro m sacrificial connotations . Bu t th e precis e relationshi p betwee n the Supper an d th e Sacrifice needed t o be spelled out. At the beginning th e Lord' s Suppe r wa s never referre d t o a s bein g itself a sacrifice, but gradually i n the second century it became common t o refer t o it as a sacrifice. Justin Marty r refers to th e Eucharist a s th e sacrific e of th e Church , an d Tertullia n des cribes i t i n term s of a sacrific e a t a n altar . Thi s developmen t may hav e bee n partl y i n respons e t o a n environmen t wher e a religio n mean t t o mos t peopl e a sacrificia l system , an d Christians ha d t o b e abl e t o poin t t o thei r sacrific e o r b e despised a s atheists. It is a vast leap from this , but on e tha t th e Church found it fatally easy to make, to regard the Eucharist as a repetitio n o r continuatio n o f th e sacrific e of Christ , unde r the contro l o f th e Churc h an d implyin g some sor t o f incompleteness i n wha t Chris t di d o n th e cross . N o adequat e interpretation of the Lord's Supper is possible without recourse to th e languag e of sacrifice; bu t thi s language ha s t o be use d with a discretio n an d car e tha t wa s no t alway s obvious , particularly in popular understanding s o f the Eucharist; and if the categor y of sacrific e i s given s o prominen t a plac e i n th e

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understanding o f th e Suppe r tha t other complementar y concepts are all but forgotten, a radically distorted understandin g ensues. 3. I n 1 Peter and i n Revelation the community of believers is referred t o as a royal priesthood, an d th e ter m used fo r pagan or Jewish priest s wa s never applie d i n th e Ne w Testament t o anyone in the Church. The Church was regarded a s a corporate priesthood, bu t i t had n o individua l priests who coul d ac t in isolation from , or on behalf of, the community. The whole body of believer s ha d acces s throug h th e bloo d o f Chris t t o th e holiest o f all , an d neede d n o othe r intermediary . Bu t th e Church as a whole stood i n a priestly relationship to the world: they represente d Go d t o th e worl d an d th e worl d t o God, o n the ground s o f th e Church' s participatio n in th e sacrific e o f Christ. Accordingly worship, and especiall y the Lord's Supper , was seen a s an activit y of the communit y of believers, in which each ha d a role to play; and tha t role was priestly. As, however, the corporat e priesthoo d of the whol e bod y of believer s was gradually overshadowe d b y a ne w understanding tha t ther e were individua l priest s withi n th e communit y whos e primar y responsibility fo r worshi p wa s strongly stressed , th e peopl e tended t o becom e mor e an d mor e passiv e i n worship . Two indications of thes e processe s ar e th e fac t tha t afte r th e early Christian centurie s unti l th e Reformation , th e peopl e 'hear d Mass', bu t communicate d onl y once o r twic e a year. In othe r words, th e peopl e watche d and listene d t o a priest doin g an d saying intricat e an d unintelligibl e things , an d onl y ver y infrequently participate d a s far as to receive communion . And when they did receive communion, the y were denied th e wine; only th e pries t receive d i n bot h kinds ; th e peopl e wer e disfranchised b y bein g mad e passiv e observers , o r partia l participants.11 4. Ther e was an increasing tendency to concentrate attention on th e element s o f brea d an d win e rather tha n th e rit e as a whole, an d t o narro w dow n th e understandin g o f Christ' s presence b y affirming hi s presence i n the bread and win e and underplaying his presence a s the hos t an d maste r o f the feast ; his presence, according t o his promise, wheneve r tw o or three are gathered togethe r i n his name; his presence i n the Word ; " On thi s see especiallyj. A.Jungmann, The Early Liturgy, Londo n 1960 , chapter 2: 'The Church a s a Worshipping Community. '

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his presence i n his Body, the Church ; and hi s presence i n th e needy neighbour . An d thi s concentratio n o n th e brea d an d wine led to people asking about 'th e moment of change' -when the bread and wine ceased t o be what they appeared t o be and became th e Bod y and Bloo d o f Christ . The tw o commonest answers - tha t the moment of change is when the words 'This is my body' and 'Thi s is my blood' are sai d by the priest , or tha t the elements change a t the epiclesis, the invocatio n of the Holy Spirit t o bless an d sanctif y th e element s - mak e on e suspec t that th e questio n itsel f is inappropriate, an d remin d u s of th e dangers o f a magica l an d mechanica l understandin g o f th e sacrament. 5. Fro m earl y days the Lord' s Suppe r ha s commonl y bee n called th e Myster y or th e Hol y Mysteries - a useful reminde r that ever y encounter wit h Go d mus t b e mysteriou s an d tha t Rudolph Ott o wa s righ t i n dennin g th e Hol y a s mysterium tremendum etfasanans. Bu t in the cas e of the Lord' s Suppe r i t is possible for the authentic and necessary mystery to be obscure d by a contrive d an d misleadin g kin d o f mystery . As elaborat e ceremonial an d ritua l gathere d aroun d th e Lord' s Supper , particularly after Christianity became th e official religio n of the Roman Empire under Constantine, the structure which tied the Lord's Suppe r t o the Las t Supper an d conveye d the authenti c Christian myster y often becam e obscured . I t was not onl y the steady proliferation of additional rituals and th e inclusion of all sorts o f extr a prayer s an d privat e devotion s whic h hi d th e structure of the rite , but als o th e fac t tha t th e Mas s was said in Latin, at crucial points in an inaudible murmur, which reduced people's involvement in, and understanding of , the service and encouraged stupi d or superstitious misunderstandings. In addition it was impossible for the people to see what was happening; in the East because th e major part of the service was performed behind an elaborate ikonostasis (or screen covered with pictures of th e saints ) totall y obscuring th e view , an d i n th e Wes t at a distant alta r an d ofte n behin d a heav y screen , th e pries t standing with his back to the people. The Reformatio n sa w itself, i n worshi p a s in doctrin e an d ethics, a s endeavouring t o recove r th e belief s an d practice s of th e Ne w Testament Church . I n th e Lord' s Supper , th e Reformers trie d t o stri p awa y wha t the y regarde d a s th e distortions o f practice and doctrine and th e accretions of ritual

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which obscured th e tru e nature of the sacrament instituted by the Lord . Lik e th e earlies t Christians , they trie d t o follow , a s simply and directl y as possible, the comman d an d exampl e of the Lord , an d a s a consequence the y recovered somethin g of what had been lost . They sought a simple, biblical shape for the sacrament: the y believed i t shoul d alway s b e allie d wit h th e preaching of the Word, for Word and Sacramen t were seen a s complementary an d neithe r coul d stan d o n it s own ; the y wanted the full participatio n and communion i n both the brea d and th e wine of all present; and the y wished th e Suppe r t o be frequently celebrated, and certainly every Sunday. Calvin spok e of the custom, which had arise n in the Middl e Ages, of annual communion a s a 'veritabl e inventio n o f th e Devil' , fo r 'Th e Lord's Tabl e shoul d b e sprea d a t leas t onc e a week fo r th e assembly of Christians'.12 So also Bucer wrote, 'I could wish that all would communicate at th e Tabl e o f the Lor d ever y Lord's Day.' And Richard Baxter, the great English Puritan pastor an d divine wrote, The Lord' s Suppe r i s a part of the settle d orde r for Lord' s Da y worship, and omittin g it maimeth an d alteret h the worship of the day.' 13 Indeed, th e 'righ t administration of the sacraments ' whic h th e Calvinis t Reformer s sa w as on e o f the thre e mark s of the tru e churc h mus t certainly be see n a s including frequent celebrations of the Lord's Supper. The Reformatio n was a correctiv e t o wha t it denounced a s 'the idolatr y of th e mass' . Lik e mos t correctives , i t wen t to o far, s o that many Protestants tended t o see the Lord' s Suppe r as no more tha n a commemoration, t o deny the real presence , and t o refus e t o conside r an y sacrificia l o r eschatologica l connotations whatsoever. In practic e th e Protestan t Churche s were no t abl e t o carr y through th e change s tha t the y wished and became , despit e themselves , captive s t o th e mediaeva l traditions. Fo r example , stron g resistanc e fro m th e peopl e made frequent communion impossible in most situations. From the Reformation until recent time s the Protestan t and Roma n Catholic traditions of eucharistic theology and practic e tended to polariz e and , a s i s common i n suc h situations , eac h pol e represented a n unbalanced , one-side d an d partia l under standing an d practic e o f th e Suppe r whic h Jesu s ha d commanded hi s disciples to keep. 12

Institutes, IV. 17.46. Cited in G . W. Sprott, Th e Worship an d Offices o f the Church of Scotland, Edinburgh 1882, p . 99. 1S

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The Lord's Supper Today The twentiet h centur y ha s bee n a perio d o f remarkabl e convergence in eucharistic theology and renewa l of eucharistic practice i n almost all branches of the Church. Th e roots of the liturgical movement lie in the nineteent h century , but ther e is no spac e her e t o tel l th e fascinatin g stor y of it s developmen t and spread . Bot h i n theolog y an d i n liturgical practice recen t developments have arisen fro m th e determinatio n t o get back to fundamentals. It has been realized o n al l sides that relevant liturgy must be faithful t o the Church' s Lor d an d tak e account of historical continuity. But this does not mea n gettin g stalled in th e debate s o f th e Reformation , o r th e Enlightenment , or the Middl e Ages, or absolutizin g the doctrin e an d practic e of the Council of Trent, or Thomas Aquinas, or Calvin or Luther. The askin g of more fundamenta l theological question s i n th e now muc h broader ecumenica l contex t ha s led t o th e carefu l development of a truly remarkable theologica l consensus in th e understanding of the Lord's Supper . Th e mos t notable frui t of this process i s probably the documen t produce d b y the World Council of Churches' Fait h and Orde r Departmen t as a resul t of som e fort y years ' wor k by a larg e numbe r o f theologians , including many Roman Catholics, Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry. This was published in 198 2 an d sen t to the Churche s for comment, but already it indicates a very broad-based agreement . In thi s document th e Eucharis t is seen, first, as Thanksgiving to the Father for all his goodness and might y acts, in which th e Church offer s through , with, and i n Christ a sacrifice of praise on behal f o f th e whol e o f creation . Th e Lord' s Suppe r thu s 'signifies what the world is to become: a n offering and hym n of praise t o th e Creator , a universal communio n i n th e bod y o f Christ, a kingdom of justice, love and peac e i n the Holy Spirit'. It is , secondly, a memoria l o f Christ : 'th e livin g an d effectiv e sign of his sacrifice, accomplished onc e an d fo r all on th e cros s and stil l operativ e o n behal f o f all humankind', an d thu s th e proclamation of God's might y acts and promises . The Churc h recognizes 'Christ' s real , livin g an d activ e presence ' i n th e Supper. Thirdly, the Eucharis t is seen as the Invocatio n of th e Spirit who sanctifies, renews, leads into justice, truth an d unity, empowers the Churc h fo r mission, and give s a foretaste of th e Kingdom. Fourthly , th e Eucharis t i s communion wit h Chris t and withi n th e body, in which the true natur e of the Church is

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made manifes t and a 'hunger and thirs t after righteousness ' is stimulated. It is, therefore ' a constant challeng e in th e searc h for appropriat e relationship s i n social economi c an d politica l life'. And , finally , th e Eucharis t is the mea l o f th e Kingdom , which brings into th e presen t ag e a new reality. It 'i s preciou s food fo r missionaries , brea d an d win e fo r pilgrim s on thei r apostolic journey'. Other notabl e recent statements o f agree ment o n th e Eucharis t include th e Windso r Statemen t o f th e Anglican-Roman Catholi c International Commissio n i n 1971 , and th e 196 7 America n Luthera n an d Roma n Catholi c Statement o n the Eucharis t as Sacrifice. Along with th e developmen t o f a theologica l consensu s ha s gone a remarkable convergence i n eucharistic practice. Much impetus was given to this by the measure s of liturgical renewal laid down by the Second Vatican Council, but many of the nonRoman Churche s had alread y produced ne w liturgical orders, much influence d by new work on theolog y an d th e liturgica l studies o f scholar s suc h a s Do m Gregor y Di x an d J . A . Jungmann. The Liturg y o f th e Churc h o f South Indi a (1951 ) was one o f the mos t interesting and influentia l of the new wave of liturgies. Since then almost all new eucharistic liturgies have virtually th e sam e structur e an d althoug h ther e i s muc h diversity i n languag e an d i n theologica l emphasi s ther e i s a strong commo n tendenc y t o greate r simplicity , mor e partici pation b y the people , a prope r balanc e betwee n Wor d an d Sacrament, an d muc h greate r flexibilit y an d variet y tha n was common i n mos t traditions . Bu t th e eucharisti c liturg y i s essendally a n integrate d whole , moving through al l or most of these elements , wit h som e variet y a s t o th e sequenc e an d emphasis: Hymns of praise Act of penitence Declaration o f Pardo n Proclamation o f the Wor d of God Confession o f fait h Intercessions fo r the Church and th e worl d Preparation of the bread and win e Thanksgiving t o the Fathe r fo r the marvel s o f creation , redemption an d sanctificatio n The Word s o f Christ's institution o f the sacramen t The anamnesis o r memoria l o f th e grea t act s o f redemption , passion, death, resurrection, ascension and Pentecos t The invocatio n o f th e Hol y Spiri t o n th e communit y an d th e elements of bread and win e

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Consecration of the faithful to God Reference t o the communion o f saints Prayer for the return of the Lord and the definitiv e manifestation o f his Kingdom The Amen of the communit y The Lord's Prayer Sign of reconciliation an d peac e The breaking of the bread Eating and drinkin g i n communion wit h Christ an d with each member of the Church Blessing and sending. 14

In every conceivable situation in every land men an d women seek t o obey the Lord' s comman d b y taking, and blessing , and breaking and sharing the bread and th e wine. Outwardly there is immense variet y i n th e way s the y do this , but basicall y it is always the same: a festival o f praise an d thanksgivin g for God's great lov e in Christ, a celebration o f our fellowshi p with Christ and wit h one another , nourishmen t fo r a pilgrim people, an d stimulus t o see k God' s way s o f justice an d o f peace. Her e we encounter Go d in Christ; he gives himself to us, and we to him. He gives himself for th e lif e o f the world. FURTHER READING Alasdair Heron, Table and Tradition, Edinburgh 1983 . Josef A.Jungman, Th e Early Liturgy, Londo n 1960 . I. Howar d Marshall , Last Supper an d Lord's Supper, Exete r 1980. Joachim Jeremias , Th e Eucharistic Words o f Jesus, Londo n 1966. W. Rordorf an d others , Th e Eucharist of the Early Christians, New York 1978 . Nicholas Lash, His Presence in the World, Londo n 1968 . Geoffrey Wainwright , Eucharist and Eschatology, London 1971 . Louis Bouyer, The Eucharist, Notre Dam e 1968 . J. Fenwick , Eucharistic Celebration, Bramcote, Nott s 1982 .

14 Slightly adapted from Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, Geneva , World Council of Churches, 1982 , pp. 15-16 .

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FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w do you understand th e presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper? 2. I s it important that the brea d and win e rather than, say, tea and biscuits are use d i n the Lord's Supper? 3. Ho w shoul d w e understan d th e Eucharis t as a memorial of Christ? 4. Shoul d the Lord' s Supper be an experience of liberation? 5. Ca n w e spea k o f th e Lord' s Suppe r a s 'th e feas t o f th e future'?

CHAPTER 1 0

WORSHIP AN D PASTORA L CAR E

Introduction Worship and pastoral car e - here , surely , we have two central activities o f th e Christia n Church , tw o indispensable aspect s of Christia n praxis . Th e tw o are interdependent , an d eac h illumines the other. When Christians treat worship as an escap e from carin g fo r th e neighbou r an d bein g responsiv e t o th e needs of the world, when worship becomes an alternative t o the doing o f justice , whe n clerg y attemp t t o avoi d th e role ambiguity o f th e pasto r b y affirming thei r professionalis m a s 'experts in liturgy', then worshi p is being radically distorted by the dissolution of the necessary partnership between liturgy and pastoral care. The tw o share a whole range of common themes : grace, guilt, forgiveness, new beginnings, dialogue, communication, fellowship , reconciliation , healin g ar e obviousl y th e concern both of worship and of pastoral care. In its own fashion, each attempt s t o hel p me n an d wome n t o cop e wit h reality, open themselve s to truth, and gro w towards a mature relation ship wit h Go d an d thei r fellows . Of course the y overla p an d flow into one another; they are complementary- and more, for it would be fai r t o sa y that liturg y i s a dimension o f Christian pastoral care , an d pastora l car e i s a dimensio n o f Christia n worship. We ar e no t suggestin g tha t ther e i s in worshi p nothing but pastoral care going on, and certainly not that pastoral car e can be absorbe d entirel y into worship . Ther e i s more t o worship than pastora l care , and vice versa. Worship i s not just a kind of group therap y or corporate pastoral counselling, bu t none th e less i t plays an important , perhap s indispensable , par t i n th e processes of healing, restoring, reconciling, purifying, growing, 190

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and formin g fellowship . I n othe r words , ther e i s a highl y significant overla p betwee n th e tw o activities ; worshi p ha s a pastoral dimension and pastoral care has a liturgical dimension. We are no t arguin g that worship is a good thin g because it is psychologically beneficial or socially useful. I t may well perform such functions, well or ill, but tha t is not th e reason why people worship. We glorify an d prais e God because 'i t is our dut y and our joy' , no t becaus e w e see k som e persona l o r collectiv e benefit. Tha t suc h benefit s ca n flo w fro m worshi p an d ar e promised i n worshi p shoul d no t b e forgotten . Bu t tha t i s not th e poin t o f worship, and i t would becom e mechanica l if such expectation s wer e t o com e t o th e fore . Worshi p use d simply a s a mean s o f psychologica l hygien e o r emotiona l manipulation i s perverte d an d lose s it s authenticity; but w e should expec t participatio n i n th e worshi p of Go d t o affec t profoundly th e deepest level s of our personalit y and emotion s and relationships , an d t o shap e an d distur b th e lif e o f th e worshipping community. Yet these fruit s o f worship are no t it s justification. There is more to worship than the pastoral dimension - tha t is most certainly true. Bu t if that element i s lacking, worship is defective and inadequate. An d likewise with pastoral care; ther e must b e a dimensio n o f worshi p o r it s integrit y a s Christian pastoral car e has to be called int o question. The Pastoral Dimension in Worship 'For centuries' , wrot e J . A . Jungmann, a leadin g Roma n Catholic liturgica l scholar, 'th e liturgy, actively celebrated, ha s been th e mos t importan t for m fo r pastora l care'. 1 On e coul d demonstrate the truth of this remark by drawing up a list of the rites and element s i n worship which clearl y have a significant and necessar y pastoral content: penance , confession , funerals, baptism, confirmation , the 'Peace' , marriage , an d s o on. Bu t Jungmann mean s mor e tha n that ; th e pastora l shoul d b e a dimension i n all worship, not simpl y a characteristic of certain moments o r type s of worship. Becaus e th e church , th e com munity which worships, i s a pastora l fellowship , pastoral car e should be the context, content and consequence o f its worship. The Go d who is worshipped i s the Shepherd o f his people, and it i s as Shepher d tha t h e deal s wit h hi s peopl e i n worship, 1

Pastoral liturgy, NY C 1962 , p . 380 .

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enabling them to exercise a mutual pastoral care and outreac h to all mankind. This mutualit y in pastora l carin g deserve s som e emphasis . Worship considered a s a human activity is something in which the whole people o f God participates actively; it is not th e act s and speec h o f 'professionals' , o f experts , whic h th e peopl e observe an d liste n t o passivel y an d withou t personal involve ment. Similarly, the pastoral care tha t takes place in worship is not provide d b y th e priest , pasto r o r ministe r for a passive people, bu t somethin g i n whic h ever y worshippe r shoul d participate bot h a s provide r an d a s recipient . An d i n th e reciprocity o f thi s kin d o f worshipfu l pastora l care , God' s people encounte r his care through thei r care for one another . There i s suc h a thin g a s a pastoral theolog y o f worship , reminding u s o f th e importan t fac t tha t i n worshi p God i s dealing with people, both as individuals and i n their collectivities. As soon a s this is lost sight of, an d th e pastora l dimensio n in worship i s neglected , worshi p become s mechanica l an d impersonal an d ultimatel y degenerates int o magic . Bu t suc h worship i s defective in tha t it does not expres s God' s concern for th e individual and hi s communities, God's care for people , and th e Christian fellowship's reflection of that care. In worshi p that i s authentically Christian , believers should experience God' s lovin g car e i n an d throug h th e mutuality of carin g within th e fellowship , an d fin d resource s o f insight and sensitivit y t o deepe n an d enric h thei r care . Thos e who encounter th e Lor d i n worshi p shoul d lear n ther e ho w t o discern his presence in the neighbou r an d i n the need s of the world.

The Liturgical Dimension in Pastoral Care When worship and pastora l car e become separate d fro m on e another, pastora l car e easil y becomes secular , theologicall y empty an d roote d i n th e lates t theorie s o f psychotherap y without referenc e t o th e Christia n tradition . A kin d o f in dividualism take s over , suggestin g tha t pastora l car e ha s nothing to do with th e floc k o r th e fellowship, but takes place in one-to-on e therapeutic sessions or smal l encounter groups . The pasto r the n become s th e expert , whos e skill s disabl e mutual pastora l car e withi n th e fellowship . Th e emphasi s is increasingly on crisi s intervention: care is less and les s seen a s

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an ongoin g proces s of support, encouragement , learnin g an d growth, an d mor e an d mor e a s the solvin g of problems , th e healing o f sickness . These medica l or psychiatri c models ca n only take over if worship is pushed t o the periphery. It i s easy for pastora l car e t o confor m t o secula r model s o f counselling and therapy so that clergy are regarded - and sometimes see themselves - a s counsellors and therapists and a great gulf open s between wha t happen s i n th e counsellin g sessio n and wha t happens i n worship. It is even possible t o find clergy who regar d wha t goe s o n i n th e worshi p o f th e Christia n community a s a n anachronisti c distractio n fro m th e 'rea l business' o f counsellin g individuals . There i s in suc h case s a theologically suspec t spli t between th e sanctuary , which takes on th e qualit y o f a museum , an d th e study , office, o r vestry , which i s regarded mor e an d mor e a s a clinic . In th e on e th e community gather s fo r ritual s whic h it s leader s n o longe r believe significant ; i n th e othe r th e weak , bruised , o r sic k individual meets th e professiona l problem-solver or therapist . The liturgica l dimensio n protect s thre e particula r emphase s in pastora l care . First , i t expresse s an d remind s u s o f God' s primary rol e i n carin g for people . Pastora l caring , i n othe r words, has to do with grace; the pastoral activities of the Church, like it s worship, involve participatio n in th e ongoin g wor k o f God. Secondly, we are reminde d that the whole community is in-volved in caring, as it is involved in worshipping. Pastoral care is not something that can be delegated t o a few or monopolized by an elit e within the Church . When caring is concentrated i n the perso n o f th e pasto r an d th e communit y become s dependent o n his skills and competence , we have a new kind of sacerdotalism, whic h like all sacerdotalism deprives th e Peopl e of God of their true function s an d responsibility , reducing th e laity t o th e statu s o f 'clients ' o r 'patients ' o f a falsel y pro fessionalized clergy. Pastoral care is a responsibility of the whole household o f faith which constantly interacts with worship, the central praxi s of tha t fellowship. Thirdly , it follow s tha t ther e must b e a n ongoin g dialectica l interactio n betwee n theolog y and pastora l care . Pastora l car e dar e no t cu t loos e fro m theology an d attemp t to root itself exclusively in psychological and sociologica l theory . No r i s it merely the applicatio n of an already establishe d theology . Pastora l car e whic h is Christian must both liste n to theolog y an d as k theology har d question s which arise out of the caring experience.

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Worship is a collective activity, something tha t the Christian fellowship does . Mor e tha n mutualit y i s involve d here : th e members o f the communit y of faith car e fo r one anothe r an d for thei r needy neighbours, tha t is true, but thi s care mus t also concern th e structures of society which so deeply affect people's lives and happiness . Thus , ther e is a necessary interaction an d movement betwee n th e pastora l an d th e political . Sinc e th e Church may aptly be described a s the sacrament of the unity of all humankind, w e should no t b e surprised tha t th e Church's worship is full of signs of those structures of community which sustain fraternit y an d harmony . I n othe r words , Christia n worship i s a politica l act , makin g statement s an d symboli c demonstrations concernin g th e natur e o f th e Kingdom . Worship i s prophetic t o th e world ; it expresses th e natur e o f Christian community, and thu s proclaims what true fellowship is and wha t society shoul d be . I t make s th e Gospe l clea r an d visible. When Christian s exchange the sig n of Peace, or shar e the brea d an d th e cup , o r offe r themselve s t o God , the y ar e symbolically affirmin g God' s car e fo r them , thei r responsiv e caring fo r one anothe r and th e care for the w6rld Go d loves , which i s at the hear t o f mission.

Pastoral Themes in Worship (i) Fellowship In worship fellowship is both expresse d an d strengthened. Th e symbols whic h we us e effec t wha t the y express , lik e th e kis s which simultaneously shows and confirms love. In worship God and hi s people open themselve s t o on e anothe r i n lov e an d service, s o tha t worshi p involve s mutual commitmen t t o on e another an d t o God , th e whol e bein g grounded o n th e self giving o f Go d i n Christ . And worshi p i s a pledge , a bindin g commitment t o God and his people and purposes. In worshi p we enrol ane w in the household of faith . Worship is meeting, encounter with God and with our fellows . In worship fellowship is made, sustained, confirmed. Karl Earth was righ t whe n h e said , 'I t i s no t onl y i n worshi p tha t th e community i s edified an d edifie s itself. But it is here firs t tha t this continuously takes place. And if it does not take place here, it does not tak e place anywhere'. 2 The Church i s edified by the 2

Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics IV/2, Edinburgh 1958 , p. 638 .

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Word encountere d an d receive d i n worship, by the challenge , strengthening, encouragement , enlightenment , affirmation , direction, forgiveness , hope, convivialit y receive d i n worship, and abov e al l by the awarenes s mediate d throug h worshi p of acceptance and incorporation int o a supportive, understandin g and purposiv e community. Worship gives us a sense o f belonging. Worship is also concerned wit h th e restoratio n of fellowship . There ha s recently been a recovery of the understandin g that sin is primarily a breach in relationship with God and with one' s fellows, rathe r tha n violatio n o f law . Sin divide s people fro m God and fro m on e another ; forgiveness mean s reconciliation , the healin g of estrangement an d th e restoratio n o f fellowship: 'where sin has divided an d scattered , ma y your love make on e again', runs part of one o f the prayer s in th e ne w Roman Rite of Penance. In worship, or sometime s a s part of the preliminaries to worship, sin i s recognized an d confessed , an d wit h forgive ness th e worshippe r know s himsel f t o b e accepte d full y an d without conditio n int o fellowshi p with Go d an d th e Church . General confessio n an d absolutio n hav e a plac e i n almos t all forms o f worship. I n th e Middl e Ages thes e corporat e act s of confession becam e increasingl y overshadowe d b y a n eve n more complex syste m of individua l sacramental confessio n i n which penance s wer e carefull y allocate d t o particula r sins , and th e performanc e o f these penance s wa s the conditio n fo r the receivin g of absolution . Th e wilde r shore s o f penance , particular the system of indulgences, attracte d the wrath of the Reformers, an d the y attacke d th e syste m a s legalistic , sacerdotalist (becaus e o f th e powe r o f th e pries t ove r th e penitent) an d sho t throug h wit h justification by works rathe r than grace . T o replac e th e individua l penitentia l process , th e Reformers emphasize d tw o things: corporate confessio n a s an indispensable par t o f congregational worshi p and th e system called b y the Calvinist s 'ecclesiastica l discipline' . Th e forme r frequently develope d int o a repetitive an d verbos e par t o f th e service o f worship, the emphasi s ofte n bein g mor e o n lon g catalogues o f sin s tha n o n God' s graciou s forgiveness . Th e latter, a s developed i n Geneva , Scotlan d an d othe r Calvinis t countries, involve d th e ministe r an d elder s havin g specia l responsibilities fo r th e oversigh t o f morals . Offender s wer e brought t o trial before th e Sessio n o r Consistory , and a whole range o f penaltie s fro m privat e admonition s t o excommuni -

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cation were available to help to bring offenders t o repentance . The mor e heinou s offence s involve d several appearance s in church a s the 'stoo l o f repentance' , ther e t o b e publicl y re buked befor e forgivenes s was proclaimed . I n th e for m fo r Public Repentance used in Scotland i n the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries , absolutio n i s pronounced wit h grea t authority and th e penitent is then receive d back warmly to the congregation: The minister shall say, in manner of absolution: If thou unfeignedly repent of thy former iniquity, and believe in the Lord Jesus, then I, in hi s name, pronounce an d affir m tha t thy sins are forgiven, not only o n earth , bu t als o i n heaven , accordin g t o th e promise s annexed with th e preachin g of his word, and t o the powe r put i n the ministr y of his Church. Then shall the elders and deacons, with ministers (if any be), in the nam e o f th e whol e Church , tak e reconcile d brothe r b y th e hand, and embrac e him, in sign of full reconciliation. *

Although i n suc h exercis e o f disciplin e th e whol e con gregation i s encourage d t o join i n confessio n an d seekin g forgiveness, th e syste m quickly becam e legalisti c and hard , often becomin g a public spectacle in which some of the 'godly ' rejoiced a t th e discomfitur e of th e sinners . Th e not e o f solidarity sounded clearl y in Knox's Liturgy, ceased to be heard: 'We all here presen t join our sin s with your sins; we all repute and esteem your fall t o be our own; we accuse ourselves no less than we accuse you; now, finally, we join our prayer s with yours, that we and you may obtain mercy, and tha t by the means of the Lord Jesus Christ.'4 Instead, self-righteousness, judgementalism and gossip were engendererd. The remnants of 'ecclesiastical discipline' and the practice of private sacramental penance have been very properly criticized by those who seek a renewed and living expression of confession and forgivenes s in the lif e and worship of the Church. Alastair Campbell, for instance, argues that the fact that 'we rightly shy away from a n imposed penitence , fro m a heavy-hande d judgement o n other s which reduce s the m t o th e statu s o f errant children requiring interrogation and hard discipline . .. should 1 The Liturgy o f th e Church o f Scotland, o r Knox's Book o f Common Order, John Gumming (ed.) , London & Edinburgh 1840 , p . 150 . * Ibid., p . 145 . Cf . toda y th e Book o f Common Order o f the Church o f Scotland, Edinburgh 1994 .

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not preven t us from pointing th e way and leadin g the way to a positive form of penitence, whic h goes through the complexity of human motivatio n no t awa y from it.' 5 Justifiable impatienc e with th e nea t distinction s and tid y classification s o f th e olde r penitential syste m led to its sharp declin e in modern times. All Christian tradition s ar e no w seeking, wit h variable success , t o encourage communa l an d flexibl e rite s o f confessio n an d reconciliation a s integral part s of worship, and mor e informal and persona l way s o f confession , counsellin g an d mutua l support.6 Through reconciliation and forgiveness , fellowship is restored. (ii) Wholeness Precisely because it engages the whole personality, worship has a role to play in the integration o f the personality. Worship can help i n th e overcomin g o f the grea t split s engendered b y our culture, between reaso n an d th e emotions , th e bod y an d th e spirit; bu t sadl y i t sometime s reflect s and accentuate s thes e cleavages. If worshi p speak s t o th e hear t a s wel l a s t o th e head , i f it communicates t o th e feeling s an d play s a par t i n wha t John Macmurray calle d 'th e educatio n o f th e emotions' 7 ther e should b e an accepted place for th e expression of emotion in worship. Take for instance, grief. In Western cultures it is often felt that strong emotion shoul d no t be expressed i n public, that even a t a funeral service it is 'not done' t o weep. This attitude persists despite th e increasin g popula r awarenes s that bottledup grief is often destructive, and shows itself in other ways which can b e persisten t an d disabling . Eve n among Christian s many would se e publi c grievin g a s a sign o f emotional instabilit y o r spiritual weakness and inadequacy. But the Gospels record tha t Jesus wept over Jerusalem, the cit y that he loved , and ove r hi s dead friend Lazarus . It is similar with the spli t between bod y an d spirit . Although views which depreciate th e body have been repeatedly labelle d heretical, an d Willia m Temple coul d spea k o f Christianit y as the most materialistic of all the great religions , despite the fac t that Christians believe that the Word became flesh, that in Jesus God was embodied, the bod y has often bee n despised. But in 5

Rediscovering Pastoral Care, London 1981 , p. 8 . See, for instance , the Roma n Rite of Penance, 1974 . 7 Reason and th e Emotions, London 1935 .

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authentic Christian worship the body is accepted as an integral and splendid aspect of the person: spiritual worship is also, and necessarily, bodil y worship , i n whic h th e bod y i s an agen t o f celebration in harmony with mind , spirit and heart . (Hi) Liberation Listen t o James Con e speakin g of th e significanc e o f worship for America n Blacks : The eschatological significance of the black community is found in the people believing tha t the spirit of Jesus is coming t o visit them in th e worshi p service each tim e two or thre e ar e gathered i n his name, an d t o besto w upo n the m a ne w visio n o f thei r futur e humanity. This eschatologica l revolutio n i s ... a change i n th e people's identity, wherein they are no longer name d by the world but name d b y the Spiri t of Jesus . . . The Hol y Spirit's presenc e with the people is a liberating experience . Black people who have been humiliate d and oppresse d b y the structure s o f white society six days of the week, gather together each Sunday morning in order to experience a new definition o f their humanity . The transitio n from Saturda y to Sunday is not just a chronological chang e fro m the sevent h t o th e firs t da y of th e week . It i s rather a ruptur e i n time ... which produces a radical transformatio n i n the people's identity. Th e janito r become s th e chairperso n o f th e Deaco n Board; th e mai d become s th e presiden t o f the Stewardes s Boar d Number 1 . Everyone becomes Mr . and Mrs. , or Brother and Sister. The las t becomes first, making a radical change o f self an d one' s calling i n the society . Ever y person become s somebody, an d on e can see the people's recognition o f their new found identity by the way the y walk an d tal k an d 'carr y themselves' . The y wal k wit h a rhythm of an assurance tha t the y know where they are going, an d they talk as if they know the trut h about which they speak. I t is this experience of being radically transformed by the power of the spirit that defines the primary style of black worship. This transformation is found not onl y in th e title s of Deacons, Stewardesses , Trustee s and Ushers , but also in the excitemen t of the entire congregatio n at worship. To be at the en d o f time where on e ha s been given a new name requires a passionate respons e with the felt power of the Spirit in one's heart. 8 All roun d th e world , i n al l sorts of contexts , on e find s thi s exhilarating experienc e o f Christia n worshi p a s liberating . Polish shipyard workers, striking for free trad e unions and fre e 8

J. H. Cone, cite d in Geoffrey Wainwright, Doxology: Th e Praise of Gwl in Worship, Doctrine and Life, London 1980, p. 419.

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expression i n an authoritaria n society , wer e sustaine d i n thei r search fo r liberty by daily celebration o f th e mas s i n th e yards . Groups o f victim s o f dictatorshi p i n Sout h Kore a foun d tha t their thirs t for freedo m an d justice wa s totally dependen t o n regular meeting s togethe r fo r praye r - an d fo r thos e i n prison, the knowledge tha t their brothers and sister s prayed for them gav e the m ne w courage. 9 I n Lati n Americ a eve n traditional form s of piety such a s the station s of the cros s have often com e t o b e regarde d a s protest s agains t oppressiv e regimes whic h den y libert y to the people . As the suffering s of Christ are remembere d th e words, 'As you did i t to one o f th e least of these m y brethren, yo u di d i t to me' , come t o mind. 10 That Archbisho p Romer o o f E l Salvador wa s murdered whil e presiding ove r th e worshi p o f th e peopl e o f Go d wa s n o accident, for h e an d th e Churc h h e le d ha d ofte n show n tha t worship was central t o their concer n fo r th e oppressed , a t th e same tim e a protest agains t oppression an d th e nourishin g of a thirst fo r liberty. Enough ha s been said t o show that in our da y there has been a remarkabl e recover y o f th e experienc e o f Christia n worship as liberating. But one mus t enquire a s to the authenticity of this understanding o f worship. I s it, perhaps, tha t peopl e tur n t o worship for th e stimulan t or tranquillize r most i n deman d a t any given time, and i n an age of liberation movement s fightin g for politica l emancipation , o r women' s liberation , an d ga y liberation, and so on, naturall y seek liberation in worship? Are we i n dange r o f speakin g no t o f worship i n th e Spirit , but o f worship i n th e Zeitgeist':' Th e questio n i s a rea l one , bu t th e answer is quite clear: what has happened is, in fact, the recovery of a central emphasis of Christian worship which has in the past often bee n al l but lost . It i s not , o f course , a s i f worship a s such , i n isolatio n a s i t were, i s liberating. Christia n worshi p i s the re-presentatio n o f God's mighty deliverance o f his people , th e recapitulatio n o f salvation history , i n which th e peopl e of God appropriate an d enter int o th e salvatio n or liberatio n wrought b y God himself , express their gratitud e an d deligh t in freedom, ar e nourishe d to work for liberty and stimulate d to yearn fo r freedom's fina l consummation. I t i s God wh o i s th e liberator ; i n worshi p we respond t o his act, enter into the freedom h e has given us, and ''Julio de Sant a Ana (ed.) , Towards a Church of the Poor, Geneva 1979 , pp . 11-12 . J. Moltmann , Th e Crucified (>wi, London 1974 , p . 53 .

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are nourishe d t o share in his continuing work of deliverance . As the psalmis t puts it: When th e Lord delivere d Sio n fro m bondage , It seemed lik e a dream . Then was our mout h filled with laughter , on our lips there wer e songs . The heathen s themselve s said: 'Wha t marvels the Lord worked fo r them!' What marvels the Lor d worked for us! Indeed w e were glad . Deliver us, O Lord, from bondage as streams in dry land. 11

Passover above all was the celebratio n o f God's liberation of his people. Th e rit e expressed, an d continue s t o express, th e present libert y o f God' s people , reclinin g a s free me n an d women aroun d th e table , a s totall y dependen t o n God' s gracious act of deliverance. Ha d Go d no t acted , Israe l would still b e i n bondage , no t ye t a Peopl e (laos), withou t nam e o r dignity. The rite repeats and re-enacts the story, reminding the people o f their roots, o f their dependence upo n God , of their dignity, and celebrating th e liberty they have been given. And it does mor e tha n represen t a pas t deliverance ; i t give s th e resources for living as free men an d women now, and provide s an appetise r an d a foretast e o f th e joy s o f th e full y con summated liberty that is to come. Eac h Passover points forward - 'Nex t year in Jerusalem' - an d beyond tha t to the messianic banquet. It i s hardly surprising tha t Passove r becam e a tim e when a peculiarly intense thirs t for liberty was commonly in th e air , a time when Jews were usually liable t o protest o r revol t against contemporary oppression , bein g nourishe d a t th e feas t o f liberty. An d i t wa s this rit e tha t Jesus took , re-shape d an d attached fo r ever to the 'exodus ' tha t he was to accomplish in Jerusalem. I n th e Lord' s Supper, a t th e centr e o f Christia n worship, ther e i s accordingl y thi s inescapabl e focusin g o n liberation. W e remember, recapitulate , an d participat e in th e liberty won and given to us by Christ. Here we receive foo d fo r living as free me n an d women , and a thirst for th e banquet i n the Kingdo m of heaven when many will come fro m north an d south an d east and west and si t down with Abraham an d Isaa c 11

Psal m 126, Grail Version .

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and Jacob. And i n thi s Supper no t onl y do w e receive liberty and a thirs t fo r liberty , but ou r understandin g o f libert y is clarified an d refined , ou r visio n enlarge d an d ou r hop e stimulated. Authentic Christian worship, then, cannot b e separated fro m a concern fo r liberation, for this would be t o detach i t from its rooting in th e might y acts of the Go d who delivers his peopl e from bondage . For freedom Chris t has se t us free; in worship we appropriate, enjoy , proclaim an d express thi s freedom; an d the freedo m celebrate d i n th e cul t mus t infec t th e lif e an d structures o f societ y i f we ar e t o avoi d a quit e blasphemou s separation betwee n th e sacred an d th e secular. 12 In thi s chapter w e have been arguin g tha t there i s a pastora l dimension i n th e whole of Christian worship. But some form s of worshi p hav e a heavie r 'pastora l loading ' tha n others . Notably thos e service s whic h ma y b e reckone d a s 'rite s o f passage' have particular pastora l significance . A rite of passag e is a ritual which invests with meaning an individual' s change of status, give s publi c recognitio n t o the ne w situation, support s those goin g throug h a crisi s o f change , an d proclaim s th e community's understandin g o f th e significanc e of wha t ha s happened.13 Rite s o f passag e ar e associate d particularl y with birth, puberty, marriage an d death . Elsewher e i n thi s book we deal wit h baptis m an d confirmation , th e tw o central rite s of Christian initiation. In this chapter we will say something abou t marriage and funerals, two rites of passage which clearly require to be discusse d i n a pastoral context . The y ar e als o b y far th e most popular Christia n rituals in secularized Western societies . Marriage (i) Theories of Sexuality

'Sexual intercourse' , sai d St . Jerome , baldl y statin g th e dominant vie w for centurie s i n Christendom , 'i s impure.' 14 A strongly negative attitud e t o sexuality, borrowed initiall y fro m the Stoicism of late antiquity which saw sexual intercourse a s 'a little epilepsy', flourished i n a Christian setting, so that Origen 12 Cf. Peter Berger, A Rumour of Angels, London 1970; and J. G. Davies, New Perspectives o n Worship, London 1978 , chapte r 1 . IS The classi c treatmen t o f rite s o f passag e i s Arnold Va n Gennep , l^es ntes de Passage, Paris 1909 ; E.T. , Th e Rites o f Passage, London an d Chicag o 1960 . M Jerome, Ad Jovinianum, 1.20 : P L 23.238, cited i n E . Schillebeeckx, Ministry: A Case for Change, Londo n 1981 , p . 88 .

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could say that during intercourse the couple lost the Holy Spirit, for 'th e matter does not require the presence of the Holy Spirit, nor woul d it be fitting'. 15 Thi s belie f in th e impurit y of sexual intercourse le d t o th e assertio n o f celibac y as a superio r an d purer state , and th e gradual developmen t i n the Wes t of compulsory clerical celibacy. It also made more difficul t a positive assessment of marriage. Gregory of Nyssa dismissed marriage as 'a sad tragedy', 16 while Jerome could find little positive to say about marriage sav e that it wa s necessary fo r th e productio n o f virgins! 17 Augustine' s theory tha t original sin was transmitted through sexua l inter course was widely held. Marriag e was seen by many as a kind of compromise throug h whic h lus t coul d b e controlled . Eve n Luther coul d spea k o f marriag e a s ' a hospita l fo r incurables, which prevent s it s inmate s fro m fallin g int o grave r sin', 18 although elsewher e h e take s a muc h mor e positiv e vie w o f marriage. Such grudgin g admissio n tha t marriage ma y be acceptabl e for Christian s as a lesser evi l than fornicatio n an d promiscuity , as a recognition tha t many people are incapable of sustaining a life o f celibacy , a s a wa y of disciplinin g sinfu l passions , a s necessary for th e procreatio n o f the huma n race , jars strongly with th e mai n thrus t of the Bible' s teaching. Littl e is left of th e Song of Songs' magnificen t celebration o f sexual love, or eve n St. Paul's daring analogy between Christ' s love for the Churc h and th e lov e of a husband an d wife . A s Jack Dominia n writes: 'The sexua l unio n wit h it s own physica l and tempora l limita tions cannot exhaus t the mystery of Christ and his Church. But by making this particular analogy, Paul continues th e familia r symbolism o f marriage between Go d an d hi s people foun d i n the Ol d Testament an d thu s brings th e sexua l union int o th e very centre of the histor y of salvation.' 19 (ii) Theologies of Marriage

There hav e bee n tw o type s o f theolog y o f marriag e i n th e Church - sacramenta l an d non-sacramental. Th e sacramental 13

Homilies on the Rook of Numbers 6 , cited i n J. Marios , Doors to the Snared, Londo n 1981, p . 408 . 1(i Cited i n J . Dominian, Christian Marriage, Londo n 1968 , p . 26 . 17 Ibid. 18 (Collected Works, vol . 44, pp . 1-14 , cite d i n A. V. Campbell, op . at., p. 74 . 9

Op. at., p. 119 .

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interpretation stems from Augustine, who built on th e Pauline analogy between marriage and the relation betwee n Christ and the Church . Becaus e marriag e reflecte d thi s profoun d an d permanent unit y between Chris t and th e Church , it was of its nature indissoluble . Augustine also built on th e occurrence o f the wor d sacramentum in th e Vulgat e translation o f Ephesian s 5:32 t o argue tha t lik e th e soldier' s sacramentum or pledg e o f loyalty, marriage involve d an irrevocabl e commitmen t t o on e another on the part of the bride and groom. Prominent among the blessing s o f marriag e wer e children , th e other s bein g fidelity and th e indissolubl e sacramenta l bond . Th e relatio n between these three - proles, fides and sacramentum - was much discussed. Thomas Aquina s laid down his position a s follows: Marriage has as its principal end th e procreatio n and upbringin g of children , whic h en d belong s to ma n b y reason o f hi s generic nature and henc e is common to other animals; in this way we get offspring as the blessing attached to matrimony. But as a secondary end, a s Aristotle says, we have in man alon e a common sharing in tasks which are necessary in life, and from this standpoint, husband and wif e ow e faith t o eac h other , an d tha t i s another blessing attached to matrimony. Marriage, as it exists among believers, has yet another end, and thi s consists in it s significance o f the union between Christ and the Church and thus we get the sacrament as a matrimonial good . Henc e th e firs t en d i s foun d i n huma n marriage, i n a s muc h a s ma n i s an animal , the secon d i n hi m precisely as man, and th e thir d in his qua believer.'20

The sacramenta l vie w graduall y gaine d wid e acceptanc e i n the Church. Interestingly, the ministers of the sacrament were, and are , the coupl e themselves ; the pries t does no mor e tha n bless a sacramen t whic h the y perform , an d declare s publicl y that they have entered int o the married state . A strength of the sacramental understandin g o f marriag e i s tha t i t found s th e relationship of husband an d wif e o n a n objectiv e basis, ex opere operate, rathe r tha n upo n feeling s o r th e subjectivit y o f th e couple: bu t a consequenc e i s the absolut e indissolubilit y of a sacramental marriag e - a rigidity which raises seriou s pastora l issues. The Reformer s attacked wit h grea t vigou r th e sacramenta l understanding o f marriage . Fo r a rite t o b e a sacrament the y required dominica l institution, and conclude d tha t ther e were 20

S.T. Il l (Suppl. ) q . 65 art. 1, cited in Dominian, op. at., p. 30.

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only two true sacraments - Baptism and the Lord's Supper. The exegetical basi s fo r a sacramenta l interpretatio n base d o n Ephesians 5:32 was easily demolished. Sacrament s are means of grace, but , Luthe r argued , 'It is nowhere writte n tha t h e who takes a wife receives the grace of God.'21 Marriage remained an ordinance o f God , a permanen t commitmen t o f a ma n t o a woman, providing th e ideal contex t fo r companionship an d the procreatio n o f children . I n certai n extrem e case s o f breakdown i n relationship , divorc e becam e a possibility . A Christian marriage i s a parable rather than a sacrament o f the love which Christ has for his Church. There may, according t o the Reformers , be a distinction of quality between a Christian marriage an d marriage a s such, but there is not a difference of kind. Marriage is, therefore, basically a secular thing, subject to the civil law; it belongs t o the order o f creation, worldly, but a t the same time a divine institution. 22 The contras t between th e tw o types of theology of marriage must no t be overstressed ; the y share a remarkable amount in common, an d ar e differen t way s of saying similar things: that marriage involve s a permanent , exclusiv e and unconditiona l commitment t o one another on the part of husband an d wife ; that this is the prope r contex t for the ful l expressio n o f sexual love; tha t i t provide s th e mos t secur e environmen t fo r th e upbringing o f children ; an d tha t God' s blessin g i s good, if not essential , for a Christia n marriage . I n marriag e peopl e encounter the love of God, whether they recognize it as such or not, an d a Christian marriag e ma y be a demonstration o f the reality and powe r of that love, a sign of the lov e of God. (in) The Pastoral Context of Marriage The observan t reade r wil l have nodced tha t ou r discussio n o f the theolog y of marriage moved to and fro between considera tion o f marriage a s a prolonge d relationshi p betwee n a ma n and a woman, normally terminated onl y by the death o f one of the partners, an d th e wedding service, the initiation, blessing, and celebration o f that reladonship. The tw o belong together , of course: the wedding i s the rit e o f passage into th e marrie d state. Accordingly, even in a book on worship, we should not go 21

Babylonish Captivity. For more detailed discussion, particularly of Luther's position, see H. Thielicke , Theological Ethics, vol. 3, pp. 125ff . 22

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very far in talking about wedding services without asking questions about the understanding o f marriage tha t is expressed and confirmed i n a particula r rite . Bu t i t i s als o tru e tha t th e wedding servic e has a specifi c rol e t o pla y i n th e Church' s pastoral car e fo r marrie d couples . Sometime s couple s ar e married i n church wit h minimal or non-existen t preparatio n for marriage , and preliminarie s to the service consisting of the legal formalities , th e choosin g of hymns, and a n indicatio n of how much should be paid to whom. Even when a more personal approach i s taken an d th e couple s ar e give n opportunities t o discuss th e meanin g o f Christian marriag e an d explor e thei r relationship a s well a s participatin g i n th e plannin g o f th e service, that is sometimes the total of the church's pastoral care directed t o them a s the marrie d coupl e o r a Christian family. Jack Dominian, the lay Roman Catholic psychiatrist, argues that compared t o the preparation an d continuing support given to the celibat e religious , th e marrie d hav e bee n profoundl y neglected. H e trace s thi s neglect o f car e fo r marriag e a s an unfolding relationshi p t o 'th e conceptualization of the sacrament as an entity which was complete i n the exchange of rights over each other's bodies followed by sexual consummation'. 23 The wedding service accordingly ought t o be from th e pastoral point o f vie w on e moment , an d a n immensel y significan t moment, i n a n ongoin g proces s o f car e an d suppor t fo r th e growth o f lov e an d marriage . An d i t i s onl y thu s tha t th e wedding servic e ca n proclai m a n adequat e understandin g of marriage. (iv) Wedding Rites

The earl y Churc h combine d considerabl e concer n wit h Christian marriag e with a singular lac k of interest i n wedding rites. A marriag e wa s initiated b y th e coupl e enterin g int o a contract which was regulated by the civil authorities rather than by th e Church . Churchme n migh t criticiz e lega l possibilitie s of divorc e o r othe r detail s o f th e law , and whe n th e Roma n Empire began t o break down, the Church too k an increasingly detailed interes t i n th e regulatio n o f marriage . Bu t stil l a wedding wa s regarded a s basically a lega l affair . Tha t i s no t to sa y that ritual s migh t no t appropriatel y b e appende d t o the lega l marriage : accordin g t o Tertullian , fo r instance , a 2s

jack Dominian , Marriage, Faith and Love, London 1981 , p . 119 .

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blessing and a celebration of the Eucharist were appropriate in weddings.24 Sometime s th e bishop' s consent t o betrothal wa s sought, an d man y ceremonie s o f secula r o r paga n origi n became associate d wit h th e weddings of Christians - e.g . th e giving of a ring and dowry , the crowning of one or both parties and th e veiling of the bride . Th e givin g of a blessing by priest or bisho p wa s considered somethin g o f a specia l honour ; Christians were often marrie d without the presence o f a priest. From abou t th e fifth century in various parts of Christendo m the clergy began t o be mor e regularl y involved in the conduct of weddings , and a variet y o f loca l rite s gradually emerged. These rites were legall y recognized a s valid marriages, but fo r centuries it remained optional even for Christians whether they should hav e what we would toda y call a 'church wedding' or a purely civi l ceremony . Onl y wit h th e Counci l o f Tren t di d a uniform wedding service come int o use in the West. Prolonged confusio n abou t wha t is essential i n a Christian wedding servic e ha s no t ye t bee n satisfactoril y resolved . Th e sacramental interpretatio n o f marriage , stemmin g a s we have seen fro m St . Augustine, gradually heightened th e liturgica l significance o f th e weddin g servic e (o r th e service , togethe r with th e subsequen t consummation ) s o that it stood o n a pa r with th e other sacraments, particularly baptism and th e Lord' s Supper. Almos t al l traditions , whethe r o r no t the y regar d marriage as a sacrament, would today view this kind of'liturgical inflation' o f the weddin g a s a mistake. At the hear t o f rites of matrimony lies the public commitment of a man and a woman to one another, th e public recognition o f their net status, God's blessing on their relationship, and th e celebration o f their love for on e another. Around thi s core prayers , scriptural readings, exhortation an d th e celebratio n o f th e Eucharis t ar e appro priately arranged, togethe r wit h th e use of symbols such as the ring which , while not specificall y Christian, are apt , evocative and sanctione d by long usage . Funerals (i) The Pastoral Context Strictly speaking, there i s no such thing as a theology of funeral services, bu t jus t a s behin d weddin g service s ther e lie s a theology of marriage which relates bot h t o the rite and t o the * Ad . Ux. 2.6.

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pastoral care of which it is a central expression, so funeral services relate t o a theology of death an d resurrectio n o n the one hand , and t o the church' s care fo r th e grievin g on th e other . I n th e New Testament on e finds much materia l on death an d eterna l life, and discussions about grievin g and th e Christian hope, bu t no indicatio n whatsoeve r tha t th e earl y Christian s had som e kind of distinctive burial rite. Since virtually all religions have a solemn rit e of passage t o mar k th e fac t tha t a death ha s take n place an d t o dispos e o f th e bod y reverently , we may suppos e that the earl y Christians also ha d somethin g o f the sort , bu t i t does no t see m t o hav e ha d importanc e enoug h fo r i t t o hav e left it s mark o n th e page s of th e Ne w Testament. We do hav e evidence fro m th e earl y centuries tha t Christian s had funera l rites which were essentially Jewish or paga n ritual s adapted t o express the Christia n belief i n resurrection. Services of prayers, praise and Bibl e readings too k plac e around th e body , usually in the home, but sometimes in church. The cortege t o the place of burial too k plac e i n daylight, with the Christian s dresse d in white robe s wit h light s and pal m branches , singin g psalm s of triumph an d hope . All this was in stark contrast to the sombr e funerals o f classi c paganism , whic h too k plac e i n darknes s because deat h wa s regarded a s a n ill-omene d threa t t o life . From quite early on the Lord's Supper was often associated wit h funerals - a reminde r o f the realit y of continuing fellowshi p with th e departed. These practice s continue d wel l int o th e Middl e Ages , although th e atmosphere o f hope and joy was gradually superseded by a stron g emphasi s on sin , judgement an d purgatory , all reflectin g an uncertaint y about th e destin y of the departe d soul, well expressed in th e Dies irae. It is hardly surprisin g that , particularly i n th e popula r mind , th e mai n intentio n o f th e funeral was seen as earning some remissio n for the departed i n Purgatory, o r som e easin g o f th e awfu l judgement . Al l such attempts to influence the fate of the dead were strongly resisted by the Reformers , Anglican, Lutheran and Calvinist . Masses for the dead, vigils, requiems and virtually all the mediaeval funeral observances wer e dismisse d b y Luther a s 'papistica l abomina tions', bu t bot h Lutheran s an d Anglican s quickly develope d purged funera l services which omitted prayer s for the departed and quit e clearl y had a pastora l intentio n - t o spea k t o the mourners o f the hope of the Gospel. Fo r Luther, the intention of a funera l wa s to 'strengthe n ou r fait h an d encourag e th e

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people to true devotion. Fo r it is right and fittin g tha t a funeral should be performed honourably , t o the praise and honour of the joyful articl e of our faith , th e resurrectio n of the dead'. 25 The Calvinist s went far further. They saw a pressing nee d t o prepare peopl e fo r death, bu t whe n all superstition ha d bee n swept awa y fro m funera l rite s an d Scriptur e consulte d fo r guidance, they found virtually nothing left , o r permissible , by way of funeral services . In Knox' s Liturgy, fo r example, after a long and impressive section on the Visitation of the Sick, itself a striking instance of the pastora l use of prayer and worship, the whole section o n buria l is as follows: The corps e is reverently to b e brough t unt o th e grave , accompanie d wit h th e con gregation, without any further ceremonies; which being buried, the minister , if h e b e present , an d required , goet h t o th e church, i f i t b e no t fa r off , an d maket h som e comfortabl e exhortation t o the people, touching death and resurrection.' 26 Nearly a centur y later, th e Westminster Directory fo r th e Publick Worship o f Go d (1645 ) advocate s a simila r paucity , indee d absence, of ritual at the tim e of burial: And becaus e th e custo m o f kneelin g down , an d prayin g b y or towards the dead corpse, and other such usages, in the place where it lies before i t be carried to burial, ar e superstitious; and for that praying, reading , an d singing , bot h i n going t o and a t th e grave , have been grossly abused , are n o way beneficial t o the dead , and have proved man y ways hurtful to the living ; therefore le t all such things be laid aside .

But eve n where al l buria l ceremonie s an d funera l service s were explicitl y rejected , the y soon cam e back , an d probabl y never entirely disappeared. There seems to be a very basic need for thi s particula r rit e o f passage . An d a s an ac t o f worship relating t o death, a funeral servic e i s a time when th e Churc h affirms her beliefs about death and the hope of eternal life; and expresses her pastora l car e for the bereaved . (ii) Theology of Death Death is a problem to which Christianity gives no slick or simple answer. But it is also a problem tha t Christianity does not evade. The apostl e Paul , who speaks of death a s a friend, so that we 23 WA 35, 479 , cite d i n J. G . Davie s (ed.) , A Dictionary o f Liturgy an d Warship, London 1972 , p . 102 . 26 Knox's Liturgy, p. 105 .

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long throug h deat h t o pu t o n ou r heavenl y dwelling , i s also aware o f th e bitternes s and threa t o f deat h 'th e las t enemy' , even fo r thos e wh o kno w that Chris t has give n us th e victor y over death. A general theodicy does not alway s help in explaining thi s particular death - an d al l deaths are particula r and specific. C . S . Lewis' s Th e Problem o f Pain ha s muc h clear , reasoned Christia n discussio n o f death an d suffering ; bu t hi s later A Grief Observed, written while he wa s himself mourning the death of his wife, has a profundity which many people fin d more helpful , fo r in it his Christian hope has been shaped an d forged o n th e anvil of experience . Death is the completion o f life. This is most easy to accept in the cas e o f the deat h o f one wh o i s full o f years and honour , who welcomes death a s a goal and fulfilment , wh o sees worldly finitude a s something to rejoice at. 'Do not see k death,' wrote Dag Hammarskjold , 'Deat h wil l fin d you . Bu t see k th e roa d which makes death a fulfilment.'27 Yet death cannot always be seen a s the natura l completion of life; death i s a foe, bitter and destructive, to be feared as 'the wages of sin', to be resisted and rebelled against . Here w e may note th e contras t between th e death o f Socrates an d th e deat h o f Jesus. Fo r Socrates, deat h was to be embraced, a liberation from th e tom b of the body, as the beginning of real life; it was to be accepted with equanimity and withou t fear. Jesus, o n th e othe r hand , pray s i n agony in the garden tha t the cup may pass from him, and finally dies in anguish, alone , forsake n ('M y God , m y God , wh y have you forsaken me?' ) an d wit h lou d cries . Here w e see how terrible death ca n be - an d ho w God could dra w its sting and se t us free fro m it s power. Thus , Christian s believe tha t Chris t has triumphed ove r death, an d the y have cause fo r rejoicin g and the opportunity of entering into eternal life now , an adventure which has its culmination beyond th e grave. 28 (Hi) Grief

Christians hav e a strang e ambivalenc e in fac e o f death , wel l expressed b y Thoma s Becke t i n T . S . Eliot' s Murder i n th e Cathedral: 'Beloved , a s th e World sees , thi s i s t o behav e i n strange fashion . Fo r wh o i n th e worl d wil l bot h mour n an d rejoice at once and for the same reason?' 29 27 28 29

Markings, p . 136 . This paragraph i s indebted t o a n essa y by Dr. Alan Lewis . T. S . Eliot, Murder in th e Cathedral, London 1968 , p . 51 .

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A deat h mean s grie f an d mournin g fo r thos e wh o ar e lef t behind. Commonl y grief goe s throug h stage s suc h a s these . First, shock, when th e initia l impac t of th e los s often lead s t o erratic an d uncharacteristi c behaviour Secondly , control , a short period , usuall y endin g wit h th e funeral , i n whic h ther e is a sociall y recognize d an d accepte d patter n o f grie f behaviour. Thirdly , regression , pretendin g tha t nothin g ha s changed, desperatel y tryin g t o recove r th e pas t - a tim e of acute loneliness . Fourthly, adaptation: lif e mus t b e take n u p again, bu t no w th e patter n mus t b e changed . Grievin g takes time - fa r more tim e tha n many people recognize . And grieving i s commonl y accompanie d wit h stron g an d discordan t emotions; anger , remorse , recrimination , fear, regret, emptiness. Pastors must learn t o respond appropriatel y to a range of deep feelings , an d t o support peopl e throughou t th e tim e of grieving. The funera l i s a stag e - an d a vita l stag e - bot h i n the grieving proces s an d i n th e pastora l car e o f th e mourner s by the community . It i s worship addressed t o God , i n whic h th e community hol d u p th e bereave d befor e god , an d i t i s also a par t o f a n ongoin g proces s o f pastora l care , exercise d b y the communit y a s well a s by the pastor . Th e mourner s ar e held i n fellowship , accepte d i n thei r ne w statu s b y th e community. Thei r grie f i s expressed , shared , publicl y recognized, accepted . An d thu s th e funera l play s its part i n care, comfor t an d healing . The deat h o f someon e clos e t o one i s commonly experienced a s a threa t t o th e meanin g o f one's ow n lif e an d disturb s structure s o f suppor t an d significance o n which one ha s come t o rely. The reverenc e fo r the bod y an d th e memor y o f a dea d companio n whic h i s expressed i n th e funera l servic e helps t o assure th e mourner s of thei r ow n worth. Christian s ca n b e realisti c i n th e fac e o f death, because it s awfulness and it s finality is understood i n the context of hope. Christians do no t 'griev e a s others who have no hope' ( 1 Thessalonians 4:13). But Christians do and should grieve, even as they hope. And a t th e funera l servic e the y are reminded not only of the grace and mercy of God, but also that there is a fellowship which cares for them and wil l mourn the m when the v come t o die.

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FURTHER READIN G William H . Willimon , Worship a s Pastoral Care, New York 1979 . AlastairV. Campbell, Rediscovering Pastoral Care, London 1981 . Jack Dominian, Marriage, Faith an d Love, London 1981 . J. Spiegel , Th e Grief Process, London 1978 . David Lyall , Counselling i n th e Pastoral an d Spiritual Context, Buckingham and Philadelphi a 1995 .

FOR DISCUSSION 1. I n what ways can worship stimulate and encourag e personal growth? 2. I s Christia n worshi p defectiv e i f it i s no t experience d a s a liberation? 3. Ho w effectivel y ma y marriag e o r funera l service s perfor m their pastoral function ?

CHAPTER 1 1

WORSHIP I N THE MODERN WORLD The Crisis of Worship 'There is a crisis of worship', proclaimed th e Uppsala Assembly of the World Council of Churches in 1968. Sinc e that time there has been a deeper and more widespread convictio n that something unprecedented i s happening to worship, particularly but not exclusively in the industrialized countries of the West. Quite simply, societies seem t o be emerging i n which worship of any sort occupie s onl y a marginal position , in which many people regard worship as an optional extra , hardly more tha n a hobby for th e smal l minority of people who 'lik e tha t sort o f thing' . Are we perhaps seein g th e emergenc e o f societie s i n which there i s no plac e for worship, of people wh o have no nee d o r inclination t o worship? We must be careful, not to overstate things. There have been crises of worship before. To mention but three examples: som e of th e Ol d Testamen t prophet s launche d devastatin g on slaughts on the patter n of worship of their day; Jesus' attitude to the Temple an d it s cult was, to put it mildly, ambivalent; and the Reformatio n denounce d 'th e idolatr y o f th e Mass ' an d virtually the whole apparatus of mediaeval worship. But all these protest movements saw the issu e as a choice betwee n tru e and false worship; they did not envisage the possibility of having no worship at all. They did not look benignly on worship as such false worship, they suggest, i s worse than n o worship at all, but true worshi p i s o f vita l importanc e t o individual s an d t o societies. I n itself , worshi p i s regarde d a s problemati c an d constantly liabl e t o perversion; it is not see n (a s it is by many modern sociologists ) a s something necessary , good and useful for th e smoot h an d prope r functionin g o f societie s an d 212

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individuals. Fals e worshi p i s harmfu l an d destructiv e an d immoral; tru e worshi p is a duty and a delight - an d probably useful i n al l sort s o f way s a s well, but it s utilit y is merely a byproduct o f its truth. The contemporar y crisis of worship arises from th e fac t tha t so many people see the acids of modernity eating away all kinds of worship, true and false , useful an d harmful , s o fast that soon only vestiges will remain. There is no doubt that many peopl e in Wester n societies loo k o n an y manifestatio n o f worship as quaint, disposabl e an d infantile , a n irrationa l activit y fro m which increasing numbers of people ar e successfully emancipating themselves . All worship, in thi s view, is false. Grudgingl y it may be admitted tha t for a time at least, and fo r some people , worship may be useful o r necessary. But worship belongs t o the nursery, and th e human rac e has come o f age. Like al l such problems , thi s crisis penetrates dee p int o th e life o f th e Church . Ther e i s genuine puzzlemen t abou t th e place o f worshi p in th e Christia n fait h an d life . Eve n i n th e Christian scheme of things, worship appears to occupy a far less significant plac e tha n i t did i n th e past . A gap ha s opene d i n many places between theolog y and th e practic e of worship; it is forgotten tha t i n th e pas t worshi p generate d muc h o f th e problematic o f theolog y an d provide d on e criterio n o f theo logical truth . Som e o f th e bes t an d mos t thoughtfu l o f Christians, as Charles Davi s has pointe d out, 1 have withdrawn from participatio n in worshi p becaus e the y fin d i t archaic , formal an d unrelate d t o th e contex t i n whic h the y ar e endeavouring t o live out thei r faith. Others continu e t o attend worship, but find it jarring or quaint rather tha n enlightening, sUrring and relevant . The crisi s is no superficia l or transien t matter , capabl e o f being solve d b y tinkering wit h liturgica l forms . Doubt s abou t the principle s an d meaningfulnes s o f liturg y ar e integrall y connected wit h the moder n crisi s of faith, an d thi s in it s turn cannot be separated fro m the contemporary cultural, social and intellectual confusion and uncertainty. 'If worship constitutes a problem i n our secularize d society' , writes Raymond Panikkar , 'the principa l reaso n i s not tha t th e liturg y is outmoded o r boring (i t was almost equally so 200 years ago), but rathe r tha t 1 Charles Davis , 'Ghett o o r Desert : Liturg y i n a Cultura l Dilemma ' i n Th e Temptations o f Religion, London 1973 , p . 125 .

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the principles of the liturgy are themselves in crisis. Fashion o r boredom ar e no t i n th e mai n obstacles , bu t th e fea r o f meaninglessness. All too often theologica l reflection about this problem remains superficial, considering it mainly as a practical or pastora l problem , while basically it i s theological.' 2 Grea t issues ar e a t stake , an d i t i s important tha t w e shoul d tr y t o understand i n som e genera l wa y at leas t wha t is happening . Worship, afte r all , is concerned wit h th e searc h fo r meaning , with renewing , affirming, re-orderin g ou r vie w o f reality , o f God, the world, and our relations with our neighbours. Worship is therefore necessar y fo r th e sustainin g and proclamatio n o f the Christia n vision, because i t is an encounte r wit h th e livin g God, tha t is, with Reality . And tha t is why the crisi s of worship has to be taken with th e most profound seriousness . The Changing Place of Worship The mos t obviou s an d easil y documented chang e i n recen t times is the decline i n attendance at worship. This type of data is easily quantifiable an d althoug h ther e are problems i n interpreting it s significance , an d danger s tha t a declin e i n attendance a t publi c worship shoul d b e see n a s necessarily indicating a declin e i n religiou s belie f o r commitment , th e trend i n almos t al l industria l societie s i s unmistakable; there has bee n a prolonged , ver y substantia l an d probabl y un paralleled declin e i n participatio n in publi c worship over th e last century or so. This decline has not been uniform over time; it ha s tende d t o accelerat e sinc e th e middl e o f th e twentiet h century. I t i s more marke d i n urba n tha n i n countr y areas , among th e working classes than th e middle classes, and amon g Protestants tha n amon g Roma n Catholics . Al l thes e factor s suggest som e kin d o f incompatibilit y between worshi p an d modern industria l society. Exceptions t o thi s rule which have been suggeste d includ e th e Unite d State s o f Americ a an d Poland. I n th e cas e o f the Unite d States i t is true tha t attendance a t worshi p i s markedl y highe r tha n i n mos t Wes t European situations , bu t eve n ther e religiou s observanc e ha s been declinin g sinc e th e 1950s . I n Polan d th e clos e associa tion of national sentiment and the Catholic Church complicate s the picture , but here , too , attendanc e a t worshi p ha s bee n 2

Raymond Panikkar , Worship an d Secular Man, London 1973 , p . 16 .

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decreasing - o r was, prior to the conflict between th e Solidarity trade unio n an d th e government . I n mos t o f th e les s indus trialized countries , attendanc e a t worshi p remain s high , bu t falls off markedly as industrialization makes itself felt. 3 Certain type s of worship, however, survive more strongly than others i n an industrial , secular societ y and continu e t o attract large numbers of people. For instance, even in situations where attendance a t the 'normal Sunday service', whether that is Mass, Parish Communion , 'hym n sandwich' , o r a sermo n wit h pre liminaries, is low, surprisingly large number s o f people wish to be married i n church brin g thei r babies fo r baptism, an d want a Christia n funeral . Motivation s i n thi s matte r ar e clearl y complex an d d o no t directl y concern u s at this point. But the resilience o f thes e rites o f passage i s suc h tha t strongl y antireligious regime s fee l th e necessit y t o provid e secula r alternatives. The ritual s of folk religion als o continue t o flourish and eve n increase i n popularity , existin g i n a n increasingl y uneasy an d often confusin g symbiosis with Christian worship. Folk religio n has to do with locality and the soil, with one's sense of belonging in a particular place and a specific community; with bonding to neighbour, and home , and a particular history . I t is a religion of sacre d places , sacre d buildings , an d specia l communities . Sometimes folk religion take s the form of a religion of national identity, as in Poland, or Scotland where some perfervid patriot s are presbyteria n atheists. The churc h building ofte n i s a focus of primordia l sentiment s share d b y many who neve r worshi p there; it is good to have it there t o stay away from; the existenc e of this sacred space within the area confers some unspecifiable benefit upon the community! When a church building i s closed, vandalized or demolishe d i t is not onl y those who worshippe d there wh o ar e disturbed , bu t man y others a s well ofte n sho w signs of uneasiness tha t this reassuringly physical presence is no longer securely amon g them. Subconsciously th e building an d what goes on within it are fel t t o continue t o play a vital role in the folk religion of social cohesion an d social continuity; a focus for th e sense of belonging. The harves t festival is an example of a rit e o f fol k religion , par t harves t home , par t fertilit y ritual , which ha s in moder n time s by popular deman d become s on e * Documentation an d discussio n o f th e point s mad e i n thi s paragrap h ma y be foun d i n S . S . Acquaviva, Th e Decline o f th e Sacred i n Industrial Society, Oxfor d 1979.

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of the main peaks of the church's year s for many - eve n in city churches where the most that any member of the congregatio n cultivates i s a bac k garden . Christmas , th e paga n mid-winter festival long-since Christianized, is well established as by far th e most popular Christia n feast, but t o judge by the ton e of many sermons o n Christma s it is in dange r o f reverting to its pagan, folk-religious origins . B e tha t a s i t may , amazing numbers o f people go t o church t o worship at Christmas time , and i f one counts, as one must, hymns and carols as forms of worship, each Christmas is a veritable bonanz a o f worship, much o f i t com bining i n subtl e an d significan t ways elements o f folk religio n and more explicitly Christian forms . Christian worship and th e rituals o f fol k religio n hav e mingle d an d grow n togethe r s o closely throug h man y centuries tha t i t i s hard t o disentangl e them fro m on e anothe r an d ofte n difficul t t o distinguish what is Christia n an d wha t i s fol k religio n i n a particula r ac t o f worship. It is fairly clear that as soon as Christianity became th e religion o f the majority , o r eve n o f a substantial proportio n o f the people , i t ha d t o fulfi l th e function s of fol k religion , an d baptize at least some o f its rituals. The interactio n between th e two over man y centuries ha s lef t it s mark on eac h s o that on e may reasonabl y argu e tha t th e tw o are no w interdependent . Interestingly enough , on e lin e o f criticis m o f th e Anglica n liturgical reforms represented by the Alternativ e Service Book has bee n tha t th e attemp t t o produc e theologicall y an d liturgically mor e adequat e form s o f worship endanger s th e delicate balance betwee n Christianit y and Englis h folk religio n in whic h th e Boo k o f Commo n Praye r has , rathe r strangely , become th e pivot . I n othe r words , th e endeavou r t o mak e worship mor e explicitl y and unambiguousl y Christia n i n a modern idio m make s i t less capable o f being a vehicle of fol k religion as well. The rite s o f civi l religio n flouris h exceedingly , probabl y increasingly, in a secular context. These rites (like civil religions as a whole) legitimate, sacralize and conserve the authority of a society; the y encourag e an d exto l th e civi c virtue s suc h a s patriotism; and they assuage concern abou t th e propriety of the behaviour o f government s an d th e societ y a s a whole. Som e form o r othe r o f religio n i s th e mos t widesprea d agenc y of legitimation, an d where there is no recognized , establishe d o r suitable religio n t o hand fo r thes e purposes , a quasi-religion has to be developed. Since Constantine, Christianity has played

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the rol e o f th e civi l religio n i n mos t o f Europe . Macchiavelli recognized lon g ag o tha t Christianit y by its very nature doe s not make a wholly satisfactory civil religion, an d h e yearned t o exchange i t for th e lustie r religion o f ancient Rome . But , for all that , Christia n worshi p ha s double d a s th e ritua l o f civi l religion, an d continue s t o d o so . Armistic e Day , no w Remembrance Sunday , in Britai n fulfilled an d continue s t o fulfil a variety of needs - t o recollect those who have died in the service of their country, to revive memories of the camaraderi e of the forces, to give thanks for deliverance from enemies, an d also to set at rest doubts about th e wasteful carnag e o f war and questions about th e justification o f it all - b y a ritual which at its worst becomes a celebratio n o f chauvinism rather tha n of Christianity. Compulsory chapel in boarding schools , whatever the actua l content o f th e worship , often give s th e pupil s th e impression tha t worshi p i s goo d fo r on e i n som e rathe r unspecific way, like other compulsory items of the lifestyle: cold baths, cross-country runs, and th e Combined Cade t Force. It is hard fo r i t i s no t t o b e see n a s a rit e o f civi l religion , th e celebration an d sanctificatio n o f the publi c schoo l etho s an d the kind of society that ethos is intended t o sustain. 4 Civil religio n an d it s ritual s have bee n a s unpopula r wit h the theologian s as they have been centra l t o many sociologists' concerns. The theologian s have regarded civi l religion with suspicion because of the belief that the liberal Kulturprotestantismus of nineteenth-century Germany led directl y to th e sacralizin g of bloo d an d soi l unde r Hitle r an d th e difficult y man y Christians found in disengaging themselves from Nazism . The sociologists, o n th e othe r hand , se e th e provision s o f what Peter Berge r call s a 'socia l theodicy ' a s a primar y function o f religion, an d i f Christianity cannot o r wil l no t provid e wha t is necessary, a n alternativ e must b e found . Typica l o f suc h a n alternative was the stage d ritua l of viewing Lenin's embalme d body in his tomb i n Red Square in Moscow. As the long queue edged forward reverently towards the tomb one knew that one was observin g a ritua l o f civi l religion , a rit e whic h ha s a significant functio n i n th e Sovie t atheisti c schem e o f things. 4 Civi l religio n ha s been a central concer n o f sociologists at least since th e tim e of Durkheim . Th e mos t interestin g curren t discussio n concern s American civi l religion. Se e Robert N. Bellah, Th e Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial, Ne w York 1975 ; Russel l E . Riche y an d Donal d G.Jone s (eds.) , American Civil Religion, Ne w Yor k 1974 ; an d Gai l Gehrig , 'Th e America n Civi l Religio n Debate', Jnurnal for th e Scientific Study of Religion 20, 1981 , pp . 51-63 .

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The accusation s that Stalin encouraged 'th e cult of personality' denotes at least an incipient awareness that ritual has a place in politics, o r tend s t o retur n surreptitiousl y whenever i t i s cast out.5 One could hardly wish for a better instanc e of civil religion than thi s account o f a rally in China which appeared i n China Reconstructs \\\ 1976 : At ten o'clock in the morning, to the majestic strains of 'The East is Red', Chairma n Mao , th e reddest , reddes t su n i n ou r hearts , appeared o n th e Tie n A n Men rostrum . 'Chairma n Ma o is here! Chairman Ma o is here!' Thousands o f emotion-filled eye s turned towards Chairman Mao ! Thousands o f people waved their gleam ing re d Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung and shoute d agai n and again : 'Lon g liv e Chairma n Mao ! Long , lon g liv e Chairma n Mao! Oh, our respecte d an d belove d Chairman Mao, how we have longed t o see you. It is you who have given us new life. It is you who have lighted the flame in our fighting youthful hearts . It is you who have led us from victor y to victory. We knew that just on e glimps e of you would give us greater wisdom and courage - an d today our wish ha s come true!' 0

Peter Berge r i s probably righ t i n suggestin g tha t whe n th e Christian world-vie w i s n o longe r generall y accepted , a specifically Christian legitimation of the social order cannot b e maintained for long.7 But that is not t o say that the Church may not continu e to be used a s an agenc y of civil religion , increasingly evacuate d o f Christia n content . Problem s als o aris e i n situations of religious pluralism, of which the Unite d State s is probably the classic instance. Here, a s Will Herberg showed in his classi c Protestant-Catholic-Jew (Ne w York, 1955) , ther e ha s emerged a kind of 'establishment' o f the thre e type s of mainstream religion. It is this triple religion which interacts so closely with the American Way of Life, and perform s th e functions of a civil religion . I n countrie s lik e Englan d an d Scotlan d wher e there ar e establishe d churche s i n situation s o f increasin g religious pluralism , it is notable tha t i n recen t time s on grea t national occasions - coronations, roya l weddings and the like the establishe d Churche s hav e given u p thei r monopol y an d the othe r mai n Churche s shar e i n th e service , suggestin g a gradual move in a similar direction t o that already taken by the 3

On politica l ritual i n th e Sovie t Union , see Christe l Lane, Th e Rites o f Rulers: Ritual in Industrial Society - Th e Soviet Case, Cambridge 1981 . 6 Cited in Bruce Read, Th e Dynamics o f Religion, London 1978 , p . 107 . 7 Peter Berger, Th e Social Reality oj Religion, Harmondsworth 1973 , p . 86 .

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States. In the more ecumenical atmosphere o f today the rituals of civil religion suggest a n establishmen t of Christianity rathe r than o f a particula r denomination . Thi s i s almost inevitable , because th e rites of civil religion must express unity rather tha n division an d partiality . They ar e a matte r o f adaptation, com promise an d allianc e betwee n Christianit y and civi l society' s need for ideological suppor t an d ritua l articulation. The importanc e of th e rite s of civi l religio n ma y help us t o understand wh y most Wester n societie s hav e attempted , until modern times , t o enforc e uniformit y o f worship . Diversit y o f cult was seen a s politicall y dangerous a s wel l a s theologically suspect, an d th e uneasiness about a variety of forms of worship being tolerate d reflecte d a n awarenes s o f th e nee d fo r on e particular denominatio n t o b e th e civi l religio n o f th e state ; other cult s were potentiall y or actuall y seditious . Diversit y o f worship was seen as theologically unacceptable, socially divisive, and politicall y disruptive. As time went by the convictio n tha t worship make s a vita l contribution t o socia l orde r an d th e legitimation o f authority was not abandoned , bu t th e limit s of tolerance wer e gradually extended: first , i n northern Europe , Protestant worship in any of its major forms became acceptable ; then an y mainstrea m mod e o f Christia n worship ; an d no w secular as well as religious ritual is seen a s capable o f performing the functions of a civil religion. This expansion of tolerance has gone paripassu wit h a decline i n the significanc e generally attributed t o worshi p an d wit h th e increasin g religiou s pluralism of society. In addition t o the ric h variety of Christian sects an d denominations , mos t citie s toda y hav e place s o f worship fo r th e majo r worl d faiths , an d als o for som e o f th e huge an d ever-changin g diversit y o f cult s an d group s o f devotees. Bu t larg e number s o f people , includin g many who seldom i f ever darken th e doors of a place of worship, continue to believ e tha t worship , whateve r th e kind , i s i n som e ver y general wa y 'a good thing' . Worshi p has becom e a matte r o f choice and not compulsion: ther e are no Acts of Uniformity or of Conformit y remaining o n th e statut e books ; an d ther e i s much t o be said fo r thi s 'free market ' in forms of worship. But undergirding the new pluralism is a general publi c assumption that all worship is really the same thing, and rathe r a good thing at that ; i n suc h relativisti c atmosphere i t becomes rathe r ba d form t o spea k i n term s o f tru e an d fals e worshi p an y longer . Liturgical syncretism, patching together ersat z forms of worship

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without any coherent theological rationale out of the nicest and most movin g bits collected fro m ever y quarter, o r liturgical fundamentalism, rigi d adherence t o a specific denominational tradition, s o tha t worshipper s ma y continue i n th e comfort able delusio n tha t nothin g ha s changed , nothin g ha s bee n challenged, are the two easiest responses t o pluralism. Each is a trap, and fortunately there are far more exciting possibilities of mutual enrichment, theologica l rediscovery , and a refreshing of worshi p presente d b y th e moder n diversit y of form s o f worship. Worship occupie s a les s centra l plac e i n th e lif e o f mos t modern societies . Ther e i s les s o f i t an d fewe r peopl e participate. Bu t worshi p i s no t dispensable . I f peopl e ar e deprived o f the traditiona l forms of worship, or fin d the y have gone moribund , the y seek alternativ e forms for creatin g an d sustaining meanin g an d solidarity , the y fin d surrogate s fo r worship. Mary Douglas, the social anthropologist, writes: If ritua l i s suppressed i n on e for m i t crop s u p i n others , mor e strongly the more intense the social interaction. Without the letters of condolence, telegram s o f congratulations and eve n occasiona l postcards, the friendship o f a separated friend is not a social reality. It ha s n o existenc e withou t th e rite s o f friendship . Socia l ritual s create a realit y whic h woul d b e nothin g withou t the m . . . I t is impossible t o have social relation s without symboli c acts. "

The prevalenc e o f worship surrogates , sometime s o f rathe r bizarre sort , a t a tim e when worship seems t o b e i n declin e suggests th e continuin g existence o f a fundamenta l huma n need whic h i s not bein g me t adequatel y by the worship of th e Churches. The vacuu m is filled by a strange medle y of rituals which attemp t t o convey meaning an d significanc e t o huma n existence. Astrology , wit h it s suggestio n tha t th e detail s o f earthly lif e ar e governe d b y th e star s an d give n significance thereby, occupies at least as much space in the popular pres s as 'serious religion'. The occult, spiritualism , even witchcraft and black magic seem not only to continue but to flourish in secular societies wher e organize d religiou s worshi p decline s i n sig nificance. Some worship surrogates are essentially debased and suspect quasi-religiou s forms; others , lik e th e ritual s o f th e football matc h o r th e politica l demonstratio n ar e avowedly secular (althoug h hymn s ar e sometime s sun g b y footbal l 8

Mary Douglas, Purity an d Danger, London 1966 , p . 62.

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crowds!). Televisio n commercial s no t infrequentl y exud e a n unction o r a n aw e which might sugges t tha t the y ar e centra l rites of the acquisitive society. And some religiou s programme s on radi o an d television , notably Th e Daily Service and Songs of F*raise, are clearl y intended t o fulfi l a fel t nee d fo r worshi p on the par t o f man y peopl e wh o ma y hav e onl y th e faintes t connection wit h th e organized Churches . Some worship surrogate s appea r to be ethical alternative s to the worshi p o f th e Churches . Bodie s suc h a s Amnesty International, the Anti-Apartheid Movement, CND, and many other radical o r idealisti c groups , attrac t t o thei r ritual s - demon strations, marches , rallies , petitions and s o forth - man y who feel tha t Christian worship has been caugh t in a 'cult i trap ' of ethical an d politica l irrelevance. Their criticisms , implied or explicit, should b e listene d t o by the Churches , a s should th e feelings o f thos e who , despairin g o f Christia n worship , have sought i n th e rite s of Eastern religions a truer encounte r wit h the myster y of th e hol y tha n the y hav e foun d i n thei r hom e Churches. Fo r authenti c Christia n worshi p mus t b e simul taneously a meeting with the holy living God an d a n alignment with his call for justice, compassion an d peace . Some contemporar y theologians , supporte d b y numerou s sociologists o f religion, have argued tha t religion in the moder n world has been 'privatized ' and thi s process ha s deeply affected the natur e o f worship . Privatizatio n means tha t religio n is removed fro m th e publi c real m an d concern s itsel f almos t entirely with th e individua l and domesti c activity. Religion and worship, i t i s suggested , hav e capitulate d t o moder n indi vidualism an d become , i n fact , 'wha t a perso n doe s wit h solitariness', with a strong emphasi s on persona l moralit y and family life. On th e face of it, this privatized worship should seem incompatible with th e stil l flourishing worship of civil religion, but th e contrar y i s in fac t th e case : th e tw o fi t togethe r ver y neatly i n societie s dominate d b y th e idealog y o f bourgeoi s individualism. 'Extremel y privatize d religion' , write s th e German Roma n Catholic theologian Johann Baptist Metz, 'has been, a s it were, specially prepared fo r th e domestic us e of th e propertied middle-clas s citizen . I t i s abov e al l a religio n of inner feeling. It does not protest against or oppose in any way the definition s of reality , meaning or truth , fo r example, tha t are accepte d b y th e middle-clas s societ y o f exchang e an d success. It gives greater height and depth t o what already applies

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even withou t it.' 9 Pete r Berger' s argumen t tha t privatize d religion ca n n o longe r provid e a comprehensive structur e o f meaning for social life because i t has evacuated the public realm and onl y addresse s itsel f t o mino r enclaves , particularly th e domestic, need s to be qualified. 10 The very fact tha t organize d religion no w makes few, and no t notabl y successful, attempts to interven e i n th e publi c sphere , make s i t mor e amenabl e to bein g use d t o legitimat e an d sanctif y th e practice s o f th e public realm . Thi s i s why privatization is a tra p fo r Christia n worship. Privatized worship is partial an d unprophetic and dis torted; its concern with issues of personal moralit y and domesti c life goes happily with conferring an outward veneer of religious respectability on th e proceedings o f the public realm. But true Christian worshi p i s a matte r bot h fo r individua l and com munity, both for the publi c and th e privat e realms. Closely associated with privatization is the belief that worship is no t abou t participatio n i n outward , objectiv e realities , bu t concerned onl y wit h inward , subjective , individua l an d ultimately incommunicabl e truths . Th e 'historicizing ' o f th e worship of Israel and of the Church which led to worship being understood a s the celebration an d renewa l of an encounter i n history between God and humankin d was not exactl y reversed - tha t would have been t o focus worship on the cycles of nature rather tha n th e event s o f history. 11 Cross , resurrection , in carnation, if they are events at all, are seen a s events within the individual's subjectivit y an d existence ; i t i s the inner , rathe r than th e outer , dram a wit h whic h worship i s concerned. S o Angelius Silesius the hymn-write r could sing : Though Christ a thousand time s In Bethlehe m b e born. If he's no t born in thee Thy soul i s still forlorn . The cross on Golgoth a Will never sav e th y soul The cross in thine own heart Alone ca n mak e the e whole.12 0

J. B . Metz, Faith in History an d Society, Londo n 1980 , p . 45. Peter Berger , Social Reality, pp . 137-38 . 11 O n this , see Eugen e H . Maly , Th e Interpla y of Worl d an d Worshi p i n th e Scriptures', Concilium^, No. 7 (1971) . 12 Johann Schefflet , otherwis e know n as Angelus Silesius, a seventeenth-century German hymn-writer , quoted in George Appleton, Journey for a Soul, London 1974 , pp. 37-38. 10

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This emphasi s lead s t o a considerabl e reserv e toward s com munal worship; it is in danger o f losing its raison d'etre as a result of the extrem e subjectivizin g of faith . The declin e i n th e numerica l strengt h an d influenc e o f th e Churches togethe r wit h th e linke d processe s o f privatization and subjectivizatio n lead s no t uncommonl y t o worshi p becoming sectarian . Congregations wh o know themselves to be, in Berger's term , 'cognitive deviants' hav e a strong temptatio n to withdra w to th e securit y o f operatin g a s inturne d sects , striving for thei r ow n survival and withou t a basic concern fo r the worl d 'outside ' o r fo r th e broade r community . Th e existence an d worship of such congregations, which are hardly more tha n religiou s clubs , gathering s o f th e like-minded , are tolerated an d indee d encourage d eve n i n societie s which are inherently irreligious , just a s th e Roma n Empir e tolerate d various religiones licitae o n th e ground s tha t the y di d no t interfere with the rites of the civil religion and did not press any disturbing universa l claims, or proselytis e to o vigorously. The early Church foun d tha t i t could no t operat e within th e limit s imposed upo n a religio licita, and called dow n persecution upo n itself. Nor could i t go along with the socia l divisions of society, in particula r tha t betwee n Je w and Gentile , because t o do s o would b e a denial o f the universalit y of the Gospe l an d woul d have allowed the Church t o fragment into a variety of little sects the boundarie s o f whic h followe d th e socia l division s of th e time. William Temple's belief that the church exists for the sake of those who never darken it s doors is also true of the church' s worship, and worshi p can neve r provid e a n adequat e sens e o f meaning i f i t allow s itself t o degenerat e int o bein g th e self conscious and contrive d ritua l of a club.

Interpretation Most o f th e development s an d problem s whic h w e hav e outlined i n the previous sectio n ar e symptoms or effect s o f the pervasive socia l proces s calle d secularization . Pu t baldly , secularization i s th e proces s whereby religio n an d religiou s ideas an d ritual s come t o play a less and les s significant rol e in the life of a society. The influence of the Church is dramatically reduced, particularl y in th e economic , politica l an d cultura l spheres; i n matters of personal morality it sometimes continue s to hav e a greate r say , for a tim e a t least . Religiou s interpre-

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tations of reality come to have less and les s formative influence on people's consciousness, an d decisions are taken increasingly without referenc e eithe r t o religiou s authoritie s o r t o theological notions . A s Peter Berge r put s it, 'Probabl y for th e first time in history, the religious legitimations of the world have lost their plausibility, not onl y for a few intellectuals and othe r marginal individuals , bu t fo r th e broa d masse s o f entir e societies.'13 The world has been evacuated o f the sacred, or the sacred onl y lurk s her e an d ther e i n dar k crevices . I n Ma x Weber's terms , th e worl d ha s bee n disenchanted , an d an y approach whic h puts th e holy or th e sacred a t the centre of its concern, a s does Christian worship, finds itself in an invidious situation of uncertainty and confusion . The secula r perso n ha s 'come of age': free from clerical, churchy, or religious control, and acceptin g a new responsibility for shaping their world and guiding its progress int o the future. Starting in Western Europe , the proces s o f secularization ha s spread throughou t th e world and affecte d almos t al l societies an d culture s t o a greate r o r lesser extent . Eve n i n th e Unite d States , wher e th e Churche s continue t o occupy a far more significant and central role tha n is th e cas e i n Europe , the y hav e onl y manage d t o d o so , th e argument runs , becaus e the y hav e themselve s becom e secularized. We may suspect tha t some secularization theorists want to have it both ways, and would most willingly acknowledge that any case - Poland , fo r instance - coul d falsif y thei r theory. This is not th e place t o enter int o the contemporary discussion about secularizatio n amon g sociologists, importan t as it is; it is enough fo r our present purposes to note tha t the displacement of religio n an d worshi p fro m th e centr e o f th e stag e i n mos t societies sinc e th e Enlightenmen t raise s har d question s fo r worship: i n particular , how can worshi p survive in a society in which the majority of people find it meaningless, objectionable, or simpl y quaint?14 For long it was assumed amon g Christian s that secularization was unambiguousl y antagonisti c t o th e Christia n fait h an d therefore t o Christia n worship . Thi s belie f i n a n inheren t opposition an d incompatibilit y between Christia n worship and 13

Berger, Social Reality, p. 130 . On secularization, see David Martin, A General Theory of Secularization, Oxford 1978; Brya n Wilson, Religion in Secular Society, Harmondswort h 1969 ; Davi d Lyon . The Steeple's Shadow, London 1985 ; Stev e Bruce , Religion in Modern Britain, Oxfor d 1995. M

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secularization depende d o n som e fundamental , and seldo m examined, assumptions about th e nature o f Christian worship. Foremost among thes e assumptions was this: Christian worship depends o n a religiou s a priori, a genera l agreemen t withi n a society and cultur e tha t religion i s an importan t dimension o f life, and worship a major manifestation of religion. Christianity then proceed s t o pres s it s specific claim s against thos e o f th e other religions on offer , an d Christian worship tries to assert its claim t o b e th e truest , o r best , o r pures t for m o f worship . Christianity belongs t o th e clas s of religions, and claim s to be the crown of all religion: Christian worship is one amon g many forms of response to the Holy, but claims to be 'worship in spirit and i n truth' while the other kind s of worship are more o r less defective i n comparison . Bu t when religio n i s regarded a s an optional matter of no great importance, and worship a peculiar, eccentric and perhap s infantil e activity in a world come of age, we are involve d in a different ball-game . The firs t respons e o n the par t o f Christia n theologian s wa s to se e secularizatio n a s the grea t enemy, which must be me t b y the variou s religions and thei r form s o f worshi p standin g shoulde r t o shoulde r against th e assault s of secular modernity . Once secularization was repulsed, ther e woul d b e a n opportunit y to giv e renewe d attention to the differences between the various faiths and their cults; meanwhil e the y wer e allie s i n a struggl e agains t th e common foe. The growt h i n th e 1930 s an d 1940 s of what is rather loosel y called 'dialectica l theology ' le d many theologians t o look wit h suspicion on 'religion' and oppose very sharply Christianity and the religions . Religion, Karl Barth proclaimed, is unbelief, it is false, i t i s huma n strivin g t o reac h God . Christianit y i s misunderstood i f i t i s seen a s a religion ; it s essence i s God's gracious reaching out for human beings in Christ. It belongs to a separat e categor y entirely from 'th e religions' . Theologian s such as Gogarten an d Bonhoeffer , i n addition t o Barth, spoke of the temptations, dangers and distortions of religion, perhap s influenced mor e tha n a littl e b y thei r experienc e o f th e religious pretensions o f Nazism in Germany. This suspicio n o f religion on the part of deeply committed Christian theologian s opened th e wa y for the m t o begi n a muc h mor e positiv e theological assessmen t o f th e secular . S o far fro m bein g th e irreconcilable opponen t o f al l religio n an d al l worship , secularization comes t o be seen a s the all y of Christianity in its

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conflict wit h fals e religio n an d fals e worship . Secularization is capable o f purifyin g an d reformin g worship. Arend t Th . van Leeuwen i n hi s boo k Christianity i n World History (London , 1964) argue s tha t secularizatio n i s roote d i n th e Judaeo Christian tradition , its effects ar e fruit s o f th e Gospel , an d it s spread throughou t th e world i s continuous with the Christian mission. Others , mos t notabl y Harve y Co x i n Th e Secular City (London, 1965), saw secularization as something which should be welcomed , encouraged , celebrate d an d sprea d a s a n inherently Christia n movement o f liberatio n an d maturing . Because secularization is understood as making possible a more human an d responsibl e lif e fo r people before God , becaus e i t opens up new perspectives, and present s new opportunities for Christianity, but abov e al l because i t is interpreted b y thinkers such a s Cox and va n Leeuwen a s the work of God i n history, it should be welcomed with confidence an d Christians should ally themselves with th e proces s o f secularization. All tha t glitters is not gold , an d th e sparkl e whic h attracte d some theologians t o pronounce that secularization carried th e divine hallmar k has no w become tarnished ; eve n Harvey Cox has lon g cease d t o celebrat e th e Christia n mysterie s of th e secular city. More discriminating and chastened judgements o f secularization ar e no w bein g made . Bu t eve n thos e wh o continue to give a more or less unqualified welcome to the new secular ag e acknowledg e tha t th e plac e o f worshi p i s highly problematic i n a secula r societ y an d tha t thi s raise s crucia l questions for the Church . In a n importan t article , 'Ghett o o r Desert : Liturg y i n a Cultural Dilemma' 15 Charles Davis argues that th e proble m o f worship in the modern secula r age is unsolved. Moder n cultur e is dynamic and aggressivel y secular; worshi p i s at th e margin , irrelevant t o th e fundamenta l concerns o f th e society , out o f date in a culture that is no longer Christian . Davis suggests that public worship as we know it presupposes a common culture , shared b y all, and i s itself 'a rich cultural form' which brings to focus a unified livin g culture. But today Christian worship - or any for m o f worship, for tha t matte r - i s at variance with th e culture i n which it is set. Worshi p i s a nostalgic anachronism , harking back t o the tim e when i t was the expressio n o f a rich and livel y Christia n culture. I t find s i t impossible t o relat e t o 15

In Charle s Davis, Th e Temptations o f Religion, London 1973 , pp . 93-125 .

Worship i n th e Modern World 22

7

the dominan t secula r culture, which is more vigorous , fruitfu l and ope n b y far tha n th e devian t an d atavisti c Christian (o r religious) sub-culture . Secularizatio n ha s produce d a for m of society whic h ha s n o plac e for worship ; particularl y for thos e Christians who gave an unqualified welcome to the process, this involves a profoun d theologica l an d practica l dilemma ; i s it possible t o envisage a form o f the Christian fait h whic h has n o place fo r worship , o r ca n Christia n worship tak e o n a shap e which i s relevant an d appropriat e t o a secular society ? Underlying thi s dilemm a i s th e proble m o f th e relatio n betwee n culture and society on th e one han d an d Christia n worship on the other . We will shortl y hav e t o raise some questions abou t Charles Davis's formulation o f this relationship, but fe w would disagree wit h hi s argumen t tha t th e plac e an d natur e o f Christian worshi p i n a secula r ag e i s a majo r proble m fo r Christians, and on e which admits of no easy solution. Response Charles Davi s suggest s tha t ther e ar e two , an d onl y two , responses possibl e t o th e crisi s o f worshi p i n a secularize d society. These he labels 'the ghetto' an d 'th e desert'. 1. Th e Ghetto. Sinc e liturg y has t o have a social an d cultura l setting to which it is integrally related an d i t is impossible for it to be 'som e kind o f pure expression o f th e Christia n faith', i t may remai n centra l t o th e lif e o f smal l devian t an d anachronistic communities, largel y cut off from th e dominan t secular cultur e an d devotin g a great deal o f thei r energie s t o the proces s o f boundar y maintenance . Suc h ghett o religiou s communities exis t - fo r instance , th e Amis h peopl e i n Pennsylvania, or the Closed Brethren in north-east Scotland nourishing a world-view , a lifestyle , an d a for m o f worshi p radically at variance with those of the surrounding community, with which they have as little contact and interactio n as possible. Davis find s thi s optio n unattractive . Christia n culture , h e believes (makin g a n astoundingl y unqualifie d judgement), is now decadent an d inferior to secular culture, in crucial respects less Christian than its secular setting. Rather strangely, Davis does not pres s beyon d hi s somewha t dubiou s identificatio n o f Christianity an d a livel y culture t o examin e othe r theologica l and practical objections t o the ghetto - tha t a ghetto existenc e involves an abdication o f responsibility for the lif e of the world,

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a repudiation b y implication of the universality of the Gospel , and a sinful obsession with group survival. Nor does he consider the alternativ e notion o f the 'counter-culture ' as developed b y writers such a s Theodore Roszak, 16 and pu t int o practice int o Europe an d Americ a i n suc h a bewilderin g variety o f ways , some of them bizarre , but other s o f considerable importance . What Davi s might dismis s as a ghetto, turne d i n o n itsel f an d engrossed wit h questions o f its own survival, may turn out , o n closer acquaintance , t o b e quit e different ; a counter-cultural community, passionatel y concerned fo r th e worl d an d it s lif e and culture, not cutting off communications with the world but witnessing t o and against th e societ y and cultur e i n which it is set. This model o f a group which deviates from th e values and assumptions o f th e dominan t cultur e bu t i s dedicated t o th e transforming of the world rather tha n conforming to the world may be an attractive alternative to the ghetto . 2. Th e Desert. Davis' s preferred possibilit y is the desert , th e situation in which th e believer finds himself an almost isolate d wanderer in a cultural desert. The Christian culture of the past is dead; th e future Christian culture has yet to be born; mean while the believe r has no appropriat e cultura l forms in which to express hi s faith an d worship . Liturgy, or publi c worship, is impossible, but impossibl e becaus e Davi s ha s defined i t as an expression o f a generall y accepte d cultura l an d religiou s synthesis whic h n o longe r exists. Th e believe r i n th e deser t longs for the future, when liturgy becomes possibl e once again because a ne w and livel y synthesis of Christianity an d cultur e has emerged , whe n 'th e presen t secula r cultur e wil l b e redeemed an d rendere d ope n t o Christian faith'. Meanwhile the believe r lives between th e times , wandering in th e desert , without liturgy or public worship, until a return to the promise d land becomes possible. Bu t although ther e ar e no appropriat e forms o f liturg y available , th e believe r canno t liv e withou t worship, so privately and i n smal l groups believer s will soldie r on, sometime s usin g antiquate d o r despise d form s inherite d from th e past , sometimes developing a variety of experimental forms of worship fo r themselves . And i n all this the dominan t motive is the search fo r a new synthesis of culture and worship, which i s certain t o b e substantiall y different fro m an y earlie r 16 Theodore Roszak, The Making o f a Counterculture, London 1970 , and Where the Waste Land Ends, Londo n 1973 .

Warship i n th e Modern World 22

9

synthesis. 'The movement for the renewal of worship', he writes, 'coincides with th e missio n of Christians to transfor m secular culture, preservin g indeed it s proper characte r an d it s gains, but opening i t to a higher level.' 17 The centra l problem raise d i n Davis's analysis is the relatio n of worshi p an d culture . Clearl y the y ar e connected , an d sometimes in history it is clear that worship has indeed been a major vehicl e and shape r o f culture. Bu t the relatio n i s not a s direct and simpl e as Davis suggests. Although ther e hav e been periods whe n liturg y has bee n a vita l an d centra l cultura l expression, an d other period s when ther e has been a creative and consciou s interactio n betwee n cultur e an d worship , fo r much of its history and particularl y at the beginning, Christian worship has been structure d an d practise d a s the way of giving glory t o God, an d an y cultural rol e i t may have had ha s bee n regarded as of little consequence. Neither th e second-century Christian participants , nor th e paga n officia l Pliny , no r th e Emperor Trajan to whom he was reporting could have thought early Christian worship a cultural form - Plin y regarded i t as a 'superstitious contagion ' posin g a ver y minor threa t t o th e official cul t because th e Christian s regarded th e civi l cul t and culture a s basicall y idolatrous ; th e Christian s themselves probably regarded i t as their duty and delight. 18 Most forms of Christian worship have been shape d i n detail and i n general primaril y by the attempt to be faithful - t o the God who is worshipped, to Scripture, to theological orthodoxy . They hav e no t bee n understoo d a s expression s o f cultural responsibility. Liturgical reforms which are primaril y attempting to be up-to-date, or 'with-it', are not misguided because they are seekin g a prematur e an d superficia l synthesis between Christian worship and contemporar y culture, as Charles Davis would suggest, but because the y have been seduce d int o giving cultural considerations priority over th e Christia n integrity of worship. Davis's argument is spoiled by his assumption that there is, or can be such a thing as a 'Christian culture', and by his nostalgia for th e mediaeva l synthesis and fo r th e ide a o f Christendo m which is now irrecoverable. What we are saying is this: the effec t of liturgy upon cultur e is vast and varied, but for the mos t part indirect, unconsciou s an d unintended . An d althoug h i t i s 17 18

Davis, The Temptations o f Religion, p. 124 . Th e Utters o f Pliny th e Younger, book 10 , especially 97 .

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obvious that culture influences liturgy very deeply it must no t become simpl y a cultura l expression. Christia n worship must always combine catholicity - th e sense of being th e worship of the one Church all down the ages and throughout th e globe with indigenizatio n - th e sense tha t Christia n worshi p has a home, albei t a temporar y camp fo r a pilgrim people, in every culture, society and age . The wa y forward, we would suggest, is neither tha t o f the ghett o no r th e desert , bu t th e attemp t in faithfulness t o th e traditio n an d it s source s an d sensitiv e interaction wit h th e cultur e an d th e political , socia l an d intellectual issues of today, to seek ways of giving glory to Go d which are appropriate t o this time and this place.19 Davis pick s u p Pete r Berger' s argumen t tha t Christian s have becom e a marginalize d minority of 'cognitiv e deviants' , Religion, h e accuratel y report s 'ha s bee n relegate d t o th e margins. I t has no rea l par t t o pla y i n thinkin g and decision making eve n i n quit e mino r matters'. 20 Th e 'plausibilit y structure', whic h use d t o sustai n mas s Christianity , ha s collapsed. T o be a group of deviants at the margi n of things is not easy; subtle and threatening pressures to conform are there all th e time ; and uncomfortabl e sens e o f loneliness and isola tion from th e mainstream of things is a common experience; it becomes increasingl y har d t o sustai n beliefs , value s an d practices whic h diverg e fro m thos e o f th e majorit y and ar e commonly regarded a s quaint and unimportant - an d almost certainly false as well. But the margin i s not a strange plac e for Christians; it is not only a problem, but a place o f opportunity too. Indeed , one could argue that the margin is a more prope r place for Christians to be, than at the centre of things. After all, Jesus himsel f was a marginalized person, who 'suffered outsid e the gate in order to sanctify the people through hi s own blood' (Hebrews 13:13). The margin, i t would appear, is the plac e of illumination, revelation, insight, the place where we can discern the dept h o f what Go d i s doing i n th e lif e o f th e cit y or th e camp. It is also the plac e of redemption, th e plac e outsid e th e city from which the salvation of the city flows. And the Letter to the Hebrew s suggest s tha t i t i s the plac e wher e w e meet th e Lord an d share i n his work - an d keep th e company he keeps, for h e chooses to associate particularly with those whom society 19

A useful critiqu e of Davis' essay to which the abov e paragraphs are somewhat indebted i s J. G . Davies, Every Day God, London 1973 , pp . 253-46 . 20 Davis, Th e Temptations o f Religion, p. 97 .

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1

has marginalized: 'therefore le t us go forth t o him outside th e camp, and bear th e abuse he endured. Fo r here we have no lasting city , bu t w e see k th e cit y whic h i s t o come . Throug h him then let us continually offer up a sacrifice of praise to God , that is , the frui t o f lips tha t acknowledg e hi s name' (Hebrew s 13:13-15).

Christian Worship Today and Tomorrow Christian worship is today in a state of crisis. This is the situation which we have tried to analyse in this chapter. Some see nothing but the acids of modernity eating away the substance of worship, leaving only some flakes of rust behind. Others believe tha t th e crisis i s a challeng e t o renewal , i n whic h worshi p ma y b e liberated, renewed an d purified . As in al l crises, ther e i s both danger an d opportunity, and th e Christian i s called to respon d in fait h askin g what God i s doing an d sayin g to hi s Church i n the modern situation . The propheti c traditio n remind s us that God may reject and destroy forms of worship when they become covers fo r injustice , meaningles s survival s from th e pas t o r impersonal routines. But destruction goes often wit h purification and renewal. The same process tha t challenges and erodes forms of worship opens up th e possibility of the recovery of vital but long-forgotte n element s i n th e worshi p tradition , th e rebirth o f long dormant symbols and images , and th e develop ment of new and livin g symbols, words and forms . A crisis is no time for timidity, and Christians should be adventurous in their worship, confident tha t God i s at work amidst th e threat s and opportunities o f the modern age . In a secular societ y Christians see worship as continuing t o perform vital functions. In th e firs t place it is a way in which life is given meaning , an d depth . Worshi p doe s no t belon g i n a separate orde r from everyda y life, and doe s not provid e a bolthole fro m th e pressure s o f existence . I t mus t b e roote d i n ordinary life , providin g a n interpretatio n o f tha t lif e which sustains and invigorate s it by giving it depth. And worship is the celebration o f life . I n Christia n worshi p th e vertica l - ou r encounter with God - and the horizontal - our encounter with the neighbou r - ar e held together . T o emphasize on e at the expense o f th e othe r i s t o distor t th e crucifor m shap e o f Christian worship . Bu t worshi p whic h hold s togethe r th e vertical an d th e horizonta l i s capable o f transformin g life. As Panikkar puts it:

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People eat . I t i s the eatin g tha t ha s t o b e transforme d b y th e sacramental presenc e an d thu s th e Eucharis t ha s t o regai n it s symbolism o f being a meal. People dance an d amus e themselves. Christian worship has here again to recover its aspect of celebration and festivity . Peopl e ar e born, come of age, get married , adopt a profession and die. The sacraments have to sanctify and consecrate these most universal and elemental human acts. The sacraments of Initiation, Maturity, Marriage, etc. must not be simply ceremonies and traditional ritualisms, but have a real bearing and meaning for these important moments of human existence; in a word, they must really shape the m . . . Worship has to permeate huma n life onc e again and render it more meaningful, enhancing th e significance of those acts and also giving the necessary strength (grace ) for one to live up to such a human calling.21 Only to o often , however , th e actualit y o f worshi p convey s precisely th e contrary message to that intended - 'celebrations ' expressing gloo m an d solemnit y rathe r tha n joy, th e Lord' s Supper les s a symboli c fellowshi p mea l tha n a parod y o f th e cafeteria, foo d eate n i n hast e an d isolatio n fro m th e com munity. Som e worshi p neithe r soar s t o th e height s no r penetrates to the depth s but skate s nervously ove r th e surfac e of life . Th e sig n o f these distortions is the drivin g of a wedge between worship an d life . When worship is safely confined i n a strange an d unrea l worl d o f it s own , boxe d int o a specia l compartment from whic h i t cannot impinge on th e rest of life, it quickly dies of asphyxia . But worshi p doe s not sanctif y things as they are . I t i s not a way of conforming t o the world bu t o f transforming th e world . It is not in the business of maintaining the social equilibrium or sacralizing the social order. Worship disturb s the status quo, it is a standin g challeng e t o th e injustice s an d oppressio n o f th e earthly city because worshippers are lookin g to the cit y whose builder an d make r i s God, an d i n worshi p the y ar e alread y anticipating th e lif e of that city. Worship provokes the quest for understanding. I t does no t simply reflec t experience , bu t formulates , modifie s an d interprets experienc e i n th e ligh t o f th e encounte r wit h th e living God. A s Mary Douglas puts it: Ritual is not merel y like the visual aid which illustrates th e verbal instructions for openin g can s and cases . I f it were just a kind of dramatic map o r diagram of what is known it would always follow 41

Panikkar , Worship an d Secular Man, p . 59 .

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233

experience. But in fact ritua l does not pla y this secondary role. It can come first in formulating experience. It can permit knowledge of what would otherwise not b e know n a t all . It doe s no t merely externalize experience , bringing it int o th e ligh t o f day , but i t modifies experience i n so expressing it. 22

The troubl e i s tha t w e have suc h trivia l understanding s o f what worship is - as if it were 'instructions for opening cans', or a controlled wa y of passing on a self-contained an d satisfactor y pattern of theological understandin g o r a device for conserving a religiou s culture , o r a mean s fo r solidifyin g pattern s o f community, order and authority. But worship is the encounter with the living God! Michael Polanyi, chemist and philosopher , speaks of Christian worship as a 'continual attempt a t breaking out, a t castin g off, th e conditio n o f man , eve n whil e humbly acknowledging it s inescapability' . Worshi p fosters , a s i t ques tions, Christian practice within th e context of a fellowship that is bot h pastora l an d prophetic ; i t stimulate s a thirs t fo r th e Kingdom o f Go d an d hi s righteousnes s b y providin g a n authentic anticipatio n o f that Kingdom; i t makes worshipper s dissatisfied with themselves and society ; it mediates the forgive ness an d grac e upo n whic h effectiv e an d purposiv e actio n depends; i t sustains that vision without which the people perish and alert s u s t o attempt s t o subver t that vision ; it nourishe s those wh o live as pilgrims seeking tha t city whose builde r an d maker is God. FURTHER READING Raymond Panikkar , Worship an d Secular Man, London 1973 . Peter Berger, Th e Social Reality o f Religion, Harmondsworth 1973 . J. G . Davies, Every Day God, London 1973 . Tom Driver , The Magic o f Ritual, San Francisc o 1991 . Steve Bruce, Religion in Modern Britain, Oxford 1995 . FOR DISCUSSION 1. Ho w woul d yo u asses s th e impac t o f secularizatio n o n worship? 2. I n wha t ways may Christian worship relat e t o th e ritual s of civil religion? 22

Mary Douglas, Purity an d Danger, p. 64 .

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3. 'Ther e is no modern for m of worship, because worship itself is outdated i n th e modern world and Christia n fait h a state of devianc y fro m contemporar y culture ' (Charle s Davis) . Discuss. 4. I s ther e a 'crisi s o f worship ' whic h undermine s nurtur e within the faith community ? If so, how does it manifest itself in practice ? What steps can b e taken t o counteract it ?

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES Brunner, E. 4 1 Burnish, R. 14 1 Bushnell.H. 152 , 153 , 16 6 Buttrick, D. 94 , 96, 97, 99, 101 Byron, Lord 9 2

Abba, R. 108 , 110 , 11 4 Acquaviva, S . S. 21 5 Allmen.J.J. 1 5 Ambrose 80 , 126 , 127 , 128 Anscombe, G. E. M. 4 Anselm 8 Appleton, G. 22 2 Aquinas, T. 71 , 135, 186,20 3 Archibald, G. H. 15 6 Aristotle 20 3 Astley.J. 16 6 Athenagoras 30 , 31 Auden.W. H. 14,5 4 Augustine 5 , 30, 31, 39, 56, 70 , 80, 82, 127 , 128 , 153 , 154 , 158 , 202, 203, 20 6

Calvin, J. 110 , 130 , 185 , 18 6 Cameron, J. F. 15 5 Campbell, A. 196,202,21 1 Casel, O. 7 3 Charlesworth.J. H. 6 2 Chary, T. 17,20,2 1 Chenu, M. D. 4 9 Chilton, B. 15 3 Chrysostom.J. 34,80 , 126 , 149 , 154 Clement of Alexandria 30,69 , 154 Clement o f Rome 3 3 Clements, R . E. 1 9 Clerck, P. de 9 Coggan, D. 74 , 75 Cone,J. H. 19 8 Constantine 21 6 Corriveau, R. 25 , 35 Cox, H . 22 6 Craddock, F. 95 , 96, 99, 100 , 101 Cranmer 113 , 115 , 117 Cullmann, O. 6 2 Cuming.G.J. 178 , 179 , 19 6 Cuva, A. 45,4 8 Cyprian 7 0

Barr.J. 7 5

Earth, K. viii , 9, 15 , 37, 56, 57, 83 , 85, 194 , 225 Baxter, R . 18 5 Becket, T. 20 9 Bella, R. N. 21 7 Berger, P. 201 , 217 , 218, 222 , 223 , 224, 230, 23 3 Best, E. 87 , 10 1 Bonhoeffer, D . 22 5 Botte, B . 18 1 Bouyer, L. 16 , 18 8 Bradshaw, P. F. 3 5 Brown, R. 2 7 Bruce, S. 224 , 23 3 Bucer, M. 18 5 Buechener, F. 9 9 Bultmann, R. 78 , 84 BrunerJ. 158 , 161 , 162

Dalrymple.J. 11 9 Daly, R.J. 19,22,25,28,33,3 5 Davie, D. 11 9 Davies.J. G. 201 , 230, 23 3 235

236

Encounter with God

Davis, C. 213 , 226 , 227, 228, 229 , 230, 234 Dix, G. 152 , 18 7 Dominian,J. 202,203,205,208 , 211 Douglas, M. 220,23 2 Driver, T. F. 4 , 10 , 14 , 15, 161,23 3 Duchesne, L . 3 4 Duchrow, U . 1 1 Durkheim, E. 21 7 Dyer, G. 9 7 Eichrodt, W. 2 1 Eliot, T. S . 119,20 9 Epstein, I. 5 9 Erikson, E. 15 8 Estinger, R. L. 76 , 93, 98, 100 , 10 1 Eusebius, 6 3 Farrer, A . 8 Faust-Siehl, G. 16 7 Foy, W. 7 9 Felix, M . 31 , 3 2 Fenwick.J. 18 8 Ferguson, J. 157 , 16 6 Fischer, J. C . D. 130 , 14 1 Forrester, D . B. 10 , 1 5 Fowler, J. 158 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 16 6 Francis, L. 163 , 16 6 Freedman, L . 5 9 Frost, D . L. 117 , 11 9 Gardiner, S . 11 3 Gehrig, G. 21 7 Gennep, A . V. 20 1 Gerassi.J. 1 1 Goethals, G. 10 1 Gogarten, F. 22 5 Goldman, R . 15 8 Gossip, A . J. 11 9 Goulder, M . D. 6 3 Graham, B . 7 6 Gray, D. 5 0 Glatzer, N. N. 1 4 Greeley,A. 49,5 2 Greer, R . A. 8 2 Gregory o f Nyssa 20 2 Gregory o f Nazianzus 8 0 Groome, T. H. 16 6 Gueranger, P . 11 4

Hamilton, D . G. 14 1 Hamilton, D . S. M. 14 1 Hamilton, H . A. 15 6 Hammerskjold, D . 53 , 54, 209 Hauerwas, S. 15 0 Hazlitt,W. 11 5 Heaton, E. 1 9 Heidegger, M. 8 4 Hengel, M. 8 1 Hermisson, H.J . 1 9 Herberg,W. 21 8 Heron, A. 18 8 Hilary of Poitiers 7 0 Hippolytus 33 , 125 , 128 , 129 , 151 , 152, 154 , 158 , 179 , 18 1 Hoffman, L . A. 3 5 Howie, G. 15 3 Huddleston, T. 1 0 Hudson, W . D. 11 8 Hugo of St Victor 71 , 130 Hull.J. 166 Hyatt, J. P . 1 9 Ignatius 3 0 Inge, D . vi i Irenaeus of Lyons 30 , 33, 36 Jaeger, W. 14 9 Jasper, R. C. D. 178 , 17 9 Jeremias.J. 169 , 171 , 172 , 188 Jerome 201 , 202 Jones, D. G. 21 7 Jungmann.J. A. 43 , 183 , 187 , 188 , 191 Justin Marty r 30 , 31, 63, 65, 66, 82, 179,182 Kahler, M. 8 3 Kavanagh, A. 75 , 126 , 14 1 Kennedy, E . 49,5 2 Kertzer, D. 11 , 15 King, M . L. 7 6 Kohlberg.L. 15 8 Knox.J. 196,20 8 Kretschmar, G. 13 2 Krupka, B. 16 7 Kung, H. 29 , 37, 42, 43, 50, 51 Lane, C. 11,21 8 Lane, D. A. 1 1

Index of Proper Names Lash, N . 18 8 Latte, K. 3 4 Lawson, R. P. 8 2 Leeuwen, A. 22 6 Lewis, A. 75 , 20 9 Lewis, C. S. 5 , 6, 53, 20 9 Lombard, P . 71 , 13 0 Lowry, E . 9 8 Luther, M . 5 , 115 , 186 , 202, 204 , 207 Lyall, D. 21 1 Lyon, D . 22 4 Macchiavelli, N. 21 7 Macdonald, F. A. 14 1 McDonald, J. I . H. 76 , 81, 95, 15 ^ McKelvey, R.J. 3 5 Mackey,J. 10 3 Macmurray.J. 19 7 Macquarrie, J. 8 4 Markquart, E. F. 9 9 Maly, E. H. 22 2 Marrett, R . R. 4 Malinowski, B. K. 10 2 Marshall, I. H. 168 , 169 , 171 , 186 Marsili, S. 20 , 34, 40, 41 Martin, D . 22 4 Marios,J. 70,20 2 Meeks, W . 14 4 Metz,J. B. 85,221,22 2 Meyer, C . S. 11 7 Miranda, J. 1 0 Moltmann.J. 19 9 Moule, C. F. D. 7 5 Muir, E. 11 9 Nineham, D . 7 8 Nipkow, K.E. 16 7 Origen 31 , 33, 80, 82, 154 , 20 1 Orlinsky, H . M . 1 9 Oser, F. 16 4 Otto, R. 1 , 184 Panikkar, R. 213,214,231,232 , 233 Papias 6 3 Piaget.J. 158 , 161 , 16 2 Pieterse, H.J . C . 9 0 Pitt-Watson, I . 87 , 10 1

237

Phillips, D. Z . 11 9 Philo 8 0 Polanyi, M. 9 , 23 3 Polycarpus 3 0 Power, D . N. 7 5 Pliny 64 , 178 , 22 9 Preston, R. H. 7 8 Quinn, F. C. 14 1 Rahner, K. 8 3 Raikes, R . 155 , 15 6 Read, B. 21 8 Reich, H . 16 4 Rice, C. 10 0 Richardson, C . C. 6 3 Riley, H. M . 12 7 Ritschl, D. 8 3 Robertson, C. 49 , 52 Robinson, W . B. 9 8 Rordorf, W . 18 8 Roszak, T . 22 8 Rowley, H. H . 7 5 Rousseau, J.J. 15 4 Runia, K . 9 3 Sabourin, L . 2 1 Sanders, E. 14 4 Santa, A.J. de 19 9 Savonarola, G. 8 0 Schillebeeckx, E. 4 , 15 , 44, 73 , 74, 75, 134 , 135,20 1 Schweitzer, F . K . 16 7 Silesius, A. 22 2 Simon, U . 5 9 Smith, W. C. 6 Spiegel,J. 21 1 Sprott, G. W. 18 5 Stevick, D. 123 , 13 5 Stock, T . 15 5 Sweet, L. 9 4 Tellini, G . 49 , 50, 52 Temple, W. 197 , 22 3 Tertullian 32 , 33, 69, 70, 125 , 128 , 137, 182,20 5 Thielicke, H. 88 , 204 Thiselton, A . C. 118 , 11 9 Thomas, R. S. 11 9 Tillich, P. 8 4

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Torrance, T. F. 15 4 Watt Torres, C. 1 1 Weber Trajan 22 9 Weber Troeger.T. 100,10 1 Wellhausen Turner, V. 4 Wenschkewitz Tutu, D . 7 6 Wittgenstein

, I. 11 0 , D . C. 78 , 10 0 , M . 174,22 4 , J. 1 9 , H. 1 9 , L . 4 , 11 8 Willimon, W. H. 21 1

Vergote,A. 49,52,13 2 Verheuil, A. 47 , 48 Wilson-Kastner Vermes,G. 58,14 4 Wilson Wainwright, G. 9 , 15 , 172, 188 , 19 8 Wardlaw, D. M. 10 0 Yerkes

Wilson,B.224

, P. 93 , 99 , P . S. 100,10 1

, R. K. 3 5

INDEX OF SUBJECT S Abba 103 , 11 3 acclamations 10 9 admission t o communion 122 , 139-41 adoration 10 6 affirmation 131 , 13 9 agape 68 , 177 , 17 9 anamnesis 170 , 171 , 18 0 assent (o f people) 18 1

eating (wit h Jesus) 172-7 6 Eucharist (Lord' s Supper) 63 , 70, 72,74, 122 , 124 , 168-88 in Ne w Testament 168-7 6 in earl y Church 176-8 1 today 186-8 8 epiclesis 181 , 18 4 fellowship 43 , 53, 169 , 190 , 194 97,210 folk religio n 21 5 formation, Christia n 140-41 , 143-66 New Testament perspectives o n 143-51 funerals 206-10 , 215

baptism 26 , 51, 58, 67, 70, 72, 122 41, 144-45 , 152 , 191,201,204 , 206, 21 5 of infant s 131 , 137 , 151 , 15 2 repetition o f 138-3 9 Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry 18 6 becoming a Christian 121-4 2 Book o f Common Order 108 , 19 6 Book o f Common Prayer 10 9 Book of Common Worship 109

greeting 18 0 grief 209-1 0 growth an d developmen t 145-4 8 guilt 19 0

Catechesis 15 4 collect 10 8 commemoration (o f the Blesse d Departed) 10 7 concomitant grace 12 1 confession 122,131-35,191,20 1 confirmation 122 , 131-35 , 191 , 201 conversion a s metanoia 14 1 conversion a s teshuvah 143-4 4 culture as paideia 148-5 1

homiletics (see also preaching) 93 101 induction 151-5 3 initiation, patterns of 122-4 1 illumination 10 6 institution 157-5 8 instruction 153-5 7 intercession 10 6 invocation 10 6

death, theology o f 208-0 9 developmental studie s 158-6 0 doxology 18 1

Knox's liturgy 19 6 lex orandi, le x credendi viii , 9

239

240

Encounter with God

liberation 198-20 1 litany 10 9 liturgy (see also worship) vii , 16 , 46-50, 55-56, 67-68, 187-88 and pastora l car e 192-9 4 Knox's 19 6 liturgical/sacramental process 123-3 1 Lord's Supper see Eucharist maranatha 11 3 marriage 201-0 6 meal (fo r the lif e o f the world) 168-8 8 (upper room) 168-7 2 mystery, mysterion 54 , 68-74 mysterium tremendum etfascinans 1 , 184 narrative (o f institution) 18 0 nurture 149 , 151-58 oblation 107 , 180 paideia 148-5 1 Passover 10 6 prayer 102-1 9 as dialogue 102-0 3 bidding 10 9 formulae in 104-0 5 free 110-1 1

general 108-0 9 language o f 112-1 9 shape o f 105-1 1 preaching 22 , 55, 56, 76-101, 123 and exegesi s 85-8 8 forms of 88-9 3 new developments i n 93-10 0 origins of 79-8 3 theology of 83-8 5 prevenient grace 12 1 religion, civil 216-2 1 folk 215-1 6 privatized 221-2 3 responses 11 0 rites of passage 131,13 8 sacrament(s) 31,52,68-74,123-3 5

sacramentum 69-7 0 schools, Christia n 154-5 5 scripture (an d worship) 57-68 , 8083 Scottish Book of Common Prayer 109 secularization 223-3 1 Sunday schools 155-5 7 supplication 10 6 sursum corda 18 0 stages of faith 158-6 5 television (see visual culture) 78 , 89,93-97, 101,22 1 thanksgiving 107 , 180 versicles 11 0 visual culture 93-10 1 wholeness 197-9 8 Word 56-68 , 76-101, 103-04, 11112, 122-23 , 127, 130, 138 and praye r 102-1 9 and preachin g 76-10 1 and sacramen t viii , 53-74 worship vii-viii , 1-15, 16-34 , 36-51 and Chris t 40-44 , 50-51, 54-55, 60-62,67 and communit y 12-1 5 and ethic s 10-1 2 and faith 6- 7 and fait h developmen t 160-6 6 and pastora l care 190-21 0 and preaching 76-10 1 and scriptur e 57-6 8 and th e Fathers 29-3 4 and theolog y 7-1 0 as relationship 4- 6 as practice 3- 4 changing plac e of 214-3 3 crisis of 212-14,231-3 3 in th e moder n worl d 212-3 3 in th e Ne w Testament 21-29 , 60-64 in th e Old Testament 21-29 , 57-59 pastoral themes i n 194-201 theology and anthropology 44 50 theology of 17-3 4